CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

AEROELASTICITY IN AXIAL-FLOW TURBOMACHINES

Torsten H. Fransson

Book 1: INTRODUCTION
Chapter 6:

Important Parameters
SUMMARY
The aeroelastic behavior of turbomachine bladed disks is very complex. Many physical parameters are significant, ranging from the overall steady-state flow characteristics to small details related to wear of certain parts of the structure over the life-time of the machine. This section aims at identifying some of the most important parameters, mainly from an unsteady aerodynamic perspective, related to the aerodynamic forcing function acting on the blades.

An allegoric portrayal (circa 1954) of the perils encountered when a compressor operating line penetrates the stall flutter boundary (artist unknown).

Fig. B1C6.1: Unknown artists impression of importance of reduced frequency and incidence angle [Sisto, 1987]

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

IMPORTANT PARAMETERS
Bladed disk assembly vibrations have been encountered for many years. The mechanism behind forced response is in theory known, and significant work is performed during any design phase to avoid integral engine order excitations since the pioneering work by Campbell [1924, 1925]. The problem of self-excited vibrations in turbomachines was made evident somewhat later, mainly during the development of jet engines in the 1940s. When it manifested itself, the main parameters were identified as the reduced velocity (=inverse of reduced frequency) and incidence angle (Fig. B1C6.1). Although aeroelastic phenomena have thus been around for many years, forced response, flutter, any kind of non-integral vibrations, etc., are likely to remain important issues for the turbomachine designer in the future. The main reason for this is the fact that the detailed physical aspects of the highly interdisciplinary field of aeroelasticity are not known. Furthermore, the phenomenon is significantly influenced by several different parameters. A small change in some of these can considerably alter the characteristics of the fluid/bladed-disk interaction, whereas some are such that minor gradual changes will appear until the system has reached a condition such that a failure suddenly happens. An example of a modern steam turbine rotor is shown in Fig. B1C6.2. As turbomachine blades have grown longer and thinner, the eigenfrequencies have decreased and it has become necessary to control the mode shape without significantly affecting the overall weight of the blade. This can be done by changing the material of the blade (such as from stainless steel to titanium) and/or by introducing part-span shrouds (also called snubbers or clappers) on fan blades, and shrouds, part-span shrouds or lacing wires on turbine blades. Improving the material is usually costly and devises like shrouds introduce both an additional weight and a mechanical coupling between the different blades of the rotor. An example of the vibration of a fan blade is given in Fig. B1C6.3.a, together with an example of the vibration pattern of a bladed disk in Fig. B1C6.3.b. It is immediately realized that all the possible various mode shapes of the disk must be considered in a flutter analysis and that this gives additional degrees of freedom as regards to an isolated airfoil. When the rotor starts to spin, the centrifugal, and in some cases the "time-averaged" aerodynamic, forces will change the "static" position of the blades as well as the eigen-frequencies and mode shapes of the blade vibrations, as is clearly seen in every Campbell diagram. From a practical point of view, high stresses outside of a multiple of an engine order indicates, as mentioned previously, flutter, although from the unsteady aerodynamicist's point of view the problem perhaps not should be indicated as such. If the machine enters into flutter, various vibration pattern can be found. An example of the vibration of 32 blades on a rotor during flutter is given in Fig. B1C6.4. It is seen that some blades vibrate with large stresses and others with less. A tendency towards a vibration with more or less "constant" phase angle between neighbor blades is also noted (see the dashed lines indicated as approximations of constant interblade phase angles in Fig. B1C6.4b). In this context, Sears et al [1976, p. 305] states that "in our observations we have seen that phasing is very important. When we observe flutter in rigs there are usually very definite patterns set up and very definite phasing between adjacent blades".

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

Fig. B1C6.2: Rotor and blade of the last stage of a large steam turbine rotor. Three part-span shroud dampers are seen on each one of these blades. (Courtesy of Franco Tosi Company)

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

a:

Example of blade vibration mode shape.

b:

Double pulse hologram of a vibrating fan blade [Volvo Flygmotor, 1990, p. 20].

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

c:

Axisymmetric vibration pattern of a bladed compressor disk with 3 nodal diameters and 2 nodal circles. Fig. B1C6.3: Vibration pattern of a single blade and a bladed disk.

a: Amplitude b: Phase angle Fig. B1C6.4: Blade flutter amplitudes and phase angles, from strain-gage measurements, for TS22 rotor at 67% speed [Stargardter, 1987, p. 20.24]. (The dashed lines in Fig. b indicate a tendency for constant interblade phase angles.)
A fairly comprehensive list of parameters that influence the aeroelastic aspects of blade vibrations has been identified by Srinivasan [1997] (see also Kielb and Chiang [1992] and Chiang and Kielb [1993]). This list is the basis for the identification in Table B1C6.1. From this extensive list it is thus understood that it is virtually impossible to keep a detailed overview of the influence of a small modification of all these parameters. Classically there are however a few parameters which have been considered as the most important ones, and most experimental, theoretical and numerical studies have been concentrated around these. A few major differences separate aeroelastic phenomena on turbomachine-blades from the ones for an aircraft wing, namely the construction of the blade and the aerodynamic coupling effects between neighbor blades, characterized by the interblade phase angle . Wing flutter is driven by a mode coalescence phenomena whereas turbomachine flutter is mostly driven by the blade-to-blade coupling. Neighbor blades can perform vibrations with a certain interblade phase difference, which considerably influences the time-dependent aerodynamic response. A third difference between wing flutter and blade flutter is pointed out by Carta [1970, p. 17], namely that a difference exists in the positions of the center of gravities, elastic axes and aerodynamic centers between the two applications. This can lead to a difference in the flutter characteristics.

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

Blade characteristics stiffness mass ratio mode shape (frequency, position of torsion axis, phase angle between bending and torsion, bending direction,) shroud location shroud angle blade attachment (fir tree, ) mechanical damping (in blade, at snubbers, under platform dampers, ) elastic coupling between blades structural mistuning (in frequency, damping, ) centrifugal softening/stiffening untwisting (because of centrifugal effects) steady stress (rotational tip speed, ..) Blade row geometry blade form (thickness/chord-ratio, ) blade twist hub/tip-ratio aspect ratio stagger angle Blade row interaction number of blades in different blade rows circumferential position of stator (or rotor) blades in repeating stages axial gap between blade rows (forcing functions, reflections of perturbations, ...) distortion pattern (struts, combustion chambers, hot streaks, ) Flow conditions inlet and outlet flow velocities incidence angle blade loading blade surface pressure distribution separation transition shock position shock motion incoming velocity defects incoming pressure defects aerodynamic mistuning (in blade shape, pitch, stagger, .) absolute value of inlet and exit conditions (pressures, temperatures, ) General reduced frequency interblade phase angle Table B1C6.1: Parameters that influence the aeroelastic aspects of blade vibrations (adapted from Srinivasan [1997])

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

Blade characteristics Turbomachine blades are usually made out of solid metal, contrary to airplane wings, which usually consists of empty space and relative lightweight metal. The turbomachine blade is thus much stiffer than the airplane wing. The mass ratio (mblade/mfluid, Fig. B1C6.5) of blade/fluid is thus also considerably larger and the timedependent aerodynamic forces are generally not large enough to significantly alter the natural mode shapes of the system at the rotational speed of interest. Self-excited vibrations will thus mainly not be of the merging (or coalescence) mode type.

Fig. B1C6.5: Illustration of mass ratio

The mode shape of the bladed disk assembly (Figs. B1C6.2, B1C6.3) plays a significant role for the aeroelastic behavior. The blade vibration natural frequency is the first parameter to consider (although this is mostly related to the flow velocity to form the so-called reduced frequency [explained later in this section]). The higher the frequency, the less likely is the system to enter into self-excited vibrations. This is illustrated in Fig. B1C6.1 (reduced frequency is the inverse of reduced velocity), where it is noted that, at constant incidence angle, the flutter region is extended with increasing reduced velocity. The position of the torsional axis is (as known already from airplane aeroelastic theory) extremely important. In Fig. B1C6.6 this is illustrated in a specific way, as proposed by Panovsky and Kielb [1998]. Each center of torsion position of the reference blade (thicker blade profile) gives a different aerodynamic damping. The areas with positive aerodynamic damping indicate that a torsion axis (of the reference blade) situated in this region gives a damped blade vibration. If the torsion axis of the reference blade is located in the area with negative aerodynamic work the blade vibration is excited. It is noted that certain regions have high gradients, whereas the gradients are lower at other places. From the design perspective, it would be beneficial not to place the torsional axis in a region where the gradients are large, especially if the damping is close to changing sign in the same region.

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

Fig. B1C6.6: Example illustrating the importance of torsion axis position for aerodynamic damping. Negative values of the damping illustrates excitation. [Blade profile: Standard Configuration 4, from Blcs and Fransson, 1986]

Fig. B1C6.7: Aerodynamic response of a blade vibrating with 0 and 90 deg. Bendingtorsion phase angle [Frsching, 1990]

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

In most vibrations the mode shape is not a pure bending or a pure torsion. In such a case the phase angle between the bending and torsion vibrations plays also a significant role for the aerodynamic damping. This can most easily be illustrated in the case of an isolated airfoil in incompressible flow (Fig. B1C6.7). It is seen that a phase angle of 0o gives an excitation, whereas 90 o damps the blade motion. The shroud location and the shroud angle are two parameters of direct designcharacter as they fairly easily can be changed late in the design process. The major influence is on the mode shape (frequency, form and phase angle between bending and torsion) of the blade by adding a shroud or modifying the angle between the shrouds ( in Fig. B1C6.8a). This modification can thus have a direct influence on the aeroelastic stability of the blade. Fig. B1C6.8b shows that a modification in the shroud angle influence the damping for almost all of the 30 interblade phase angles in this 30-blade assembly. A second effect is related to the friction damping at the shroud

a: Example of shroud angle

b: Change in aeroelastic work versus modified shroud angle for different IBPA (negative values indicate damping) Fig. B1C6.8: Influence of shroud angle on aeroelastic response of a fan blade in the first flexural mode
interface. The effect is however not evident out of certain reasons, the main one being that the slipping shroud interface is difficult to predict in detail. As a consequence an overall frequency change is probably predicted trendwise correctly, but even the tendency of the coupling between the bending and torsion modes, and the corresponding phase angle, is difficult to predict. The elastic coupling between blades appears because of shrouds and/or the support structure such as disk or hub, and can be fairly accurately predicted for the lower modes, whereas the higher modes can give some differences.

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

The mechanical damping in the blade, as well as the damping related to the friction between the snubbers and the under-platform-dampers (Fig. B1C6.9), are extremely difficult to predict. All mechanical damping has a positive effect, but wear might reduce this effect during operation.

Fig. B1C6.9: Example of under-platform damper

All blade rows will be subject to some kind of structural mistuning in frequency, damping etc. Manufacturing tolerances play a significant role here, but wear during operation is also important. Mistuning is generally beneficial for flutter (as it destroys the travelling wave mode), whereas it can increase the local excitation on certain blades related to forced response (concentration of energy on certain parts of the bladed disk assembly will give higher amplitudes for these blades than for the others). From a theoretical point of view, mechanical mistuning can be used to reduce blade response, but as wear and other unknown effects may change the mistuning pattern it is not a conservative path to follow. As the cyclic symmetry of the bladed disk assembly is destroyed if mistuning occurs, the phenomena leads to considerations of the whole disk, including all blades. Current research is concentrated towards statistical and probabilistic models of treating this problem as well as reduced order modeling.

Blade geometry: In the perspective of experimental and numerical studies related to aeroelasticity, the blade geometry has often been considered as given. This has traditionally been the case as aeroelastic considerations have entered late in the design phase. These parameters have thus usually not been investigated from an aeroelastic point of view, unless a complete redesign has been necessary out of aeroelastic reasons. The aspect ratio, as well as the hub/tip ratio, has of course a direct influence on the blade vibration frequency, but such modifications are difficult to introduce late in the design process. The conclusion is thus that although the blade geometry, in combination with the corresponding pressure distribution on the blade, certainly is important from an aeroelastic point of view it is presently not a major aeroelastic design parameter. The present knowledge of how the aeroelastic response will be for a specific blade geometry is also very limited.

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CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

Blade row interaction: The number of blades in each blade row is of course a direct design parameter related to forced response. It is absolutely necessary to avoid resonances, coming from the immediate neighbor blade rows, close to the major operating points. This can to a certain extent be achieved with the help of the Campbell diagram, at least as long as the structural frequencies can be predicted reasonably well over the operating range. Unfortunately it is not possible to avoid all resonance conditions, and the effort must then be put on the lower engine orders as well as the engine orders of the direct neighbor blade rows (Fig. B1C6.10).

Fig. B1C6.10: Great care has to be taken to design the blades such that resonant peaks are relatively far away from the main operating points.
The axial gap between neighbor blade rows is a factor of importance. In general it can be stated that, for integral engine order excitations, the smaller the axial gap, the higher will the resulting unsteady forces on the downstream blade row be. However, as both potential and velocity perturbations act on the downstream blades, the difference in propagation speed between these two phenomena may modify the resulting forcing function seen by the blades. The potential interaction (coming from the upstream pressure field) is considered to decay exponentially with an increase in the axial gap, whereas the wake influence can propagate several blade rows downstream. Two examples can be mentioned: I: Singh [1996] investigated the influence of the axial gap on the excitation level with two different numerical models and compared the results to experiments (inhouse test data) obtained on a single stage model turbine (Fig. B1C6.11a). The numerical methods were: a viscous method applied for 2D stage calculations with arbitrary stator/rotor pitches based on Dawes [1994] an inviscid method applied for 2D stage calculations based on He [1993] Hence, both methods consider the complete flow disturbance, which can be

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CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

modeled with either method. Of course with the inviscid method only a numerical wake can contribute to the flow disturbance. The exponential decrease for small gaps were seen in the experimental results (Fig. B1C6.11a). Error! Not a valid filename. Fig. B1C6.11a: Variation of 1st harmonic of unsteady blade force on the rotor blade root section in a turbine stage with axial gap, test vs. calculations [Singh, 1996]

II: Korakianitis [1992a,b] presented an interesting numerical study of the influence of the axial gap on the excitation level of the blades in a turbine stage of a gas turbine (Fig. B1C6.11b). The numerical method (UNSFLO [Giles, 1991]) was used to calculate the 2D inviscid, compressible unsteady flow in the turbine rotor passage. Separate calculations were performed for: a) only regarding a wake b) regarding a potential flow disturbance c) regarding both a potential and a wake disturbance These disturbances were prescribed at the inlet boundary of the rotor blade passage. The prescribed wake amplitude and wake width were adapted to the specified axial gap in order to take into account wake diffusion, which is not modeled by the numerical method. The amplitude of the potential effect is kept the same for all axial gaps, because the decay of the potential disturbance with axial gap is regarded in the code. An interesting result of this study is that due to the different phase behavior of the wake and potential disturbances with axial gap the excitation forces are minimal for a certain axial gap. Each excitation source regarded on its own the excitations continuously decrease with increasing axial gap. Thus this study confirms the conclusions based on earlier measurements that an optimum axial gap between stators and rotors exist. Error! Not a valid filename.
inflow angle rotational speed of rotor time avarage (divided by 10) 1st harmonic 2nd harmonic

Fig. B1C6.11b: Unsteady blade forces fx (axial direction) vs. axial gap: numerical blade force analysis of the forces on a turbine rotor blade due to a) periodic wake flow disturbance, b) periodic potential flow disturbance upstream, c) combined potential and wake disturbance, Korakianitis [1992a,b]
The blade row interaction has also a certain importance related to non-integral engine order excitations. During flutter the perturbations created by the blade 12

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

amplitudes will propagate up- and downstream. The presence of the neighbor blade rows will modify the propagation in the axial gap and will introduce reflections at the interfaces which probably will not correspond to the reflections appearing during a cascade test or during a numerical calculation. In the case that repeating stages (same number of nozzles or blades) are used, it is possible to significantly modify the unsteady response on the downstream stator (or rotor) blades by clocking the nozzle (or blade) rows in the circumferential direction. Struts, burner cans and other obstacles in the flow, as well as non-uniform inlet flow to the first blade row will give excitations of a relatively low engine order. As these excitations often give large blade response, great care is taken to design such that these are outside of the principal operating range (Fig. B1C6.10). Flow conditions The inlet and outlet flow velocities (and thus the pressure ratio over the blade row), incidence angle, blade loading and blade surface pressure distribution are intimately connected to each other and it can in most cases not be clearly separated which parameter that is the triggering factor for an instability. The incidence angle is usually selected, together with the pressure ratio, as an important parameter to characterize the general influence of the flow condition for compressors. The importance of the incidence angle as a parameter for stability is illustrated by the historical sketch in Fig. B1C6.1, as well as in the general compressor flutter map explained in previous sections. An increase in incidence usually leads to separated flow conditions. An increase in pressure ratio will give a higher loading on the blades. Transition and separation can of course also be included in the incidence angle variation influence

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CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

Fig. B1C6.12: Comparison of fully turbulent and transitional computations with experimental data for an isolated airfoil at high incidence [Platzer and Ekaterinaris, 1995, Fig. 2c]
from a broad perspective, but detailed information about the importance of small changes in these parameters is not available in the literature today. One study related to the eventual importance of a moving transition zone has been presented by Platzer and Ekaterinaris [1995] (Fig. B1C6.12), in which numerical calculations on an isolated airfoil indicate that a fully turbulent calculation give results directly opposed to experimental evidence related to aerodynamic damping for dynamic stall, whereas a calculation including a moving transition give a trendwise agreement with the experimental data. The shock position has a definite importance for the aeroelastic damping of a blade (as indicated in the compressor map in previous chapters), as well as for the blade surface unsteady pressure load related to forced response. This influence can however be stabilizing or destabilizing, depending on other factors (for example the interblade phase angle). The extent of the shock motion can also be of importance, although most results indicate that linear analysis are adequate for modern geometries and flow conditions. In a stator-rotor environment it can happen that shock waves move through a complete blade row. It is also highly possible that shockwaves from one blade row can travel up- or down-stream and interfere with this blade row, be reflected back into the original blade row and so forth. This can then introduce high aerodynamic forcing functions at frequencies different from the rotor passing frequency, which may be a source of non-integral engine order excitation. Under some circumstances the absolute value of inlet and exit conditions (pressures and temperatures) can influence the aeroelastic response (the mass ratio, Fig. B1C6.5, is influenced). As the density increases with increasing pressure, an already stable situation becomes more stable. However, in an unstable situation where the total damping is positive (with positive mechanical and negative aerodynamic damping), an increase in density may shift the stability margin, as quantified by Jeffers and Meece [1975]. This absolute pressure and temperature level can have other effects also. Lubomski [1980] reports on a flutter frequency shift of 3-4%, and Jeffers and Meece [1975] indicate that the increased steady-state loading can deform the blade such that the corresponding change in the leading edge metal angle, the camber and the cascade stagger can give at least a partial shift in stability. Incoming velocity (wake interactions) and pressure (potential interaction) defects are of importance for forced response studies. The magnitude and phase of these are directly related to the flow conditions in the upstream blade row. As long as it is not possible to calculate the flow separations, and thus the width of the wake, the prediction of the incoming disturbances must be made empirically. Most blade rows must be considered to have a certain aerodynamic (as well as the previously mentioned mechanical) mistuning (for example because of manufacturing tolerances in blade pitch, stagger angle, ), although it is likely that these effects are less severe than the mechanical mistuning. A major concern can however be in 14

CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

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cases where a blade fails so that a significant low engine order excitation is introduced into the system, but this falls rather into the category of forced response than in aerodynamic mistuning. Only limited research has till presently been performed in this field.

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CompEdu HPT / S5: Aeroelasticity / B1: Introduction / C6: Important Parameters

T. H. Fransson

General The reduced frequency and the interblade phase angle are traditional considered as the main important parameters for aeroelastic stability, together with the incidence angle. The reduced frequency (based on half-chord = c/2) is defined as k={[2 f c] / [2 U]} with f the blade vibration frequency, c the blade chord and U the free-stream velocity (usually the reference velocity is the upstream velocity for compressors and downstream velocity for turbines). As such it is a measure of the ratio of time taken for a fluid particle to flow past the length of the semi-chord to the time taken for the airfoil to execute one cycle of vibration 1. Flow induced vibrations in civil engineering usually appear at low flow velocities (storms of 130 km/h are rare, but this velocity corresponds to only 36m/s) and low vibration frequencies (a few Hertz), whereas aeronautical and turbomachinery applications are at higher flow velocities, as well as usually considerably higher frequencies and smaller chord. The reduced frequency for turbomachine blades can be lower than 0.05 for certain blades and operating conditions, and considerably higher than 2 for others. An example of the reduced frequency span under which flutter has been found in axial-flow turbomachines has been given by Fleeter and Jay [1987] (Table B1C6.2). Another example is given by Srinivasan [1997] (Table B1C6.3). Srinivasan points out that the experience has been that flutter events in the first mode have been observed for reduced frequencies less than 0.4 and between 0.4 and 0.7 for modes with a predominantly first torsion mode. From this (and from results indicated in the introduction section), it is clear that a large range of reduced frequency can lead to flutter. Type of flutter Reduced frequency (k) Unstalled supersonic torsion 0.35->0.65 Supersonic bending 0.1->0.25 Subsonic/transonic torsional stall 0.2->0.8 Choke bending 0.15->0.25 Table B1C6.2: Typical flutter reduced frequency ranges [Fleeter and Jay, 1987, p. 8.5] P&W research rotor 0.4 to 0.6 TS 22 0.6 to 0.65 NASA test rotor 0.5 to 0.7 NASA engine test 0.7 to 0.75 First fan rotor 0.7 Table B1C6.3: Values of reduced frequency (based on half-chord) for which flutter has been observed [Srinivasan, 19897, p. 751]

The aerodynamic coupling through the interblade phase angle is the most prominent factor distinguishing self-excited blade vibrations in turbomachines from external
1 The reduced frequency is often also defined with chord (=c) instead of semi-chord (=c/2).

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aeroelasticity. It can be illustrated in a simple sketch with three blades vibrating (Fig. B1C6.13). The (mostly constant, see Fig. B1C6.4b) interblade phase angle is the difference in time between two neighbor blades reaching the same amplitude. This gives rise to a coupling effect which is so strong that the blade can be in the stable region for part of the IBPA range, whereas it can be unstable for the rest of the interblade phase angles (Fig. B1C6.14). Lane [1956] showed that, provided that all blades are identical and equally spaced around the rotor, and that linearity holds, the interblade phase angle can only take on discrete values =2n/N, where N is the number of blades and n an integer such that 0nN-1. Lane also proved that the critical flutter point could be found at the interblade phase angle were the aerodynamic excitation is the largest. From an experimental point of view it can be seen from Fig. B1C6.4 and B1C6.14 that this assumption holds. Differences from the constant interblade phase angle appear because of non-identical blade and flow conditions around the rotor.

B1C6.13:

B1C6.14

Fig. B1C6.13: Illustration of interblade phase angle in a circumferential bending vibration (he reference blade is denoted 0, and the two neighbor blades -1 and +1) Fig. B1C6.14: Example of experimentally determined aerodynamic damping versus interblade phase angle (turbine cascade, profile STCF4 [Blcs and Fransson, 1986])

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