Design of Steel Free Stack

CICIND
Model Code for Steel Chimneys

(Revision 1 December 1999) Amendment A March 2002
Commentaries and Appendices

(December 2000)
Copyright CICIND 2000 ISBN 1-902998-11-1
Office of The Secretary, 14 The Chestnuts, Beechwood Park, Hemel Hempstead, Herts., HP3 0DZ, UK Tel: +44 (0)1442 211204 Fax: +44 (0)1442 256155 e-mail: secretary@cicind.org
CICIND
Model Code for Steel Chimneys
REVISION 1 DECEMBER 1999 COMMENTARIES AND APPENDICES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 Commentary 1 Glossary of commonly used words . . . . . . . . .3 Commentary 2 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 Commentary 3 Wind Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 C3.1. Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 C3.1.1. BasicWind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 C3.1.2. Wind Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 C3.1.3. The Inuence of Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 C3.2 The Gust Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 C3.3 Vortex Shedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 C3.4 Movements in the second mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 C3.5 Ovalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 C3.5.1 Static effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 C3.5.2 Dynamic effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 C3.6 Interference effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Commentary 4 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 Commentary 5 Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 Commentary 6 Chemical Effects and Internal Corrosion . .26 C6.1. Chemical Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 C6.1.1. Attack Due to Sulphur Oxides . . . . . . . . . . .26 C6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desuphurisation . . . . . . .26 C6.1.3. Attack Due to Chlorine, Chlorides and Fluorides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 C6.2. Internal Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 C6.3 Selection of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Appendix 1 Base Plate Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 A1.1 Simple base plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 A1.2 Base plates with gussets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28 A1.3 Baseplates with gussets and compression rings . . . . .28 A1.4 Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 Appendix 2 Insulation, Linings and Protective Coatings . . .30 A2.1. Insulation A2.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 A2.1.2. Insulation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 A2.1.3. Aluminium Cladding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 A2.1.4. Mineral Wool or Foam Insulation . . . . . . . . .31 A2.1.5. Lined and Multiue Chimneys . . . . . . . . . . .31 A2.2. Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 A2.2.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 A2.2.2. Design of Separate Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 A2.2.3. Design of Linings Attached Continuously to the Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 A2.3. Recommended Start-up Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 A2.4. Protective and Decorative Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Appendix 3 Guyed Chimneys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 A3.1. Guyed Chimney expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 A3.2. Guyed Chimney calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 A3.3 Guy Ropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Appendix 4 Access Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 A4.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 A4.2. Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 A4.3. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 A4.4. Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 A4.5. Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 A4.6. Rungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 A4.7. Safety Hoops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34 A4.8. Rest Platforms and Landings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 A4.9. Attachment to Chimney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 A4.10. Access Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
DISCLAIMER This CICIND document is presented to the best of the knowledge of its members as a guide only. CICIND is not, nor are any of its members, to be held responsible for any failure alleged or proved to be due to adherence to recommendations or acceptance of information published by the association in a Model Code or in any other way. CICIND, Talacker 50, CH-8001, Zurich, Switzerland Copyright by CICIND, Zurich
CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices
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FOREWORD
In December 1999 the Second Edition of the Model Code for Steel Chimneys was published. This is now expanded by the publication of the Commentaries and Appendixes to this Model Code. The Intention of this volume is to explain the reasons behind the principles set out in the Model Code. It is divided into two parts. The Commentaries cover the theoretical derivation of the formulae and the principles used in the Model Code. The Appendices relate to more practical considerations.
Cravat (2.19) An upstand xed to the roof, roofplate or cap plate to prevent the ingress of rain water (see cope hood). Also known as counter ashing. Cross-section The section of the load bearing steel shell including the corrosion allowance. Damping device (2.20) A device tted to the structural shell to increase its structural damping. Doubling plate (2.21) A plate xed to the shell to reinforce it where increased stresses occur. Double skin chimney (2.22) A chimney consisting of an outer load-bearing steel shell and an inner liner which carries the ue gases. Also known as a dual wall chimney. Drag coefficient see wind force coefficient Drain pipe (2.23) A pipe which connects a tundish to a point outside the structural shell and used to remove condensate. Flue see liner Guy (2.24) A wire rope attached at one end to a chimney and anchored at the other so as to provide tensile resistance to the lateral displacement of the chimney Guy band (2.25) A steel section tted around the outside of a chimney with provision for the attachment of guys. Guyed chimney (2.26) A chimney in which not all externally applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural shell and for which guys are provided to ensure stability. Holding down bolts (2.27) Bolts built into a concrete foundation, brick base or supporting framework to provide anchorage at the base of the chimney. Hoops Horizontal rings forming a cage around ladders. Inlet (2.28) A short duct xed to the shell or baseplate of a chimney for the entry of ue gases. Intermediate cone (2.29) A truncated cone incorporated in the chimney shell at an intermediate level. Jointing ange (2.30) A steel section tted to the end of a chimney section to enable sections to be connected together. Ladder boss A boss welded to the chimney shell into which an access hook or eye can be screwed to provide xing for temporary ladders. Lateral supports (2.31) Supports positioned at appropriate levels within the structural shell to locate the liners, allowing independent expansion of the shell. Lightning protection system System to provide electrical continuity between the chimney and earth. Liners (2.32) Flue gas ducts contained within the structural shell. Liner base (2.33) A suitable support positioned at a convenient height above the baseplate of the structural steel shell to carry the weight of the liners. Lining (2.34) (see appendix No 2) A material applied to the internal face of the chimney to prevent the ue gases contacting the inner surface of the steel shell. Multiue chimney (2.35) A group of two or more chimneys within a structural framework or a chimney comprising a group of two or more liners within a structural shell. Nett section The section of the load bearing steel shell without corrosion allowance. Reinforcement Structural shapes or plates at or near to shell aperatures to strengthen the shell. Roofplate (2.36) A plate which follows the contour of the roof round the chimney where it passes through the roof of a building. Also known as ashing. Rungs Horizontal bars in ladders.
COMMENTARY No. 1
GLOSSARY OF COMMONLY USED TERMS The numbers in brackets are given in gures C.1.1 and C.1.2., showing typical chimney designs. Access door (2.01) A door for the entry of personnel or other means of inspection. Aerodynamic stabilizer (2.03) A device tted to the structural shell to reduce wind excited oscillations by modifying vortex shedding Anchor bolts See Holding down bolts Base cone (2.04) A truncated cone incorporated immediately above the baseplate of a chimney. Baseplate (2.05) A horizontal plate xed to the base of a chimney. Also called a bearing plate. Base stool (2.07) A construction comprising two vertical plates, welded to the chimney shell and to the baseplate, supporting a compression ring (2.14) through which a holding down bolt passes. Blanking off plate (2.08) An imperforate plate tted immediately beneath the inlet of a chimney to prevent the waste gases reaching the lower portion of the chimney. Also known as a false bottom. Boiler mounted chimney A chimney supported by a boiler and its foundation. Bracket (2.10) A construction providing resistance to lateral displacement of the chimney and/or supporting part or all of the weight of the chimney. Bracketed chimney (2.11) A chimney in which not all external applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural shell and for which brackets, attached to an adjacent structure, are provided to ensure stability. Also known as a braced chimney. Breeching see inlet (2.28) Cap plate (2.12) A sloping or convex plate tted to the top of the structural shell, covering the area between it and the liners and incorporating cravats through which the liners protrude. Cleaning door (2.13) A door, normally at the base of the chimney, to permit the remova! of ue dust. Compression ring (2.14) A steel plate welded to the shell which transfers the forces acting upon the chimney to the holding down bolts. Also known as a base ring. Cope band (2.15) A steel section attached to the top of the chimney around its perimeter to give added strength and corrosion resistance at this level. Cope hood (2.16) A hood tted externally to the top of a liner, covering the upstand of the cap plate, to prevent the ingress of rain water. Corrosion test piece (2.17) A xed or removable steel plate insert, generally of lesser thickness than the shell of the chimney, in contact with the waste gases and tted at strategic points where maximum corrosion is expected to occur. Cowl (2.18) A conical or dished cap tted to the top of the chimney to reduce the ingress of rain water. Also known as a rain cap.
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Safety system Proprietary fall arrest system xed to ladder rungs or beside the ladder to give a safe xing for attachment of operatives safety harnesses. Self supporting chimney (2.37) A chimney in which externally applied loads (e g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural shell and which, together with the foundation, will remain stable under all design conditions without additional support. Splitter plate (2.38) A vertical plate welded to the interior of the shell between two horizontally opposed inlets to divert the ow of the ue gases into a vertical direction and to inhibit the passage of ue gases from one inlet into the other. Stay (2.39) A rigid member providing both tensile and compressive resistance to the lateral displacement of the chimney. Also known as a lateral brace.
Stayed chimney (2.40) A chimney in which not all externally applied loads (e.g. wind) are carried exclusively by the structural shell and for which stays, connected to another structure, are provided to ensure stability. Stiffening ring Horizontal members to prevent ovalling and to maintain the chimney shell circular during fabrication and transportation. Strakes see aerodynamic stabilisers Stringer Vertical member of a ladder to which the rungs are attached.
Typical general arrangement of three types of self supporting steel chimney. The numbers are related to the text
2.03
2.08
Figure C1.1
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Structural shell (2.41) The main external structure of the chimney, excluding any reinforcing or anges. Top cone (2.42) A truncated cone or other device tted at the top of a chimney to increase the gas exit velocity. Tundish (2.43) A conical or sloping blanking off plate provided with facilities for drainage. Also known as a false bottom. Tuned mass damper A form of damping device which employs a pendulum, tuned to the chimneys natural frequency. The moving part of the pendulum is connected to the chimney by an energy absorbing device.
Vanes See Aerodynamic stabilizers Venturi. See Top cone Weatherhood (2.44) A hood designed to shed rain water clear of the cravat and prevent its entry into the building. Also known as counter ashing. Wind force coefficient The ratio between the wind pressure on the chimney and the equivalent pressure on the same area normal to the wind direction.
Typical general arrangement of guyed, stayed and bracketed chimneys. The numbers are related to the text
2.11
Figure C1.2
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COMMENTARY No. 2
SAFETY The safety of a chimney is ensured by the use of partial safety factors at the ultimate limit state. These partial safety factors are listed in paragraph 5.3 of the code. A chimney is thus deemed safe if the maximum stress due to the characteristic load, increased by the appropriate partial load factor, is less than the allowable stress, divided by the partial material safety factor. The level of wind load factor chosen ensures that premature failure due to low cycle fatigue, caused by wind gusts in the wind direction, can not occur. Derivation Of The Partial Load Factor In The Wind Direction (Temperate Zones) The partial load factor for wind load in the wind direction is derived as follows by considering the social and economic consequences of failure or damage requiring the chimneys repair or replacement. This involves deriving the acceptable probability of failure (P) during the chimneys lifetime, using the following expression given in CIRIA (U.K.) Report No. 63, entitled Rationalisation of Safety and Serviceability Factors in Structural Codes[1] : P 104 Ks nd / nr Where nr average number of people near the structure during the period of risk nd design life of structure (assumed to be 20 years for a steel chimney) Ks a social criterion factor, given in table C2.1
Table C2.1 - Social Criterion Factor Nature of structure Places of public assembly, Dams Domestic, Office or Trade and Industry Bridges Towers, Masts, Offshore Structures Ks 0.005 0.05 0.5 5
The principal load is due to wind. The moment is proportional to the wind pressure, the extreme values of which follow a Fisher-Tippett Type 1 (FT1) distribution as described in reference 3. This distribution has a Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) given by P(q) exp(exp((q u))) in which the constants are the mode u and the dispersion 1/. In temperate climates the product u. 5; other values may obtain elsewhere (see ref.2) Now, the characteristic wind is dened as having annual probability of being exceeded 0.02 It follows that the characteristic pressure qk q 1
In(50) u
This is converted to standard measure by substituting q x. u then Ps1(x) exp(exp(u(x1))) The probability distribution function (pdf) d P (x) u exp ( u(x1)) Ps1(x) dx s1 In(50) u
The 50-year wind pressure is xs50 1
... (C2.1)
The resistance is assumed normally distributed with mean xr and standard deviation r The characteristic value is xr5% xr 1.645r xr 1.645 r xr5% The load factor F In(50) xs50 1 u xr F 1
In(50) 1.645r u r 2 1 exp
the pdf of the resistance is pr (x)
1 2
x x
r 2 r
The CDF for the wind pressure in period T years is PsT(q) (Ps1(q))T The effect of altering the period of exposure from 1 to T years is to shift the mode from 1 to 1 the distribution. Hence the CDF is PsT(x) exp(exp(u(x1)In(T))) The probability of failure is given by PFT (1PsT(x))pr(x)dx Now the factor F w m where w is the wind load factor and m the material factor. Assuming m 1.1, then if w 1.4 PF20 8104 if w 1.5 PF20 3104 When failure is ductile, additional safety against collapse is derived from the chimneys residual strength, after mobilisation of its allowable (yield) strength at one point of its periphery (i.e., at the ultimate limit state). When failure is by buckling, additional safety is implicit in the relationship used between the allowable (critical buckling) strength and the yield strength of the material. This relationship includes an additional partial safety factor to ensure that the critical buckling stress is sufficiently below the lower bound of experimental curves used as a basis for the design (see ref. 5 ). For normal steel chimneys, this additional partial safety factor lies between 1.2 and 1.33, depending upon the diameter/ thickness ratio. It is, therefore, proved that wind load factors of 1.4 and 1.5, will ensure failure (collapse) probabilities of 103 and 104, required by Normal and Critical chimneys, respectively.
0
In order to use equation C2.1 it is necessary to estimate the value of nr. It is suggested [1, 2] that allowance be made for the number of people likely to be close to the structure at the time that maximum loading can be expected. Since maximum loading is most likely to occur under extreme wind conditions, it can be assumed that no-one will be climbing the chimney and no-one will be nearby, except through necessity. If we assume nd 20 years and Ks as 0.05 for normal chimneys and 0.005 for critical chimneys, acceptable probabilities can be estimated as summarised in table C2.2:
Table C2.2 Typical failure probabilities for environmental economic risk Environment Chimney industrial area (normal chimney) Chimney in urban area or hospital (Critical chimney) Chimney serving critical plant (Critical chimney) nr 0.1 1 0.1 Ks .05 .05 0.005 P 103 104 104
In(T) without altering the shape of u
It follows that safety factors should be chosen to give probabilities of failure of 103 for a Normal chimney and 104 for a Critical chimney. The probability of failure depends upon the statistical distributions of resistance and loading. The resistance of a steel chimney may be taken as normally disributed with a coefficient of variation (ratio of standard deviation to mean value) approximately 10%.
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References (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Report 63 Rationalisation of safety and serviceability factors in structural codes CIRIA (U.K.), 1977 BS 8100 Part 2, British Standards Institution, 1996 Bierrum, N.R. Letter to the Editor, CICIND REPORT Vol. 5, No. 1, 1989 ENV 1991-2-4, CEN, 1995 European Recommendations for steel construction European Convention for Construction Steelwork (ECCS), 1978.
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COMMENTARY 3
WIND LOAD At the time of publication of the revised CICIND Model Code for Steel Chimneys (1999), the wind load model currently used in ENV 1991-2-4 (eventually intended to form the basis of Eurocode 1, Part 24: Actions on Structures Wind Actions) has been shown by calibration studies by CICIND and others to be unacceptable. In view of the time expected to elapse before an acceptable model for Eurocode 1 is agreed by all parties, CICIND have decided for the time being to retain the wind load model described in the 1988 version of this Model Code. A recent paper[1] has shown that this model gives safe and reasonably accurate estimates of the wind load on chimneys. C3.1 Wind-speed As the basis for the wind-load, the hourly mean windspeed has been retained. The wind-load is calculated after estimating a turbulence intensity, by a gust factor method[2]. C3.1.1. Basic wind-speed The basic wind-speed used in deriving wind-loads is the wind-speed averaged over one hour and measured at 10m above open ground at the chimney location, which has a probability of exceedence of once in 50 years. The value of the basic wind-speed for a given location should be obtained from data collected by meteorological stations. When wind speeds have been measured over periods less than 50 years, the value of the basic windspeed must be extrapolated using the Fisher-Tippett Type 1 expression for the statistical distribution of extreme values, as follows: P(V) exp {-exp [(V u)]} Where: P(V) probability of excedence of velocity V during the relevant period 1 u slope of curve in Fig. C3.1 intercept on vertical axis of curve in Fig. C3.1
Hourly mean 10-minute mean 5-second gust 3-second gust
30 t (secs)
Fig. C3.2 Relationship between windspeed and its averaging time Table C3.1 Relationship between commonly quoted windspeeds at 10m height above grade for open ground situations Hourly mean 1.0 0.95 0.7 0.65 10-minute mean 1.05 1.0 0.75 0.7 5-second gust 1.45 1.4 1.0 0.95 3-second gust 1.5 1.45 1.05 1.0
Note:- To convert Fastest mile windspeed to the above timeaveraged windspeeds, use the relationship (velocity distance / time) to determine the time taken to traverse one mile. This time should then be entered in g. C3.2. C3.1.2 Wind Maps When no results of wind-speed measurements are available an indication of the basic wind-speed is given in the gures C3.3, C3.4, C3.5, C3.6, C3.7 and C3.8 for Europe, USA, Asia, Australia, Africa and Brazil. Some countries have not published wind velocity maps, chosing instead to specify wind pressure maps or wind velocities at specic locations. In such cases the customer should specify the wind velocity (vb) to be used in the design. The map showing isopleths for Africa is unofficial and should be used with caution. C3.1.3. The inuence of the height The increase of the wind-speed with height is in accordance with the power law: Vz Vb kp,z0 (z / 10) Vb is the basic windspeed (i.e. measured at 10m above open, level terrain, without obstructions). The scale factor kp,z0 and exponent depend on the terrain roughness around the chimney. The values kp,z0 1 and 0.14 have been chosen in the Model Code. This is assumed to cover the most common case when the chimney is not in the centre of cities and not at the sea shore, but somewhere in between and clear above the surrounding buildings. When structures such as buildings are being designed, it is normal to assume different values of and kp,zo, relevant to the terrain considered. This, for instance, would give lower wind velocities in town centres than in open country. When tall structures, such as chimneys, are concerned, however, the wind velocity gradient continues to be inuenced by the terrain over which it previously travelled. In some cases, the previous terrain continues to be of inuence after the wind has travelled by as much as 5km over rougher terrain. In addition, the gust factor is a function of the turbulence, so that in town centres, even though the wind velocity may be less than in open country, the gust factor could be considerably higher, partially cancelling out the reduction in dynamic pressure. As a result of these considerations, it was decided to keep the Model Code simple and use just one terrain category.
For a probability of exceedence, once in 50 years, P(V) = 0.02 1 In some cases lower values for u and are found (see lit. [3] ). The relationship between the wind-speed and the return period is given in gure C3.1 If the averaging time of the measurement is shorter than one hour, the hourly mean at 10m height may be determined using gure C3.2. In this gure the ratio between the hourly mean and shorter averaging periods of the wind-speed is given for various types of terrain. Table C3.1 gives a quick reference for Open country terrain situations.
Fig. C3.1 Relationship between wind-speed and its return period
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Fig. C3.3 Wind speeds in m/s for Europe (10 min. mean) (note to convert to Vb hourly mean, divide by 1.05)
90(40)
85(38)
90(40) 100(40) 110(49) 120(54)
90(40)
130(58) 140(63)
130(58) 140(63) 140(63) 150(67) 150(67) 90(40) 130(58) 100(45) 110(49) 120(54)
Location Hawaii Puerto Rico Guam Virgin Islands American Samoa V mph 105 145 170 145 125 (m/s) (47) (65) (76) (65) (56)
140(63)
Special Wind Region
Notes: 1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in miles per hour (m/s) at 33ft (10m) above ground. To derive Vb divide by 1.5. 2. Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted. 3. Island and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the coastal area. 4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be examined for unusal wind conditions.
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Fig C3.4 Wind Speeds in USA
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Fig C3.5 Basic windspeeds in m/s for Asia (hourly mean)
Regions A B C D
Basic windspeed Vb (hourly mean) m/s 25 29 34 41
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Fig 3.6 Basic Windspeeds for Australia
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Fig C3.7 Basic wind speed Vb in m/s for Africa. Isopleths shown dotted should be used with caution. For nal designs local regulations should be used in all cases.
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70
65
60
55
50 45 40
35 0
10
35 45 40
15
20
35
25
30
35
Fig. C3.8 Windspeeds in m/s for Brazil (3-second gusts) Note To convert to basic windspeed (hourly mean), divide by 1.5
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C3.2 The gust factor The proposed method for the calculation of the bending moments in the chimney is based on the gust factor method (see lit. [4]) This conventional approach is: wg (z) G wm (z) where: wg (z) the load at level z G the gust factor a function of wind turbulence and the chimneys natural frequency, damping and height wm (z) the load due to the mean wind velocity An extension of this method has been proposed by B.J. Vickery (see lit. [5]) to account for the inertial response of a chimney and give more accurate values of the bending moments at levels above the base. This method has been adopted in the CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, Part (a) for the design of concrete shells, where steel reinforcement as well as shell thickness, varies often over the chimney height. In the case of steel chimneys however, which are lighter and shorter than concrete chimneys (giving a smaller inertial response) and for which there is less scope for changes of thickness with height, it was decided to use the simpler conventional method. C3.3 Vortex shedding Large vortex-induced vibrations perpendicular to the wind direction may occur when the vortex shedding frequency coincides with a natural frequency f of the chimney. This occurs at a mean wind velocity V equal to the critical wind velocity Vcr determined by: V Vcr f d / St ... (C3.3.1)
response induced by the chimneys own motion. The aerodynamic parameters Ka and L incorporate the effects of the motion-induced response by means of aerodynamic damping: The rst term {Ka d2 / mo} introduces negative aerodynamic damping The second term {1 [y / (L d)]2} gives the positive aerodynamic damping important for large amplitudes and ensuring that the response is self-limiting. For small amplitudes of up to approx. 5% of the diameter, the aerodynamic damping is described sufficiently accurately by the rst term only. It can be seen that, when the structural damping is much greater than the negative aerodynamic damping, y is quite small. As the two values converge, however, the increase in y becomes dramatic, until the self limiting amplitude is approached and increases become smaller (see Fig. C3.9). The maximum value y of the top deection amplitude is calculated by multiplying the standard deviation y with a peak factor kp, i.e. y kp y. For small amplitudes below approx. 12% of the diameter, the peak-factor is approx. 4, corresponding to a stochastic type of vibration. For large amplitudes, the peak-factor is equal to about 1.5, corresponding to sinusoidal vibrations with constant amplitude. For intermediate amplitudes, the peak-factor increases gradually with decreasing amplitude. However, for the sake of simplicity, the Model Code assumes a sudden change at a value of y 4% of diameter.
in which d is the predominant chimney diameter over the top third and St is Strouhal number. Vortex-induced vibrations depend strongly on mass and damping of the chimney. The risk of large vibrations is judged by the Scruton number Sc dened as: Sc 4 mo d2 ... (C3.3.2)
Fig. C3.9 Relationship between y and Structural Damping () for given values of Ka, mo and d
in which is the structural damping ratio, mo is the effective mass per unit height of the chimney as dened in the model code and is the density of air. The risk of large vortex-induced vibrations depends on a combination of Scruton number and large-scale turbulence intensity of the incoming wind eld. High intensity of large-scale turbulence or high Scruton numbers reduces the risk of large vortex-induced vibrations. A structure with a given Scruton number may be stable in the kind of turbulence ow normally encountered but become unstable in rare cases with low turbulence occurring under stable atmospheric stratication. C3.3.1 Structural Amplitudes The standard deviation y of the top structural deection is given by, see ref. [6]: d2 d 1 y Ca 2 St d {Ka d2 / mo} {1 [y / (L d)]2} mo h ... (C3.3.3) in which Ca, Ka and L are aerodynamic parameters. The aerodynamic parameter Ca is found from the generalised vortexinduced wind load on structures without any signicant additional
Solving equation (C3.3.3) for the standard deviation shows that the maximum value y of the top deection amplitude (i.e. zero to maximum) can be expressed by (see Model Code equation 7.9): y/d kp {c1 (c12 c2)0.5}0.5 where the constants c1 and c2 are equal to: c1 0.5 L2 {1 [ mo / (Ka d2)]} or c1 0.5 L2 {1 [Sc / (4 Ka)]} c2 L2 d2 Ca2 d Ka mo St4 h ... (C3.3.6) ... (C3.3.5) ... (C3.3.4)
In smooth ow conditions, L approximately 0.4 (see table 1), which gives the following expressions for c1 and c2 (see Model Code, 7.2.4.2): c1 0.08 {1 [ mo / (Ka d2)]} c2 0.16 d3 Ca2 Ka mo St4 h
page 16
For most non-heavily damped chimneys with Scruton numbers less than 4Ka, the inuence of the constant c2 is negligible and the amplitude of the structural deection (0 - max.) can be found from: y / d kp (2 c1)0.5 0.4 kp {1 [Sc / (4 Ka)]}0.5 ... (C3.3.7)
In the present simplied and approximate approach, the aerodynamic damping parameter Ka is estimated for smooth ow cases as a function of Reynolds number (Re) only. A function of longitudinal turbulence intensity, I gives the reduction in turbulent ow, i.e.: Ka (Re, I) Ka,max (Re) K(I) ... (C3.3.8)
The aerodynamic damping parameter, Ka,max for smooth ow at various values of Re is given in Table 1. The function K may approximately be determined by:K(I) 1-31 for 0 I 0.25 and K(I) 0.25 for I 0.25. For terrain category 1 (i.e. within 5km of open sea), the minimum turbulence intensity, Imin can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities less than or equal 10m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than 10m/s. For all other terrain categories the minimum turbulence intensity, Imin can be assumed to be 0% for wind velocities less than or equal to 7 m/s and 10% for wind velocities larger than 7m/s. Further studies are needed to clanfy the inuence of turbulence more accurately.
Table C3.2. Aerodynamic parameters in smooth ow. For Reynolds numbers between the limits given, the aerodynamic parameters are determined by linear interpolation using ln(Re) as argument Aerodynamic parameter Ca,max Ka,max Re < 105 0.02 1.5 0.4 Re = 5 105 interpolation 1.0 0.4 Re > 106 0.01 1.0 0.4
Figure C3.10. Vortex-induced vibrations as function of turbulence intensity and Reynolds number. It is assumed that m0 / d2 50 and h/d 30, which inuence the low amplitude part of the curves shown.
Figure C3.10 shows the vortex-induced vibrations as a function of turbulence intensity for Reynolds numbers equal to 105 and 106, respectively. C3.3.2 Bending Moments The bending moments in the chimney can be calculated from the inertial load per unit length (Fw) corresponding to the relevant mode shape (i), where: Fw m (2ni)2 i ymax where ni relevant natural frequency ... (C3.3.9)
The amplitude should be limited to ensure that stresses are within permissible limits, both from the point of view of failure and fatigue life. In addition, the amplitude should not be large enough to alarm bystanders. This limit is difficult to dene in general terms as bystanders alarm is subjective, depending upon how often the response occurs, its frequency, the visibility of the chimney and the bystanders perception of the risk. Definition of the limiting amplitude for this aspect is, therefore left to the owner and the designer to agree for each individual case. Some guidance for highly visible chimneys with low values of Vcr ( 10m/s within 5km of sea or lake-shore, 7m/s in inland locations) is given below: Critical Chimneys Top double amplitude (peak to peak) should be not more than 10% top diameter Normal Chimneys Top double amplitude (peak to peak) should be not more than 25% top diameter These limits may be increased for less noticeable chimneys and/or those with higher values of Vcr (i.e. those which rarely see large amplitude response). C3.4 Movements in the second mode
ymax maximum amplitude at the relevant natural frequency or from the bending moment due to a force at 1/6 of the chimney height from the top, causing the same deection ymax.
Just as in the case of cross-wind response in the fundamental mode, a response to excitation in the second mode, giving a top amplitude exceeding about 4% of the top diameter, triggers an increased response, initiated by the chimneys own movement.
page 17
In the case of fundamental mode movements, response is only important to vortices shed over a length near to the chimney top, equal to about 5 top diameters, as demonstrated by Fig. C.3.11.
top amplitude in the rst mode. The stresses, however, will be about the same in each case.
2.0000
[M/S r.m.s.]2 REAL Hz
0.0 10.000 HZ 100.00
Vcr 5.9 m/s, Scr 4.8, f 40 hz
Fig. C3.13 Stresses and energy levels in rst and second mode
[M/S r.m.s.]2 REAL Hz
This is partly demonstrated by measured values in a full-scale chimney see g. C.3.14. The measured values in this trace are of stresses at the base and it can be seen that many of the stress cycles in that part of the response in the second mode are much the same as those in the rst mode. The second mode amplitudes were, however, only about 15% of the rst mode amplitudes.
10.000 HZ 100.00
0.0
Vcr 4.2 m/s, Scr 18.7, f 29.5 hz Fig. C3.11 Auto-Spectra of the anemometer signal (velocity signal), measured at Vcr in the wake of the model, measured over top half
Base Stress
The maximum ampltude in the second mode will occur at the top (see g. C.3.12). The amplitude reduces to zero over a length of H / 4. This steep reduction means that the length over which vortex shedding is important will be much smaller in the case of second mode response.
Second Mode First Mode
Time (secs) 1 = 0.7 Hz 2 = 2.6 Hz
Fig. C3.14
The proposal for determining the top amplitudes in the second mode is given in g. C.3.15. The stresses in both the rst and second modes should be taken into account when dealing with the effects of fatigue.
Fig. C3.12 Mode shapes, rst and second mode
In the second mode, the energy due to uctuating wind pressures will be applied at the middle part of the chimney. The top amplitude of a chimney responding in the second mode will never be as great as that reached by the same chimney responding in the primary mode. This is because much more wind-induced energy would be required in the second mode. This is illustrated in Fig. C.3.13, which shows the bending moment causing the same amplitude in the second mode as in the rst mode would require about 50 times more energy. On the other hand, the energy required to cause the same base stress in the second mode is almost the same as that in the rst mode, even though top deection in 2nd mode is much smaller. The proposed calculation method is based upon the assumption that more or less the same energy is applied in bending, whether the chimney is in the rst or the second mode. It therefore follows that the top amplitude in the second mode would only be about 1/6 of the
Fig. C3.15 Relationship between Scruton Number and top amplitude
page 18
C3.5 Ovalling The static as well as the dynamically uctuating pressure causes a varying pressure over the circumference of the chimney. The varying wind pressure around a circular cylinder causes a static ovalling deformation of the cicle. The dynamics in the wind, including vortex shedding can cause a vibration of the circular shape, the lowest order mode and most likely to occur being that of ovalling. C3.5.1 Static ovalling load The distribution of the wind pressure around the circumference of the shell can be written as: p p0 {0.823 0.448cos 1.115cos2 0.400cos3 0.113cos4 0.027cos5} where: p0 the wind pressure 0.5 v2 Angle between wind direction and point on circumference under consideration The rst term (0.823 p0) is an overall suction and causes a small uniform tensile force on vertical cross sections of the shell. The second term (0.448 p0 cos) is the pressure in the wind direction (g. C.3.16) and provides the derivation of the force coefficient (shape factor) of 0.7, to give a total load. It causes no departure from a circular cross-section. ... (C.3.5.1)
horizontal sections of an unstiffened shell due to the total wind distribution, involving mainly the cos and cos2 terms (g. C.3.18)
A major part of the stresses on horizontal sections is due to the transition from a circular shape at the base to an oval shape.
Fig. C.3.18 Circumferential wind pressure and deected shape
Derivation of the increase in tensile stress is fairly straight-forward, as the maximum tensile stresses due to both beam exure and restraint of ovalling deformation occur at the base at 180 to the wind direction (i.e. on the up-wind side). Clause 8.2 of the Model Code gives the expression:-
{tensile shell stress tensile beam sress (1 {6 / [(l/r)2 (t/r)]}.

Fig. C.3.16 Wind pressure and deected shape due to p0cos term
The third term (1.115 p0 cos g. C.3.17) causes ovalling.
Therefore, for t/r 0.008 and l/r 50, the increase in tensile stress 30%. This is probably unimportant in the design of chimney shells, which are usually governed by compressive stresses, but it is important in designing the base joint and holding-down bolts. The Model Code, therefore, calls for shell theory (or the above approximation) to be used for unstiffened chimneys with aspect ratio 25.
The position regarding compressive stresses is not so simple. Ref. (8) limited itself to consideration of stresses at the base, at 0 to the wind direction. Here, the compression due to beam exure is reduced or even reversed by the shell stresses induced locally by restraint of ovalling deformation. However, increases in compressive stress are possible elsewhere. Increases in compressive stress are due to either of two effects:
Fig. C.3.17 Wind pressure and deected shape due to p0cos2 term
The remaining terms have little inuence. C3.5.1.1 Unstiffened shells C3.5.1.1.1 Effect on vertical moments (stresses on horizontal sections) An analysis of the deformation and stresses in an unstiffened shell (assuming a rigidly xed circular base) due to the ovalling load has been given elsewhere in the literature[8]. This considered stresses on
1) At the base and between values of about 60 and 120 to the wind, the reduced compression stress due to beam exure (function of ) has to be added to the compressive shell stress due to restraint of ovalling (function of 2) see g. C3.19. Signicant increases in total compressive stress only occurr at relatively small values of t/r for l/r ratios less than 30 see table C3.5.1
2) For relatively thick shells at low l/r ratios, increases of compression stress occurr on the down-wind side at 0 to the wind direction, at heights about 6 diameters above the base see table C3.5.2. This is due to contraexure effects, associated with restraint of ovalling, causing compressive stresses at this height.
page 19
t/r
l/r
beam stress max. MPa 2.3 6.0 11.5 1.9 4.8 9.2 1.6 4.0
degrees 90 70 70 90 70 70 90 70
beam stress MPa 0.0 2.0 4.0 0.0 1.7 3.2 0.0 1.4
shell stress at MPa 7.3 6.0 6.0 4.8 3.7 3.7 3.3 2.5
total stress MPa 7.3 8.0 10.0 4.8 5.4 6.9 3.3 3.9
ratio at 3.18 1.35 0.87 2.63 1.13 0.75 2.13 0.98
0.004
0.005
0.006
20 30 40 20 30 40 20 30
Table C3.5.1 Max. Compression Stresses at Base of Unstiffened Chimney
t/r
l/r
max. comp. shell stress MPa 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.4
height (z) (x dia.) 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 7.4 7.8
beam stress at z MPa 1.3 8.8 1.5 8.8 23.1 1.8 11.0 1.2 11.0
total stress at z MPa 2.2 9.7 2.3 9.7 24.0 2.7 11.8 1.6 11.4
ratio
0.011
20 30
1.64 1.11 1.57 1.10 1.04 1.43 1.03 1.32 1.03
0.010
20 30 40
0.008
20 30
0.006
20 30
Table C3.5.2 Increases in compressive stress at 0o to wind (downwind side), about 6 diameters above base of an unstiffened chimney.
Oval
3.0
l = 20 R
Wind
CT CB
2.0
1.0
Circle
l = 30 R
.004 .006 .008 .01 .011
Flexure
Ovalling
t/R
Net Compression Max Compression
Down Wind
90
180
Total Tension Upwind
Fig. C3.20 Increases in compressive stress over lower 6 diameters of an unstiffened chimney, due to shell effects
C.3.5.1.1.2 Effect on horizontal moments (stresses on vertical sections) The distribution of ovalling pressure 1.115 p0 cos 2
Fig. C3.19 Stresses at chimney base
Where p0 is the wind pressure, averaged over 5 seconds. Away from the ends of a long, unstiffened shell, the consequent bending moment at position is m0, where: m0 and 1.115 R2 p0 cos 2 4 ... (C3.5.2)
Therefore, combining both tables it can be seen that consideration of shell stresses leads to signicant increases in compressive stresses, either at the base or at a height about 6 diameters above the base for l/r ratios 30. Guidance regarding these increases is given by g. C3.20
m0 (max) 0.07 p0 d2(Nm/m)
page 20
(Note: 0.07 increased to 0.08 in Model Code (equation 7.11), to allow for effect of initial curvature) The associated deection of an unstiffened shell at point is w0, where: 12 R4 1.115 p0 w0 cos 2 ... (C3.5.2) 16 E t3 and w0 (max) 0.06 p0 d4 / (E t3)
This must be much less than w0, say 1/5. Therefore, Ir must be, say, greater than 5 times (0.06 d1.5 t2.5). This will ensure ovalling stresses in the shell are reduced to about 20% of those in an unstiffened shell. i.e The spacing (L) of stiffening rings should be 0.56 d (d/t)0.5 and the moment of inertia (Ir) of the stiffening ring (including participating shell (see Model Code Fig. 7.4) should be: Ir 0.3 d1.5 t2.5 when L 0.56 d (d/t)0.5 Ir 0.3 d1.5 t2.5 L / 0.56 d (d/t)0.5 when L 0.56 d (d/t)0.5 C3.5.2 Dynamic component of ovalling C.3.5.2.1 - Unstiffened shells The resonance frequency of the fundamental (ovalling) vibrations for an unstiffened cylinder is given by: f1 1 2 7.2 E I E t 0.49 AR d
4 2
C3.5.1.2 Stiffened shells The addition of correctly sized circumferential stiffeners at the top and at the correct spacing will reduce shell stresses due to ovalling to negligible values. In considering the effect of stiffeners the following approach is used: the deformation (w) at a distance Based upon the theory of (height) x from the stiffener is (with a small approximation) given by the following function: w w0 {1 ex/2 [cos(x/2)sin(x/2)]} ... (C3.5.4) where: / 2 2 (3)0.25 R (t/R)0.5 shells[9],
... (C.3.5.7) ... (C.3.5.8)
... (C3.5.9)
Substituting /2 1.52 (t)0.5 / (R)1.5, the deformation of the stiffened shell becomes close to that of an unstiffened shell at a distance 1.58 R (R/t)0.5, or 0.56 d (d/t)0.5 The deformation of the shell above and below the stiffener is shown in g. C3.21.
Youngs modulus of the shell Density of the shell Cross-section area of shell ( t m2/m) Moment of inertia of shell about its vertical axis t3 4 ( m /m) 12 R, d and t Radius, diameter and thickness of shell In the case of steel: f 2560 t / d2 ... (C3.5.11)
where E A I
w wo
Deformation with rings at distances
x = 1.32R
R t
The frequency of vortex shedding relevant to ovalling 2 St V / d Therefore large scale resonant movemements can occur if: 2560 t/d2 2 St V / d For St 0.2, therefore, Vcr 6500 t / d ... (C3.5.12)
Ring Saffener (Deformation Zero)
152x R
R t
To ensure that ovalling vibrations do not occur, it is necessary to increase the moment of inertia of the shell to give a value of Vcr sufficiently high to avoid a build up of periodic excitation. Assuming that Vcr 30 m/s is high enough to achieve this, the required value of I is then given by: f 2 St Vcr / d Giving: I 42 St2 Vcr2 A R4 R2 7.2 E ... (C3.5.13) 1 2 7.2 E I AR
4
Fig. C3.21 Ovalling deformation of a cylinder with a stiff ring at x 0
It can be seen that the ovalling deformations and, therefore stresses, remain low (about 0.03w0) if the distance between stiffeners of innitely high stiffness is smaller than 0.56 d (d/t)0.5. The maximum bending moment in the stiffener at this spacing is obtained after integration of the shear forces in the shell:M 0.028 p0 d3 (d/t)0.5 (Nm) ... (C3.5.5)
For Vcr 30m/s, St 0.2, 7850 kg/m3 and E 210 109 N/m2, therefore I 7.4 106 A R2 1.8 106 d2 t (m4/m height) For an unstiffened shell, this means t3 / 12 1.85 106 d2 t ... (C3.5.14) i.e. t/d must be 0.004, otherwise stiffening rings will be required to avoid the risk of ovalling vibrations. C.3.5.2.2 Stiffened shells
In order to be effective, the deformation of the stiffener under this moment must be much smaller than w0 this requirement being more important than its strength. The deformation of the ring (with spacing L) is obtained by integration of the bending moment M. The result is: When L 1.58 R (R/t)0.5: 0.19 p0 R5.5 w cos 2 E Ir (t)0.5 ... (C3.5.6)
Assuming the top of the chimney is stiffened by a ring satisfying equation (C3.5.8), ovalling vibrations can still occur at lower levels if the t/d ratio is 0.004. These vibrations are dened by:
page 21
Et3 12(12) t
2 2
2 2
2 y2
w w ER t x
4 4 2 4
Literature [1] ... (C3.5.15) [2] [3] B.J. Vickery Wind loads and Design for Chimneys CICIND REPORT, Vol. 14, No. 2, 1998 A.G. Davenport Wind structure and wind climate Seminar on Safety of Structures, Trondheim, 1977. P.J. Rijkoort and J. Wieringa Extreme wind-speeds by compound Weibull analysis of exposure-corrected data. Journal of Wind Engineering, no. 13, 1983. A.G. Davenport Gust loading factors Proc. ASCE Journal Struct. Div., Vol. 93, No, ST 5, June, 1967. B.J. Vickery Wind-induced loads on reinforced concrete chimneys Nat. Seminar on Tall Reinforced Concrete Chimneys, New Delhi, 1985. S. O. Hansen Vortex Induced Vibrations of Line-Like Structures CICIND REPORT, Vol. 15, No. 1, March 1999 Shoei-Sheng Chen Flow-induced vibration of circular cylindrical structures. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation 1987. H. van Koten The Stress Distribution in Chimneys due to Wind Pressure CICIND REPORT Vol. 11, No. 2, 1995 H.van Koten Structural analysis of shells Technical University of Delft.
2 T2
2 y2
w0
2
Where w deformation x coordinate along the shell (i.e. vertical direction) y coordinate along the circumference T Time The solution is approximated by: w w0 cos t cos (2y/R) cos ( x / L) Where L distance between stiffening rings w0 deformation of unstiffened shell 2f f frequency Substituting in equation (C3.5.12) gives: E t2 {(/L)2 (2/R)2}4 {4 / (R2 L4)} 2 {(/L)2 (2/R)2}2 12 An approximation is: (E / )0.5 {1 / [R (4 L2) / (2 R)]} Therefore L2 ( /2)2 {[(R / 2 f) (E / )0.5] R2} ... (C3.5.18) ... (C3.5.17) ... (C3.5.16)
[4] [5]
[6] [7] [8] [9]
Assuming that Vcr 30m/s is high enough to avoid oscillations and f 0.2Vcr/R and substituting E 210109 N/m2 and 7850 Kg/m3: L 18 R, or 9 d ... (C3.5.19)
From equation (C3.5.14), we have seen that the minimum value of I per unit height to avoid oscillations is: I 1.85 106 d2 t (m4/m height)
Assuming the stiffener to provide the equivalent I of a length of shell 9 d, Ir of stiffener (including participating shell see Model Code, Fig. 7.4) ) must be: Ir > 1.75 105 d3 t C3.6 Interference Effects ... (C3.5.20)
In considering the effect of aerodynamic interference by an upstream cylindrical structure on the cross-wind response of a chimney, it is generally accepted that the value of lift coefficient increases with the localised small-scale turbulence associated with wake buffetting[1]. In Reference [1], however, Vickery acknowledges in paragraph 5.2 that this does not explain the full increase in cross-wind response. He states that: Across-wind response of the downstream structure is enhanced but the mechanism is not completely clear. He assumes that a second contribution comes from reinforcement of the movement by buffeting at a similar frequency to that of vortex shedding by the downwind chimney. Presumably this reinforcement can be expressed by an increase in negative aerodynamic damping. Unfortunately little research data is yet available to dene the way in which the increase in negative aerodynamic damping is affected by spacing, Scruton Number, or large-scale atmospheric turbulence. Therefore, for spacings between chimney and interfering structure less than 10 diameters, the Model Code merely recommends addition of structural damping to increase the chimneys Scruton Number to more than 25. At this point it is unlikely that excessive response will be experienced. When research data is available, more denite design guidance can be given.
page 22
COMMENTARY No. 4 FATIGUE

When we consider the long term history of movement of a chimney subject to cross-wind movement in response to vortex excitation, we must take into account the following phenomena: (1) Movement is subject to a start-up and a wind-down phase at the beginning and end of each response excursion (see Fig. C4.1) (2) The stress at a point on the chimney tends to vary, reducing as the wind direction changes and its speed departs from its critical value, all due to atmospheric turbulence. The degree of reduction depends upon the level of turbulence.
Fig. C4.1 Typical trace of cross-wind oscillations Fig. C4.2 Histograms of long term response of four full-scale chimneys
Further, in inland locations and at relatively high critical windspeeds, atmospheric turbulence is high enough to ensure that the maximum amplitude rarely occurs. This was demonstrated by a series of long term measurements (varying between 93 days and 322 days) of the response of four steel chimneys in Germany[1] see g. C4.2. It can be seen from these histograms that amplitudes exceeding 90% of maximum occurred only rarely, varying from about 10 cycles during 93 days at Aachen to about 100 cycles during 264 days at Cologne. The method in the Model Code takes these facts into account and develops a spectrum of response, using the Miner Rule to determine fatigue life. The Miner sum is: M (max / wn)k (loge n)k Where max the maximum stress, per section 7.2.4 of the Model Code wn the stress causing cracks after n cycles (per Wohler curve) k 3 in the case of fatigue in steel a function (dependent upon Vcr) dening the shape of the load/cycle collective curve (Fig. C4.3) as follows: max {1 (log n / logn1)} (Vcr / 8)1.2 n ... (4.2) ... (4.3)
... (4.1)
Fig. C4.3 Load/cycle collectives for various values of
To determine the number of load cycles(n), it is rst necessary to know the number of occasions the wind will blow at its critical velocity (Vcr). This is determined from considerations of the probability of their occurrence P(Vcr): P(Vcr) 2 Vcr (Vcr / V )2 0 e V02 ... (4.4)
Where Vo wind velocity averaged over one year approx. Vb(h) / 4 Vb(h) hourly mean velocity at chimney top, with exceedance probability of once in 50 years. It is assumed that the chimney responds at wind velocities between 1.1Vcr and 0.9Vcr.
Number of load cycles due to cross-wind excitation during the lifetime T
page 23
Also a reduction has to be introduced to account for changes in the wind direction, so that the point of maximum stress is moved away from the point under consideration. The stress at a given point is proportional to cos2 and the total effect is roughly:(1 / 2) As a result, n 3.15 107 T f 4 2 0.5 0.1 A eA2 n 1.26 107 T f A eA2 ... (5) (see Model Code 8.5.2)
The load/cycle collective predictions over 20 years, calculated by equations (3) & (5) are shown by the dotted lines in Fig. C4.2. Because the spectrum was derived from long term measurements on relatively few chimneys, a modelling safety factor 1.4 is introduced in the expression for the Miner Number. Literature [1] W. Langer, H. Ruscheweyh & C. Verwiebe Untersuchungen des Querschnittverhalten von Original Stahlschornstein Forschungsbericht P. 230 [2] H. van Koten A Calculation Method for the Cross-Wind Vibrations of Chimneys CICIND REPORT Vol. 14, No. 1, June 1998
cos d 0.5
2 2
Where A 4 Vcr /Vb(h) f Resonance frequency
page 24
COMMENTARY No. 5 OPENINGS

Openings have to be strengthened to prevent local reduction of: Strength Resistance against fatigue instability The strength of the cross-section with openings is the same as the strength of an undisturbed section if the section modulus is the same. This equality of section moduli is sufficient to fullll the rst condition of strength. The moment of inertia of a circle with an opening subtended by the angle 2 is: I d3 t / 8 { sincos [(2sin2) / ( )]} Derivation formulae for cross section properties of chimneys (both unreinforced and reinforced) and of chimneys with more than one opening at the same elevation are given in Table C5.1 If is small then the value of I is close to that of the complete circle (0.125 d3 t). As increases, however, the value of I drops rapidly (see Fig. C.5.1). The same holds for section modulus. To replace the lost material, reinforcing stiffeners are welded vertically to the chimney on each side of the opening. To be effective, the crosssection area (A) of each of the reinforcing stiffeners should be at least equal to A 1.25 R t (sin)0.5. A cross section with an opening is sensitive to the effects of buckling. This is due to the stiffness of the weakened cross-section being reduced by the possibility of the shell bending in or out at the edges of the opening. To prevent this the reinforcement stiffeners have to be
placed normal to the shell {see Figures C5.2 & C5.3) and concentrated along the edge of the opening. However, sudden ending of of the reinforcement above and below the opening can cause stress concentrations. These can treble stresses locally and lead to fatigue damage such as local cracks. To avoid this, in the case of openings with width greater than 40% of the chimney diameter locally, the vertical stiffeners should connect at each end with a horizontal stiffener extending around the full circumference (see g. C5.2).
2 = M W2 R t
2 I R3t 1 2
2 W1 R2t 1
2 W2 R2t 1 2 1 = M W1
Fig C5.1 Reduction of inertia at openings
When the width of opening is less than 40% of the chimneys diameter locally, it is not necessary to provide a horizontal stiffener extending around the full circumference and a more local arrangement may be used (see g.. C5.3). Vertical reinforcement should be continued above and below the opening to a point where the added stress is unimportant. The code deems that continuing the reinforcement beyond horizontal stiffeners above and below the opening a distance at least 0.5 times the width of the opening will suffice.
G a G
1
G a a a G
1
G 1 1 G
0 a
2 e
2 e
1 1 G
G
A 2tr ( 2)
G
A 2tr ( 2) 4a
G
A 2tr ( ) e rsin / ()
A 2tr ( ) 2a e tr2 sin arcos tr () a
I00 tr3 ( sin cos) 2ar2cos2 IGG 2tr3 (/2sincos) ZGG IGG / rcos IGG 2tr3 (/2sincos) 4ar2cos2 ZGG IGG / rcos IGG tr3 {sincos [2sin2/()]} 1 Z GG IGG / (ercos) Z2GG IGG / (re) IG1G1 tr3 (sincos) ZG1G1 IG1G1/r IGG I00 Ae2 Z1GG IGG / (ercos) Z2GG IGG / (re)
IG1G1 2tr3 (/2sincos) ZG1G1 IG1G1/r
IG1G1 2tr3 (/2sincos) 4ar2sin2 ZG1G1 IG1G1/r
IG1G1 tr3 (sincos) 2ar2sin2 ZG1G1 IG1G1/r
Fig. C5.1 Derivation formulae for section properties of chimneys with openings (a reinforcement area)
page 25
Fig. C5.3 Suggested detail of reinforcement for narrow openings (< 0.4D)
Fig. C5.2 Suggested detail of reinforcement for wide openings (> 0.4D)
If the vertical height of the opening is more than twice its horizontal width, a stability check is needed. Guidance on such checks is given in the chapter on bending of plates under lateral loads in Plates and shells, by Timoshenko. When the duty of the chimney requires ue gas inlets whose width exceeds two-thirds of the structural shells diameter, a possible solution would be to provide a large number of small circular openings, giving a total area equivalent to that required. Reinforcement could then be threaded between the small holes and around the whole group, as required.
Even though it is reinforced to ensure the section complies with strength requirements, the presence of an opening can reduce locally the stiffness of the chimney and affect its natural frequencies. This reduced stiffness should therefore be taken into account when deriving the chimneys dynamic response. This is done by taking account of the reduced local stiffness at the opening when calculating x for each section in equation 7.16 of the Model Code.
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COMMENTARY 6 CHEMICAL EFFECTS AND INTERNAL CORROSION

C6.1. Chemical effects C6.1.1. Attack due to sulphur oxides The most common form of internal chemical attack is due to acids formed by the condensation of sulphur oxides in the ue gas. Sulphur is found in all solid and liquid fuels to varying degrees and can also be found in gaseous fuels. During the combustion process, nearly all sulphur in the fuel is oxidised to sulphur dioxide (SO2) which can be absorbed by condensing water vapour to form sulphurous acid. A small quantity of sulphur dioxide (SO2) is further converted to sulphur trioxide (S03). The quantity depends in a complex manner upon the sulphur content of the fuel, the amount of excess air available during combustion, temperature in the combustion chamber and the presence of catalysts such as iron oxides. This small concentration of S03 (usually measured in PPM), gives rise to most of the acid corrosion problems encountered in chimneys. This is because on condensation, the S03 ions combine with water vapour to form sulphuric acid whose concentration can be as high as 85%. Condensation of these acids takes place when the temperature of the ue gas falls below their respective acid dew point temperatures (ADP), or when the ue gas comes into contact with a surface, at or below the relevant acid dew point temperature. The acid dew point temperature of sulphuric acid depends upon the concentration of S03 in the ue gas (see Fig C6.1). Provided the temperature of the ue gas and the surfaces with which it can come into contact are maintained 10C above the acid dew point estirnated from Fig. C6.1, there is no danger of acid corrosion due to this cause. Alternatively, suitable acid resisting coatings can be applied to protect the steel. Guidance on suitable coatings and their performance is given in CICIND Manual for Chimney Protective Coatings. The acid dew point of sulphurous acid is about 65C, a little above the water dew point. If the fuel is contaminated, other acids, such as hydrochloric and nitric acid can be expected to condense in the same temperature range. Thus, even if fuel and combustion processes are chosen to minimise production of S03, or if ue gases are scrubbed to remove most of the S03 and SO2, severe corrosion can be expected if the temperatures of the ue gas or the surfaces with which it can come into contact fall below 65C, or the acid dew point temperature relevant to the reduced S03 concentration, if this is higher. Again, a safety margin is recommended of 10C above the acid dew point temperature estimated from gure C6.1. C.6.1.2 Effects of Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)
C6.1.3. Attack due to chlorine, chlorides and uorides Chlorides are found in most solid fuels, including refuse and in many liquid fuels. It is also sometimes found as a pollutant in some FGD processes. Upon combustion chlorides are transformed into free chloride ions which, on contact with water vapour are transformed into hydrochloric acid. The highest condensation temperature at which hydrochloric acid has been found is 60C. Thus, when any ue surface falls below this acid dew point, very serious corrosion will occur. This dew point is close to the water and sulphurous acid dew point. Even very small amounts of chlorides in combination with other condensed acids can cause serious corrosion problems. Hydrogen chloride, hydrogen uoride and free chlorine in ue gases also become corrosive in their vapour stage. Stainless steels are attacked at temperatures above 320C. Fluoride vapours are corrosive to stainless steels at temperature above 250C. C6.2. Internal Corrosion The internal corrosion allowances in table 8.2 of the Model Code are based upon limited exposure to condensing sulphuric acid per Fig C6.1. They are derived from the relationship between Peak corrosion rate and S03 concentration shown in gure C6.3. This, in turn, was derived from the upper bound of a family of curves which show the same relationship observed in practical situations. See lit. [2] and [3]. A safety factor of 4 has been used in arriving at the corrosion allowances.
Fig. C.6.2 Phase diagram: sulphuric acid water vapour
C6.3 Guideline to choice of liner metallic materials Despite the removal of most of the sulphur oxides during FGD, a severe corrosion risk remains. This is because, downstream of a scrubber, the ue gas is usually very wet and its temperature is often very low low enough to be below the (low) value of acid dew point temperature (ADP) associated with the reduced sulphur oxide content. Fig. C6.2 shows the relationship between temperature and acid concentration to be expected and demonstrates that ue gas condensing at temperatures as low as 80C can end up as quite concentrated acid. Also the ue gas often contains chlorides, carried over from the scrubbing materials. All steels except the very expensive high nickel alloys and titanium would deteriorate very quickly in this environment. To minimise the expense, methods have been developed to apply very thin sheets of alloy or titanium to the inner face of carbon steel or other vulnerable liners. Some organic coating materials have also been developed for this duty. Guidelines on the suitability of various metals and alloys for the range of chemical risks to be found in chimneys will be given in CICINDs Metallic Materials Manual (to be published in 2001). Literature [1] Desulphurisation Systems and their Effect on Operational Conditions in Chimneys, Henseler, F., CICIND REPORT, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1987 Inuence of fuel oil characteristics and combustion conditions on the gas properties in water tube boilers Bunz G., Diepenberg H, and Rundle A. Jnl of the Institute of Fuel Sept 1967 Prevention of cold end corrosion in industrial boilers. Lech and Landowski Corrision March 1979
[2]
[3]
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Fig. C6.1 Relationship between ADP and SO3 concentration
peak corrosion rates (micron/ 1000 hours)
SO1 concentration (ppm by vol) *)

*)
ppm = part per million (106)
Fig. C6-3 Relationship between peak internal corrosion rates and SO3 concentration
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Amendment A March 2002
APPENDIX 1 DESIGN OF CHIMNEY BASE PLATES

This appendix is intended to give guidance on rationalising baseplate details. In the following calculations, base plate bearing stress (*c) and maximum bolt tension (Pb*) are calculated for factored load and overturning moment. In the case of bases with a compression ring and/or gussets the values of *c and Pb* are calculated using elastic analysis as a reinforced concrete ring assuming the modular ratio of 12 [1],[2]. The area of steel bolts is taken as the thread root cross section area of the bolts. In chimneys requiring an increase in design tensile stress at the base on account of clause 8.2 of the Model Code, the value of Pb* should be factored accordingly. A.1.1 Simple baseplates, with no gussets or compression rings (Fig. A.1.1)
The maximum baseplate stress (*) is given by the following expression: * 1 . *c . l2 / tb2 fk / 1.1 where 1 is given by: l/b 0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.25 1.5 and 1 3.00 2.68 2.30 1.85 1.25 0.83 0.51 0.30 0.22 ... (A1.4)
l the outstand of the basplate from the chimney shell b distance between gussets
The baseplate stresses (*) on the tension side may be calculated using the method described in lit. [1]. For the particular case of l 4 D: * 2 Pb* / tb2 fk / 1.1 Where 2 is obtained as follows: l/b 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.25 1.5 2 2.38 2.28 2.07 1.87 1.65 1.33 1.06 0.81 0.62 ... (A1.5)
Fig. A1.1 Simple Baseplate
On the compression side, the vertical shell force is distributed over a strip of width (2.l3 ts), where l3 is chosen to limit the pressure on the grout (*c) to no greater than fkg / 1.5. The maximum baseplate stress (*)is then given by: * 3 . *c . (l3 / tb)2 fk / 1.1 where fk ts ... (A1.1)
characteristic strength of the bottom plate steel thickness of shell
Both equations A1.4 and A1.5 must be satised. The height of the gussets (h) should be sufficient to maintain acceptable shell stresses. The stress in the shell (*s) is given by the following expression: *s w* . [( / ts) (3 . Rs / ts2)] fk / 1.1 Where: and 3 are given by: No. of gussets (equally spaced) 6 12 16 20 24 28 32 40 60 80 100 and 1.00 1.93 2.50 3.20 3.83 4.47 5.10 6.37 9.55 12.74 15.92 3 0.53 0.26 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.098 0.079 0.052 0.039 0.031 ... (A1.6)
*c pressure on the grout fkg characteristic compressive strength of the grout On the tension side, the values of l1 and l4 should be adjusted to give vertical and rotational equilibrium. The active circumferential length of the baseplate may be taken as 3 l2 or the bolt spacing, whichever is the lesser. The bolt tension (Pb*) then p* (l1 l2) / l1 ... (A1.2) Where p* is the vertical tensile force in the shell per bolt. Assuming a distribution of baseplate stress over a length of 3 l2: * 2 p* / tb2 fk / 1.1 Both equations A1.1 and A1.3 have to be satised. A1.2 Baseplates with Gussets (Fig. A1.2) ... (A1.3)
Rs shell radius w* the radial force on the shell per unit height of gusset at the top of the gussets, given by the following expression: w* 3 . M* / h2 Where M* is the bending moment at the base of each gusset plate due to out of balance forces under the baseplate. M* P* . 2D per gusset on the tension side per gusset on the compression side
Fig. A1.2 Baseplate with gussets
*c . 6 . D2 . b
Amendment A March 2002
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Allowance should be made for stress concentrations that may occur at the top of the gussets. A1.3 Baseplate with gussets and compression ring (See Fig. A1.3)
A1.4 Grouting
Fig. A1.3 Baseplate with gussets & compression ring
The baseplate stresses are calculated in the same way as in section A1.2 above using equation A1.4. The compression ring bending stresses (*) are calculated in the same way as in section A1.2 above, using equation A1.5, substituting tc (thickness of compression ring) for tb (baseplate thickness). Added to this is a direct circumferential stress arising from the out of balance moment caused by the eccentricity of the bolts, giving a total stress: * 2 Pb* / tc2 Pb* N / (30 D tc) fK / 1.1 where N number of bolts A gusset plate thickness of 0.25D will suffice if it is of a steel whose yield strength at least equals that of the bolts. Notes regarding the derivation of 1 and 2 Stress coefficients 1 and 2 were obtained as follows: 1 is the coefficient applicable to the compression side and is derived from Timoshenkos work on a rectangular plate xed on three sides and free on the fourth. This is a reasonable assumption because pressure under the base inside the shell will produce xity. At the gussets there is xity by virtue of the continuity of the basplate. 2 is the coefficient applicable to the tension side. In the literature [1] this is taken from a model comprising a rectangular plate simply supported on all sides, with a patch load at the centre representing the bearing of the nut. This is not a true reection of the boundary conditions which are more truly xed on two opposite sides (at the gusstes), one side being pinned (at the shell) and the fourth side free. Neither is the effect of the holding down bolt hole considered. In this Appendix, therefore, the values of 2 have been derived from plate element FE analysis, using the more realistic above boundary conditions and allowing for the bolt hole in the plate. [2]
Note If the chimney is intially levelled using a nut placed on the holding down bolt under the baseplate, this nut should be loosened after packers are introduced. Fig. A1.4 provides guidance on the grouting procedure to be used under chimney baseplates.
References: [1] Brownell & Young Process Equipment Design, Chapter 10 Pinfold, G.M. Reinforced Concrete Chimneys and Towers
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APPENDIX 2 INSULATION AND PROTECTIVE LININGS AND COATINGS

A.2.1 Insulation
type of insulation aluminium aluminium mineral wool mineral wool mineral wool mineral wool expanded mineral expanded mineral expanded mineral expanded mineral
thickness 6mm air gap 18mm air gap 25mm 50mm 75mm 100mm 50mm 75mm 100mm 150mm
overall average U values W / (m2 K) 4.5 4.0 2.3* 1.15* 0.7* 0.5* 1.15* 0.7* 0.5* 0.35*
A2.1.1 General In order to minimise loss of heat from a chimney and to maintain the temperature of the shell or liner(s) above ue gas acid dewpoint level, insulation may be tted. But it should be appreciated that, however effective the insulation, acid will condense if the ue gas temperature entering the chimney is at or below its acid dewpoint temperature. Even if metal in contact with ue gas is generally at temperatures above its acid dewpoint, rapid local corrosion can occur at cold spots. In order to eliminate cold spots careful attention should be given to the following details: Potential air leaks should be eliminated by properly sealing anged joints, inspection/cleaning doors, expansion joints and instrumentation apertures. The long-term effectiveness of sealing materials at the relevant service temperatures should be demonstrated. Direct metal/metal contact between steel liners and the structural shell should be avoided. Liner support should incorporate a thermal isolation device. Attachments such as guy ropes, aerodynamic stabilizers, ladders, platforms and pipes can act as cooling ns. Their attachment to metal in contact with ue gas should incorporate a thermal isolation device.
* These values apply for a mean insulation temperature of 40C. They should be increased by 5% for each 50C increase in mean insulation temperature. Table A2.1 Typical insulation conductivities
Mineral wool or foam insulation exposed to weather should be protected by weather proofed cladding. Design of this cladding and its xings should ensure its integrity under the action of wind at a velocity of 1.5 basic wind-speed at the relevant height (per paragraph 7.2.2.of the Model Code). The design should take account of the variation of wind pressure around the surface of the chimney at a given elevation. A2.1.3 Aluminium cladding Aluminium cladding enclosing a narrow airspace is an effective form of insulation, due to its high thermal reectivity. (Note Sheet steel or other forms of cladding may be suitable in certain cases.) The exterior of the steel shell beneath the cladding should be coated with heat resisting paint. The cladding should consist of aluminium sheet not less than 1.0mm thick with symmetrical ange covers made in halves frorn aluminium sheet which also shall not be less than 1.0mm thick. The cladding should be made in strakes, using a number of equal plates per strake. All seams should be connected by aluminium alloy rivets at not more than 100mrn centres. Vertical seams of each strake should be set at the midpoint of the strake beneath. The cladding should be tted with its internal face the required distance away from the external face of the chimney shell, this distance being maintained by continuous circumferential spacers of the required thickness low conductivity tape coincident with the horizontal joints of the aluminium. The tape should be cemented into position by means of sodium silicate or other suitable adhesive. The ends of the horizontal rivets in the aluminium sheets serve to retain the tape in position after erection. The circumferential spacers divide the airspace between the steel shell and the aluminium cladding into sections not more than 1.5m high, thus reducing convection heat losses. When the length of the prefabricated sections of shell between anges is not a whole multiple of the strake width, only one make-up strake per section of chimney should be used. All projections should be clad. Cleaning doors and other points where access is required should be boxed in with removable aluminium panels. The airspace at the top of the chimney should be completely sealed to prevent ingress of moisture between the steel shell and the cladding. Each upper strake of aluminium should lap over the lower strake by a minimum of 25mm, The vertical seams similarly should have a minimum lap of 25mm. To permit examination of the steel shell of the chimney without removing the cladding, 150 mm square openings, located at carefully seiected points and covered by removable panels approximately 230mm square, may be provided. Suitable positions are:
A2.1.2. Insulation design Insulation should be designed to maintain the surface in contact with the ue gas above acid dew point temperature everywhere, when the ue gas is at normal operating condition and at abnorrnal conditions if they can last for more than 25 hours per year (see table 7.1 of the Model Code). For design purposes, the following parameters should be used: Theoretical acid dewpoint, calculated taking account of sulphur content and excess combustion air should be increased by a safety margin of 10C. If data is not available to permit calculation of the ue gas acid dew point temperature, the following values should be used for minimum metal temperature in contact with ue gas: When fuel is oil and/or gas, containing more than 0.5% by weight of sulphur, 175C When fuel is coal containing more than 0.5% by weight of sulphur, 135C When fuel contains less than 0.5% by weight of sulphur, 100C Ambient air temperature should be the minimum winter air temperature at the chimney location, obtained by averaging the mean temperature each night over a period of one month. Wind velocity should be assumed to be 5m/s.
The temperature of the metal in contact with ue gas should be checked for the condition of highest anticipated ue gas temperature. For this check the following design parameters should be assumed: Ambient air temperature should be maximum anticipated air temperature at the chimney location. Zero wind velocity.
The design of insulation thickness to satisfy the requirements of this clause should be based upon the conductivity value of the insulation material, provided by the insulation manufacturer. If such data is not available, typical values listed in table A3.1 may be used.
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diametrically opposite any inlet approximately 1,25m from the top of the chimney Great care should be taken to ensure that dissimilar metals do not come into contact with each other. If it is essential in the design that two dissimilar metals have to be connected, a suitable non-conductive and impervious lm or agent should be placed between them. A2.1.4. Mineral wool or foam Insulation Wrapping the steel shell with a suitable grade insulation material of sufficient thickness provides more effective insulation than aluminium cladding with the usual 6mm air gap. Thicknesses of over 50mm are applied in two separate layers, the outer layer being tted so that the vertical and horizontal joints are staggered from the joints of the inner layer. If a stiffener or ange of the chimney section projects past the outer face of the insulation, it should be wrapped with an additional layer of the same thickness for at least 75mm on each side of the ange or stiffener. Insulation has to be protected from the weather, a convenient way of doing this is to cover it with metal cladding, designed as descibed above. The insulation should be xed to the steel shell by wrapping it around so that the ends butt. It can be secured in place by steel strapping. At least two bands of strapping should be used for each strake of insulation. Insulation tends to compact and slip down the surface of the steel during transportation and erection thus leaving bare patches of steel which are potential cold spots. The slipping of the insulation may be prevented by welding steel pins to the shell. On low chemical load chimneys the pins can project through the insulation and have spring retaining washers tted. On medium chemical load chimneys it is advisable to use short pins which only project half the thickness of the insulation so as to prevent cold spots forming. Usually an interval of 600mm is used between the pins. A2.1.5. Lined and multiue chimneys The sapce between the outer shell and the liner of a double skin chimney can be lled with mineral wool, expanded mineral, or other suitable insulator. When expanded mineral is used as insulation, the design and fabrication of the chimney must ensure that there are no voids or openings out of which the expanded mineral can leak. A suitable drain off position must be provided at the lowest point of the expanded mineral area to ensure that the expanded mineral can be drawn off if access to the interior of the chimney shell is required. Notices should be tted to the exterior of the chimney warning that the chimney has been lled with expanded mineral. After 6 to 12 months, expanded mineral insulation compacts by about 10% thus leaving areas of the liner exposed. It is essential that this void is topped up with more expanded mineral and that adequate provision is left in the cap plate for topping up to take place. Sometimes a second topping-up is necessary after a further 12 month period. A2.2 Protective linings A2.2.1 General Linings may be required in steel chimneys for one or more of the following purposes: To maximise the strength of the structural shell by keeping it cool As re protection To protect an externally insulated structural shell from excessively hot ue gases. These could be generated by an operational upset or occur when an energy conservation system is by-passed. Corrosion protection
To act as insulation to maintain the ue gas temperature above its acid dew point. Reduce potential for aerodynamic instability.
Chimney linings may be: a) Separate liners, with a space between the liners and the outer structural shell. More than one liner may be accomodated within the structural shell, to form a multi-ue chimney. b) Attached continuously to the inner face of the structural shell. Such linings may be either cast against the structural shell, or be applied by spray, trowel or brush. Such linings may be: castable refractory solid grade diatomaceous concrete chemical resistant coatings breglass reinforced plastic (FRP) A2.2.2 Design of separate liners A2.2.2.1. General considerations For information on the design of separate liners see the CICIND Model Code for Concrete Chimneys, Part C - Steel Liners. Lateral support should be provided between the liner and the structural shell as near as possible to the top of the chimney. Additional lateral supports may be required at intermediate elecations between the top of the liner and its base, depending upon considerations of stability and dynamic response, but their number should be minimised as far as possible. The lateral restraints should be designed to permit the linings to expand freely both vertically and radially. A gap between the liner and its lateral restraint(s) of between 3mm and 6mm (the larger gap being appropriate for larger diameter liners) will ensure that impact damping enhances the structural damping sufficiently to avoid problems of cross-wind oscillation in most cases. The liner should be designed to resist stresses due to loads imposed by the lateral restraints, as the structural shell moves under the effect of wind or earthquake. The presence of horizontal restraints between the liner and structural shell may prevent the liner from adopting a distorted shape in response to differential expansion. As a result, bending stresses may be introduced in both the liner and the structural shell, These stresses can be very high when a single liner carries ue gases from two or more sources with different temperatures. In addition, the resulting differential liner temperature will introduce secondary thermal stresses. A cover should be provided at the top of the structural shell to give weather protection to the airspace between liner and shell. The design of this cover should permit free expansion of the liner. Sufficient radial clearance should be incorporated to permit any relative movement, between liner and shell, that may be allowed by the lateral restraint system. In the design of this cover, special attention should be paid to the integrity of its fastenings, bearing in mind the risk of acid corrosion, stress corrosion and fatigue cracking which may be caused by aerodynamic utter. A2.2.2.2 Steel liners Unprotected steel liners should not be used in conditions of high chemical load (see table 7.1 of Model Code). In conditions of low or medium chemical load, internal corrosion allowances listed in table 8.2 of the model code may be used. In conditions of high chemical load (such as downstream of FGD), unprotected steel can be replaced by (or protected by Wallpapered coatings of) high nickel alloys, titanium or other metals. Guidance on choice of these materials is contained in CICINDs Metallic Materials Manual, to be published in 2001. Liner supports and lateral restraints should incorporate thermal insulation so as to avoid formation of localised cold spots on the lining surfaces due to conduction of heat to the structural shell.
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Consideration should be given to the risk of re and/or high temperature excursions described in paragraphs 7.6.1 and 7.6.2 of the model code. If the risk is signicant, consideration should be given to the provision of re protection. A2.2.2.3. Plastic liners Plastic and FRP liners are suitable for conditions of high chemical load (see table 7.1 of the Model Code), combined with low temperatures. In order to prevent material degrading, the temperature of these linings should not be allowed to exceed 100C. Short term excursions to 150C can be tolerated if the right type of plastic is chosen, but the life is reduced. In order to ensure liner temperature is maintained below 100C, an automatically controlled quenching system may be installed upstream of the chimney, which is activated when the ue gas temperature exceeds 100C. A2.2.3 Design of linings attached continuously to the shell A2.2.3.1 General Lining or coating selection criteria and quality standards to be used during surface preparation and lining installation are detailed in the CICIND Chimney Protective Coatings Manual. A2.2.3.2 Castable refractory linings (including diatomaceous concrete linings) Castable refractory should be insulating type with a minimum bulk density, after drying, of 1000kg/m3. Diatomaceous concrete should be of the solid grade. They should be single layer construction, installed without vapour stops. They may be cast against the inner face of the steel shell or they may be applied by a gunning process. Mixing procedures and water quantities shall follow the manufacturers recommendations. The minimum thickness of lining shall be 50mm. Linings 50mm to 65mm thick shall be reinforced by electric welded wire mesh. The mesh should be 50 50mm with wire of minimum diameter 2mm, or it may be 100 100mm with minimum wire diameter 3mm. The mesh should be positioned 20mm from the surface of the steel shell and should be anchored to it by steel studs, welded at 450mm spacing. Linings thicker than 65mm shall be reinforced by arc welded V studs, randomly orientated and at a minimum spacing of 16 per square metre. A corrosion resistant metal cap should be provided at the top of the refractory to protect its horizontal surface from the weather. Providing its surface in contact with ue gas is above acid dew point, this type of lining provides corrosion protection to the steel chimney or liner to which it is applied. Application of such a lining would convert a steel chimney, classed as being under High chemical load when unprotected, to a Low chemical load classication. A2.2.3.3 Fibreglass reinforced plastic (FRP) linings The use of plastic and FRP for linings applied to steel chimneys is severly restricted by their tendency to separate from the steel, due to differential expansion. To minimize this problem, lining temperatures should not exceed the following values: epoxy resins, 80C polyesters, 60C It is essential that the FRP linings adhere rmly to the inside face of the chimney shell so that the surface does not crack or spall. If the acid ue gas penetrates the FRP it will attack the steel shell. A2.2.3.4 Chemical resistant coatings Guidance on the selecion and application of chemical reisistant coatings is given in the CICIND Chimney Protective Coatings Manual. In the selection of a coating for internal use, consideration should be given to the maximum temperature to which it will be subjected, both
when wet and when dry. Only coatings should be used that have been proved capable of retaining their protective properties in these conditions throughout the life of the chimney. Also, the chosen coating material should have expansion characteristics compatible with those of the shell throughout the relevant temperature range. A2.3 Recommended start-up procedures for new castable refractory in steel chimneys or liners. The start-up procedures should follow the refractory manufacturers instructions. If none are available, the following procedures may be used: Hold gas temperature in the range of 70C 90C for at least 3 hours. Control subsequent increases in temperature and gas ow so that no part of the liner is exposed to a gas temperature increase exceeding 50C/hr. All parts of the lining should be exposed to gas temperature at least 75% of design temperature for at least 6 hours.
These requirements also apply to old refractory linings which have been left exposed to weather and have become soaked with water. A2.4 Protective and decorative treatments Treatment selection criteria and quality standards to be used during surface preparation and coating application are detailed in the CICIND Chimney Protective Coatings Manual. Stainless steel is normally supplied in its mill nish condition, which is a matt, light grey. Polishing to achieve a shiny nish involves extra cost. Weathering steel, unless grit blasted, may not oxidise evenly.
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APPENDIX No. 3 GUYED CHIMNEYS

A3.1. Thermal expansion effects Steel chimneys are subject to thermal expansion when the shell is heated by the ue gases and, to a small extent by strong sunlight and by large variations in ambient temperature. The vertical expansion can be considerable on tall chimneys with reasonably high ue gas temperatures, especially if they are externally insulated. For example, the vertical expansion of a steel chimney with a guy band 80m above ground level and with a shell temperature of 250C, would be 280mm. This vertical expension expansion can greatly affect the tension in the guy wires and the consequent compressive load on the chimney shell. The stresses in guy ropes and shell should be checked under both hot and cold conditions. For instance, if the guy wires are correctly tensioned when the chimney is cold, the vertical expansion when the chimney goes on load will increase the tension in the guy ropes, it will also increase the vertical component in the shell plate, when it could in extreme cases produce buckling. However, if the guy wires are tensioned when the chimney is hot, when it goes off load the chimney will reduce in height and the guy wires will lose part of their tension. This could cause more movement under wind load than is desirable. In order to avoid these problems, a compromise initial guy rope tension under cold conditions may be necessary i.e. a tension that allows some lateral deection of the chimney under design wind and cold conditions, while increasing the vertical load in the chimney by a signicant but safe margin under hot conditions. Alternatively, if a chimney is used on a constant load 24 hours a day for long periods and maintenance resources permit, the guys can initially be correctly tensioned when the chimney is cold. When the chimney starts up and is heated to its operating temperature, the guys can be readjusted to the correct tension after the chimney has expanded. As soon as the heat load is reduced and the chimney resumes its cold height, however, the guys must be retensioned. A3.2. Calculations A3.2.1 Normal conditions The guyed chimneys shall be calculated taking into the consideration second order effects. The decisive winddirections which should be taken into account are given in gure A3.1
Mm overturning moment produced by dead-weight or other permanent loads which may act to increase combined moment Me overturning moment produced by permanent loads which act at all times to reduce combined moment Ma restoring moment produced by the foundation (including guy rope anchorages) without exceeding allowable material stresses or the foundation allowable bearing pressure. In determining the support provided by the windward guy ropes, the relative stiffnesses of the chimney (acting as a cantilever) and the guy ropes, including their non-linear behaviour, should be taken into account. Many modern structural computer programs have routines for analysing guyed structures, which do this automatically. If calculations are made by hand, however, guy rope tensions should rst be calculated, assuming the chimney is pinned at its base. Horizontal deections at the rope attachment points should then be determined. The stack shell should then be analysed as a cantilever, propped by springs at the rope attachment points. The stiffness of these springs is determined by the deflections and horizontal components of tension in the ropes, previously calculated. Second order effects should be considered. A3.2.2 Abnormal conditions The stability of the chimney should be checked at 0.1 Design Windspeed, assuming one of the guy ropes to be broken. A3.3 Guy ropes Guy ropes should be provided in at least 3 vertical planes. T he angle between any two planes should not exceed 130. Guy ropes should not slope more than 60 to the horizontal. Guy ropes shall be of galvanized steel wire, with steel cores, complying with ISO/R346. The wires should have a minimum tensile strength of 1450 N/mm2, A completed rope should be evenly laid and free from loose wires, disturbed strands or other irregularities and should remain in this condition when properly unwound from the reel or coil. Fittings should be of galvanized steel. Prior to erection, completed guy ropes should be greased and subjected to a tensile force amounting to 20% of their minimum breaking load for a period of 30 minutes. Guy ropes and ttings should be designed so that their minimum breaking strength exceeds 3 maximum calcuiated load, due to the sum of pretension, design wind and chimney expansion. After erection and while the chimney is cold, the guy ropes should be pretensioned so as to minimise top deection of the chimney. The pretension may be measured by the use of a suitable instrument and should be not less than 15% nor more than 30% of the calculated maximum tension due to design wind under the hot condition. Attachments of the guy ropes should be positioned sufficiently far below the chimney top to avoid corrosive effects of the ue gases. A minimum distance of 3m is recommended.
Fig. A3.1 Wind directions for guyed chimneys
The stability of the structure and foundation as a whole or any part of it should be investigated. Weight of anchorage should be provided such that: M 1.4 Mw 1.35 Mm 0.9 Me 0.9 Ma in which: M combined moment Mw overturning moment produced by the design wind and imposed loads
page 34
APPENDIX No. 4 ACCESS LADDERS

A4.1. General This section species the requirements for steel ladders, permanently xed to steel chimneys, to provide means of access. They are to be xed to the chimney in a continuous vertical length interspersed with landings and/or rest platforms as required. There may be relevant local requirements or standards which are more stringent than those detailed below and, in these cases, they must be followed. An alternative to the caged ladder system is an open ladder with a proprietary safety system, either running beside the ladder or centrally between the stringers. Rest platforms as described in A5.8 should still be incorporated at the relevant levels. A4.2. Denitions For the purpose of this appendix the following denitions shall apply: 1) Stringers. The side members of the ladder to which the rungs are tted. 2) Safety hoop. A bar xed to the stringers to enclose the path of persons climbing the ladder, to prevent them falling outwards. 3) Rest platform. A platform provided to enable the person climbing the ladder to rest. 4) Landing. A platform provided to enable access to part of or the whole of the circumference of the chimney. A4.3. Materials The materials used for the construction of ladders, hoops, platforms and rest platforms shall be of carbon steel and conform to Euronorm 2832, except those components within 3 diameters of the chimney top which, in the case of chimneys carrying ue gas with high SO2/SO3 content, should be of high molybdenum stainless steel (ASTM 316L or similar) or should be protected by an acid-resistant coating. A4.4. Finish All burrs, weld-ash, sharp edges and other imperfections likely to cause injury to the hands of a person using the ladder, shall be removed and made smooth before the nishing treatment. Depending on the situation and atmospheric conditions in which the ladders are to be used, they shall be given a suitable protective nish. Hot dip galvanizing is not recommended for ladder components or connections manufactured by a cold forming process. Galvanizing may only take place after drilling, bending, sawing, etc. A4.5. Stringers Stringers shall be of at bar of minimum dimensions 65 10mm. The stringers shall be parallel and straight throughout the rung portion and the distance between the stringers measured from the inside faces shall not be less than 300mm and not more than 450mm. The stringers shall extend upwards, to a height of not less than 1075mm above the upper platform and shall be securely fastened at their extremities. Such extension of the stringers shall not encroach on the clear width of the platform passageway. Where, in order to step from the ladder into a landing platform, it is necessary to pass between the extended portion of the stringers, these shall be opened out from platform level to provide a clear width of 600675mm between them at handrail level. Where access to an upper platform is from the side or front of a ladder, the ladder itself shail be extended above the platform level for a distance of not less than 1075mm or equivalent handholds shall be provided.
Stringers should, if possible, be in a continuous length, but where they are in more than one length they shall be joined by shplates on the insides of the stringers, either welded or bolted. If bolts are used they shall be countersunk on the stringer and not less than 12mm in diameter. There shall be not less than two bolts on each side of the joint. A4.6. Rungs Rungs shall be of round bar not less than 20mm diameter. If the bar is reduced in diameter at the ends for welding, the reduced diameter shall be 6 mm less than the diameter of the bar and there shall be a 1.5mm radius at the root of the shoulder. The rungs in a ladder or ight of ladders, shall be uniformly spaced throughout at centres of 225mm minimum to 300mm maximum. The top rung shall be on the same level as the platform which shall be extended, if necessary, to limit, to not more than 75mm, the gap between the rung and platform. Alternatively the platform may be extended to replace the top rung. Rungs shall be tted into holes drilled in the stringers and secured by welding. Rungs shall be welded to the stringers with or without shouldering. Holes in the stringers shall be drilled to give a 1mm clearance and where shouldered rungs are used, holes shall be countersunk 1.5mm to clear the root radius (see gure A4.1).
Fig. A4.1 Attachment of ladder rungs to stringers
A4.7. Safety hoops If safety hoops are tted to the ladder, the following provisions shall apply. All ladders rising 2300mm or more from a lower platform or ground level to the top rung shall be tted with safety hoops, the spacing of which shall be uniform and at intervals not exceeding 1000mm measured along the stringer. The lowermost hoop shall be tted to the stringers at a height of 2300 0 75mm from a lower platform or ground in order to give sufficient overhead clearance when getting on to the ladder. The uppermost hoop shall be xed in line with any guard rail to the upper platform but in any case shall be at a height of not less than 1075mm above the level of this platform. A4.7.1. Size of hoops Circular pattern. The width across the hoop shall be 690 to 760mm. The distance from the centre line of stringers to the inside of the back of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, shall be 760 to 850mm (see gure A4.2). Rectangular pattern. The width across the hoop shall be 690 to 760mm. The distance from the centre line of stringers to the inside of the back of the hoop, measured at right angles to the stringers, shall be 690 to 760mm. The radius of the corners shall be not less than 150mm (see gure A4.2). The minimum dimensions of the hoop and strap material shall be 50 8mm. At least three vertical straps shall be tted internally to brace the hoops; one of these straps shall be at the centre back of the hoop, and the others spaced evenly between the centre back of the hoop and the ladder stringers.
page 35
The hooks are to be used for the temporary attachment of ladders only except as noted below. A pulley is sometimes rigged from the top of a steeplejacks ladder for the purpose of lifting small loads for maintenance of the chimney. It is important that such loads shall be kept as light as possible and in no circumstance should any single load exceed 50kg. If a hook is used directly for lifting purposes, the weights of the lifting device suspended from it and of the load to be lifted should together not exceed 50kg. A4.10.3. Materials Hooks shall be made from steel complying with the requirements of Euronorm 2572. In a normalised condition the steel shall have a minimum tensile strength of 430N/mm2 and a maximum tensile strength of 500N/mm2. The sockets shall be made from round steel bar complying with the requirements of Euronorm 2572. A4.10.4. Design The design shall be as shown in gure A4.3 for the welded hooks. The design shall be as shown in gure A4.4 for the screwed hooks and sockets. It is recommended that the screwed type of hook be used on insulated chimneys i.e., those with mineral wool or aluminium cladding as the hook does not project through the insulation. This projection could cause cold spots on the chimney shell. An insulating spacer should be attached to the face of the socket to minimise heat conduction between the face of the socket and the surface of the aluminium cladding.
Fig. A4.2 Ladder hoops
Hoops and straps shall be xed by bolting or welding. If bolts are used they shall be countersunk, inserted from the inside of the strap or hoop and shall he not less than 12mm diameter. The assembly of hoops and straps shall be suitably braced unless secured to the stringers by double bolting, or welding. A4.8. Rest platforms and landings When required, rest platforms shall be provided at intervals of not greater than 20m. Landing places, other than working platforms, which are provided specically at rest platforms shall be at least 825mm square and shall have a guardrail at a height of 1075mm above the platform level with an intermediate rail and toeboards. When required, landings shall be provided at suitable levels to provide access to sampling points etc. These landings are to be adequately supported from the chimney shell and shall have a minimum width of 825mm. They are to be tted with a guardrail at 1075mm above the platform level, with an intermediate rail and toeboards. A4.9. Attachment to chimney The ladder shall be vertical except where it follows the slope of a cone section. Stringers shall be attached to the chimney by suitable connections which shall be rmly attached to the stringers and the chimney and be sufficiently close together to make the ladder rigid throughout its length. The connections shall be of sufficient length to give a clearance of not less than 200mm behind the rungs. Suitable provision shall be made at xing points for any differential expansion (except at platforms and landings) . A4.10. Access hooks A4.10.1. General This section species requirements for hooks which are intended to provide means of access for inspection and maintenance only by steeplejacks and members of similar trades who normally t their own ladders. The hooks may be of two types: a) Those welded permanently to the steel shell b) Those which are screwed into sockets welded to the. shell of the steel chimney A4.10.2. Use of access hooks The hooks shall be in a vertical line on the exterior of the structure. The use of access hooks inside chimneys exposed to corrosive gases is not recommended. The rst hook should be 1.2m 50 0mm above access level. The hooks should be spaced at multiples of 1.5m vertical centres with a local tolerance of 50mm which will accommodate the majority of the various lengths of ladders used by steeplejacks.
Fig. A4.3 Welded ladder hooks
Fig. A4.4 Screwed ladder hooks and bosses
page 36
A4.10.5. Construction The hooks shall be hot forged by hand out of solid bar. The hooks shall pass visual examination to ensure freedom from surface defects and shall be cleanly forged in such a manner that the microscopic ow lines follow the body outline of the hook. The whole of the shank shall be forged in one piece, integral with the hook. The hooks shall be normalised after the completion of all forging operations by heating them uniformly in a furnace until the whole of the metal has attained a temperature between 880C and 910C and then cooled in still air. A4.10.6. Method of xing The welded type hook shall be xed to the chimney by means of a llet weld of 6mm leg size on each side of the shank and returned across the top and bottom. After welding to the structure, a test shall
be carried out by suspending from the hook a mass of 200kg when no fracture, crack or visible deformation shall occur. The socket of the screwed-type hook shall be xed to the chimney by means of a llet weld of 6mm leg size for the whole of the perephery of the socket. For new chimneys the welding should be carried out in the fabrication shop. It is normal practice for the steeplejack rm to supply the screwed type hooks for their own use when they ladder the chimney.

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CICIND

Model Code for Steel Chimneys

Commentaries and Appendices

Copyright CICIND 2000 ISBN 1-902998-11-1

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

The 50-year wind pressure is xs50 1

In(50) 1.645r u r 2 1 exp

the pdf of the resistance is pr (x)

In(T) without altering the shape of u

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

Fig. C3.1 Relationship between wind-speed and its return period

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

90(40) 100(40) 110(49) 120(54)

Special Wind Region

Fig C3.4 Wind Speeds in USA

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

Fig C3.5 Basic windspeeds in m/s for Asia (hourly mean)

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

Basic windspeed Vb (hourly mean) m/s 25 29 34 41

Fig 3.6 Basic Windspeeds for Australia

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

[M/S r.m.s.]2 REAL Hz

0.0 10.000 HZ 100.00

Vcr 5.9 m/s, Scr 4.8, f 40 hz

[M/S r.m.s.]2 REAL Hz

Second Mode First Mode

Time (secs) 1 = 0.7 Hz 2 = 2.6 Hz

Fig. C3.15 Relationship between Scruton Number and top amplitude

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

Fig. C.3.18 Circumferential wind pressure and deected shape

{tensile shell stress tensile beam sress (1 {6 / [(l/r)2 (t/r)]}.

The third term (1.115 p0 cos g. C.3.17) causes ovalling.

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

ratio at 3.18 1.35 0.87 2.63 1.13 0.75 2.13 0.98

Table C3.5.1 Max. Compression Stresses at Base of Unstiffened Chimney

1.64 1.11 1.57 1.10 1.04 1.43 1.03 1.32 1.03

Total Tension Upwind

m0 (max) 0.07 p0 d2(Nm/m)

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

... (C.3.5.7) ... (C.3.5.8)

Deformation with rings at distances

Ring Saffener (Deformation Zero)

Fig. C3.21 Ovalling deformation of a cylinder with a stiff ring at x 0

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

[6] [7] [8] [9]

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

COMMENTARY No. 4 FATIGUE

Fig. C4.3 Load/cycle collectives for various values of

Number of load cycles due to cross-wind excitation during the lifetime T

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

Where A 4 Vcr /Vb(h) f Resonance frequency

CICIND Model Code Commentaries and Appendices

COMMENTARY No. 5 OPENINGS

Fig C5.1 Reduction of inertia at openings

A 2tr ( ) 2a e tr2 sin arcos tr () a