Principles of operation

The basic structure of an MHD generator is shown in the figure. In an MHD generator the hot gas is
accelerated by a nozzle and injected into a channel. A powerful magnetic field is set up across the channel.
In accordance with Faraday’s law of induction, an electric field is established that acts in a direction
perpendicular to both the gas flow and the magnetic field. The walls of the channel parallel to the magnetic
field serve as electrodes and enable the generator to provide an electric current to an external circuit.

The power output of an MHD generator for each cubic metre of its channel volume is proportional to the
product of the gas conductivity, the square of the gas velocity, and the square of the strength of the
magnetic field through which the gas passes. For MHD generators to operate competitively with good
performance and reasonable physical

dimensions, the electrical conductivity of the plasma must be in a temperature range above about 1,800 K
(about 1,500 °C, or 2,800 °F). The turbine blades of a gas-turbine power system are unable to operate at
such temperatures. An adequate value of electrical conductivity—10 to 50 siemens per metre—can be
achieved if an additive, typically about 1 percent by mass, is injected into the hot gas. This additive is a
readily ionizable alkali material, such as cesium, potassium carbonate, or sodium, and is referred to as the
“seed.” While cesium has the lowest ionizing potential (3.894 electron volts), potassium (4.341 electron
volts) is less costly. Even though the amount of seed material is small, economic operation requires that a
system be provided to recover as much of it as possible.

The hot gas with its seed is at a pressure of several million pascals. It is accelerated by a nozzle to a speed
that may be in the range of 1,000 to 2,000 metres (about 3,300 to 6,600 feet) per second. The gas then
enters the channel or duct, across which the magnetic field is applied. To produce a competitive MHD
system, this magnetic field must have high intensity. Typically, a superconducting magnet is employed to
provide a magnetic field in the range of three to five teslas across the channel. An electromotive force
acting in a direction perpendicular to both the flow and the field is set up, and the walls parallel to the
magnetic field serve as electrodes to provide current to an external electric circuit. The remaining two walls
of the channel are electric insulators. Theoretically, an MHD system with a gas conductivity of 25 siemens
per metre, an average magnetic field of three teslas, and an average gas velocity of 1,000 metres per second
is capable of generating electric power with a density of

A complicating feature of a plasma MHD generator is the occurrence of a pronounced Hall effect. This
results from the behaviour of electrons in the presence of both magnetic and electric fields. Electrons in
the plasma have a much higher mobility than ions. When electric load current flows across the channel, the
electrons in this current experience a force directed along the channel. This is the Hall effect—named for its
discoverer, the American physicist Edwin H. Hall. As a result of this effect, the electric current flows at an
angle across the channel. An additional electric field, called the Hall field, is established along the axis of
the channel. This in turn requires that either the electrode walls in a typical generator configuration (see
figure) be constructed to support this Hall field or that the Hall field itself be used as the output to drive
current through the electric circuit external to the MHD system

number of generator configurations have been devised to accommodate the Hall effect. In

a Faraday generator, as shown in part A of the figure, the electrode walls are segmented and insulated from
each other to support the axial electric field and the electric power is taken out in a series of loads. In the
alternate configuration known as a Hall generator, the Faraday field across each sector of the channel is
short-circuited and the sectors are connected in series. This allows the connection of a single electric load
between the ends of the channel. Consideration of the electric potentials at different points in the channel
leads to the observation that an equipotential runs diagonally across the insulator walls and that electrodes
may be appropriately staggered to match theequipotentials. The series connection of these electrodes in this
diagonal generator permits a single electric load to be used.