Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

I. II. III.

IV. 1.

BUILDING MATERIALS GLASS

Glass has been subject to a continuous process of refinement and the modern material bears little resemblance, either in appearance or technical specification, to early forms, which were restricted in size and clouded with impurities. One of the big technological breakthroughs came with developments in plate glass in the early twentieth century, which enabled the material to be manufactured economically on a much bigger scale. Coinciding with improvements to steel, which meant that it could be used to form relatively minimal structural frameworks, this resulted in buildings whose glass walls literally dissolved the boundaries between inside and out. A similar revolution in glass technology has taken place in recent years and there are many different types of glass on the market today to suit a wide range of applications. Smart (reactive) glass and eco glass have number of types of glass that have particular relevance in design and decorative contexts. Glass is a key element in contemporary design. Increasingly, preferences are for open interior spaces and plenty of natural light; expanses of glass infilling generous openings are one of the principal ways of delivering this type of spatial quality. But glass has other applications, too; the availability of strengthened glass, in particular, has seen glass used in innovative ways - as flooring or transparent baths and sinks, for example. Most of the glass produced today is float glass. During manufacture, the molten glass is poured onto a bath of molten tin where it levels out, cools and hardens. After subsequent hardening in an annealing lehr, the resulting glass is perfectly flat, uniform in thickness and has polished surfaces. Rolled glass, another basic type, is used to make wired and patterned glass. During this process, semi-molten glass is pressed between rollers. 1.1. Characteristics a) With the exception of colored or overtly decorative glass, many types of glass do not appear superficially very different from one another. Performance however, can vary widely, so it is always important to take advice when considering glass for a specific application b) Available in a range of sizes and thickness. Larger sheets are of necessity thicker. Maximum size is determined by the limitations of shipping and handling. c) Large expanses of glass are heavy and framing or edge detailing are key considerations. Installation is a professional job. d) With the exception of self-cleaning glass, most types of glass require significant degrees of maintenance to remain in a pristine sparkling condition. e) With the exception of low-E (low-emissivity) glass, expanses of glazing tend to overheat interiors during warm weather and drain heat at night or during the cooler months f) Glass is readily recycled with no loss of quality. GENERAL APPLICATION Glass plays an essential role in science and industry. The optical and physical properties of glass make it suitable for applications such as a) Flat Glass b) Container Glass c) Optics and Optoelectronics Material d) Laboratory Equipment e) Thermal Insulator (Glass Wool) f) Reinforcement Fiber (Glass-Reinforced Plastic, Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete) g) Art 1.3. DEFINTION: It is an amorphous substance, hard, brittle, inorganic substance, ordinarily transparent or translucent, produced by melting a mixture of silica with a flux and a stabilizer, while molten maybe blown, drawn, rolled, pressed or cast to a variety of shapes without crystallization.

1.2.

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Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

1.4. The common ingredient of glass 1.4.1. Sand (Silicon Dioxide). Sand is the principal component in common glass. The chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica (from the Latin silex), is an oxide of silicon with a chemical formula of SiO2 and has been known for its hardness since antiquity. Silica is most commonly found in nature as sand or quartz, as well as in the cell walls of diatoms. It is a principal component of most types of glass and substances such as concrete. Silica is the most abundant mineral in the Earth's crust. 1.4.2. Sodium carbonate (also known as washing soda, soda crystals or soda ash), Na2CO3, is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline heptahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate; and is domestically well known for its everyday use as a water softener. It has a cooling alkaline taste, and can be extracted from the ashes of many plants. It is synthetically produced in large quantities from table salt in a process known as the Solvay process (The Solvay process, also referred to as the ammonia-soda process, is the major industrial process for the production of soda ash (sodium carbonate). The manufacture of glass is the most important use of sodium carbonate. When combined with sand (SiO2) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and heated to very high temperatures, then cooled very rapidly, glass is produced. This type of glass is known as Soda lime glass. 1.4.3. Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly known as burnt lime, lime or quicklime, is a widely used chemical compound. It is a white, caustic and alkaline crystalline solid at room temperature. As a commercial product, lime often also contains magnesium oxide, silicon oxide and smaller amounts of aluminium oxide and iron oxide. The name lime (native lime) refers to a very rare mineral of the CaO composition. The common ingredient Types of glass according to additional constituent, uses and Characteristics 1.5.1. Soda-lime glass, also called soda-lime-silica glass, is the most prevalent type of glass, used for windowpanes, and glass containers (bottles and jars) for beverages, food, and some commodity items. Glass bakeware is often made of tempered soda-lime glass. Soda-lime glass is prepared by melting the raw materials, such as sodium carbonate (soda), limestone, dolomite, silicon dioxide (silica), aluminium oxide (alumina), and small quantities of fining agents (e.g., sodium sulfate, sodium chloride) in a glass furnace at temperatures locally up to 1675C. The temperature is only limited by the quality of the furnace superstructure material and by the glass composition. Green and brown bottles are obtained from raw materials containing iron oxide. Relatively inexpensive minerals such as trona (A natural vitreous gray or white mineral, Na2CO3NaHCO32H2O, used as a source of sodium compounds), sand, and feldspar (Any of a group of abundant rock-forming minerals occurring principally in igneous, plutonic, and some metamorphic rocks, and consisting of silicates of aluminum with potassium, sodium, calcium, and, rarely, barium. About 60 percent of the earth's outer crust is composed of feldspar.) are used instead of pure chemicals. The mix of raw materials is termed batch. Soda-lime glass is divided technically into glass used for windows, called float glass or flat glass, and glass for containers, called container glass. Both types differ in the application, production method (float process for windows, blowing and pressing for containers), and chemical composition. Float glass has a higher magnesium oxide and sodium oxide content as compared to container glass, and a lower silica, calcium oxide, and aluminium oxide content. From this follows a slightly higher quality of container glass concerning the chemical durability against water, which is required especially for storage of beverages and food. Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. 1.5.2. Lead glass, such as lead crystal or flint glass, is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index (describes how light, or any other radiation, transmit through the medium) causes noticeably more "sparkles", Lead glass is a variety of glass in which lead replaces the calcium content of typical potash glasses. Lead glass contains typically 1835 mol% PbO, while modern lead crystal, historically also known as flint glass due to the original silica source, contains a minimum of 24% lead oxide. Lead glass is desirable due to its decorative properties. Technically, the term crystal should never be applied to glass, as glass, by definition, lacks a crystalline structure. The use of the term lead crystal remains popular due to historical and commercial reasons; originally stemming from the Venetian use of the word cristallo to describe the rock crystal imitated by Murano glassmakers. This is a naming convention which has been maintained to the present day to describe decorative hollow-ware.

1.5.

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Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Due to the potential health risks of lead that it contains, true lead crystal glassware is rare nowadays. One material that is commonly used to manufacture glassware and referred to as "crystal" is leadfree crystal glass. In lead-free crystal glass, barium oxide, zinc oxide, or potassium oxide are employed instead of lead oxide. Lead-free crystal has a similar refractive index to lead crystal, but it is lighter and it has less dispersive power. Flint glass is optical glass that has relatively high refractive index and low Abbe number. Flint glasses are arbitrarily defined as having an Abbe number of 50 to 55 or less. In physics and optics, the Abbe number, also known as the V-number or constringence of a transparent material, is a measure of the material's dispersion (variation of refractive index with wavelength) in relation to the refractive index. It is named for Ernst Abbe (18401905), the German physicist who defined it. With respect to glass, the term flint derives from the flint nodules found in the chalk deposits of southeast England that were used as a source of high purity silica by George Ravenscroft, circa 1662, to produce a potash lead glass that was the predecessor to English lead crystal. Traditionally, flint glasses were lead glasses containing around 460% lead oxide; however, the manufacture and disposal of these glasses are sources of pollution. In many modern flint glasses, the lead can be replaced with other additives such as titanium dioxide and zirconium dioxide without significantly altering the optical properties of the glass. Flint glass can be fashioned into rhinestones which are used as diamond simulants. 1.5.3. Boron may be added to change the thermal and electrical properties, as in Pyrex. Borosilicate glass is a type of glass with the main glass-forming constituents silica and boron oxide. Borosilicate glasses are most well known for having very low coefficient of thermal expansion (~5 10-6 /C at 20C); making them resistant to thermal shock, more so than any other common glass. Borosilicate glass was first developed by German glassmaker Otto Schott in the late 19th century and sold under the brand name "Duran" in 1893. After Corning Glass Works introduced Pyrex in 1915, it became a synonym for borosilicate glass in the English-speaking world. Most borosilicate glass is colorless. Colored borosilicate, for the art glass trade, was first widely brought onto the market in 1986 when Paul Trautman founded Northstar Glassworks. There are now a number of small companies in the U.S. and abroad that manufactures and sells colored borosilicate glass for the art glass market. In addition to the quartz, sodium carbonate, and calcium carbonate traditionally used in glassmaking, boron is used in the manufacture of borosilicate glass. Typically, the resulting glass composition is about 70% silica, 10% boron oxide, 8% sodium oxide, 8% potassium oxide, and 1% calcium oxide (lime). Though somewhat more difficult to make than traditional glass (Corning conducted a major revamp of their operations to make it), it is economical to produce because its superior durability, chemical and heat resistance finds excellent use in chemical laboratory equipment, cookware, lighting, and in certain cases, windows. The refractory properties and physical strength of borosilicate glass make it ideal for use in high-durability laboratory equipment such as beakers and test tubes. In addition, borosilicate glass warps minimally when exposed to heat, allowing a borosilicate container to provide accurate measurements of volume over time. During the mid-twentieth century, borosilicate glass tubing was used to pipe coolants (often distilled water) through high power vacuum tube-based electronic equipment, such as commercial broadcast transmitters. 1.5.4. Barium carbonate is also used to increases the refractive index and luster of the glass because of being a heavy element. Barium carbonate is also a rat poison and can also be used in making bricks. Unlike the sulfate, the carbonate dissolves in stomach acid, allowing it to be poisonous. 1.5.5. Silicate glasses are amorphous and have no crystalline structure. Silicate glass is useful for conducting x-ray crystallography because the x-rays will pass through the silicate pipette holding the sample under examination without being reflected by crystals in the glass itself; thus the resulting measurement is assured to be from the sample. Silicate glasses have also been commonly used in the field of Compiled by: ARCH. PAULO C. PINEDA I, uap Pamantasan Ng Lungsod Ng Maynila - COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION -3-

Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

semiconductor device fabrication as an insulator between active layers of the semiconductor device. Also, some airbags in cars react SiO2 with harmful byproducts of nitrogen gas producing reactions to produce Silicate glass to remove the harmful substances (K2O and Na2O). These materials have relatively low melting temperatures, and can be flowed by heating in order to "planarize" the semiconductor layers. There will typically be contact holes or vias etched into the glass layers using wet etching or dry etching, and the silicate glasses can then be reflowed by heating in order to make smoother tops to the contact holes or vias, which makes the metal connections into the contact holes or vias more durable. The silicate glasses are typically formed of phosphosilicate glass (PSG) or borophosphosilicate glass (BPSG). The boron and/or phosphorus impurity levels used can be adjusted to affect the silicate glass's melting point. 1.5.6. BioGlass is a commercially available type of bioactive glass. It is also known as 45S5 glass. It is composed of less than 60mol% silicon dioxide, also known as silica-SiO2, high Sodium oxide-Na2O, Calcium oxide-CaO and Phosphorus pentoxide-P2O5, which makes BioGlass highly reactive to aqueous medium and bioactive. Professor Larry Hench developed BioGlass at the University of Florida in the late 1960s. He was challenged by a Mobile Army Surgical Hospital (MASH) army officer to develop a material to help regenerate bone, as many Vietnam War veterans suffered badly from bone damage, such that most of them injured in this way lost their limbs. Low bioactivity is the main advantage of BioGlass, while its disadvantages include mechanical weakness, low fracture resistance due to amorphous 2-dimensional glass network. The bending strength of most BioGlass is in the range of 40-60MPa, which is not enough for load-bearing application. While its Young's modulus is 30-35GPa, very close to that of cortical bone. 1.5.7. Thorium dioxide was formerly added to glasses during manufacture to increase their refractive index, producing thoriated glass with up to 40% ThO2 content. These glasses were used in the construction of high-quality photographic lenses. However, the radioactivity of the thorium caused both a safety and pollution hazard and self-degradation of the glass (turning it yellow or brown over time). Lanthanum oxide has replaced thorium dioxide in almost all modern high-index glasses. 1.5.8. Large amounts of iron are used in glass that absorbs infrared energy, such as heat absorbing filters for movie projectors. 1.5.9. Cerium (IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs Ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths (biologically damaging ionizing radiation). 1.5.10. A technique for making a ceramic composed of aluminium oxide and rare earth elements to produce a strong glass called transparent alumina developed by 3M in 2004. 1.5.11. Muscovy-glass. Muscovite (also known as Common mica, Isinglass, or Potash mica is a phyllosilicate mineral of aluminium and potassium with formula KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2, or (KF)2(Al2O3)3(SiO2)6(H2O). It has a highly-perfect basal cleavage yielding remarkably-thin lamin (sheets) which are often highly elastic. Sheets of muscovite 5 metres by 3 metres have been found in Nellore, India. Muscovite has a Mohs hardness of 22.25 parallel to the [001] face, 4 perpendicular to the [001] and a specific gravity of 2.763. It can be colorless or tinted through grays, browns, greens, yellows, or (rarely) violet or red, and can be transparent or translucent. The green, chromium-rich variety is called fuchsite. Muscovite is the most common mica, found in granites, pegmatites, gneisses, and schists, and as a contact metamorphic rock or as a secondary mineral resulting from the alteration of topaz, feldspar, kyanite, etc. In pegmatites, it is often found in immense sheets that are commercially valuable. Muscovite is in demand for the manufacture of fireproofing and insulating materials and to some extent as a lubricant. The name of muscovite comes from Muscovy-glass, a name formerly used for the mineral because of its use in Russia for windows. It is anisotropic and has high birefringence. Its crystal system is monoclinic. 1.5.12. Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) poly (methyl 2-methylpropenoate) is a transparent thermoplastic. Chemically, it is the synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate. It is sold under many trade names, including Policril, Plexiglas, Gavrieli, Vitroflex, Limacryl, R-Cast, Per-Clax, Perspex, Plazcryl, Acrylex, Acrylite, Acrylplast, Altuglas, Polycast, Oroglass, Optix and Lucite and is commonly

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called acrylic glass, simply acrylic, perspex or plexiglas. Acrylic, or acrylic fiber, can also refer to polymers or copolymers containing polyacrylonitrile. The material was developed in 1928 in various laboratories and was brought to market in 1933 by Rohm and Haas Company. PMMA is often used as an alternative to glass, and in competition with polycarbonate (PC). It is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost, but behaves in a brittle manner when loaded, especially under an impact force. To produce 1 kg of PMMA, about 2 kg of petroleum is needed. PMMA ignites at 460 C and burns, forming carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide and low molecular weight compounds, including formaldehyde. The first acrylic acid was created in 1843. Methacrylic acid, derived from acrylic acid, was formulated in 1865. The reaction between methacrylic acid and methyl alcohol results in the ester methyl methacrylate. The German chemists Fittig and Paul discovered in 1877 the polymerization process that turns methyl methacrylate into polymethyl methacrylate. In 1933 the German chemist Otto Rhm patented and registered the brand name PLEXIGLAS. In 1936 the first commercially viable production of acrylic safety glass began. During World War II acrylic glass was used for submarine periscopes, and windshields, canopies, and gun turrets for airplanes. 1.6. The common ingredient Types of glass according to additional constituent, uses and Characteristics 1.6.1. Calumite is a raw material for the glass making industry. It is obtained by quenching molten iron blast furnace slag (a by-product of iron and steel making) in water or steam (granulation), to produce a glassy granular product that is then dried and screened for the manufacture of float and container glass. 1.6.2. Cullet" (Recycled Glass). The recycled glass saves on raw materials and energy. However, impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment failure. 1.6.3. Sodium Sulfate, Sodium Chloride, or Antimony Oxides are fining agents that are added to reduce the bubble content in the glass. GLASS THICKNESSES Glass is typically manufactured in a series of thicknesses ranging from approximately: a) 2.5mm. to 3mm., is called Single-Strength, b) 6mm. to 22mm., is called Double-Strength c) 25mm. special order, 1.8. GLASS PRODUCTION Glass production comprehends two types of glass: 1.8.1. Sheet glass, made by the float glass process, Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating molten glass on a bed of molten tin. This method gives the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern windows are made from float glass. Most float glass is soda-lime glass, but relatively minor quantities of specialty borosilicate and flat panel display glass are also produced using the float glass process. The float glass process is also known as the Pilkington process, named after the British glass manufacturer Pilkington, which pioneered the technique (invented by Sir Alastair Pilkington) in the 1950s. History. Until the 17th century, window glass or flat glass was generally cut from large discs (or rondels) of crown glass. Larger sheets of glass were made by blowing large cylinders which were cut open and flattened, then cut into panes. Most window glass in the early 19th century was made using the cylinder method. The 'cylinders' were 6 to 8 feet (1.8 to 2.4 m) long and 10 to 14 inches (250 to 360 mm) in diameter, limiting the width that panes of glass could be cut, and resulting in windows divided by transoms into rectangular panels. The first advances in automating glass manufacturing were patented in 1848 by Henry Bessemer, an English engineer. His system produced a continuous ribbon of flat glass by forming the ribbon between rollers. This was an expensive process, as the surfaces of the glass needed polishing. If the glass could be set on a perfectly smooth body this would cut costs considerably. Attempts were made to form flat glass on a molten tin bath, notably in the US. Several patents were awarded, but this process was unworkable.

1.7.

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Before the development of float glass, larger sheets of plate glass were made by casting a large puddle of glass on an iron surface, and then polishing both sides, a costly process. From the early 1920s, a continuous ribbon of plate glass was passed through a lengthy series of inline grinders and polishers, reducing glass losses and cost. Glass of lower quality, sheet glass, was made by drawing upwards from a pool of molten glass a thin sheet, held at the edges by rollers. As it cooled the rising sheet stiffened and could then be cut. The two surfaces were less parallel and of lower quality than those of float glass. This process continued in use for many years after the development of float glass. Between 1953 and 1957, Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers developed the first successful commercial application for forming a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The success of this process lay in the careful balance of the volume of glass fed onto the bath, where it was flattened by its own weight. Full scale profitable sales of float glass were first achieved in 1960. Manufacture. Float glass uses common glass making raw materials, typically consisting of sand, soda ash (sodium carbonate), dolomite, limestone, and salt cake (sodium sulfate). Other materials may be used as colorants, refining agents or to adjust the physical and chemical properties of the glass. The raw materials are mixed in a batch mixing process, then fed together with suitable cullet (waste glass), in a controlled ratio, into a furnace where it is heated to approximately 1500C. Common flat glass furnaces are 9 m wide, 45 m long, and contain more than 1200 tons of glass. Once molten, the temperature of the glass is stabilized to approximately 1200C to ensure a homogeneous specific gravity. The molten glass is fed into a "tin bath", a bath of molten tin (about 3-4 m wide, 50 m long, 6 cm deep), through a delivery canal. The amount of glass allowed to pour onto the molten tin is controlled by a gate. Tin is suitable for the float glass process because it has a high specific gravity, is immiscible, and is cohesive. Tin, however, is highly reactive with oxygen and oxidises in a natural atmosphere to form Tin dioxide (SnO2). Known in the production process as dross, the tin dioxide adheres to the glass. To prevent oxidation, the tin bath is provided with a positive pressure protective atmosphere consisting of a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen. The glass flows onto the tin surface forming a floating ribbon with perfectly smooth surfaces on both sides and an even thickness. As the glass flows along the tin bath, the temperature is gradually reduced from 1100C until the sheet can be lifted from the tin onto rollers at approximately 600C. The glass ribbon is pulled off the bath by rollers at a controlled speed. Variation in the flow speed and roller speed enables glass sheets of varying thickness to be formed. Top rollers positioned above the molten tin may be used to control both the thickness and the width of the glass ribbon. Once off the bath, the glass sheet passes through a lehr kiln for approximately 100 m, where it is further cooled gradually so that it anneals without strain and does not crack from the change in temperature. On exiting the "cold end" of the kiln, the glass is cut by machines. Lehr (glassmaking). A lehr is a temperature-controlled kiln for annealing objects made of glass. The name derives from the German verb lehren meaning to teach and is cognate with the English lere also meaning to learn or acquire knowledge of (something). Rapid cooling of molten glass generates an uneven temperature distribution in the body of the glass which results in mechanical stress sufficient to cause cracking before the object has reached ambient temperature, or to result in susceptibility to cracking in later use, often resulting from thermal shock. To prevent this, objects manufactured from molten glass are annealed by cooling gradually in a lehr from a temperature just below the solidification point of the glass. Anneal cooling rate depends on the thickness of the glass, and can range from several tens of degrees Celsius per hour for thin sections to a fraction of a degree Celsius per hour for thick slabs or castings. In glass manufacture, a lehr is typically a long kiln with a temperature gradient from end to end, through which newly-made glass objects such as glasses or vases are transported on a conveyor belt. However, the same effect can be obtained in a small kiln by controlling the cooling rate with an electronic temperature controller.

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1.8.2. Glass-container glass. Glass container production a) Glass container factories. Broadly, modern glass container factories are three-part operations: the batch house, the hot end, and the cold end. The batch house handles the raw materials; the hot end handles the manufacture proper - the furnaces, annealing ovens, and forming machines; and the cold end handle the product-inspection and packaging equipment. b) Batch house. The batch house holds the raw materials for glass, primarily sand, soda ash, limestone, feldspar, et cetera. The materials are received (typically by truck and rail transport), and elevated into storage silos, from where, using common glass batch calculation, they are weighed-out as multi- tonne batches. c) Furnace. The hot end of a glassworks is where the molten glass is formed into containers; beginning when the batch is fed into the furnace at a slow, controlled rate. The furnaces are natural gas- or fuel oil-fired, and operate at temperatures up to 1675C. The temperature is limited only by the quality of the furnaces superstructure material and by the glass composition. d) Forming process. There are, currently, two primary methods of making a glass container - the blow and blow method and the press and blow method. In all cases a stream of molten glass, at its plastic temperature (1050C-1200C), is cut with a shearing blade to form a cylinder of glass, called a gob. Both processes start with the gob falling, by gravity, and guided, through troughs and chutes, into the blank moulds. In the blow and blow process, the glass first is blown from below, into the blank moulds, to create a parison, or pre-container. The parison is then flipped over into a final mould, where a final blow blows the glass out, in to the mould, to make the final container shape. In the case of press and blow process, the parison is formed with a metal plunger, which pushes the glass out, into the blank mould. The process then continues as before, with the parison being transferred to the mould, and the glass being blown out into the mould. e) Forming machines. The forming machines hold and move the parts that form the container. Generally powered by compressed air, the mechanisms are timed to coordinate the movement of all these parts so that containers are made. The most widely used forming machine arrangement is the individual section machine (or IS machine), invented in 1903 by Michael Joseph Owens in Illinois. This machine has a bank of 5-20 identical sections, each of which contains one complete set of mechanisms to make containers. The sections are in a row, and the gobs feed into each section via a moving chute, called the gob distributor. Sections make either one, two, three or four containers simultaneously. (Referred to as single, double, triple and quad gob). In the case of multiple gobs, the shears cut the gobs simultaneously, and they fall into the blank moulds in parallel. f) Annealing. As glass cools it shrinks and solidifies. Uneven cooling causes weak glass due to stress. Even cooling is achieved by annealing. An annealing oven (known in the industry as a Lehr) heats the container to about 580C then cools it, depending on the glass thickness, over a 20 6000 minute period. g) Cold end. The role of the cold end is to inspect the containers for defects, package the containers for shipment and label the containers. h) Inspection equipment i) Secondary processing. Labeling and Etching is done. j) Packaging k) Coatings. Glass containers typically receive two surface coatings, one at the hot end, just before annealing and one at the cold end just after annealing. At the hot end a very thin layer of tin oxide is applied either using a safe organic compound or inorganic stannic chloride. Tin based systems are not the only ones used, although the most popular. Titanium tetrachloride or organo titanates can also be used. In all cases the coating renders the surface of the glass more adhesive to the cold end coating. At the cold end a layer of typically, polyethylene wax, is applied via a water based emulsion. This makes the glass slippery, protecting it from scratching and stopping containers from sticking together when they are moved on a conveyor. The resultant invisible combined coating gives a virtually unscratchable surface to the glass. Due to reduction of in-service surface damage the coatings often are described as strengtheners, however a more correct definition might be strength retaining coatings. l) Ancillary processes - compressors & cooling 1.9. GLASS COLORING AND COLOR MARKING. Glass coloring and color marking may be obtained by: a) Addition of coloring ions, b) Precipitation of nanometer sized colloides (so-called striking glasses such as "ruby gold" or red "selenium ruby") c) By colored inclusions (as in milk glass and smoked glass) d) By light scattering (as in phase separated glass) e) By dichotic coatings (see dichroic glass) f) By colored coatings.

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1.10. TYPES OF CLEAR GLASS 1.10.1. TEMPERED GLASS - Is produced by cutting annealed glass to the required sizes for use, reheating it to approximately 1200 degrees Fahrenheit, cooling both its surfaces rapidly with a blast of air while its core cools much more slowly. Its four times as strong in bending and more resistant to thermal stress and impact. Annealed glass that is reheated to just below the softening point and then rapidly cooled to induce compressive stresses in the surfaces and edges of the glass and tensile stresses in the interior. Tempered glass has three to five times the resistance of annealed glass to impact and thermal stresses but cannot be altered after fabrication. When fractured, it breaks into relatively harmless particles. 1.10.2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS - Is similar to tempering, but its, about one-third as high as tempered glass in terms of bending and strength. Annealed glass that is partially tempered by a process of reheating and sudden cooling. Heat-strengthened glass has about twice the strength of annealed glass of the same thickness. 1.10.3. LAMINATED GLASS or SAFETY GLASS - Its made by sandwiching a transparent vinyl interlayer between sheets of glass and bonding the three layers together under heat and pressure. When its breaks, the soft vinyl holds the shards of glass in place rather than allowing them to fall out of the frame. 1.10.4. PATTERNED or ROLLED and ROUGH CAST GLASS - Hot glass can be rolled into sheets with many different surface patterns for use where light transmission is desired but vision must be obscured for privacy. 1.10.5. SPANDREL GLASS - Special opaque glasses are produced for covering the spandrel area (the bands of wall around the edges of floors) in glass curtain. It is usually tempered or heat-strengthened to resist the thermal stresses that can caused by accumulations of solar heat behind the spandrel. 1.10.6. WIRED GLASS - Simply a rolled glass into which wire mesh is inserted during the process of manufacture. The wire greatly increases the resistance to shattering through impact. Its use for safety glazing, when its breaks from thermal stress, the wires hold the sheet of glass together. THE THREE MAJOR TYPES OF FLAT GLASS ARE THE FOLLOWING: 1.11.1. SHEET GLASS is fabricated by drawing the molten glass from a furnace (drawn glass), or by forming a cylinder, dividing it lengthwise, and flattening it (cylinder glass). The fire-polished surfaces are not perfectly parallel, resulting in some distortion of vision. To minimize this distortion, glass should be glazed with the wave distortion running horizontally. Sheet glass - Flat, soda-lime glass fabricated by drawing the molten glass from a furnace. 1.11.2. PLATE GLASS is formed by rolling molten glass into a plate that is subsequently ground and polished after cooling. Plate glass provides virtually clear, undistorted vision. Plate glass - strong rolled and polished glass containing few impurities, used for mirrors and large windows. 1.11.3. FLOAT GLASS is manufactured by pouring molten glass onto a surface of molten tin and allowing it to cool slowly. The resulting flat, parallel surfaces minimize distortion and eliminate the need for grinding and polishing. Float glass is the successor to plate glass and accounts for the majority of flat-glass production. Float glass - sheet of glass made by floating the molten glass on a bed of molten tin. OTHER TYPES OF GLASS INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING: 1.12.1. ANNEALED GLASS is cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses. 1.12.2. OBSCURE GLASS has one or both sides acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure vision. Either process weakens the glass and makes it difficult to clean. 1.12.3. LOW-EMISSIVITY GLASS transmits visible light while selectively reflecting the longer wavelengths of radiant heat, produced by depositing a low-emissivity coating either on the glass itself or over a transparent plastic film suspended in the sealed air space of insulating glass. It is also called LOW-E GLASS. 1.12.4. SECURITY GLASS - Laminated glass having exceptional tensile and Impact strength, consisting of multiple plies of glass bonded under heat and pressure to interlayer of polyvinyl butyral resin. TINTED AND REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS Solar heat buildup can be problematic in the inhabited spaces of buildings with large areas of glass, especially during the warm part of the year. This is use to reduce glare and cut down on solar heat gain. 1.13.1. TINTED GLASS - Is made by adding small amounts of selected chemical elements to the molten glass mixture to produce the desired hue and intensity of color in gray, bronze, blue, green, and gold. Glass having a chemical admixture to absorb a portion of the radiant heat and visible light that strike lt. Iron oxide gives the glass a pale blue-green tint; cobalt oxide and nickel imparts a grayish tint; selenium infuses a bronze tint. It is also called HEAT-ABSORBING GLASS 1.13.2. REFLECTIVE COATED GLASS - Appear as mirror from the outside on a bright day and at night, with lights on inside the building, they appear as dark but transparent glass. Glass having a thin, translucent metallic coating bonded to the exterior or anterior surface to reflect a portion of the light and radiant heat that strike it. 1.13.3. INSULATING GLASS - A second sheet of glass applied to a window with airspace between the sheets cuts this rate of heat loss in half. Two kinds of edges seals are fused glass edges and a metal splined and organic sealant. A glass unit consisting of two or more sheets of glass separated by hermetically-sealed airspaces.

1.11.

1.12.

1.13.

Compiled by: ARCH. PAULO C. PINEDA I, uap Pamantasan Ng Lungsod Ng Maynila - COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

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Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

1.14. GLASS BLOCKS comparable in many ways to unit masonry but have the added feature of transmitting light. They are made into two separate halves, which are heat-sealed together to form a hollow unit with reasonably high thermal efficiency and sound insulation. The edged surfaces of the block are coated with a gritty mortar bond. 1.14.1. FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS - direct or diffuse the daylight which passes through them to improve the illumination of the building interior. Three Styles of Functional Blocks: a) A LIGHT DIRECTING BLOCK - directs incoming light upward toward the ceiling. Used always above eye level. b) A LIGHT DIFFUSING BLOCK - diffuses incoming light evenly throughout the interior of the room. c) GENERAL PURPOSES BLOCK 1.14.2. DECORATIVELY OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS - available in a wide range of styles and patterns. This glass masonry unit provides almost unlimited design versatility when used in window, openings and facades, as interior walls and divider paneling. 1.15. DEFINITION OF TERMS a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n) o) p) q) r) s) t) u) v) w) x) y) z) FOAMED OR CELLULAR GLASS is used as rigid, vapor proof thermal insulation. GLASS FIBERS are used in textiles and for material reinforcement. In spun form, glass fibers form glass wool, which is used for acoustical and thermal insulation. CROWN GLASS - An old form of window glass formed by blowing and whirling a hollow sphere of glass Into a flat, circular disk with a center lump left by the worker's rod. Crown glass is a early type of window glass. In this process, glass was blown into a "crown" or hollow globe. HERMETIC - Made airtight by fusing or sealing. EMISSIVITY - The relative ability of a surface to emit radiant heat, measured against a black body at the same temperature. SHADING COEFFICIENT - The ratio of solar heat transmission through a particular glass to the solar heat transmission through double-strength clear glass. GLASS BRICK - A solid, impact resistant glass block unit. FACE GLAZING - The setting of a glass pane in a rabbet frame. FACE PUTTY - The putty or glazing compound formed on the exterior side of a glass pane. BEDDING - A thin layer of putty or glazing compound laid in the rabbet of a window sash to give a pane of glass an even backing. GLAZERS POINT - A small, pointed piece of sheet metal for holding a glass pane in a wood sash until the face putty has hardened. Also called, Glazing Brad, Sprig. PUTTY - A compound of whiting and linseed oil, of dough-like consistency when fresh. GLASS SIZE - The size of the glass pane required for glazing opening, allowing for adequate edge clearances. Also called, Glazing Size. UNITED INCHES - the sum of one length and one width of a rectangular glass pane or unit, measured in inches. EDGE BLOCK - One of the small blocks of synthetic rubber placed between the side edges of glass pane or unit and a frame to center it maintain a uniform width of sealant, and limit lateral movement caused by building vibrations or thermal expansion or contraction. Also called, Centering Shim, Spacer. FACE CLEARANCE - the distance between the face of the glass pane or unit and the nearest face of its frame or stop, measured normal to the pane of the glass. BITE - the amount of overlap between the edge of the glass pane or unit and a window pane, stop, or lock-strip gasket. EDGE CLEARANCE - the distance between the edge of a glass pane or unit and a window frame measured in the plane of the glass. GLASS MULLION SYSTEM - glazing system, in which sheets of tampered glass are suspended from special clamps, stabilized by perpendicular stiffeners or tampered glass, and joined by a structural silicon sealant, and sometimes by metal patch plates. DOUBLE GLAZING - the installation of two parallel panes of glass in with a sealed air space between to reduce the transmission of heat and sound. GLAZING - the panes or sheets of glass or other transparent made to be set frames as in windows, doors, or mirrors. WET GLAZING - the setting of glass in a window frame with glazing tape or liquid sealant. GLAZING TAPE - a performed ribbon of synthetic rubber having adhesive properties and used in glazing to form a watertight seal between glass and frame. CAP SEALANT - An adhesive liquid of synthetic rubber injected into the point between a glass pane or unit and a window frame, curing to form a watertight seal. Also called, Cap Bead. GLAZING BEAD - A wood molding or metal section secured against the edge of a glass pane or unit to hold it in place. Also called glazing stop. HEEL BEAD - An adhesive liquid of synthetic rubber injected between a glass pane or unit and a glazing bead, curing to form an airtight seal. -9-

Compiled by: ARCH. PAULO C. PINEDA I, uap Pamantasan Ng Lungsod Ng Maynila - COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

aa) bb) cc) dd) ee) ff) gg) DRY GLAZING - the setting of a glass window frame with a compression gasket instead of glazing tape or a liquid sealant. COMPRESSION GASKET - A performed strip of synthetic rubber or plastic compressed between a glass pane or unit in a window frame to form a watertight seal and cushion for glass. LOCKSTRIP GASKET - A performed gasket of synthetic rubber for securing a glass pane or unit in a window frame or opening, held in compression by forcing a keyed locking strip into a groove in a gasket. FLUSH GLAZING - a glazing system in which the framing members are set entirely behind the glass panes or units to form a flush exterior surface, the glass adhering to the framing with a structural silicone sealant. STRUCTURAL SEALANT - A high-strength silicone sealant capable of adhering glass to support a frame. BUTT-JOINT GLAZING - A glazing system in which the glass panes or units are supported at the head and sill in a conventional manner, with their vertical edges being joined with a structural silicone sealant without mullions. OBSIDIAN - Obsidian is a dark, volcanic glass that forms when lava cools rapidly. Obsidian was a valued commodity among many early peoples, who fashioned tools and weapons out of the glassy substance.

Compiled by: ARCH. PAULO C. PINEDA I, uap Pamantasan Ng Lungsod Ng Maynila - COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

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