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Photodiodes
1.1 Introduction
Photodiodes are semiconductor light sensors that generate a current or voltage when
the P-N junction in the semiconductor is illuminated by light.
Photodiodes incorporate a P and an N type layer. The system has the electrical characteristics
of a rectifier. Radiation directed in the vicinity of the PN junction cause a flow of current.
Photodiodes are very useful for applications where space is restricted. The effective area of a
photodiode is about 0.2 mm2 and it has a pinhead of a diameter of 0.5 mm.1
The P-layer material at the active surface and the N-layer material at the substrate
form a PN junction which operates as a photoelectric converter. The usual P-layer for a Si
photodiode is formed by the selective diffusion of boron, to a thickness of approximately 1
µm or less and the neutral region at the junction between the P and N layers is known as the
depletion layer.
By controlling the thickness of the outer P-layer, substrate N-layer and bottom N+-
layer as well as the doping concentration, the spectral response and frequency response can
be controlled.
When a reverse-biased p-n junction diode is illuminated with light, extra electron-hole
pairs are generated in p and n regions. As a result, the minority carrier concentration changes
significantly but the majority carrier concentration does not change much. The generated
minority carriers increase the reverse current. The diode current is found to vary almost
linearly with the light flux. The diodes so operated are referred to as photo diodes. These
diodes are used in fast reading of tapes and film sound tracks, light-operated switches, and
light-detection systems.
Photodiodes made from gallium arsenide are preferable to silicon photodiodes.
Because silicon is an indirect-gap semiconductor, the photon absorption init requires the
assistance of phonons2 to create electron-hole pairs. Gallium arsenide, on the other hand, is a
direct-gap semiconductor, and so can absorb photons without phonons. Hence, GaAs
photodiodes have greater speed of operation, and are more sensitive to the intensity of the
incident light than Si photodiodes.3
1
A.K. Sawhney, A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation, (Delhi: Dhanpat Rai
and Co, 2008) p 718.
2
Phonons are a quantum mechanical version of a special type of vibrational motion, known as normal modes in
classical mechanics, in which each part of a lattice oscillates with the same frequency.
3
D. Chattopadhyay and P.C. Rakshit, Electronics: Fundamentals and Applications, (New Delhi: New Age
International Limited, 2008) p 77.
up into the conduction band, leaving holes in their place in the valence band. These electron-
hole pairs occur throughout the P-layer, depletion layer and N-layer materials. In the
depletion layer the electric field accelerates these electrons toward the N-layer and the holes
toward the P-layer. Of the electron-hole pairs generated in the N-layer, the electrons, along
with electrons that have arrived from the P-layer, are left in the N-layer conduction band. The
holes at this time are being diffused through the N-layer up to the depletion layer while being
accelerated, and collected in the P-layer valence band.
In this manner, electron-hole pairs which are generated in proportion to the amount of
incident light are collected in the N- and P-layers. This results in a positive charge in the P-
layer and a negative charge in the N-layer.
If an external circuit is connected between the P- and N-layers, electrons will flow
away from the N-layer, and holes will flow away from the P-layer toward the opposite
respective electrodes. These electrons and holes generating a current flow in a semiconductor
are called the carriers.
The more light striking the junction, the larger is the reverse current in a photo diode.
In this diode, a window lets light pass through the package to the junction. With
typical photodiodes the reverse current is in microamperes.
From the figure it is very clear that the output resistance R= ∆ V/∆Ι is very high and
is of the order of tens of MΩ. The d.c. resistance, V/I is the diode leakage resistance and that
too is very high. This resistance depends upon the light intensity. The frequency response of a
photodiode is largely dependent upon the intrinsic capacity which is typically 2 pF fro a
reverse bias of -10 V.
The cut off frequency is given by fc=1/2πRLC where C is capacitance of photodiode
and RL is the load resistance. The cut off frequency is of the order of MHz. Even in dark there
is always leakage current of the photodiode and this current is known as dark current. The
dark current double about every 10o C increase in temperature for silicon and this decreases
the signal to noise ratio.
1.6 Applications
1. Because of their fast response time, photodiodes are sued a scene film sound track
readers.
2. They can be used as detectors of modulated light in optical communication
systems and also in switching circuits.
2.1 Introduction
Light emitting diode is primarily a PN junction semiconductor device. The basic
mechanism of electro-magnetic radiation from the device is injection luminescence (IL).
When a p-n diode is forward biased, the carriers injected across the junction enhance
the carrier concentrations above the thermal equilibrium values. These excess carriers
recombine and emit electromagnetic energy corresponding to the band gap.4
2.2 Construction
One way to construct an LED is to deposit three semiconductor layers on a substrate.
Between p-type and n-type semiconductor layers, an active region emits light when an
electron and hole recombine. Considering the p-n combination to be a diode, then when the
diode is forward biased, holes from the p-type material and electrons from the n-type material
are both driven into the active region. The light is produced by a solid state process called
electroluminescence.
In this particular design, the layers of the LED emit light all the way around the
layered structure, and the LED structure is placed in a tiny reflective cup so that the light
from the active layer will be reflected toward the desired exit direction.
5
A.K. Sawhney, A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation, (Delhi: Dhanpat Rai
and Co, 2008) p 710 - 711
The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in one
package with three leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red and green light
appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green LEDs are on.
2.8 Disadvantages
One major disadvantage of using LEDs as sources of illumination is their
monochromatic (single-color) emission. No one wants to read a book under the light of a red,
green, or blue LED. However, if used in combination, LED colors may be mixed for a more
broad-spectrum glow. A new broad spectrum light source is the white LED. While small
white panel indicators have been available for many years, illumination grade devices are still
in development.
3. Zener Diodes
3.1 Introduction
Zener diodes are p-n diodes operated in the breakdown region of the reverse voltage
characteristic. These diodes are designed with sufficient power-dissipation capacities to work
in the breakdown region. The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this
electrical property.
Zener diode is a special purpose diode that operates under reverse bias condition.
Such type of diodes is normally fabricated using a silicon semiconductor because it has a
higher temperature and current rating than Germanium. In the reverse bias condition, the
breakdown of the diode occurs when its crystal structure is broken. This happens at the
breakdown or Zener voltage. Due to the breakdown a very large current flows through the
diode with a very small change in the voltage.
3.2 Construction
A Zener diode is fabricated by controlling the doping level of impurities during
manufacture. The level of doping in Zener diodes is generally high. The Zener voltage is
reduced with the increase in the levels of doping.
Zener diodes are commercially available with the Zener voltage of 2 volts - 200 volts.
The forward characteristics of a Zener diode are similar to those of a p-n junction
diode. The Zener diode is operated over the breakdown region. The breakdown voltage
depends upon the amount of doping. By controlling the thickness of depletion layer and
doping concentration, it is possible to make a Zener diode to breakdown at a specified
voltage.
During the operation in the breakdown region it does not burn out immediately. As
long as the current through the diode is limited by the external circuit with the permissible
values it does not burn out. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the
doping process. While tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used tolerances
are 5% and 10%.
6
A voltage regulator is a circuit which maintains a constant voltage even when either input voltage or load
current varies.
4. Solar Cells
4.1 Introduction
The solar cell is a p-n junction diode that transforms sunlight to electricity with large
conversion efficiency. When is light is allowed to fall on the diode, photons are absorbed and
electron-hole pairs are produced in p and n regions. The electrons and the holes that are
generated over a short distance from the junction can reach the depletion region of width W
by diffusion.
A photodiode optimized for efficiently delivering power to a load is the solar cell. It
operates in photovoltaic mode (PV) because it is forward biased by the voltage developed
across the load resistance.
Solar cells are in fact large area semiconductor diodes. Due to photovoltaic effect
energy of light (energy of photons) converts into electrical current. At p-n junction, an
electric field is built up which leads to the separation of the charge carriers (electrons and
holes). At incidence of photon stream onto semiconductor material the electrons are released,
if the energy of photons is sufficient. Contact to a solar cell is realised due to metal contacts.
If the circuit is closed, meaning an electrical load is connected, then direct current flows. The
energy of photons comes in "packages" which are called quants. The energy of each quantum
depends on the wavelength of the visible light or electromagnetic waves. The electrons are
released; however, the electric current flows only if the energy of each quantum is greater
than WL - WV (boundaries of valence and conductive bands).
4.2 Construction
The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction made
from silicon. As a simplification, one can imagine bringing a layer of n-type silicon into
direct contact with a layer of p-type silicon. In practice, p-n junctions of silicon solar cells are
not made in this way, but rather, by diffusing an n-type dopant into one side of a p-type wafer
(or vice versa).
If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in intimate contact with a piece of n-type silicon,
then a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of high electron concentration (the n-type
side of the junction) into the region of low electron concentration (p-type side of the
junction). When the electrons diffuse across the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on
the p-type side. The diffusion of carriers does not happen indefinitely however, because of an
electric field which is created by the imbalance of charge immediately on either side of the
junction which this diffusion creates.
The electric field established across the p-n junction creates a diode that promotes
charge flow, known as drift current, that opposes and eventually balances out the diffusion of
electron and holes. This region where electrons and holes have diffused across the junction is
called the depletion region because it no longer contains any mobile charge carriers. It is also
known as the "space charge region".
5.1 Introduction
The name ‘varactor’ originates from the phrase variable reactor. It is a device, the
reactance of which can be changed in a controlled manner by a bias voltage. Since a p-n
junction diode has a voltage dependent depletion region capacitance, it finds application as a
varactor diode, also a called a varicap.
Varactor Diodes
5.2 Operation
This is a junction diode with a small impurity at its junction which has the useful
property that its junction or transient capacitance is easily varied electronically.
When any diode is reverse-biased a depletion layer is formed. Larger the reverse bias
applied across the diode the width of the depletion layer becomes wider. Conversely, by
decreasing the reverse bias voltage the depletion layer width becomes narrower. The p and n
regions are like the two plates of a capacitor and the depletion layer is like the dielectric
material. When a diode is reverse-biased the width of the depletion layer increases with the
reverse voltage.
Since the depletion layer gets wider with more reverse voltage, the capacitance
becomes smaller. Therefore, capacitance is controlled by reverse voltage. As the capacitance
is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates, the transient capacitance varies
inversely with the reverse voltage. Consequently, an increase in reverse bias voltage will
result in an increase in the depletion layer width and a subsequent decrease in transient
capacitance.
5.3 Applications
` a) Varactor is connected in parallel with an inductor to form a parallel resonant circuit.
This circuit has only one frequency at which maximum impedance occurs. This frequency is
called resonant frequency.
b) Varactor diodes can be used in the tuning stage of a radio receiver or in a TV tuner
in place of bulky variable capacitors. The circuit thereby becomes compact and its
performance improves.
c) Varactor diodes also find applications in harmonic generators, microwave
frequency multipliers, self-balancing bridge circuits, active filters, and parametric amplifiers.
d) In very low noise microwave parametric amplifiers.
6. Tunnel Diodes
6.1 Introduction
Tunnel diodes also known as Esaki diodes in honor of their Japanese inventor Leo
Esaki, exploit a strange quantum phenomenon called resonant tunneling to provide a
negative-resistance forward-bias characteristics. When a small forward-bias voltage is
applied across a tunnel diode, it begins to conduct current. As the voltage is increased, the
current increases and reaches a peak value called the peak current (IP). If the voltage is
increased a little more, the current actually begins to decrease until it reaches a low point
called the valley current (IV). If the voltage is increased further yet, the current begins to
increase again, this time without decreasing into another “valley.”
Tunnel Diode: (a) Schematic Symbol. (b) Current / Voltage Plot (c) Oscillator.
The forward voltages necessary to drive a tunnel diode to its peak and valley currents
are known as peak voltage (VP) and valley voltage (VV), respectively. The region on the graph
where current is decreasing while applied voltage is increasing (between VP and VV on the
horizontal scale) is known as the region of negative resistance.
Tunnel diodes, are able to transition between peak and valley current levels very
quickly, “switching” between high and low states of conduction much faster than even
Schottky diodes. Tunnel diode characteristics are also relatively unaffected by changes in
temperature.
6.2 Construction
These are usually fabricated form Germanium, Gallium Arsenide or Gallium
Antimonide but Silicon is not used because the ration of peak value of forward current to the
value of forward current to the value of valley current is very low.
Tunnel diodes are heavily doped in both the P and N regions, 1000 times the level in a
rectifier. The heavy doping produces an unusually thin depletion region. This produces an
unusually low reverse breakdown voltage with high leakage. The thin depletion region causes
high capacitance. To overcome this, the tunnel diode junction area must be tiny.
7.2 Construction
If aluminum, which is an acceptor impurity in Silicon is attached to n-type Silicon as
lead the n-region near the surface where aluminum is deposited must be made highly n-type
to achieve ohmic contact. If aluminum is directly deposited on n-type silicon, a rectifying
contact is obtained.
Contact A is rectified and contact B is ohmic, producing a Schottky diode where the
contact A is the anode. When the anode voltage is positive, electrons from n-type silicon
move into the metal through the junction resulting in the flow of current.
7.4 Applications
a) Mostly, Schottky diodes find application as clamping diodes. Such type of diodes is
used in digital computers, low voltage bridge rectifiers.
b) Schottky diode technology finds broad application in high-speed computer circuits,
where the fast switching time equates to high speed capability, and the low forward voltage
drop equates to less power dissipation when conducting.
8. Laser Diodes
8.1 Introduction
The laser diode is a further development upon the regular light-emitting diode, or
LED. The term “laser” itself is actually an acronym, despite the fact its often written in
lower-case letters. “Laser” stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation, and refers to another strange quantum process whereby characteristic light emitted
by electrons falling from high-level to low-level energy states in a material stimulate other
electrons in a substance to make similar “jumps,” the result being a synchronized output of
light from the material. This synchronization extends to the actual phase of the emitted light,
so that all light waves emitted from a “lasing” material are not just the same frequency
(color), but also the same phase as each other, so that they reinforce one another and are able
to travel in a very tightly-confined, non-dispersing beam. This is why laser light stays so
remarkably focused over long distances: each and every light wave coming from the laser is
in step with each other.
8.2 Operation
Incandescent lamps produce “white” (mixed-frequency, or mixed-color) light as in
Figure (a). Regular LEDs
produce monochromatic
light: same frequency
(color), but different phases,
resulting in similar beam
dispersion in Figure above
(b). Laser LEDs produce
coherent light: light that is
both monochromatic
(single-color) and mono-
phasic (single-phase),
resulting in precise beam
confinement as in Figure
above (c).
Laser Diodes Laser light finds
wide application in the
modern world: everything
from surveying, where a straight and non-dispersing light beam is very useful for precise
sighting of measurement markers, to the reading and writing of optical disks, where only the
narrowness of a focused laser beam is able to resolve the microscopic “pits” in the disk's
surface comprising the binary 1's and 0's of digital information.
Some laser diodes require special high-power “pulsing” circuits to deliver large quantities of
voltage and current in short bursts. Other laser diodes may be operated continuously at lower
power. In the continuous laser, laser action occurs only within a certain range of diode
current, necessitating some form of current-regulator circuit. As laser diodes age, their power
requirements may change (more current required for less output power), but it should be
remembered that low-power laser diodes, like LEDs, are fairly long-lived devices, with
typical service lives in the tens of thousands of hours.
9. PIN Diodes
9.1 Introduction
A p–i–n photodiode, also called PIN photodiode, is a photodiode with an intrinsic (i)
(i.e., undoped) region in between the n- and p-doped regions. Most of the photons are
absorbed in the intrinsic region, and carriers generated therein can efficiently contribute to the
photocurrent. In the given figure the cathode is a flat electrode, whereas the anode has the
form of a ring (of which two opposite parts are seen in the shown cross section). The positive
pole of the (reverse) bias voltage is connected to the cathode. On top of the p region, there is
an anti-reflection coating.
The resulting generation rate must be added to the continuity equation and solved
throughout the photodiode, which results in the photocurrent.
The photocurrent due to holes originating in the n-type contact layer equals:
10.1 Introduction
An IMPATT diode (IMPact Ionization Avalanche Transit-Time) is a form of high
power diode used in high-frequency electronics and microwave devices. They are typically
made with silicon carbide owing to their high breakdown fields.
They operate at frequencies between about 3 and 100 GHz or more. A main advantage
is their high power capability. These diodes are used in a variety of applications from low
power radar systems to alarms. A major drawback of using IMPATT diodes is the high level
of phase noise they generate. This results from the statistical nature of the avalanche process.
Nevertheless these diodes make excellent microwave generators for many applications.
10.2 Structure
The IMPATT diode family includes many different junctions and metal semiconductor
devices. The first IMPATT oscillation was obtained from a simple silicon p-n junction diode
biased into a reverse avalanche break down and mounted in a microwave cavity. Because of
the strong dependence of the ionization coefficient on the electric field, most of the electron–
hole pairs are generated in the high field region. The generated electron immediately moves
into the region, while the generated holes drift across the p region. The time required for the
hole to reach the contact constitutes the transit time delay.
The original proposal for a microwave device of the IMPATT type was made by Read
and involved a structure. The Read diode consists of two regions namely i) The Avalanche
region (p1 – region with relatively high doping and high field, in which avalanche
multiplication occurs and (ii) the drift region (p2 – region with essentially intrinsic doping
and constant field, in which the generated holes drift towards the - contact. Of course, a
similar device can be built with the configuration, in which electrons generated from the
avalanche multiplication drift through the intrinsic region.
A fabricated IMPATT diode generally is mounted in a micro wave package. The diode
is mounted with its high – field region close to a copper heat sink so that the heat generated at
the diode junction can be readily conducted away by the copper heat sink. Similar microwave
packages are used to house other microwave devices.
10.3 Principle of Operation
IF a free electron with sufficient energy strikes on silicon atom , it can break covalent
bond of silicon and liberate an electron from the covalent bond if electron gains energy by
electric field and liberate other electron from other covalent bond. This process can cascade
(avalanche) very quickly into chain reaction producing number of electron and large current
flow in diode. This phenomena is called impact avalanche. At breakdown, the n – region is
punched through and forms the avalanche region of the diode. The high resistivity i – region
is the drift zone through which the avalanche generated electrons move toward the anode.
Now if a dc bias VB is considered just short of that required to cause breakdown,
applied to the diode, and an ac voltage of sufficiently large magnitude be superimposed on
the dc bias, such that during the positive cycle of the ac voltage, the diode is driven deep into
the avalanche breakdown. At t=0, the ac voltage is zero, and only a small pre-breakdown
current flows through the diode. As t increases, the voltage goes above the breakdown voltage
and secondary electron-hole pairs are produced by impact ionization.
As long as the field in the avalanche region is maintained above the breakdown field,
the electron-hole concentration grows exponentially with t. Similarly this concentration
decays exponentially with time when the field is reduced below at the negative swing of the
ac voltage. The holes generated in the avalanche region disappear in the p+ region and are
collected by the cathode. The electrons are injected into the i – zone where they drift toward
the n+ region. Then, the field in the avalanche region reaches its maximum value and the
population of the electron-hole pairs starts building up.
At this time, the ionization coefficients have their maximum values. The generated
electron concentration does not follow the electric field instantaneously because it also
depends on the number of electron-hole pairs already present in the avalanche region. Hence,
the electron concentration at t will have a small value. Even after the field has passed its
maximum value, the electron-hole concentration continues to grow because the secondary
carrier generation rate still remains above its average value. For this reason, the electron
concentration in the avalanche region attains its maximum value at t, when the field has
dropped to its average value. Thus, it is clear that the avalanche region introduces a 90 o phase
shift between the ac signal and the electron concentration in this region.
With a further increase in t, the ac voltage becomes negative, and the field in the
avalanche region drops below its critical value. The electrons in the avalanche region are then
injected into the drift zone which induces a current in the external circuit which has a phase
opposite to that of the ac voltage. The ac field, therefore, absorbs energy from the drifting
electrons as they are decelerated by the decreasing field. It is clear that an ideal phase shift
between the diode current and the ac signal is achieved if the thickness of the drift zone is
such that the bunch of electron is collected at the n + - anode at when the ac voltage goes to
zero. This condition is achieved by making the length of the drift region equal to the
wavelength of the signal. This situation produces an additional phase shift of 90o between the
ac voltage and the diode current. The waveforms of the ac voltage, they injected electron
charge, and the current induced in the external circuit.
11. Gunn Diode
1. Photodiodes............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Photodiode Types.............................................................................................................1
1.3 Principle of Operation......................................................................................................1
1.4 Circuit and Characteristics of a Photodiode.....................................................................2
1.5 Temperature Characteristics ............................................................................................3
1.6 Applications......................................................................................................................3
1.7 Features of photodiodes ..................................................................................................3
2. Light Emitting Diode.............................................................................................................4
2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................4
2.2 Construction.....................................................................................................................4
2.3 Principle of Operation of LEDs.......................................................................................4
2.4 Colours of LEDs ..............................................................................................................5
2.5 Connecting LEDs in Series..............................................................................................6
2.6 Connecting LEDs in Parallel............................................................................................6
2.7 Advantages of LEDs.........................................................................................................6
2.8 Disadvantages...................................................................................................................6
3. Zener Diodes..........................................................................................................................7
3.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................7
3.2 Construction.....................................................................................................................7
3.3 Principle of Operation......................................................................................................7
3.4 V/I Characteristics............................................................................................................8
3.5 Uses of a Zener Diode .....................................................................................................8
4. Solar Cells..............................................................................................................................9
4.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................9
4.2 Construction.....................................................................................................................9
4.3 Connection to an External Load.....................................................................................10
4.4 Mechanism of Operation................................................................................................10
4.5 Effect of Temperature on the Current-Voltage Characteristics of a Solar Cell .............11
4.6 Effect of Series Resistance on the Current-Voltage Characteristics of a Solar Cell ......11
4.7 Effect of Shunt Resistance on the Current-Voltage Characteristics of a Solar Cell ......11
5. Varactor Diode......................................................................................................................12
5.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................12
5.2 Operation........................................................................................................................12
5.3 Applications....................................................................................................................12
6. Tunnel Diodes......................................................................................................................13
6.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................13
6.2 Construction...................................................................................................................13
6.3 Reverse Breakdown Voltage Versus Doping Level. ......................................................13
7. Schottky diodes....................................................................................................................15
7.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................15
7.2 Construction...................................................................................................................15
7.3 Working Principle...........................................................................................................15
7.4 Applications....................................................................................................................15
8. Laser Diodes.........................................................................................................................16
8.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................16
8.2 Operation .......................................................................................................................16
9. PIN Diodes...........................................................................................................................17
9.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................17
9.2 Structure of PIN Diodes.................................................................................................17
9.3 Construction of PIN Diodes...........................................................................................18
9.3 Working Mechanism......................................................................................................18
9.3.1 Generation of Electron-Hole Pairs..........................................................................18
9.3.2 Photocurrent Due to Absorption in the Depletion Region......................................18
9.3.3 Photocurrent due to absorption in the quasi-neutral region....................................19
9.3.4 Absorption in the P-Contact Region........................................................................19
10. IMPATT Diode..................................................................................................................20
10.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................20
10.2 Structure.......................................................................................................................20
10.3 Principle of Operation..................................................................................................21
11. Gunn Diode........................................................................................................................22