Ethics in Information Technology, Third Edition

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Chapter 2 Ethics for IT Workers and IT Users

At a Glance

Instructors Manual Table of Contents

Overview Objectives Teaching Tips Q ic! Q i""es #isc ssion Q estions $dditional %rojects $dditional &eso rces 'ey Terms

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(ect re )otes

Overvie
*hapter 2 begins with a disc ssion of whether IT wor!ers are professionals nder the legal definition of professional wor!ers+ It gives an overview of professional relationships between IT wor!ers and clients, s ppliers, other IT professionals, and sers and ethical iss es relevant to these relationships+ The chapter introd ces vario s professional organi"ations+ It concl des with a disc ssion of ethical iss es ni, e to IT professionals, s ch as access to information, se of comp ting reso rces, and software piracy+

Ob!ectives
$s yo read this chapter, consider the following , estions .hat !ey characteristics disting ish a professional from other !inds of wor!ers, and is an IT wor!er considered a professional/ .hat factors are transforming the professional services ind stry/ .hat relationships m st an IT wor!er manage, and what !ey ethical iss es can arise in each/ 0ow do codes of ethics, professional organi"ations, certification, and licensing affect the ethical behavior of IT professionals/ .hat are the !ey tenets of five different codes of ethics that provide g idance for IT professionals/

Teachin" Tips
#i"nette
IT Technicians $ired After %eportin" Child &orn 1+ #isc ss the actions of )ew 1or! (aw 2chool and *ollegis, what message was sent to IT wor!ers, and whether or not the firing of 3ross and %erry was j stified for other reasons+ 2+ #isc ss the fact that a n mber of states have enacted laws that re, ire wor!ers to immediately report any child pornography fo nd while servicing e, ipment+ %oint o t that most of the laws state that a wor!er who reports s ch a discovery is imm ne from any criminal, civil, or administrative liability and that fail re to report the discovery can res lt in a fine, imprisonment, or both+ #isc ss whether s ch laws will enco rage the reporting of child pornography+

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IT &rofessionals
1+ E4plain that a profession is wor! that re, ires speciali"ed !nowledge and often long and intensive academic preparation+ 2+ .al! thro gh the fo r criteria that define a professional employee, and point o t that professionals are e4pected to contrib te to society, to !eep abreast of developments in their field, and to help develop other professionals+ Are IT Workers &rofessionals' 1+ E4plain that IT specialists incl de programmers, systems analysts, software engineers, database administrators, local area networ! 5($)6 administrators, and chief information officers 5*IOs6 and that this is not a comprehensive list+ 2+ E4plain that not all IT specialists are recogni"ed as professionals according to the definition in the 7+2+ *ode of 8ederal &eg lations, and IT wor!ers are not professionals from a legal standpoint beca se they are not licensed9 nor are they liable for malpractice+ The Chan"in" &rofessional (ervices Industr) 1+ E4plain that altho gh not legally classified as professionals, IT wor!ers are considered part of the professional services ind stry+ 2+ .al! thro gh the seven forces that are changing professional services+ &rofessional %elationships That Must *e Mana"ed 1+ %oint o t that IT wor!ers have many different relationships, incl ding those with employers, clients, s ppliers, other professionals, IT sers, and the society at large, and that in each relationship, an ethical IT wor!er acts honestly and appropriately+ Relationships Between IT Workers and Employers 1+ E4plain the iss es that an IT wor!er disc sses with an employer before accepting a job+ 2+ E4plain that IT wor!ers m st set an e4ample and enforce policies regarding the ethical se of IT+ :+ E4plain that IT wor!ers are in a ni, e position beca se they have the s!ills and !nowledge to ab se systems and data or to allow others to do so+ ;+ E4plain that :< percent of the world=s software was illegally copied in 2>>?, and this represents losses of @;< billion+

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Teaching Tip

#isc ss the role that IT wor!ers play in software piracy, and emphasi"e that piracy incl des seemingly innocent se of software s ch as allowing an employee to copy software from their office comp ter to their home comp ter to wor! at home+

A+ E4plain that the B siness 2oftware $lliance 5B2$6 is a trade gro p that represents the world=s largest software and hardware man fact rers, whose mission is to stop software piracy+ &efer to Table 2-1, which shows members of the B2$+ C+ E4plain that the B2$ investigations are s ally triggered by calls to its hotline, referrals from member companies, and reports sent to the B2$ .eb site+ Teaching Tip %oint o t that the B2$ mentions that disgr ntled employees are often the so rce of referrals+

?+ E4plain that the monetary penalties assessed by the B2$ far e4ceed the cost of ac, iring the proper licenses for software+ <+ E4plain that trade secrecy is another area that ca ses problems between employers and IT wor!ers, and give e4amples of trade secrets+ Teaching Tip #isc ss sit ations in which an IT wor!er might n!nowingly give away trade secrets+

D+ E4plain that employees are often re, ired to sign confidentiality agreements b t that the IT ind stry is !nown for high employee t rnover, and this is a complicating factor+ 1>+ E4plain that whistle-blowing is another area that ca ses problems between employers and IT wor!ers beca se whistle-blowers fre, ently have special information related to their position+ Teaching Tip

)ote that whistle-blowing is disc ssed in more detail in *hapter <+

Relationships Between IT Workers and Clients 1+ E4plain that an IT wor!er agrees to provide hardware, software, or services, and in e4change, the client provides compensation, access to !ey contacts, and perhaps wor! space+ )ote that the relationships is s ally doc mented with a contract+ 2+ E4plain that the client typically ma!es decisions abo t a project based on information provided by the IT professional+

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:+ E4plain that decision ma!ing is shared by the IT wor!er and the client beca se the client is e4pected to provide relevant information and as! , estions to nderstand the impact of !ey decisions+ ;+ E4plain that one ethical problem between IT wor!ers and clients arises when IT cons ltants recommend their own prod cts or services to remedy a problem that they have detected, and this raises , estions abo t the vendor=s objectivity+ A+ E4plain that other problems arise when IT professionals are nable to provide f ll and acc rate reporting of a project=s stat s, and the project manager may be rel ctant to share project information beca se of contract al penalties+ Teaching Tip Ta!e time to disc ss the interactions and mechanisms that lead to this type of problem and how they can be avoided+

C+ #isc ss fra d, misrepresentation, breach of contract, and material breach of contract, as presented in this section+ ?+ E4plain that IT projects are joint efforts in which vendors and c stomers wor! together and that it is diffic lt to assign blame+ Relationships Between IT Workers and Suppliers 1+ E4plain that having a good relationship with a s pplier enco rages the flow of sef l comm nication, and a good relationship is developed by treating s ppliers fairly and not ma!ing nreasonable demands+ 2+ E4plain that s ppliers also have an interest in maintaining a good relationship to ma!e and increase their sales+ :+ E4plain that gifts present an ethical , estion beca se the difference between a gift and a bribe is not always clear+ Teaching Tip Ta!e time to disc ss the difference between gifts and bribes and c lt ral or conte4t factors that might affect whether a gift is considered a bribe+

;+ E4plain what a bribe is and that the 7+2+ 8oreign *orr pt %ractices $ct 58*%$6 ma!es it a crime to bribe a foreign official nless the payment was lawf l nder the laws of the foreign co ntry in which it was paid+ A+ E4plain that the 8*%$ re, ires corporations to have an ade, ate internal a diting and acco nting system and permits facilitating payments made for ro tine government actions s ch as obtaining permits or processing visas+

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C+ E4plain that in some c lt res, it is normal to give gifts, and disc ss the bo ndary between gifts and bribes, as o tlined in Table 2-2+ Relationships Between IT Workers and Other Professionals 1+ E4plain that professionals owe each other adherence to a professional code of cond ct+ 2+ E4plain that ethical problems arise between members of the IT profession, and a common one is rEs mE inflation, which involves lying on a rEs mE to claim competence in an IT s!ill that is in high demand+ Teaching Tip Emphasi"e the difference between presenting yo rself in the most positive light and overstating yo r s!ills+

:+ E4plain that another ethical iss e between IT professionals is inappropriate sharing of corporate information+ Relationships Between IT Workers and IT Users 1+ E4plain that an IT ser is the person for whom a hardware or software prod ct is designed and that it is the IT professional=s d ty to nderstand the ser=s needs and to deliver prod cts and services that best meet those needs+ 2+ E4plain that the IT professional has a responsibility to establish an environment that s pports ethical behavior by sers+ Teaching Tip )ote that establishing an effective IT sage policy is disc ssed later in the chapter+

Relationships Between IT Workers and Society 1+ E4plain that society e4pects members of a profession not only to provide significant benefits, b t also to not ca se harm thro gh their actions+ 2+ %oint o t that professional organi"ations provide codes of ethics to g ide IT wor!ers= actions+

+uick +ui, 1+ Tr e or 8alse+ IT wor!ers are not liable for malpractice beca se they do not meet the legal definition of a professional+ $nswer- Tr e

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2+ .hat is software piracy/ $nswer- 2oftware piracy is the act of illegally ma!ing copies of software or enabling others to access software to which they are not entitled+ :+ Tr e or 8alse+ 7nder 7+2+ law, a bribe is not a crime if it was paid as part of doing b siness in a foreign co ntry+ $nswer- 8alse+ 7nder 7+2+ law, a bribe is not a crime if it was lawf l in the co ntry in which it was paid+ ;+ (ist three characteristics that disting ish a gift from a bribe+ $nswer- 3ifts are made openly and p blicly, gifts are made directly from the donor to the recipient, and gifts come with no e4pectation of favor for the donor+ &rofessional Codes of Ethics 1+ E4plain that a professional code of ethics states the principles and core val es that are essential to the wor! of a partic lar occ pational gro p+ 2+ E4plain that most codes of ethics are created by professional organi"ations and have two parts- the first o tlines what the organi"ation aspires to become, and the second typically lists r les and principles by which members of the organi"ation are e4pected to abide+ :+ E4plain that many codes of ethics also incl de a commitment to contin ing ed cation for those who practice the profession+ Teaching Tip

)ote that e4ample professional codes of ethics are in $ppendices B thro gh E+

;+ E4plain that professional codes of ethics benefit individ als, professions, and society as a whole with ethical decision ma!ing, high standards of practice and ethical behavior, tr st and respect from general p blic, and eval ation benchmar!s for self-assessment+ &rofessional Or"ani,ations 1+ E4plain that no IT professional organi"ation is preeminent, so there is no niversal code of ethics+ B t fo r of the most prominent organi"ations are described in this section+ ssociation for Computin! "achinery # C"$ 1+ E4plain that the $*F was fo nded in 1D;? and has more than 2;,>>> st dent members and C<,>>> professional members in more than 1>> co ntries+ 2+ E4plain that the $*F p blishes a n mber of periodicals for IT professionals and maintains an e4tensive digital library+

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:+ E4plain that the $*F sponsors special-interest gro ps that foc s on a variety of IT iss es, and each gro p provides p blications, wor!shops, and conferences+ Teaching Tip

)ote that the $*F code of ethics is in $ppendi4 B+

Teaching Tip

Emphasi"e that the $*F is a large organi"ation that offers services to a wide variety of IT professionals, from programmers to researchers to managers+

ssociation of Information Technolo!y Professionals # ITP$ 1+ E4plain that the $IT% was started in *hicago in 1DA1 by a gro p of machine acco ntants nder the name Fachine $cco ntants $ssociations 5F$$6+ 2+ E4plain that the F$$ evolved into the #ata %rocessing Fanagement $ssociation in 1DC2, which became the $IT% in 1DDC+ :+ E4plain that the $IT% provides IT-related ed cation, information on relevant IT iss es, and for ms for networ!ing with other IT professionals and has nearly C,>>> members+ ;+ E4plain that the mission of the $IT% is to provide leadership and ed cation in information technology and to help ma!e members more mar!etable+ Teaching Tip

)ote that the $IT% code of ethics is in $ppendi4 *+

Teaching Tip

%oint o t that the mission of the $IT% differs from that of the $*F, as the $IT% p ts more emphasis on leadership and ed cation+

Institute of Electrical and Electronics En!ineers Computer Society #IEEE%CS$ 1+ E4plain that the IEEE covers broad fields of electrical, electronic, and information technologies and sciences and is one of the oldest and largest IT associations+ 2+ E4plain that in 1DD:, the IEEE-*2 and the $*F formed the Goint 2teering *ommittee for the Establishment of 2oftware Engineering as a %rofession+ :+ E4plain that the initial recommendations of the committee were to define ethical standards, to define the re, ired body of !nowledge and recommended practices, and to define appropriate c rric la to ac, ire !nowledge+

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Teaching Tip

)ote that the 2oftware Engineering *ode of Ethics and %rofessional %ractice is in $ppendi4 #+

Teaching Tip

*ompare the $*F and the $IT% to the IEEE, noting that IEEE incl des a wide n mber of professions and provides a variety of services to each+

Pro&ect "ana!ement Institute #P"I$ 1+ E4plain that the %FI was established in 1DCD and has more than ;2>,>>> members in 1?> co ntries+ 2+ E4plain that members of %FI incl de project managers from s ch disparate fields as constr ction, sales, finance, and prod ction, as well as information systems+ :+ E4plain that the %FI has a project management professional certification program+ Teaching Tip

)ote that the %FI Fember *ode of Ethics is in $ppendi4 E+

Teaching Tip

*ompare the mission of the %FI to the $*F, $IT%, and IEEE, noting that the %FI incorporates widely disparate fields and is primarily concerned with iss es common to project managers+

Sys dmin' udit' (etwork' Security #S (S$ Institute 1+ E4plain that 52$)26 Instit te provides information sec rity training and certification for a wide range of individ als, s ch as a ditors, networ! administrators, and sec rity managers+ 2+ E4plain that 2$)2 has trained more than 1CA,>>> professionals aro nd the world and trains some 12,>>> people each year+ Teaching Tip Certification 1+ E4plain that certification indicates that a professional possesses a partic lar set of s!ills, !nowledge, or ability in the opinion of the certifying organi"ation+

)ote that the 2$)2 IT *ode of Ethics is in $ppendi4 8+

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2+ E4plain that licensing applies only to people and is re, ired by law, and certification is generally vol ntary and can apply to prod cts as well as people+ :+ E4plain that many employers view certification as a benchmar! that indicates mastery of a defined set of basic !nowledge, altho gh opinions are divided on the val e of certification+ ;+ E4plain that certification is no s bstit te for e4perience and is not a g arantee of job performance+ )endor Certifications 1+ E4plain that many vendors offer certification for their prod cts and that depending on the job mar!et, some certifications improve IT wor!ers= salaries and career prospects+ B t vendor certifications can be narrowly defined+ 2+ E4plain that certifications re, ire passing a written e4am and that some certifications re, ire a hands-on lab e4am to demonstrate s!ills and !nowledge+ :+ E4plain that some certifications ta!e years to obtain the necessary e4perience, st dy materials can cost p to @1,>>>, and in-class training can cost more than @1>,>>>+ Teaching Tip Ta!e time to disc ss the role that certification plays in pholding standards in the IT ind stry, and disc ss the trade-offs in terms of the time and e4pense of the certification process+

;+ E4plain that the most val able certification today is 2$% in terms of employment opport nities and higher salaries+ A+ E4plain that 2$% has b ilt alliances with some D>> niversities aro nd the globe+ C+ E4plain that beca se the field changes rapidly, wor!ers are fre, ently recertified to !eep pace with the technology+ Industry ssociation Certifications 1+ E4plain that certification from ind stry associations often re, ires a higher level of e4perience and a broader perspective than vendor certification, b t they may lag in covering new technologies+ 2+ E4plain that ind stry association certifications are moving from p rely technical content to a broader mi4 of technical, b siness, and behavioral competencies+

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Teaching Tip

Emphasi"e the difference between ind stry association certifications and vendor certifications, s ch as an emphasis on breadth over depth and f ndamentals over system-specific !nowledge+

:+ .al! thro gh Table 2-: on IT s bject area certifications and Table 2-; on available %FI certifications on page A1+ Govern.ent /icensin" 1+ E4plain that government licensing is s ally handled by state governments in the 7+2+ and re, ires that the recipient pass a test+ Teaching Tip #isc ss the distinction between certification and licensing and that while certification is designed to phold professional standards, licensing is designed to protect the p blic+

The Case for *icensin! IT Workers 1+ E4plain that modern information systems are comple4, interconnected, and critically dependent on each other, and they control vital organi"ations s ch as n clear power plants, hospital records, and life s pport systems, as well as b siness f nctions+ 2+ E4plain that beca se of the importance of IT systems in o r daily life, effective information systems are a matter of p blic concern, which has lead to a debate abo t the licensing of IT professionals+ Issues ssociated with +o,ernment *icensin! of IT Workers 1+ E4plain to st dents that while other co ntries license software engineers, there are few licensing programs for IT professionals+ .al! thro gh the b llet points on page A: to e4plain why this is the case+ IT &rofessional Malpractice 1+ E4plain the terms negligence and d ty of care, and point o t that the co rts decide whether parties owe a d ty of care by applying a reasonable person standard or a reasonable professional standard+ 2+ E4plain that a reasonable professional standard is analogo s to a reasonable person standard b t applies to a person with a specific e4pertise+ :+ E4plain that a breach of the d ty of care is the fail re to act as a reasonable person wo ld act+

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;+ E4plain that professionals who breach a d ty of care are liable for inj ries ca sed by their negligence, and this liability is called professional malpractice+ A+ E4plain that professional malpractice can only occ r when people fail to perform within the standards of their profession, and software engineers cannot be s bject to malpractice s its beca se there is no niform licensing for software engineers+

+uick +ui, 2
1+ .hat is a professional code of ethics/ $nswer- $ professional code of ethics states the principles and core val es that are essential to the wor! of a partic lar occ pational gro p+ 2+ HHHHHHHHHHHH indicates that a professional possesses a partic lar set of s!ills, !nowledge, or abilities, and HHHHHHHHHHHHH proves that a professional can do his or her wor! ethically and safely+ $nswer- *ertification, licensing :+ )ame three reasons for certification+ $nswer- To motivate employees to learn new s!ills, to provide a mechanism for career advancement, to !eep abreast of c rrent technology, and to ens re employees have a core level of competence in a partic lar area ;+ .hich of the following is )OT a reason that there is no licensing for IT professionals/ a+ There is no niversally accepted body of core !nowledge+ b+ It is nclear who sho ld manage the content and administration of licensing e4ams+ c+ There is no administrative body to accredit professional ed cation programs+ d+ There is no f nding at the federal level for the accreditation process+ e+ There is no administrative body to assess and ens re competence of individ al professionals+ $nswer- d

IT Users
1+ E4plain that improving employees= ethical se of IT is an area of growing concern as more companies provide employees with %*s, access to corporate information systems and data, and the Internet+

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Co..on Ethical Issues for IT Users Software Piracy 1+ E4plain that software piracy can sometimes be traced directly to IT professionals, and a common violation is for an employee to copy software from his or her wor! comp ter to se at home+ Emphasi"e that this is piracy nless someone has paid for an additional license+ Inappropriate Use of Computin! Resources 1+ E4plain that activities s ch as s rfing the .eb, playing video games, and participating in chat rooms erode wor!er prod ctivity and waste time+ Teaching Tip Emphasi"e that in addition to wasting time, se4 ally e4plicit material, lewd jo!es, and hate e-mail create a hostile wor!ing environment and can lead to laws its+ &emind st dents that inappropriate se of the comp ting reso rces can also negatively affect professional credibility and peer relationships in the wor!ing environment+

Teaching Tip

Inappropriate Sharin! of Information 1+ E4plain that private information describes individ al employees, s ch as salary, health records, and performance ratings+ 2+ E4plain that confidential information describes a company and its operations, s ch as sales and promotion plans, staffing projections, and prod ct form las+ :+ E4plain that an IT ser who shares this information, even inadvertently, has violated someone=s privacy or compromised the company=s information+ (upportin" the Ethical &ractices of IT Users 1+ E4plain that an ethics policy can establish bo ndaries of acceptable and nacceptable behavior and enable management to p nish violators+ Esta-lishin! +uidelines for the Use of Company Software 1+ E4plain that IT managers m st provide clear r les abo t the se of home comp ters and associated software and ens re that employees have legal copies of all of the software they need, regardless of the location of their wor!+

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Teaching Tip

Emphasi"e that the penalty for software piracy far e4ceeds the cost of additional licenses+

.efinin! and *imitin! the ppropriate Use of IT Resources 1+ E4plain that companies m st develop effective g idelines that allow some level of personal se while prohibiting employees from mis sing comp ting reso rces+ Structurin! Information Systems to Protect .ata and Information 1+ E4plain that organi"ations m st implement systems and proced res that limit data access to employees who need it+ Installin! and "aintainin! a Corporate /irewall 1+ E4plain that a firewall is a hardware or software device that provides a barrier between a company and the o tside world and limits access to the company=s networ!+ 2+ E4plain that the firewall can be config red to serve as an effective deterrent to na thori"ed .eb s rfing by bloc!ing access to objectionable sites+ :+ E4plain that the firewall can be config red to bloc! access to e-mail from certain .eb sites or to bloc! e-mails with certain !inds of attachments to red ce the ris! of comp ter vir ses+ #isc ss alternative strategies to manage mis se of comp ting reso rces in the wor!place, s ch as software that allows a manager to monitor employee des!tops or creating an environment where peer press re ma!es it ndesirable to mis se corporate reso rces+

Teaching Tip

;+ .al! thro gh the manager=s chec!list for establishing an IT sage policy in Table 2-A on page AC, noting that the appropriate answer for each , estion is Iyes+J

+uick +ui, 0
1+ Tr e or 8alse+ IT wor!ers can be held liable for negligence+ $nswer- 8alse+ )egligence can only occ r when people fail to perform within the standards of their profession, and there are no standards against which to compare an IT wor!er=s professional behavior+

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2+ .hat is a firewall/ $nswer- $ firewall is a hardware or software device that serves as a barrier between a company and the o tside world and limits access to the company=s networ! based on the organi"ation=s Internet sage policy+ :+ Information that describes individ al employees is HHHHHHHHHHH, and information that describes a company and its operations is HHHHHHHHHHHHHHH+ $nswer- private, confidential

(u..ar)
1+ .al! thro gh the overview of the chapter presented in the b llet points on page A<+

1iscussion +uestions
1+ Is it better to control employee access to the Internet by bloc!ing certain sites and monitoring employee sage of comp ting reso rces or to meas re an employee=s performance in terms of prod ctivity/ .hat are possible reperc ssions, in terms of morale, of allowing or restricting employee access to the .eb/ 2+ .hat strategies can a company employ to maintain trade secrecy, given the high t rnover among IT wor!ers/ :+ Based on the disc ssion of the distinction between gifts and bribes in this chapter, wo ld per!s that politicians receive from lobbyists, s ch as golf vacations and h nting e4c rsions, be considered gifts or bribes/ #oes the val e of the gift infl ence whether a gift is a bribe/

Additional &ro!ects
1+ .rite a paper researching vario s ways that companies monitor employee se of comp ting reso rces, incl ding access to the Internet and e-mail+ 2+ #esign an IT se policy for a software company that develops banner ads for a search engine, tailored to the s bject for which the ser is searching+ 'eep in mind that the employees of s ch a company wo ld need nlimited access to the .eb+ :+ .rite a paper s rveying vendor certifications, and disc ss the trade-off between the sef lness and cost of each certificate+

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Additional %esources
1+ $n article from B siness.ee! Online abo t companies monitoring ab se of the Internetwww+b sinesswee!+comK2>>>K>>H2;Kb:C<A2A?+htm 2+ $n article from Liff #avis *IO Insight giving another perspective on .eb searching at wor!- www+cioinsight+comKarticle2K>,1A;>,1DC>D;?,>>+asp :+ $ .i!ipedia article on software engineering, incl ding a disc ssion of who is a software engineer, and certification- http-KKen+wi!ipedia+orgKwi!iK2oftwareHengineering ;+ The $*F .eb site- www+acm+org A+ The $IT% .eb site- www+aitp+orgKinde4+jsp C+ The IEEE-*2 .eb site- www+comp ter+orgKportalKsiteKieeecsKinde4+jsp ?+ The %FI .eb site- www+pmi+org <+ The 2$)2 Instit te .eb site- www+sans+orgK

2e) Ter.s
Association for Co.putin" Machiner) 3ACM4 M a comp ting society fo nded in 1D;? that offers many p blications and an e4tensive digital library and sponsors vario s special-interest gro ps foc sing on a variety of IT iss es+ Association of Infor.ation Technolo") &rofessionals 3AIT&4 M provides IT-related ed cation, information on relevant IT iss es, and for ms for networ!ing with other IT professionals+ bod) of kno led"e M o tlines the agreed- pon sets of s!ills and abilities that all licensed professionals m st possess+ breach of contract M when one party fails to meet the terms of a contract+ breach of the dut) of care M fail re to act as a reasonable person wo ld act+ briber) M providing money, property, or favors to someone in b siness or government to obtain a b siness advantage+ *usiness (oft are Alliance 3*(A4 M a trade gro p that represents the world=s largest software and hardware man fact rers, whose mission is to stop na thori"ed copying of software prod ced by its members+ dut) of care M an obligation to protect people against any nreasonable harm or ris!+ enterprise resource plannin" s)ste. 3E%&4 M an information system that helps an organi"ation control b siness f nctions, incl ding forecasting, prod ction planning, p rchasing, inventory control, man fact ring, and distrib tion+ fire all M a hardware or software device that serves as a barrier between a company and the o tside world and limits access to the company=s networ!+

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fraud M the crime of obtaining goods, services, or property thro gh deception or tric!ery+ "overn.ent license M a government-iss ed permission to engage in an activity or to operate a b siness+ Institute of Electrical and Electronics En"ineers Co.puter (ociet) 3IEEE5C(4 M one of the oldest and largest IT professional associations, with more than 1>>,>>> members fo nded in 1D;C+ IT user M the person who ses a hardware or software prod ct+ .aterial breach of contract M when a party fails to perform certain e4press or implied obligations that impair or destroy the essence of the contract+ .isrepresentation M misstatement or incomplete statement of a material fact+ ne"li"ence M not doing something that a reasonable person wo ld do or doing something that a reasonable person wo ld not do+ profession M a calling that re, ires speciali"ed !nowledge and often long and intensive academic preparation+ professional code of ethics M states the principles and core val es that are essential to the wor! of a partic lar occ pational gro p+ professional e.plo)ee M a person whose wor! re, ires advanced training and e4perience, who e4ercises discretion and j dgment in their wor!, and whose wor! cannot be standardi"ed+ professional .alpractice M liability for inj ries ca sed by breaches of the d ty of care+ &ro!ect Mana"e.ent Institute 3&MI4 M established in 1DCD and has more than 1A>,>>> members who are project managers from fields s ch as constr ction and finance, as well as information systems+ reasonable person standard M a standard by which the co rts decide whether a party owes a d ty of care by determining how an objective caref l and conscientio s person wo ld have acted in the same circ mstances+ reasonable professional standard M analogo s to a reasonable personal standard b t applied to defendants who have partic lar e4pertise+ r6su.6 inflation M lying on a rEs mE and claiming competence in an IT s!ill that is in high demand+ soft are pirac) M the act of illegally ma!ing copies of software or enabling others to access software to which they are not entitled+ trade secret M information sed in a b siness, generally n!nown to the p blic and representing something of economic val e that the company has ta!en strong meas res to !eep confidential+ U7(7 $orei"n Corrupt &ractices Act 3$C&A4 M a set of laws that ma!e it a crime to bribe a foreign official, a foreign political party official, or a candidate for political office, nless the payment was legal in the co ntry in which it was paid+ histle5blo in" M an effort by an employee to attract attention to a negligent, illegal, nethical, ab sive, or dangero s act by a company that threatens the p blic interest+