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h This article is about the astronomical ob ect! For other uses, see Star "disambiguation#! The $leiades, an open cluster of stars in the constellation of Taurus! %&S& photo& star is a massive, luminous ball of plasma! The nearest star to 'arth is the Sun, (hich is the source of most of the energy on 'arth! )ther stars are visible in the night sky, (hen they are not outshone by the Sun! For most of its life, a star shines because thermonuclear fusion in its core releases energy that traverses the star*s interior and then radiates into outer space! &lmost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (ere created by fusion processes in stars! &stronomers can determine the mass, age, chemical composition and many other properties of a star by observing its spectrum, luminosity and motion through space! The total mass of a star is the principal determinant in its evolution and eventual fate! )ther characteristics of a star are determined by its evolutionary history, including the diameter, rotation, movement and temperature! & plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities, kno(n as a +ert,sprung-.ussell diagram "+/. diagram#, allo(s the age and evolutionary state of a star to be determined! & star begins as a collapsing cloud of material composed primarily of hydrogen, along (ith helium and trace amounts of heavier elements! )nce the stellar core is sufficiently dense, some of the hydrogen is steadily converted into helium through the process of nuclear fusion!012 The remainder of the star*s interior carries energy a(ay from the core through a combination of radiative and convective processes! The star*s internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its o(n gravity! )nce the hydrogen fuel at the core is e3hausted, those stars having at least 4!5 times the mass of the Sun062 e3pand to become a red giant, in some cases fusing heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core! The star then evolves into a degenerate form, recycling a portion of the matter into the interstellar environment, (here it (ill form a ne( generation of stars (ith a higher proportion of heavy elements! 072 8inary and multi-star systems consist of t(o or more stars that are gravitationally bound, and generally move around each other in stable orbits! When t(o such stars have a relatively close orbit, their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution!052 9ontents 0hide2 1 )bservation history 6 Star designations 7 :nits of measurement 5 Formation and evolution 5!1 $rotostar formation 5!6 ;ain se<uence 5!7 $ost-main se<uence 5!7!1 ;assive stars 5!7!6 9ollapse = >istribution ? 9haracteristics ?!1 &ge ?!6 9hemical composition ?!7 >iameter ?!5 @inematics ?!= ;agnetic field ?!? ;ass ?!A .otation ?!B Temperature A .adiation A!1 Luminosity A!6 ;agnitude B 9lassification C Dariable stars 14 Structure

11 %uclear fusion reaction path(ays 16 See also 17 .eferences 15 Further reading 1= '3ternal links

)bservation history +istorically, stars have been important to civili,ations throughout the (orld! They have been used in religious practices and for celestial navigation and orientation! ;any ancient astronomers believed that stars (ere permanently affi3ed to a heavenly sphere, and that they (ere immutable! 8y convention, astronomers grouped stars into constellations and used them to track the motions of the planets and the inferred position of the Sun!0=2 The motion of the Sun against the background stars "and the hori,on# (as used to create calendars, (hich could be used to regulate agricultural practices!0?2 The Eregorian calendar, currently used nearly every(here in the (orld, is a solar calendar based on the angle of the 'arth*s rotational a3is relative to the nearest star, the Sun! The oldest accurately-dated star chart appeared in &ncient 'gypt in 1,=75 89'!0A2 Fslamic astronomers gave &rabic names to many stars (hich are still used today, and they invented numerous astronomical instruments (hich could compute the positions of the stars! Fn the 11th century, &bG .ayhHn al-8IrGnI described the ;ilky Way gala3y as multitude of fragments having the properties of nebulous stars, and also gave the latitudes of various stars during a lunar eclipse in 141C!0B2 Fn spite of the apparent immutability of the heavens, 9hinese astronomers (ere a(are that ne( stars could appear!0C2 'arly 'uropean astronomers such as Tycho 8rahe identified ne( stars in the night sky "later termed novae#, suggesting that the heavens (ere not immutable! Fn 1=B5 Eiordano 8runo suggested that the stars (ere actually other suns, and may have other planets, possibly even 'arth-like, in orbit around them,0142 an idea that had been suggested earlier by such ancient Ereek philosophers as >emocritus and 'picurus!0112 8y the follo(ing century the idea of the stars as distant suns (as reaching a consensus among astronomers! To e3plain (hy these stars e3erted no net gravitational pull on the solar system, Fsaac %e(ton suggested that the stars (ere e<ually distributed in every direction, an idea prompted by the theologian .ichard 8entley!0162 The Ftalian astronomer Eeminiano ;ontanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star &lgol in 1??A! 'dmond +alley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby Jfi3edJ stars, demonstrating that they had changed positions from the time of the ancient Ereek astronomers $tolemy and +ipparchus! The first direct measurement of the distance to a star "?1 9ygni at 11!5 light-years# (as made in 1B7B by Friedrich 8essel using the paralla3 techni<ue! $aralla3 measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the heavens!0142 William +erschel (as the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky! >uring the 1AB4s, he performed a series of gauges in ?44 directions, and counted the stars observed along each line of sight! From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased to(ard one side of the sky, in the direction of the ;ilky Way core! +is son John +erschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction!0172 Fn addition to his other accomplishments, William +erschel is also noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight, but are also physical companions that form binary star systems! The science of stellar spectroscopy (as pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and &ngelo Secchi! 8y comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun, they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption linesKthe dark lines in a stellar spectra due to the absorption of specific fre<uencies by the atmosphere! Fn 1B?= Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types!0152 +o(ever, the modern version of the stellar classification scheme (as developed by &nnie J! 9annon during the 1C44s! )bservation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 1Cth century! Fn 1B75, Friedrich 8essel observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius, and inferred a hidden companion! 'd(ard $ickering discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1BCC (hen he observed the periodic

splitting of the spectral lines of the star ;i,ar in a 145 day period! >etailed observations of many binary star systems (ere collected by astronomers such as William Struve and S! W! 8urnham, allo(ing the masses of stars to be determined from computation of the orbital elements! The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations (as made by Feli3 Savary in 1B6A!01=2 The t(entieth century sa( increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars! The photograph became a valuable astronomical tool! @arl Sch(ar,schild discovered that the color of a star, and hence its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude! The development of the photoelectric photometer allo(ed very precise measurements of magnitude at multiple (avelength intervals! Fn 1C61 &lbert &! ;ichelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the +ooker telescope!01?2 Fmportant conceptual (ork on the physical basis of stars occurred during the first decades of the t(entieth century! Fn 1C17, the +ert,sprung-.ussell diagram (as developed, propelling the astrophysical study of stars! Successful models (ere developed to e3plain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution! The spectra of stars (ere also successfully e3plained through advances in <uantum physics! This allo(ed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined!01A2 With the e3ception of supernovae, individual stars have primarily been observed in our Local Eroup of gala3ies,01B2 and especially in the visible part of the ;ilky Way "as demonstrated by the detailed star catalogues available for our gala3y01C2#! 8ut some stars have been observed in the ;144 gala3y of the Dirgo 9luster, about 144 million light years from the 'arth!0642 Fn the Local Supercluster it is possible to see star clusters, and current telescopes could in principle observe faint individual stars in the Local 9lusterKthe most distant stars resolved have up to hundred million light years a(ay0612 "see 9epheids#! +o(ever, outside the Local Supercluster of gala3ies, neither individual stars nor clusters of stars have been observed! The only e3ception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing hundreds of thousands of stars located one billion light years a(ay0662Kten times the distance of the most distant star cluster previously observed! Star designations ;ain articles: Star designation, &stronomical naming conventions, and Star catalogue The concept of the constellation (as kno(n to e3ist during the 8abylonian period! &ncient sky (atchers imagined that prominent arrangements of stars formed patterns, and they associated these (ith particular aspects of nature or their myths! T(elve of these formations lay along the band of the ecliptic and these became the basis of astrology! ;any of the more prominent individual stars (ere also given names, particularly (ith &rabic or Latin designations! &s (ell as certain constellations and the Sun itself, stars as a (hole have their o(n myths!0672 They (ere thought to be the souls of the dead or gods! &n e3ample is the star &lgol, (hich (as thought to represent the eye of the Eorgon ;edusa! To the &ncient Ereeks, some Jstars,J kno(n as planets "Ereek LMNOPQRS "planTtTs#, meaning J(andererJ#, represented various important deities, from (hich the names of the planets ;ercury, Denus, ;ars, Jupiter and Saturn (ere taken!0672 ":ranus and %eptune (ere also Ereek and .oman gods, but neither planet (as kno(n in &nti<uity because of their lo( brightness! Their names (ere assigned by later astronomers#! 9irca 1?44, the names of the constellations (ere used to name the stars in the corresponding regions of the sky! The Eerman astronomer Johann 8ayer created a series of star maps and applied Ereek letters as designations to the stars in each constellation! Later the 'nglish astronomer John Flamsteed came up (ith a system using numbers, (hich (ould later be kno(n as the Flamsteed designation! %umerous additional systems have since been created as star catalogues have appeared! The only body (hich has been recogni,ed by the scientific community as having the authority to name stars or other celestial bodies is the Fnternational &stronomical :nion "F&:#!0652 & number of private companies "for instance, the JFnternational Star .egistryJ# purport to sell names to starsU ho(ever, these names are neither recogni,ed by the scientific community nor used by them,0652 and many in the

astronomy community vie( these organi,ations as frauds preying on people ignorant of star naming procedure!06=2 :nits of measurement ;ost stellar parameters are e3pressed in SF units by convention, but 9ES units are also used "e!g!, e3pressing luminosity in ergs per second#! ;ass, luminosity, and radii are usually given in solar units, based on the characteristics of the Sun: solar mass: kg06?2 solar luminosity: (atts06?2 solar radius: m06A2 Large lengths, such as the radius of a giant star or the semi-ma or a3is of a binary star system, are often e3pressed in terms of the astronomical unit "&:#Kappro3imately the mean distance bet(een the 'arth and the Sun "1=4 million km or C7 million miles#! Formation and evolution ;ain article: Stellar evolution Stars are formed (ithin molecular cloudsU large regions of high density "though still less dense than the inside of an earthly vacuum chamber# in the interstellar medium! These clouds consist mostly of hydrogen, (ith about 67/6BV helium and a fe( percent heavier elements! )ne e3ample of such a starforming nebula is the )rion %ebula!06B2 &s massive stars are formed from these clouds, they po(erfully illuminate and ioni,e the clouds from (hich they formed, creating an + FF region! $rotostar formation ;ain article: Star formation The formation of a star begins (ith a gravitational instability inside a molecular cloud, often triggered by shock(aves from supernovae "massive stellar e3plosions# or the collision of t(o gala3ies "as in a starburst gala3y#! )nce a region reaches a sufficient density of matter to satisfy the criteria for Jeans Fnstability it begins to collapse under its o(n gravitational force! &rtist*s conception of the birth of a star (ithin a dense molecular cloud! %&S& image&s the cloud collapses, individual conglomerations of dense dust and gas form (hat are kno(n as 8ok globules! These can contain up to =4 solar masses of material! &s a globule collapses and the density increases, the gravitational energy is converted into heat and the temperature rises! When the protostellar cloud has appro3imately reached the stable condition of hydrostatic e<uilibrium, a protostar forms at the core! 06C2 These pre-main se<uence stars are often surrounded by a protoplanetary disk! The period of gravitational contraction lasts for about 14/1= million years! 'arly stars of less than 6 solar masses are called T Tauri stars, (hile those (ith greater mass are +erbig &eW8e stars! These ne(ly-born stars emit ets of gas along their a3is of rotation, producing small patches of nebulosity kno(n as +erbig-+aro ob ects!0742 ;ain se<uence ;ain article: ;ain se<uence Stars spend about C4V of their lifetime fusing hydrogen to produce helium in high-temperature and high-pressure reactions near the core! Such stars are said to be on the main se<uence and are called d(arf stars! Starting at ,ero-age main se<uence, the proportion of helium in a star*s core (ill steadily increase! &s a conse<uence, in order to maintain the re<uired rate of nuclear fusion at the core, the star (ill slo(ly increase in temperature and luminosity!0712 The Sun, for e3ample, is estimated to have increased in luminosity by about 54V since it reached the main se<uence 5!? billion years ago!0762 'very star generates a stellar (ind of particles that causes a continual outflo( of gas into space! For most stars, the amount of mass lost is negligible! The Sun loses 14X15 solar masses every year,0772 or about 4!41V of its total mass over its entire lifespan! +o(ever very massive stars can lose 14XA to

14X= solar masses each year, significantly affecting their evolution!0752 Stars that begin (ith more than =4 solar masses can lose over half their total mass (hile they remain on the main se<uence!07=2 &n e3ample of a +ert,sprung-.ussell diagram for a set of stars that includes the Sun "center#! "See J9lassificationJ belo(!#The duration that a star spends on the main se<uence depends primarily on the amount of fuel it has to burn and the rate at (hich it burns that fuel! Fn other (ords, its initial mass and its luminosity! For the Sun, this is estimated to be about 1414 years! Large stars burn their fuel very rapidly and are short-lived! Small stars "called red d(arfs# burn their fuel very slo(ly and last tens to hundreds of billions of years! &t the end of their lives, they simply become dimmer and dimmer!062 +o(ever, since the lifespan of such stars is greater than the current age of the universe "17!A billion years#, no such stars are e3pected to e3ist yet! 8esides mass, the portion of elements heavier than helium can play a significant role in the evolution of stars! Fn astronomy all elements heavier than helium are considered a JmetalJ, and the chemical concentration of these elements is called the metallicity! The metallicity can influence the duration that a star (ill burn its fuel, control the formation of magnetic fields07?2 and modify the strength of the stellar (ind!07A2 )lder, population FF stars have substantially less metallicity than the younger, population F stars due to the composition of the molecular clouds from (hich they formed! ")ver time these clouds become increasingly enriched in heavier elements as older stars die and shed portions of their atmospheres!# $ost-main se<uence &s stars of at least 4!5 solar masses062 e3haust their supply of hydrogen at their core, their outer layers e3pand greatly and cool to form a red giant! For e3ample, in about = billion years, (hen the Sun is a red giant, it (ill e3pand out to a ma3imum radius of roughly 1 &: "1=4,444,444 km#, 6=4 times its present si,e! &s a giant, the Sun (ill lose roughly 74V of its current mass!076207B2 Fn a red giant of up to 6!6= solar masses, hydrogen fusion proceeds in a shell-layer surrounding the core!07C2 'ventually the core is compressed enough to start helium fusion, and the star no( gradually shrinks in radius and increases its surface temperature! For larger stars, the core region transitions directly from fusing hydrogen to fusing helium!0542 &fter the star has consumed the helium at the core, fusion continues in a shell around a hot core of carbon and o3ygen! The star then follo(s an evolutionary path that parallels the original red giant phase, but at a higher surface temperature! ;assive stars 8etelgeuse is a red supergiant star approaching the end of its life cycle>uring their helium-burning phase, very high mass stars (ith more than nine solar masses e3pand to form red supergiants! )nce this fuel is e3hausted at the core, they can continue to fuse elements heavier than helium! The core contracts until the temperature and pressure are sufficient to fuse carbon "see carbon burning process#! This process continues, (ith the successive stages being fueled by neon "see neon burning process#, o3ygen "see o3ygen burning process#, and silicon "see silicon burning process#! %ear the end of the star*s life, fusion can occur along a series of onion-layer shells (ithin the star! 'ach shell fuses a different element, (ith the outermost shell fusing hydrogenU the ne3t shell fusing helium, and so forth! 0512 The final stage is reached (hen the star begins producing iron! Since iron nuclei are more tightly bound than any heavier nuclei, if they are fused they do not release energyKthe process (ould, on the contrary, consume energy! Like(ise, since they are more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei, energy cannot be released by fission!07C2 Fn relatively old, very massive stars, a large core of inert iron (ill accumulate in the center of the star! The heavier elements in these stars can (ork their (ay up to the surface, forming evolved ob ects kno(n as Wolf-.ayet stars that have a dense stellar (ind (hich sheds the outer atmosphere!

9ollapse &n evolved, average-si,e star (ill no( shed its outer layers as a planetary nebula! Ff (hat remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than 1!5 solar masses, it shrinks to a relatively tiny ob ect "about the si,e of 'arth# that is not massive enough for further compression to take place, kno(n as a (hite d(arf!0562 The electron-degenerate matter inside a (hite d(arf is no longer a plasma, even though stars are generally referred to as being spheres of plasma! White d(arfs (ill eventually fade into black d(arfs over a very long stretch of time! The 9rab %ebula, remnants of a supernova that (as first observed around 14=4 &>Fn larger stars, fusion continues until the iron core has gro(n so large "more than 1!5 solar masses# that it can no longer support its o(n mass! This core (ill suddenly collapse as its electrons are driven into its protons, forming neutrons and neutrinos in a burst of inverse beta decay, or electron capture! The shock(ave formed by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to e3plode in a supernova! Supernovae are so bright that they may briefly outshine the star*s entire home gala3y! When they occur (ithin the ;ilky Way, supernovae have historically been observed by naked-eye observers as Jne( starsJ (here none e3isted before!0572 ;ost of the matter in the star is blo(n a(ay by the supernovae e3plosion "forming nebulae such as the 9rab %ebula0572# and (hat remains (ill be a neutron star "(hich sometimes manifests itself as a pulsar or Y-ray burster# or, in the case of the largest stars "large enough to leave a stellar remnant greater than roughly 5 solar masses#, a black hole!0552 Fn a neutron star the matter is in a state kno(n as neutrondegenerate matter, (ith a more e3otic form of degenerate matter, Z9> matter, possibly present in the core! Within a black hole the matter is in a state that is not currently understood! The blo(n-off outer layers of dying stars include heavy elements (hich may be recycled during ne( star formation! These heavy elements allo( the formation of rocky planets! The outflo( from supernovae and the stellar (ind of large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar medium! 0572 >istribution & (hite d(arf star in orbit around Sirius "artist*s impression#! %&S& imageFn addition to isolated stars, a multi-star system can consist of t(o or more gravitationally bound stars that orbit around each other! The most common multi-star system is a binary star, but systems of three or more stars are also found! For reasons of orbital stability, such multi-star systems are often organi,ed into hierarchical sets of coorbiting binary stars!05=2 Larger groups called star clusters also e3ist! These range from loose stellar associations (ith only a fe( stars, up to enormous globular clusters (ith hundreds of thousands of stars! Ft has been a long-held assumption that the ma ority of stars occur in gravitationally bound, multiplestar systems! This is particularly true for very massive ) and 8 class stars, (here B4V of the systems are believed to be multiple! +o(ever the portion of single star systems increases for smaller stars, so that only 6=V of red d(arfs are kno(n to have stellar companions! &s B=V of all stars are red d(arfs, most stars in the ;ilky Way are likely single from birth!05?2 Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe, but are normally grouped into gala3ies along (ith interstellar gas and dust! & typical gala3y contains hundreds of billions of stars, and there are more than 144 billion "1411# gala3ies in the observable universe!05A2 While it is often believed that stars only e3ist (ithin gala3ies, intergalactic stars have been discovered!05B2 &stronomers estimate that there are at least A4 se3tillion "A[1466# stars in the observable universe!05C2 That is 674 billion times as many as the 744 billion in the ;ilky Way! The nearest star to the 'arth, apart from the Sun, is $ro3ima 9entauri, (hich is 7C!C trillion "1416# kilometres, or 5!6 light-years a(ay! Light from $ro3ima 9entauri takes 5!6 years to reach 'arth! Travelling at the orbital speed of the Space Shuttle "= miles per secondKalmost 74,444 kilometres per hour#, it (ould take about 1=4,444 years to get there!0=42 >istances like this are typical inside galactic

discs, including in the vicinity of the solar system!0=12 Stars can be much closer to each other in the centres of gala3ies and in globular clusters, or much farther apart in galactic halos! >ue to the relatively vast distances bet(een stars outside the galactic nucleus, collisions bet(een stars are thought to be rare! Fn denser regions such as the core of globular clusters or the galactic center, collisions can be more common!0=62 Such collisions can produce (hat are kno(n as blue stragglers! These abnormal stars have a higher surface temperature than the other main se<uence stars (ith the same luminosity in the cluster !0=72 9haracteristics The Sun is the nearest star to 'arth&lmost everything about a star is determined by its initial mass, including essential characteristics such as luminosity and si,e, as (ell as the star*s evolution, lifespan, and eventual fate! &ge ;ost stars are bet(een 1 billion and 14 billion years old! Some stars may even be close to 17!A billion years oldKthe observed age of the universe! The oldest star yet discovered, +' 1=67-4C41, is an estimated 17!6 billion years old!0=52 The more massive the star, the shorter its lifespan, primarily because massive stars have greater pressure on their cores, causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly! The most massive stars last an average of about one million years, (hile stars of minimum mass "red d(arfs# burn their fuel very slo(ly and last tens to hundreds of billions of years!0==20=?2 9hemical composition See also: ;etallicity When stars form they are composed of about A4V hydrogen and 6BV helium, as measured by mass, (ith a small fraction of heavier elements! Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere, as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively easy to measure! 8ecause the molecular clouds (here stars form are steadily enriched by heavier elements from supernovae e3plosions, a measurement of the chemical composition of a star can be used to infer its age!0=A2 The portion of heavier elements may also be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system!0=B2 The star (ith the lo(est iron content ever measured is the d(arf +'176A-676?, (ith only 1W644,444th the iron content of the Sun!0=C2 8y contrast, the super-metal-rich star \ Leonis has nearly double the abundance of iron as the Sun, (hile the planet-bearing star 15 +erculis has nearly triple the iron!0?42 There also e3ist chemically peculiar stars that sho( unusual abundances of certain elements in their spectrumU especially chromium and rare earth elements!0?12 >iameter >ue to their great distance from the 'arth, all stars e3cept the Sun appear to the human eye as shining points in the night sky that t(inkle because of the effect of the 'arth*s atmosphere! The Sun is also a star, but it is close enough to the 'arth to appear as a disk instead, and to provide daylight! )ther than the Sun, the star (ith the largest apparent si,e is . >oradus, (ith an angular diameter of only 4!4=A arcseconds!0?62 The disks of most stars are much too small in angular si,e to be observed (ith current ground-based optical telescopes, and so interferometer telescopes are re<uired in order to produce images of these ob ects! &nother techni<ue for measuring the angular si,e of stars is through occultation! 8y precisely measuring the drop in brightness of a star as it is occulted by the ;oon "or the rise in brightness (hen it reappears#, the star*s angular diameter can be computed!0?72 Stars range in si,e from neutron stars, (hich vary any(here from 64 to 54 km in diameter, to supergiants like 8etelgeuse in the )rion constellation, (hich has a diameter appro3imately ?=4 times

larger than the SunKabout 4!C billion kilometres! +o(ever, 8etelgeuse has a much lo(er density than the Sun!0?52 @inematics The motion of a star relative to the Sun can provide useful information about the origin and age of a star, as (ell as the structure and evolution of the surrounding gala3y! The components of motion of a star consist of the radial velocity to(ard or a(ay from the Sun, and the traverse angular movement, (hich is called its proper motion! .adial velocity is measured by the doppler shift of the star*s spectral lines, and is given in units of kmWs! The proper motion of a star is determined by precise astrometric measurements in units of milliarc seconds "mas# per year! 8y determining the paralla3 of a star, the proper motion can then be converted into units of velocity! Stars (ith high rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun, making them good candidates for paralla3 measurements!0?=2 )nce both rates of movement are kno(n, the space velocity of the star relative to the Sun or the gala3y can be computed! &mong nearby stars, it has been found that population F stars have generally lo(er velocities than older, population FF stars! The latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the gala3y!0??2 9omparison of the kinematics of nearby stars has also led to the identification of stellar associations! These are most likely groups of stars that share a common point of origin in giant molecular clouds! 0?A2 ;agnetic field ;ain article: Stellar magnetic field Surface magnetic field of S: &ur "a young star of T Tauri type#, reconstructed by means of ]eeman>oppler imagingThe magnetic field of a star is generated (ithin regions of the interior (here convective circulation occurs! This movement of conductive plasma functions like a dynamo, generating magnetic fields that e3tend throughout the star! The strength of the magnetic field varies (ith the mass and composition of the star, and the amount of magnetic surface activity depends upon the star*s rate of rotation! This surface activity produces starspots, (hich are regions of strong magnetic fields and lo(er than normal surface temperatures! 9oronal loops are arching magnetic fields that reach out into the corona from active regions! Stellar flares are bursts of high-energy particles that are emitted due to the same magnetic activity!0?B2 ^oung, rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of surface activity because of their magnetic field! The magnetic field can act upon a star*s stellar (ind, ho(ever, functioning as a brake to gradually slo( the rate of rotation as the star gro(s older! Thus, older stars such as the Sun have a much slo(er rate of rotation and a lo(er level of surface activity! The activity levels of slo(ly-rotating stars tend to vary in a cyclical manner and can shut do(n altogether for periods!0?C2 >uring the ;aunder minimum, for e3ample, the Sun under(ent a A4-year period (ith almost no sunspot activity! ;ass )ne of the most massive stars kno(n is 'ta 9arinae,0A42 (ith 144/1=4 times as much mass as the SunU its lifespan is very shortKonly several million years at most! & recent study of the &rches cluster suggests that 1=4 solar masses is the upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe!0A12 The reason for this limit is not precisely kno(n, but it is partially due to the 'ddington luminosity (hich defines the ma3imum amount of luminosity that can pass through the atmosphere of a star (ithout e ecting the gases into space! The reflection nebula %E9 1CCC is brilliantly illuminated by D7B4 )rionis "center#, a variable star (ith about 7!= times the mass of the Sun! %&S& imageThe first stars to form after the 8ig 8ang may have been larger, up to 744 solar masses or more,0A62 due to the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium in their composition! This generation of supermassive, population FFF stars is long e3tinct, ho(ever, and currently only theoretical!

With a mass only C7 times that of Jupiter, &8 >oradus 9, a companion to &8 >oradus &, is the smallest kno(n star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core!0A72 For stars (ith similar metallicity to the Sun, the theoretical minimum mass the star can have, and still undergo fusion at the core, is estimated to be about A= times the mass of Jupiter!0A520A=2 When the metallicity is very lo(, ho(ever, a recent study of the faintest stars found that the minimum star si,e seems to be about B!7V of the solar mass, or about BA times the mass of Jupiter!0A?20A=2 Smaller bodies are called bro(n d(arfs, (hich occupy a poorly-defined grey area bet(een stars and gas giants! The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines the surface gravity! Eiant stars have a much lo(er surface gravity than main se<uence stars, (hile the opposite is the case for degenerate, compact stars such as (hite d(arfs! The surface gravity can influence the appearance of a star*s spectrum, (ith higher gravity causing a broadening of the absorption lines!01A2 .otation ;ain article: Stellar rotation The rotation rate of stars can be appro3imated through spectroscopic measurement, or more e3actly determined by tracking the rotation rate of starspots! ^oung stars can have a rapid rate of rotation greater than 144 kmWs at the e<uator! The 8-class star &chernar, for e3ample, has an e<uatorial rotation velocity of about 66= kmWs or greater, giving it an e<uatorial diameter that is more than =4V larger than the distance bet(een the poles! This rate of rotation is ust belo( the critical velocity of 744 kmWs (here the star (ould break apart!0AA2 8y contrast, the Sun only rotates once every 6= / 7= days, (ith an e<uatorial velocity of 1!CC5 kmWs! The star*s magnetic field and the stellar (ind serve to slo( do(n a main se<uence star*s rate of rotation by a significant amount as it evolves on the main se<uence!0AB2 >egenerate stars have contracted into a compact mass, resulting in a rapid rate of rotation! +o(ever they have relatively lo( rates of rotation compared to (hat (ould be e3pected by conservation of angular momentumKthe tendency of a rotating body to compensate for a contraction in si,e by increasing its rate of spin! & large portion of the star*s angular momentum is dissipated as a result of mass loss through the stellar (ind!0AC2 Fn spite of this, the rate of rotation for a pulsar can be very rapid! The pulsar at the heart of the 9rab nebula, for e3ample, rotates 74 times per second!0B42 The rotation rate of the pulsar (ill gradually slo( due to the emission of radiation! Temperature The surface temperature of a main se<uence star is determined by the rate of energy production at the core and the radius of the star and is often estimated from the star*s color inde3!0B12 Ft is normally given as the effective temperature, (hich is the temperature of an ideali,ed black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star! %ote that the effective temperature is only a representative value, ho(ever, as stars actually have a temperature gradient that decreases (ith increasing distance from the core!0B62 The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins!0B72 The stellar temperature (ill determine the rate of energi,ation or ioni,ation of different elements, resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum! The surface temperature of a star, along (ith its visual absolute magnitude and absorption features, is used to classify a star "see classification belo(#!01A2 ;assive main se<uence stars can have surface temperatures of =4,444 @! Smaller stars such as the Sun have surface temperatures of a fe( thousand degrees! .ed giants have relatively lo( surface temperatures of about 7,?44 @, but they also have a high luminosity due to their large e3terior surface area!0B52 .adiation The energy produced by stars, as a by-product of nuclear fusion, radiates into space as both electromagnetic radiation and particle radiation! The particle radiation emitted by a star is manifested as the stellar (ind0B=2 "(hich e3ists as a steady stream of electrically charged particles, such as free protons, alpha particles, and beta particles, emanating from the star_s outer layers# and as a steady stream of neutrinos emanating from the star_s core!

The production of energy at the core is the reason (hy stars shine so brightly: every time t(o or more atomic nuclei of one element fuse together to form an atomic nucleus of a ne( heavier element, gamma ray photons are released from the nuclear fusion reaction! This energy is converted to other forms of electromagnetic energy, including visible light, by the time it reaches the star_s outer layers! The color of a star, as determined by the peak fre<uency of the visible light, depends on the temperature of the star_s outer layers, including its photosphere!0B?2 8esides visible light, stars also emit forms of electromagnetic radiation that are invisible to the human eye! Fn fact, stellar electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the longest (avelengths of radio (aves and infrared to the shortest (avelengths of ultraviolet, Y-rays, and gamma rays! &ll components of stellar electromagnetic radiation, both visible and invisible, are typically significant! :sing the stellar spectrum, astronomers can also determine the surface temperature, surface gravity, metallicity and rotational velocity of a star! Ff the distance of the star is kno(n, such as by measuring the paralla3, then the luminosity of the star can be derived! The mass, radius, surface gravity, and rotation period can then be estimated based on stellar models! ";ass can be measured directly for stars in binary systems! The techni<ue of gravitational microlensing (ill also yield the mass of a star!0BA2# With these parameters, astronomers can also estimate the age of the star!0BB2 Luminosity Fn astronomy, luminosity is the amount of light, and other forms of radiant energy, a star radiates per unit of time! The luminosity of a star is determined by the radius and the surface temperature! +o(ever, many stars do not radiate a uniform flu3Kthe amount of energy radiated per unit areaK across their entire surface! The rapidly-rotating star Dega, for e3ample, has a higher energy flu3 at its poles than along its e<uator!0BC2 Surface patches (ith a lo(er temperature and luminosity than average are kno(n as starspots! Small, d(arf stars such as the Sun generally have essentially featureless disks (ith only small starspots! Larger, giant stars have much bigger, much more obvious starspots,0C42 and they also e3hibit strong stellar limb darkening! That is, the brightness decreases to(ards the edge of the stellar disk!0C12 .ed d(arf flare stars such as :D 9eti may also possess prominent starspot features!0C62 ;agnitude ;ain articles: &pparent magnitude and &bsolute magnitude The apparent brightness of a star is measured by its apparent magnitude, (hich is the brightness of a star (ith respect to the star_s luminosity, distance from 'arth, and the altering of the star_s light as it passes through 'arth_s atmosphere! Fntrinsic or absolute magnitude is (hat the apparent magnitude a star (ould be if the distance bet(een the 'arth and the star (ere 14 parsecs "76!? light-years#, and it is directly related to a star_s luminosity! %umber of stars brighter than magnitude &pparent magnitude %umber of Stars0C72 45 1 1= 6 5B 7 1A1 5 =17 = 1,?46 ? 5,B44 A 15,444 8oth the apparent and absolute magnitude scales are logarithmic units: one (hole number difference in magnitude is e<ual to a brightness variation of about 6!= times0C52 "the =th root of 144 or appro3imately 6!=16#! This means that a first magnitude "`1!44# star is about 6!= times brighter than a second magnitude "`6!44# star, and appro3imately 144 times brighter than a si3th magnitude "`?!44# star! The faintest stars visible to the naked eye under good seeing conditions are about magnitude `?!

)n both apparent and absolute magnitude scales, the smaller the magnitude number, the brighter the starU the larger the magnitude number, the fainter! The brightest stars, on either scale, have negative magnitude numbers! The variation in brightness bet(een t(o stars is calculated by subtracting the magnitude number of the brighter star "mb# from the magnitude number of the fainter star "mf#, then using the difference as an e3ponent for the base number 6!=16U that is to say: am b mf X mb 6!=16am b variation in brightness .elative to both luminosity and distance from 'arth, absolute magnitude ";# and apparent magnitude "m# are not e<uivalent for an individual starU0C52 for e3ample, the bright star Sirius has an apparent magnitude of X1!55, but it has an absolute magnitude of `1!51! The Sun has an apparent magnitude of X6?!A, but its absolute magnitude is only `5!B7! Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky as seen from 'arth, is appro3imately 67 times more luminous than the Sun, (hile 9anopus, the second brightest star in the night sky (ith an absolute magnitude of X=!=7, is appro3imately 15,444 times more luminous than the Sun! >espite 9anopus being vastly more luminous than Sirius, ho(ever, Sirius appears brighter than 9anopus! This is because Sirius is merely B!? lightyears from the 'arth, (hile 9anopus is much farther a(ay at a distance of 714 light-years! &s of 644?, the star (ith the highest kno(n absolute magnitude is L8D 1B4?-64, (ith a magnitude of X15!6! This star is at least =,444,444 times more luminous than the Sun!0C=2 The least luminous stars that are currently kno(n are located in the %E9 ?7CA cluster! The faintest red d(arfs in the cluster (ere magnitude 6?, (hile a 6Bth magnitude (hite d(arf (as also discovered! These faint stars are so dim that their light is as bright as a birthday candle on the ;oon (hen vie(ed from the 'arth!0C?2 9lassification Surface Temperature .anges for >ifferent Stellar 9lasses0CA2 9lass Temperature Sample star ) 77,444 @ or more ]eta )phiuchi 8 14,=44/74,444 @ .igel & A,=44/14,444 @ &ltair F ?,444/A,644 @ $rocyon & E =,=44/?,444 @ Sun @ 5,444/=,6=4 @ 'psilon Fndi ; 6,?44/7,B=4 @ $ro3ima 9entauri ;ain article: Stellar classification There are different classifications of stars according to their spectra ranging from type ), (hich are very hot, to ;, (hich are so cool that molecules may form in their atmospheres! The main classifications in order of decreasing surface temperature are ), 8, &, F, E, @, and ;! & variety of rare spectral types have special classifications! The most common of these are types L and T, (hich classify the coldest lo(-mass stars and bro(n d(arfs! 'ach letter has 14 sub-classifications numbered "hottest to coldest# from 4 to C! This system matches closely (ith temperature, but breaks do(n at the e3treme hottest endU class )4 and )1 stars may not e3ist!0CB2 Fn addition, stars may be classified by the luminosity effects found in their spectral lines, (hich correspond to their spatial si,e and is determined by the surface gravity! These range from 4 "hypergiants# through FFF "giants# to D "main se<uence d(arfs# and DFF "(hite d(arfs#! ;ost stars belong to the main se<uence, (hich consists of ordinary hydrogen-burning stars! These fall along a narro( band (hen graphed according to their absolute magnitude and spectral type!0CB2 )ur Sun is a main se<uence E6D "yello( d(arf#, being of intermediate temperature and ordinary si,e! &dditional nomenclature, in the form of lo(er-case letters, can follo( the spectral type to indicate peculiar features of the spectrum! For e3ample, an JeJ can indicate the presence of emission linesU JmJ represents unusually strong levels of metals, and JvarJ can mean variations in the spectral type!0CB2

White d(arf stars have their o(n class that begins (ith the letter >! This is further sub-divided into the classes >&, >8, >9, >), >], and >Z, depending on the types of prominent lines found in the spectrum! This is follo(ed by a numerical value that indicates the temperature inde3!0CC2 Dariable stars ;ain article: Dariable star The asymmetrical appearance of ;ira, an oscillating variable star! %&S& +ST imageDariable stars have periodic or random changes in luminosity because of intrinsic or e3trinsic properties! )f the intrinsically variable stars, the primary types can be subdivided into three principal groups! >uring their stellar evolution, some stars pass through phases (here they can become pulsating variables! $ulsating variable stars vary in radius and luminosity over time, e3panding and contracting (ith periods ranging from minutes to years, depending on the si,e of the star! This category includes 9epheid and cepheid-like stars, and long-period variables such as ;ira!01442 'ruptive variables are stars that e3perience sudden increases in luminosity because of flares or mass e ection events!01442 This group includes protostars, Wolf-.ayet stars, and Flare stars, as (ell as giant and supergiant stars! 9ataclysmic or e3plosive variables undergo a dramatic change in their properties! This group includes novae and supernovae! & binary star system that includes a nearby (hite d(arf can produce certain types of these spectacular stellar e3plosions, including the nova and a Type 1a supernova!052 The e3plosion is created (hen the (hite d(arf accretes hydrogen from the companion star, building up mass until the hydrogen undergoes fusion!01412 Some novae are also recurrent, having periodic outbursts of moderate amplitude!01442 Stars can also vary in luminosity because of e3trinsic factors, such as eclipsing binaries, as (ell as rotating stars that produce e3treme starspots!01442 & notable e3ample of an eclipsing binary is &lgol, (hich regularly varies in magnitude from 6!7 to 7!= over a period of 6!BA days! Structure ;ain article: Stellar structure The interior of a stable star is in a state of hydrostatic e<uilibrium: the forces on any small volume almost e3actly counterbalance each other! The balanced forces are in(ard gravitational force and an out(ard force due to the pressure gradient (ithin the star! The pressure gradient is established by the temperature gradient of the plasmaU the outer part of the star is cooler than the core! The temperature at the core of a main se<uence or giant star is at least on the order of 14A @! The resulting temperature and pressure at the hydrogen-burning core of a main se<uence star are sufficient for nuclear fusion to occur and for sufficient energy to be produced to prevent further collapse of the star!0146201472 &s atomic nuclei are fused in the core, they emit energy in the form of gamma rays! These photons interact (ith the surrounding plasma, adding to the thermal energy at the core! Stars on the main se<uence convert hydrogen into helium, creating a slo(ly but steadily increasing proportion of helium in the core! 'ventually the helium content becomes predominant and energy production ceases at the core! Fnstead, for stars of more than 4!5 solar masses, fusion occurs in a slo(ly e3panding shell around the degenerate helium core!01452 Fn addition to hydrostatic e<uilibrium, the interior of a stable star (ill also maintain an energy balance of thermal e<uilibrium! There is a radial temperature gradient throughout the interior that results in a flu3 of energy flo(ing to(ard the e3terior! The outgoing flu3 of energy leaving any layer (ithin the star (ill e3actly match the incoming flu3 from belo(! This diagram sho(s a cross-section of a solar-type star! %&S& imageThe radiation ,one is the region (ithin the stellar interior (here radiative transfer is sufficiently efficient to maintain the flu3 of energy! Fn this region the plasma (ill not be perturbed and any mass motions (ill die out! Ff this is not the case, ho(ever, then the plasma becomes unstable and convection (ill occur, forming a convection ,one!

This can occur, for e3ample, in regions (here very high energy flu3es occur, such as near the core or in areas (ith high opacity as in the outer envelope!01472 The occurrence of convection in the outer envelope of a main se<uence star depends on the mass! Stars (ith several times the mass of the Sun have a convection ,one deep (ithin the interior and a radiative ,one in the outer layers! Smaller stars such as the Sun are ust the opposite, (ith the convective ,one located in the outer layers!014=2 .ed d(arf stars (ith less than 4!5 solar masses are convective throughout, (hich prevents the accumulation of a helium core!062 For most stars the convective ,ones (ill also vary over time as the star ages and the constitution of the interior is modified!01472 The portion of a star that is visible to an observer is called the photosphere! This is the layer at (hich the plasma of the star becomes transparent to photons of light! From here, the energy generated at the core becomes free to propagate out into space! Ft is (ithin the photosphere that sun spots, or regions of lo(er than average temperature, appear! &bove the level of the photosphere is the stellar atmosphere! Fn a main se<uence star such as the Sun, the lo(est level of the atmosphere is the thin chromosphere region, (here spicules appear and stellar flares begin! This is surrounded by a transition region, (here the temperature rapidly increases (ithin a distance of only 144 km! 8eyond this is the corona, a volume of super-heated plasma that can e3tend out(ard to several million kilometres!014?2 The e3istence of a corona appears to be dependent on a convective ,one in the outer layers of the star!014=2 >espite its high temperature, the corona emits very little light! The corona region of the Sun is normally only visible during a solar eclipse! From the corona, a stellar (ind of plasma particles e3pands out(ard from the star, propagating until it interacts (ith the interstellar medium! For the Sun, the influence of its solar (ind e3tends throughout the bubble-shaped region of the heliosphere!014A2 %uclear fusion reaction path(ays ;ain article: Stellar nucleosynthesis )vervie( of the proton-proton chain The carbon-nitrogen-o3ygen cycle& variety of different nuclear fusion reactions take place inside the cores of stars, depending upon their mass and composition, as part of stellar nucleosynthesis! The net mass of the fused atomic nuclei is smaller than the sum of the constituents! This lost mass is converted into energy, according to the mass-energy e<uivalence relationship ' b mcc!012 The hydrogen fusion process is temperature-sensitive, so a moderate increase in the core temperature (ill result in a significant increase in the fusion rate! &s a result the core temperature of main se<uence stars only varies from 5 million @ for a small ;-class star to 54 million @ for a massive )-class star! 0B72 Fn the Sun, (ith a 14 million @ core, hydrogen fuses to form helium in the proton-proton chain reaction:014B2 51+ d 66+ ` 6e` ` 6Oe "5!4 ;eD ` 1!4 ;eD# 61+ ` 66+ d 67+e ` 6e "=!= ;eD# 67+e d 5+e ` 61+ "16!C ;eD# These reactions result in the overall reaction: 51+ d 5+e ` 6e` ` 6e ` 6Oe "6?!A ;eD# (here e` is a positron, e is a gamma ray photon, Oe is a neutrino, and + and +e are isotopes of hydrogen and helium, respectively! The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts, (hich is actually only a tiny amount of energy! +o(ever enormous numbers of these reactions occur constantly, producing all the energy necessary to sustain the star*s radiation output! ;inimum stellar mass re<uired for fusion 'lement Solar masses +ydrogen 4!41 +elium 4!5

9arbon 5 %eon B Fn more massive stars, helium is produced in a cycle of reactions cataly,ed by carbonKthe carbonnitrogen-o3ygen cycle!014B2 Fn evolved stars (ith cores at 144 million @ and masses bet(een 4!= and 14 solar masses, helium can be transformed into carbon in the triple-alpha process that uses the intermediate element beryllium: 014B2 5+e ` 5+e ` C6 keD d Bf8e 5+e ` Bf8e ` ?A keD d 16f9 16f9 d 169 ` e ` A!5 ;eD For an overall reaction of: 75+e d 169 ` e ` A!6 ;eD Fn massive stars, heavier elements can also be burned in a contracting core through the neon burning process and o3ygen burning process! The final stage in the stellar nucleosynthesis process is the silicon burning process that results in the production of the stable isotope iron-=?! Fusion can not proceed any further e3cept through an endothermic process, and so further energy can only be produced through gravitational collapse!014B2 The e3ample belo( sho(s the amount of time re<uired for a star of 64 solar masses to consume all of its nuclear fuel! &s an )-class main se<uence star, it (ould be B times the solar radius and ?6,444 times the Sun*s luminosity!014C2

Fuel material Temperature "million kelvins# >ensity "kgWcmg# 8urn duration "Q in years# + 7A 4!445= B!1 million +e 1BB 4!CA 1!6 million 9 BA4 1A4 CA? %e 1,=A4 7,144 4!? ) 1,CB4 =,==4 1!6= SWSi 7,754 77,544 4!471=01142