Sumerian Mythology FAQ (Version 2.

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by Christopher Siren, 1992, 1994, 2000 cbsiren at alum dot mit dot edu This FAQ used to be posted on the third of e ery month to alt!mytholo"y! An older te#t copy of this FAQ is a ailable ia anonymous ftp pendin" $!ans%ers appro al at& rtfm!mit!edu at 'pub'usenet'ne%s!ans%ers'mytholo"y'sumer(fa) last chan"es& *uly 2+, 2000& complete re ision includin" incorporatin" ,ramer-s Sumerian Mythology and .lac/ 0 1reen-s God's Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia! Added more citations of sources! *uly 19, 1999& modified first sentance to include hints of ci ili2ation prior to and outside of Sumer September 20, 1993& fleshed out the 1il"amesh entry *uly 4, 1993& added a couple of 5ilith lin/s to 6enee 6osen-s and Alan 7umm-s sites! Au"ust 14, 199+& added much more historical introductory material! 8arch 20, 1999& cleaned up some misleadin" references to ,ur! 8arch 1, 1999& added the reference to Adapa-s dictionary! Feb 4, 1999& fi#ed a formattin" problem in the sources area and added the full title :1il"amesh, ;n/idu and the <nder%orld: to the .iblical ref-s section! =o 14, 199>& fi#ed a couple of problems %ith some internal lin/s! =o 2, 199>& added some short notes about the primary deities, =inhursa", and the ?ilmun';den parallel to clarify some issues! @ctober 9th, 199>& added a lin/ to the :dictionary: and brief re ie%s of the sources and other rele ant boo/s! September 199>& mo ed pa"e to pubpa"es ser er 8arch 2>th 199>& header of <senet ersion reformatted for $!ans%ersA chan"ed <65 to home addressA small chan"es to Bnanna 0 ?umu2i Adapa C?an Sulli anD has constructed a more complete Sumerian(;n"lish dictionary at& http&''home!earthlin/!net'Eduran/i'inde#1!htmlFdict C6estoredG >'14'99D *ohn 7alloran has a Sumerian 5an"ua"e Ha"e at& http&''%%%!sumerian!or"' B ha e constructed a rudimentary Sumerian(;n"lish, ;n"lish Sumerian "lossary usin" ,ramer-s The Sumerians and *acobsen-s Treasures of Darkness, althou"h parties interested in the Sumerian lan"ua"e may be better ser ed at the prior t%o pa"es! note& This FAQ is partly based on an anthropolo"y paper %hich B %rote in 1992, usin" some of the sources detailed belo%!

Contents:

B! 7istory and @ er ie% BB! Ihat do %e /no% about Sumerian Cosmolo"yJ BBB! Ihat ?eities did they %orshipJ

A! The Four Hrimary ?ieties .! The Se en %ho decreed fate C! The Annuna and others ?! The ?emi"ods, mortal 7eroes and 8onsters

BK! Ihat about the <nder%orldJ K! Ihat are me any%ayJ KB! B- e heard that there are a lot of .iblical parallels in Sumerian literature! Ihat are theyJ KBB! Source material KBBB! @ther boo/s of interest!

I. History and

!er!ie" #

Sumer may ery %ell be the first ci ili2ation in the %orld Calthou"h lon" term settlements at *ericho and Latal 7MyM/ predate Sumer and e#amples of %ritin" from ;"ypt and the 7arappa, Bndus alley sites may predate those from SumerD! From its be"innin"s as a collection of farmin" illa"es around >000 .C;, throu"h its con)uest by Sar"on of A"ade around 24+0 .C; and its final collapse under the Amorites around 2000 .C;, the Sumerians de eloped a reli"ion and a society %hich influenced both their nei"hbors and their con)uerors! Sumerian cuneiform, the earliest %ritten lan"ua"e, %as borro%ed by the .abylonians, %ho also too/ many of their reli"ious beliefs! Bn fact, traces and parallels of Sumerian myth can be found in 1enesis!

History
Sumer %as a collection of city states around the 5o%er Ti"ris and ;uphrates ri ers in %hat is no% southern Bra)! ;ach of these cities had indi idual rulers, althou"h as early as the mid(fourth millennium .C; the leader of the dominant city could ha e been considered the /in" of the re"ion! The history of Sumer tends to be di ided into fi e periods! They are the <ru/ period, %hich sa% the dominance of the city of that same name, the *emdat =asr period, the ;arly ?ynastic periods, the A"ade period, and the <r BBB period ( the entire span lastin" from 4300 .C; to around 2000 .C;! Bn addition, there is e idence of the Sumerians in the area both prior to the <ru/ period and after the <r BBB ?ynastic period, but relati ely little is /no%n about the former a"e and the latter time period is most hea ily dominated by the .abylonians! The $ru% period, stretched from 4300 .C; to 4200 .C;! Bt is to this era that the Sumerian ,in" 5ists ascribe the rei"ns of ?umu2i the shepherd, and the other antedilu ian /in"s! After his rei"n ?umu2i %as %orshipped as the "od of the sprin" "rains! This time sa% an enormous "ro%th in urbani2ation such that <ru/ probably had a population around 4>,000 at the period-s end! Bt %as easily the lar"est city in the area, althou"h the older cities of ;ridu to the south and ,ish to the north may ha e ri aled it! Brri"ation impro ements as %ell as a supply of ra% materials for craftsmen pro ided an impetus for this "ro%th! Bn fact, the city of An and Bnanna also seems to ha e been at the heart of a trade net%or/ %hich stretched from %hat is no% southern Tur/ey to %hat is no% eastern Bran! Bn addition people %ere dra%n to the city by the "reat temples there! The ;anna of <ru/, a collection of temples dedicated to Bnanna, %as constructed at this time and bore many mosaics and frescoes! These buildin"s ser ed ci ic as %ell as reli"ious purposes, %hich %as fittin" as the en, or hi"h priest, ser ed as both the spiritual and temporal leader! The temples %ere places %here craftsmen %ould practice their trades and %here surplus food %ould be stored and distributed! The &emdat 'asr period lasted from 4200 .C; to 2900 .C;! Bt %as not particularly remar/able and most ade)uately described as an e#tension and slo%in" do%n of the <ru/ period! This is the period durin" %hich the "reat flood is supposed to ha e ta/en place! The Sumerians- account of the flood may ha e been based on a floodin" of the Ti"ris, ;uphrates, or both ri ers onto their already marshy country! The (arly )ynasti* period ran from 2900 .C; to 24+0 .C; and it is this period for %hich %e be"in to ha e more reliable %ritten accounts althou"h some of the "reat /in"s of this era later e ol ed mythic tales about them and %ere deified! ,in"ship mo ed about 100 miles upri er and about >0 miles south of modern .ah"dad to the city of ,ish! @ne of the earlier /in"s in ,ish %as ;tana %ho :stabili2ed all the lands: securin" the First ?ynasty of ,ish and establishin" rule o er Sumer and some of its nei"hbors! ;tana %as later belie ed by the .abylonians to ha e rode to hea en on the bac/ of a "iant ;a"le so that he could recei e the :plant of birth: from Bshtar Ctheir ersion of BnannaD and thereby produce an heir! 8ean%hile, in the south, the ?ynasty of ;rech %as founded by 8es/ia""asher, %ho, alon" %ith his successors, %as termed the :son of <tu:, the sun("od! Follo%in" three other /in"s, includin" another ?umu2i, the famous 1il"amesh too/ the throne of ;rech around 2900 .C; and became in ol ed in a po%er stru""le for the re"ion %ith the ,ish ?ynasts and %ith 8esannepadda, the founder of the ?ynasty of <r! Ihile 1il"amesh became a demi("od, remembered in epic tales, it %as 8esannepadda %ho %as e entually ictorious in this three(%ay po%er stru""le, ta/in" the by then traditional title of :,in" of ,ish:! Althou"h the dynasties of ,ish and ;rech fell by the %ayside, <r could not retain a stron" hold o er all of Sumer! The entire re"ion %as %ea/ened by the stru""le and indi idual city(states continued more or less independent rule! The rulers of 5a"ash declared themsel es :,in"s of ,ish: around 24>0 .C;, but failed to seriously control the re"ion, facin" se eral military challen"es by the nearby <mma! 5u"al2a"esi, ensi or priest(/in" of <mma from around 2490(244> .C;, ra2ed 5a"ash, and con)uered Sumer, declarin" himself

:/in" of ;rech and the 5and:! <nfortunately for him, all of this strife made Sumer ripe for con)uest by an outsider and Sar"on of A"ade sei2ed that opportunity! Sargon united both Sumer and the northern re"ion of A//ad ( from %hich .abylon %ould arise about four hundred years later ( not ery far from ,ish! ; idence is s/etchy, but he may ha e e#tended his realm from the 8edeterranian Sea to the Bndus 6i er! This unity %ould sur i e its founder by less than 40 years! 7e built the city of A"ade and established an enormous court there and he had a ne% temple erected in =ippur! Trade from across his ne% empire and beyond s%elled the city, ma/in" it the center of %orld culture for a brief time! After Sar"on-s death, ho%e er, the empire %as frau"ht %ith rebellion! =aram(Sin, Sar"on-s "randson and third successor, )uelled the rebellions throu"h a series of military successes, e#tendin" his realm! 7e declared himself -,in" of the Four corners of the Iorld- and had himself deified! 7is di ine po%ers must ha e failed him as the 1uti, a mountain people, ra2ed A"ade and deposed =aram(Sin, endin" that dynasty! After a fe% decades, the 1uti presence became intolerable for the Sumerian leaders! <tuhe"al of <ru/';rech rallied a coalition army and ousted them! @ne of his lieutenants, <r(=ammu, usurped his rule and established the third $r dynasty around 2112 .C;! 7e consolidated his control by defeatin" a ri al dynast in 5a"ash and soon "ained control of all of the Sumerian city(states! 7e established the earliest /no%n recorded la%(codes and had constructed the "reat 2i""urat of <r, a /ind of step(pyramid %hich stood o er 90- tall and more than 200- %ide! For the ne#t century the Sumerians %ere e#tremely prosperous, but their society collapsed around 2000 .C; under the in adin" Amorites! A couple of city(states maintained their independence for a short %hile, but soon they and the rest of the Sumerians %ere absorbed into the risin" empire of the .abylonians! CCra%ford pp! 1(23A ,ramer 1994 pp! 40(+2D

Culture
Seated alon" the ;uphrates 6i er, Sumer had a thri in" a"riculture and trade industry! 7erds of sheep and "oats and farms of "rains and e"etables %ere held both by the temples and pri ate citi2ens! Ships plied up and do%n the ri er and throu"hout the Hersian "ulf, carryin" pottery and arious processed "oods and brin"in" bac/ fruits and arious ra% materials from across the re"ion, includin" cedars from the 5e ant! Sumer %as one of the first literate ci ili2ations lea in" many records of business transactions, and lessons from schools! They had stron" armies, %hich %ith their chariots and phalan#es held s%ay o er their less ci ili2ed nei"hbors C,ramer 1994, p! +4D! Herhaps the most lastin" cultural remnants of the Sumerians thou"h, can be found in their reli"ion!

+eligion
The reli"ion of the ancient Sumerians has left its mar/ on the entire middle east! =ot only are its temples and 2i""urats scattered about the re"ion, but the literature, cosmo"ony and rituals influenced their nei"hbors to such an e#tent that %e can see echoes of Sumer in the *udeo(Christian(Bslamic tradition today! From these ancient temples, and to a "reater e#tent, throu"h cuneiform %ritin"s of hymns, myths, lamentations, and incantations, archaeolo"ists and mytho"raphers afford the modern reader a "limpse into the reli"ious %orld of the Sumerians! ;ach city housed a temple that %as the seat of a maNor "od in the Sumerian pantheon, as the "ods controlled the po%erful forces %hich often dictated a human-s fate! The city leaders had a duty to please the to%n-s patron deity, not only for the "ood %ill of that "od or "oddess, but also for the "ood %ill of the other deities in the council of "ods! The priesthood initially held this role, and e en after secular /in"s ascended to po%er, the cler"y still held "reat authority throu"h the interpretation of omens and dreams! 8any of the secular /in"s claimed di ine ri"htA Sar"on of A"ade, for e#ample claimed to ha e been chosen by Bshtar'Bnanna! CCra%ford 1991& 21(24D The rectan"ular central shrine of the temple, /no%n as a -cella,- had a bric/ altar or offerin" table in front of a statue of the temple-s deity! The cella %as lined on its lon" ends by many rooms for priests and priestesses! These mud(bric/ buildin"s %ere decorated %ith cone "eometrical mosaics, and the occasional fresco %ith human and animal fi"ures! These temple comple#es e entually e ol ed into to%erin" 2i""urats! CIol/stein 0 ,ramer 1934& 119D The temple %as staffed by priests, priestesses, musicians, sin"ers, castrates and hierodules! Karious public rituals, food sacrifices, and libations too/ place there on a daily basis! There %ere monthly feasts and annual, =e% Oear celebrations! ?urin" the later, the /in" %ould be married to Bnanna as the resurrected fertility "od ?umu2i, %hose e#ploits are dealt %ith belo%!

Ihen it came to more pri ate matters, a Sumerian remained de out! Althou"h the "ods preferred Nustice and mercy, they had also created e il and misfortune! A Sumerian had little that he could do about it! *ud"in" from 5amentation records, the best one could do in times of duress %ould be to :plead, lament and %ail, tearfully confessin" his sins and failin"s!: Their family "od or city "od mi"ht inter ene on their behalf, but that %ould not necessarily happen! After all, man %as created as a bro/en, labor sa in", tool for the use of the "ods and at the end of e eryone-s life, lay the under%orld, a "enerally dreary place! CIol/stein 0 ,ramer 1934& pp!124(124D

II. ,hat do "e %no" a-out Sumerian Cosmology.

From erses scattered throu"hout hymns and myths, one can compile a picture of the uni erse-s Can/iD creation accordin" to the Sumerians! The prime al sea Cab2uD e#isted before anythin" else and %ithin that, the hea en CanD and the earth C/iD %ere formed! The boundary bet%een hea en and earth %as a solid Cperhaps tinD ault, and the earth %as a flat dis/! Iithin the ault lay the "as(li/e -lil-, or atmosphere, the bri"hter portions therein formed the stars, planets, sun, and moon! C,ramer, The Sumerians 1994& pp! 112( 114D ;ach of the four maNor Sumerian deities is associated %ith one of these re"ions! An, "od of hea en, may ha e been the main "od of the pantheon prior to 2>00 .C!, althou"h his importance "radually %aned! C,ramer 1994 p! 113D ,i is li/ely to be the ori"inal name of the earth "oddess, %hose name more often appears as =inhursa" C)ueen of the mountainsD, =inmah Cthe e#alted ladyD, or =intu Cthe lady %ho "a e birthD! Bt seems li/ely that these t%o %ere the pro"enitors of most of the "ods! Accordin" to :1il"amesh, ;n/idu, and the =ether%orld:, in the first days all needed thin"s %ere created! 7ea en and earth %ere separated! An too/ 7ea en, ;nlil too/ the earth, ;resh/i"al %as carried off to the nether%orld as a pri2e, and ;n/i sailed off after her!

III. ,hat )eities did they "orshi/.

=ammu =ammu is the 1oddess of the %atery abyss, the prime al sea! She may be the earliest of deities %ithin Sumerian cosmolo"y as she "a e birth to hea en and earth! C,ramer 1991 p! 49D She is else%here described both as the mother of all the "ods and as the %ife of An! C,ramer 1991 p! 114D She is ;n/i-s mother! She prompts him to create ser ants for the "ods and is then directed by him on ho%, %ith the help of =immah'=inhursa" to create man! C,ramer 1994 p! 1>0A ,ramer 1991 p! +0D

A. 0he 1rimary )eities

Bt is notable that the Sumerians themsel es may not ha e "rouped these four as a set and that the "roupin" has been made because of the obser ations of Sumerolo"ists!

An An, "od of hea en, may ha e been the main "od of the pantheon prior to 2>00 .C!, althou"h his importance "radually %aned! C,ramer 1994 p! 113D Bn the early days he carried off hea en, %hile ;nlil carried a%ay the earth! C,ramer 1991 p! 4+(49D Bt seems li/ely that he and ,i'=inhursa" %ere the pro"enitors of most of the "ods! althou"h in one place =ammu is listed as his %ife! C,ramer 1991 p! 114D Amon" his children and follo%ers %ere the Anunna/i! C,ramer 1991 p! >4D 7is primary temple %as in ;rech! 7e and ;nlil "i e arious "ods, "oddesses, and /in"s their earthly re"ions of influence and their la%s! C,ramer 1994 p! 124D ;n/i seats him at the first seat of the table in =ippur at the feast celebratin" his ne% house in ;ridu! C,ramer 1991 p! 94D 7e hears Bnanna-s complaint about 8ount ;bih C,urJD, but discoura"es her from attac/in" it because of its fearsome po%er! C,ramer 1991 pp! 32(34D After the flood, he and ;nlil ma/e Piusudra immortal and ma/e him li e in ?ilmun! C,ramer 1991 p! 93D CSee also Anu!D

=inhursa" C,i, =inmah, =intuD ,i is li/ely to be the ori"inal name of the earth "oddess, %hose name more often appears as =inhursa" C)ueen of the mountainsD, =inmah Cthe e#alted ladyD, or =intu Cthe lady %ho "a e birthD! C,ramer 1994 p! 122D 8ost often she is considered ;nlil-s sister, but in some traditions she is his spouse instead! C*acobsen p!10>D She %as born, possibly as a unified cosmic mountain %ith An, from =ammu and shortly thereafter, their union produced ;nlil! C,ramer 1991 p! +4D Bn the early days, as ,i, she %as separated from hea en CAnD and carried off by ;nlil! C,ramer 1991 pp! 4+(41D Bt seems li/ely that she and An %ere the pro"enitors of most of the "ods! She later unites %ith ;nlil and %ith the assistance of ;n/i they produce the %orld-s plant and animal life! C,ramer 1991 p! +>D :;n/i and =inhursa": Bn ?ilmun, she Cas =intuD bears the "oddess =insar from ;n/i, %ho in turn bears the "oddess =in/ur, %ho in turn bears <ttu, "oddess of plants! <ttu bore ei"ht ne% trees from ;n/i! Ihen he then ate <ttu-s children, =inhursa" cursed him %ith ei"ht %ounds and dissapears! After bein" persuaded by ;nlil to undo her curse, she bore ;n/i ei"ht ne% children %hich undid the %ounds of the first ones! C,ramer 1994 pp! 14+(149A ,ramer 1991 pp! >4(>9D ;n/i seats her Cas =intuD on the bi" side of the table in =ippur at the feast celebratin" his ne% house in ;ridu! C,ramer 1991 p! 94D :;n/i and =inmah: She is the mother "oddess and, as =inmah, assists in the creation of man! ;n/i, ha in" been propted by =ammu to create ser ants for the "ods, describes ho% =ammu and =inmah %ill help fashion man from clay! Hrior to "ettin" to %or/, she and ;n/i drin/ o ermuch at a feast! She then shapes si# fla%ed ersions of man from the heart of the clay o er the Ab2u, %ith ;n/i declarin" their fates! ;n/i, in turn also creates a fla%ed man %hich is unable to eat! =inmah appears to curse him for the failed effort! C,ramer 1994 pp! 149(1>1A ,ramer 1991 pp! 99(+2D CSee also AruruD ;nlil An and ,i-s union produced ;nlil C5ord of -lil-D! ;nlil %as the air("od and leader of the pantheon from at least 2>00 .C, %hen his temple ;/ur in =ippur %as the spiritual center of Sumer C,ramer 1991 p! 4+D! Bn the early days he separated and carried off the earth C,iD %hile An carried off hea en! C,ramer 1991 p! 4+(41D 7e assumed most of An-s po%ers! 7e is "lorified as :-the father of the "ods, -the /in" of hea en and earth,- - the /in" of all the lands-:! ,ramer portrays him as a patriarchal fi"ure, %ho is both creator and disciplinarian! ;nlil causes the da%n, the "ro%th of plants, and bounty C,ramer 1991 p! 42D! 7e also in ents a"ricultural tools such as the plo% or pic/a#e C,ramer 1991 pp 4+(49D! Iithout his blessin"s, a city %ould not rise C,ramer 1991 pp! 94, 30D 8ost often he is considered =inlil-s husband, %ith =inhursa" as his sister, but some traditions ha e =inhursa" as his spouse! C*acobsen p!10>D :;nlil and =inlil: 7e is also banished to the nether %orld C/urD for his rape of =inlil, his intended bride, but returns %ith the first product of their union, the moon "od Sin Calso /no%n as

=annaD! C,ramer, Sumerians 1994& pp!14>(14+D! =inlil follo%s him into e#ile as his %ife! 7e tells the arious under%orld "uardians to not re eal his %hereabouts and instead poses as those "uardians himself three times, each time impre"natin" her a"ain it appears that at least on one occasion ;nlil re eals his true self before they unite! The products of these unions are three under%orld deities, includin" 8eslamtaea Ca/a! =er"alD and =ina2u! 5ater, %hen =anna isits him in =ippur, he besto%s <r to him %ith a palace and plentiful plantlife! C,ramer 1991 p! 44(49D ;nlil is also seen as the father of =inurta C,ramer 1991 p! 30D! :;n/i and ;ridu: Ihen ;n/i Nourneys to ;nlil-s city =ippur in order for his o%n city, ;ridu to be blessed! 7e is "i en bread at ;n/i-s feast and is seated ne#t to An, after %hich ;nlil proclaims that the Anunna/i should praise ;n/i! C,ramer 1991 pp! 92(94D :The ?ispute bet%een Cattle and 1rain: ;nlil and ;n/i, at ;n/i-s ur"in", create farms and fields for the "rain "oddess Ashnan and the cattle "oddess 5ahar! This area has places for 5ahar to ta/e care of the animals and Ashnan to "ro% the crops! The t%o a"ricultural deities "et drun/ and be"in fi"htin", so it falls to ;nlil and ;n/i to resol e their conflict ( ho% they do so has not been reco ered! C,ramer 1991 pp! >4(>4A ,ramer 1994 pp! 220(224D :The ?ispute bet%een ;mesh and ;nten: ;nlil creates the herdsman deity ;nten and the a"ricultural deity ;mesh! 7e settles a dispute bet%een ;mesh and ;nten o er %ho should be reco"ni2ed as -farmer of the "ods-, declarin" ;nten-s claim to be stron"er! C,ramer 1991 p! 49(>1D! :;n/i and =inhursa": 7e helps ;n/i a"ain %hen he %as cursed by =inhursa"! ;nlil and a fo# entreat her to return and undo her curse! C,ramer 1991 p! >+D :;n/i and the Iorld @rder: The me %ere assembled by ;nlil in his temple ;/ur, and "i en to ;n/i to "uard and impart to the %orld, be"innin" %ith ;ridu, ;n/i-s center of %orship! C,ramer 1994 pp! 1+1(134D :Bnanna-s ?escent to the =ether Iorld: ;nlil refuses =inshubur-s appeal on behalf of his Q"rand(Rdau"hter, Bnanna to help rescue her from ;resh/i"al in the under%orld! C,ramer 1991 pp! 39, 3+, 39, 94D :Piusudra: After the flood, he and An "a e Piusudra eternal life and had him li e in ?ilmun! C,ramer 1991 p! 93D :1il"amesh, ;n/idu and the =ether%orld: Ihen 1il"amesh looses his pukku and mikku in the nether %orld, and ;n/idu is held fast there by demons, he appeals to ;nlil for help! ;nlil refuses to assist him! C,ramer 1991 p! 4>(49D CSee also the .abylonian ;llilD ;n/i ;n/i is the son of =ammu, the prime al sea! Contrary to the translation of his name, ;n/i is not the lord of the earth, but of the ab2u Cthe %atery abyss and also semenD

and of %isdom! This contradiction leads ,ramer and 8aier to postulate that he %as once /no%n as ;n(/ur, lord of the under%orld, %hich either contained or %as contained in the Ab2u! 7e did stru""le %ith ,ur as mentioned in the prelude to :1il"amesh, ;n/idu, and the <nder%orld:, and presumably %as ictorious and thereby able to claim the title :5ord of ,ur: Cthe realmD! 7e is a "od of %ater, creation, and fertility! 7e also holds dominion o er the land! 7e is the /eeper of the me, the di ine la%s! C,ramer 0 8aier 8yths of ;n/i 1939& pp! 2(4D :1il"amesh, ;n/idu, and the <nder%orld: ;n/i sails for the ,ur, presumably to rescue ;resh/i"al after she %as "i en o er to ,ur! 7e is assailed by creatures %ith stones! These creatures may ha e been an e#tension of ,ur itself! CIol/stein and ,ramer p! 4A ,ramer 1991 p! 4+(43, +3(+9D :;n/i and ;ridu: ;n/i raises his city ;ridu from the sea, ma/in" it ery lush! 7e ta/es his boat to =ippur to ha e the city blessed by ;nlil! 7e thro%s a feast for the "ods, "i in" ;nlil, An, and =intu spacial attention! After the feast, ;nlil proclaims that the Anunna/i should praise ;n/i! C,ramer 1991A pp! 92(94D :;n/i and the Iorld @rder: The me %ere assembled by ;nlil in ;/ur and "i en to ;n/i to "uard and impart to the %orld, be"innin" %ith ;ridu, his center of %orship! From there, he "uards the me and imparts them on the people! 7e directs the me to%ards <r and 8eluhha and ?ilmun, or"ani2in" the %orld %ith his decrees! C,ramer 1994 pp! 1+1(134D :The ?ispute bet%een Cattle and 1rain: ;nlil and ;n/i, at ;n/i-s ur"in", create farms and fields for the "rain "oddess Ashnan and the cattle "oddess 5ahar! This area has places for 5ahar to ta/e care of the animals and Ashnan to "ro% the crops! The t%o a"ricultural deities "et drun/ and be"in fi"htin", so it falls to ;nlil and ;n/i to resol e their conflict ( ho% they do so has not been reco ered! C,ramer 1991 pp! >4(>4A ,ramer 1994 pp! 220(224D :;n/i and =inhursa": 7e blessed the paradisical land of ?ilmun, to ha e plentiful %ater and palm trees! 7e sires the "oddess =insar upon =inhursa", then sires =in/ur upon =insar, finally sirin" <ttu, "oddess of plants, upon =in/ur! <ttu bore ei"ht ne% types of trees from ;n/i! 7e then consumed these tree(children and %as cursed by =inhursa", %ith one %ound for each plant consumed! ;nlil and a fo# act on ;n/i-s behalf to call bac/ =inhursa" in order to undo the dama"e! She Noins %ith ;n/i a"ain and bears ei"ht ne% children, one to cure each of the %ounds! C,ramer 1994 pp! 14+(149A ,ramer 1991 pp! >4(>9D :;n/i and =inmah& The Creation of 8an: The "ods complain that they need assistance! At his mother =ammu-s promptin", he directs her, alon" %ith some constructi e criticism from =inmah C=inhursa"D, in the creation of man from the heart of the clay o er the Ab2u! Se eral fla%ed ersions %ere created before the final ersion %as made! C,ramer 1994 pp! 149(1>1A ,ramer 1991 pp! 99(+2D :Bnanna-s ?escent to the =ether Iorld: 7e is friendly to Bnanna and rescued her from ,ur by sendin" t%o se#less bein"s to ne"otiate %ith, and flatter ;resh/i"al! They "a e her the Food of 5ife and the Iater

of 5ife, %hich restored her! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! 92(94D :Bnanna and ;n/i: 5ater, Bnanna comes to ;n/i and complains at ha in" been "i en too little po%er from his decrees! Bn a different te#t, she "ets ;n/i drun/ and he "rants her more po%ers, arts, crafts, and attributes ( a total of ninety(four me! Bnanna parts company %ith ;n/i to deli er the me to her cult center at ;rech! ;n/i reco ers his %its and tries to reco er the me from her, but she arri es safely in ;rech %ith them! C,ramer 0 8aier 1939& pp! 43(93D CSee also ;aD

III 2. 0he Se!en ,ho )e*reed Fate

Bn addition to the four primary deities, there %ere hundreds of others! A "roup of se en :decreed the fates: ( these probably included the first four, as %ell as =anna, his son <tu, the sun "od and a "od of Nustice, and =anna-s dau"hter Bnanna, "oddess of lo e and %ar!

=anna CSin, CSuenD, Ash"irbabbarD =anna is another name for the moon "od Sin! 7e is the product of ;nlil-s rape of =inlil! C,ramer, 1994, pp! 149(+!D 7e tra els across the s/y in his "ufa, Ca small, canoe(li/e boat made of %o en t%i"s and tarD, %ith the stars and planets about him! C,ramer 1991 p! 41D =anna %as the tutelary deity of <r C,ramer 1994 p! 99D, appointed as /in" of that city by An and ;nlil! C,ramer 1994 pp! 34(34D 7e Nourneyed to =ippur by boat, stoppin" at fi e cities alon" the %ay! Ihen he arri ed at =ippur, he proffered "ifts to ;nlil and pleaded %ith him to ensure that his city of <r %ould be blessed, prosperous, and thus, not be flooded! C,ramer 1994 pp! 14>(149, ,ramer 1991 pp! 4+(49D =anna %as married to =in"al and they produced Bnanna and <tu! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! 40(44A ,ramer 1991 p! 41D 7e rests in the <nder%orld e ery month, and there decrees the fate of the dead! C,ramer 1994 p! 142, 14>, 210D 7e refuses to send aid to Bnanna %hen she is trapped in the under%orld! C,ramer 1994 pp! 1>4(1>4D 7e established <r(=ammu as his mortal representati e, establishin" the third <r dynasty! C,ramer 1994 p! 34D <tu <tu is the son of =anna and =in"al and the "od of the Sun and of *ustice! 7e "oes to the under%orld at the end of e ery day settin" in the :mountain of the %est: and risin" in the :mountain of the east:! Ihile there decrees the fate of the dead, althou"h he also may lie do%n to sleep at ni"ht! C,ramer 1994 p! 142, 14>A ,ramer 1991 pp! 41(42D 7e is usually depicted %ith fiery rays comin" out of his shoulders and upper arms, and carryin" a sa% /nife! C,ramer 1991 p! 40D Ihen Bnanna-s huluppu tree is infested %ith un%elcome "uests, he i"nores her appeal for aid! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! 9(+D 7e tries to set her up %ith ?umu2i, the shepherd, but she initially rebuffs him, preferrin" the farmer! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! 40(44D 7e aided ?umu2i in his fli"ht from the "alla demons by helpin" him to transform into different creatures! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! +2(+4, 31D Throu"h ;n/i-s orders, he also brin"s %ater up from the earth in order to irri"ate ?ilmun, the "arden paradise, the place %here the sun rises! C,ramer 1994 p! 143D 7e is in char"e of the :5and of the 5i in": and, in sympathy for 1il"amesh, calls off the se en %eather heroes %ho defend that land! C,ramer 1994 pp! 190(194D 7e opened the :ablal: of the

<nder%orld for the shade of ;n/idu, to allo% him to escape, at the behest of ;n/i! C,ramer 1994 p! 144A ,ramer 1991 p! 49D CSee also ShamashD Bnanna =anna and =in"al-s dau"hter Bnanna, "oddess of lo e and %ar! :1il"amesh, ;n/idu, and the <nder%orld: A %oman planted the huluppu tree in Bnanna-s "arden, but the Bmdu"ud(bird CAn2u birdJD made a nest for its youn" there, 5ilith Cor her predecessor, a lilitu(demonD made a house in its trun/, and a serpent made a home in its roots! Bnanna appeals to <tu about her un%elcome "uests, but he is unsympathetic! She appeals to 1il"amesh, here her brother, and he is recepti e! 7e tears do%n the tree and ma/es it into a throne and bed for her! Bn return for the fa or, Bnanna manufactures a pukku and mikku for him! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! >(9D :1il"amesh and the .ull of 7ea en: 5ater, Bnanna see/s out 1il"amesh as her lo er! Ihen he spurns her she sends the .ull of 7ea en to terrori2e his city of ;rech! C,ramer 1994 p! 292D :The Courtship of Bnanna and ?umu2i: 7er older brother <tu tries to set her up %ith ?umu2i, the shepherd, but she initially rebuffs him, preferrin" the farmer! 7e assures her that his parents are as "ood as hers and she be"ins to desire him! 7er mother, =in"al, further assures her! The t%o consummate their relationship and %ith their e#ercise in fertility, the plants and "rains "ro% as %ell! After they spend time in the marria"e bed, Bnanna declares herself as his battle leader and sets his duties as includin" sittin" on the throne and "uidin" the path of %eapons! At =inshubur-s re)uest, she "i es him po%er o er the fertility of plants and animals! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! 40(>0D :Bnanna-s ?escent to the =ether Iorld: Bnanna also isits ,ur, %hich results in a myth reminiscent of the 1ree/ seasonal story of Hersephone! She sets out to %itness the funeral rites of her sister(in(la% ;resh/i"al-s husband 1u"alanna, the .ull of 7ea en! She ta/es precaution before settin" out, by tellin" her ser ant =inshubur to see/ assistance from ;nlil, =anna, or ;n/i at their shrines, should she not return! Bnanna /noc/s on the outer "ates of ,ur and the "ate/eeper, =eti, )uestions her! 7e consults %ith )ueen ;resh/i"al and then allo%s Bnanna to pass throu"h the se en "ates of the under%orld! After each "ate, she is re)uired to remo e adornments and articles of clothin", until after the se enth "ate, she is na/ed! The Annuna pass Nud"ment a"ainst her and ;resh/i"al /illed her and hun" her on the %all! Csee ;resh/i"alD CIol/stein 0 ,ramer 1934 pp! >2(90D Bnanna is rescued by the inter ention of ;n/i! 7e creates t%o se#less creatures that empathi2e %ith ;resh/i"al-s sufferin", and thereby "ain a "ift ( Bnanna-s corpse! They restore her to life %ith the .read of 5ife and the Iater of 5ife, but the Sumerian under%orld has a conser ation of death la%! =o one can lea e %ithout pro idin" someone to stay in their stead! Bnanna is escorted by "alla'demons past =inshubur and members of her family! She doesn-t allo% them to claim anyone until she sees ?umu2i on his throne in <ru/! They then sei2e ?umu2i, but he escapes them t%ice by transformin" himself, %ith the aid of <tu! ; entually he is cau"ht and slain! Bnanna

spies his sister, 1eshtinanna, in mournin" and they "o to ?umu2i! She allo%s ?umu2i, the shepherd, to stay in the under%orld only si# months of the year, %hile 1eshtinanna %ill stay the other si#! CIol/stein 0 ,ramer pp! 90(39D As %ith the 1ree/ story of the /idnappin" of Hersephone, this lin/ed the chan"in" seasons, the emer"ence of the plants from the "round, %ith the return of a har est deity from the nether %orld! 1eshtinanna is also associated %ith "ro%th, but %here her brother rules o er the sprin" har ested "rain, she rules o er the autumn har ested ines CIol/stein 0 ,ramer p! 193D! :Bnanna and 8ount ;bih: Bnanna complains to An about 8ount ;bih C,urJD demandin" that it "lorify her and submit lest she attac/ it! An discoura"es her from doin" so because of its fearsome po%er! She does so any%ay, brin"in" a storehouse %orth of %eapons to bear on it! She destroys it! .ecause she is /no%n as the ?estroyer of ,ur in certain hymns, ,ramer identifys 8t! ;bih %ith ,ur! C,ramer 1991 pp! 32(34D :Bnanna and ;n/i: The me %ere uni ersal decrees of di ine authority (the in ocations that spread arts, crafts, and ci ili2ation! ;n/i became the /eeper of the me! Bnanna comes to ;n/i and complains at ha in" been "i en too little po%er from his decrees! Bn a different te#t, she "ets ;n/i drun/ and he "rants her more po%ers, arts, crafts, and attributes ( a total of ninety(four me! Bnanna parts company %ith ;n/i to deli er the me to her cult center at ;rech! ;n/i reco ers his %its and tries to reco er the me from her, but she arri es safely in ;rech %ith them! C,ramer 0 8aier 1939& pp! 43(93D CSee also BshtarD

III. C. 0he Annuna (Anunna%i) and others

At the ne#t le el %ere fifty :"reat "ods:, possibly the same as the Annuna, althou"h se eral "ods confined to the under%orld are specifically desi"nated Annuna, An-s children! The Annuna are also said to li e in ?ul/u" or ?u(/u, the :holy mound:!C,ramer 1994& pp! 122(124, .lac/ and 1reen p! +2, ,ramer 1991, p! +4D! Bn the :?escent of Bnanna to the =ether Iorld: the Anunna/i are identified as the se en Nud"es of the nether %orld! C,ramer 1994 p! 1>4A ,ramer 1991 p! 119D

;resh/i"al ;resh/i"al is the )ueen of the under%orld, %ho is either "i en to ,ur in the under%orld or "i en dominion o er the under%orld in the prelude to :1il"amesh, ;n/idu, and the <nder%orld:! CIol/stein and ,ramer p! 1>+(1>3A ,ramer 1991 p! 4+(43D She has a palace there %ith se en "ates and is due a isit by those enterin" ,ur! C,ramer 1994 pp! 141, 144D She %as married to 1u"alanna, the .ull of 7ea en, and is Bnanna-s older sister! Ihen Bnanna trespassed on her domain, ;resh/i"al first directs her "ate/eeper to open the se en "ates a crac/ and remo e her "arments! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! >>(>+D Then %hen Bnanna arri es she& !!!fastened on Bnanna the eye of death! She spo/e a"ainst her the %ord of %rath! She uttered a"ainst her the cry of "uilt She struc/ her! Bnanna %as turned into a corpse, !!!And %as hun" from a hoo/ on the %all!C Iol/stein 0 ,ramer 1934 p!

90D 5ater, %hen ;n/i-s messen"ers arri e, she is moanin" in pain! Ihen they empathi2e %ith her, she "rants them a boon! They re)uest Bnanna-s corpse and she accedes! CIol/stein 0 ,ramer pp! 94(9+D CSee also .abylonian ;resh/i"alD =er"al C8eslamtaeaD ( =er"al is the second son of ;nlil and =inlil! C,ramer 1991 pp! 44(4>D 7e is perhaps the co(ruler of ,ur %ith ;resh/i"al %here he has a palace and is due re erence by those %ho isit! 7e holds ;n/idu fast in the under%orld after ;n/idu bro/e se eral taboos %hile tryin" to reco er 1il"amesh-s pukku and mikku! 7e is more prominent in .abylonian literature and ma/es a brief appearance in BB ,in"s 1+&40! CSee .abylonian =er"alD =inlil =inlil %as the intended bride of ;nlil and the dau"hter of =unbarshe"unu, the old %oman of =ippur! ;nlil raped her and %as then banished to the nether %orld C/urD! She follo%s him to the nether %orld, %here she "i es birth to the moon "od Sin Calso /no%n as =annaD! They ha e three more children in the nether %orld includin" 8eslamtaea'C=er"alD and =ina2u %ho remain there so that Sin may be allo%ed to lea e! C,ramer, Sumerians 1994& pp!149(+A ,ramer 1991 pp! 44(49D! Bn some te#ts she is ;nlil-s sister %hile =inhursa" is his bride! C*acobsen p!10>D 7er chief shrine %as in the Tummal district of =ippur! CSee also .abylonian =inlilD =in"al She is =anna-s %ife and the mother of Bnanna and <tu! She be"s and %eeps before An and ;nlil for them not to flood her city, <r! Csee also .abylonian =in"al and =i//al of the Canaanites!D =anshe =anshe is a "oddess of the city of 5a"ash %ho ta/es care of orphans and %ido%s! She also see/s out Nustice for the poor and casts Nud"ement on =e% Oear-s ?ay! She is supported by =idaba and her husband, 7aia! C,ramer 1994 pp! 124(12>D =idaba The "oddess of %ritin" and the patron deity of the edubba Cpalace archi esD! She is an assistant to =anshe! C,ramer 1994 pp! 124(12>D =inisinna C=ininsinnaD The patron "oddess of the city Bsin! She is the :hierodule of An: =in/asi C:The 5ady %ho fills the mouth:D She is the "oddess of bre%in" or alcohol, born of :spar/lin"(fresh %ater:! C,ramer 1994 pp! 111, 209D She is one of the ei"ht healin" children born by =inhursa" for ;n/i She is born in response to ;n/i-s mouth pain and =inhursa" declares that she should be the "oddess %ho :sates the heart: C,ramer 1991 p! >3D or :%ho satisfies desire:! C,ramer and 8aier p! 40D =inurta

=inurta is ;nlil-s son and a %arrior deity, the "od of the south %ind! C,ramer 1994 p! 14>A ,ramer 1991 p! 30D Bn :The Feats and ;#ploits of =inurta:, that deity sets out to destroy the ,ur! ,ur initially intimidates =inurta into retreatin", but %hen =inurta returns %ith "reater resol e, ,ur is destroyed! This looses the %aters of the Ab2u, causin" the fields to be flooded %ith unclean %aters! =inurta dams up the Ab2u by pilin" stones o er ,ur-s corpse! 7e then drains these %aters into the Ti"ris! C,ramer 1991 pp! 30(32D! The identification of =inurta-s anta"onist in this passa"e as ,ur appears to be miscast! .lac/ and 1reen identify his foe as the demon Asa", %ho %as the spa%n of An and ,i, and %ho produced monstrous offsprin" %ith ,ur! The remainder of the details of this story are the same as in ,ramer-s account, but %ith Asa" replacin" ,ur! Bn other ersions, =inurta is replaced by Adad'Bsh/ur! C.lac/ 0 1reen pp! 4>(49D CSee also the .abylonian =inurtaD Ashnan The /indly maid! Ashnan is a "rain "oddess, initially li in" in ?ul/u" C?u(/uD! C,ramer 1991 p! >0D ;nlil and ;n/i, at ;n/i-s ur"in", create farms and fields for her and for the cattle "od 5ahar! This area has places for 5ahar to ta/e care of the animals and Ashnan to "ro% the crops! The t%o a"ricultural deities "et drun/ and be"in fi"htin", so it falls to ;nlil and ;n/i to resol e their conflict ( ho% they do so has not been reco ered! C,ramer 1991 pp! >4(>4D 5ahar 5ahar is the cattle("oddess, initially li in" in ?u/u C?ul/u"D! ;nlil and ;n/i, at ;n/i-s ur"in", create farms and fields for him and the "rain "oddess Ashnan! This area has places for 5ahar to ta/e care of the animals and Ashnan to "ro% the crops! The t%o a"ricultural deities "et drun/ and be"in fi"htin", so it falls to ;nlil and ;n/i to resol e their conflict ( ho% they do so has not been reco ered! C,ramer 1991 pp! >4(>4A ,ramer 1994 pp! 220(224D ;mesh Created by ;nlil this "od is responsible for a"riculture! 7e )uarrels %ith his brother ;nten, and ma/es a claim to be the -farmer of the "ods-, brin"in" his claim to ;nlil after ;nten! Ihen ;nlil Nud"es ;nten-s claim to be stron"er, ;mesh relents, brin"s him "ifts, and reconciles! C,ramer 1991 pp! 49(>1D ;nten 7e is a farmer "od, and is ;nlil-s field %or/er and herdsman! 7e )uarrels %ith his brother ;mesh and ma/es an appeal to ;nlil that he deser es to be -farmer of the "ods-! ;nlil Nud"es ;nten-s claim to be the stron"er and the t%o reconcile %ith ;mesh brin"in" ;nten "ifts! C,ramer 1991 pp! 42, 49(>1D <ttu She is the "oddess of %ea in" and clothin" C,ramer 1994 p! 1+4A .lac/ and 1reen p! 132D and %as pre iously thou"ht to be the "oddess of plants! She is both the child of ;n/i and =in/ur, and she bears ei"ht ne% child'trees from ;n/i! Ihen he then ate <ttu-s children, =inhursa" cursed him %ith ei"ht %ounds and disappears! C,ramer 1991 pp! >+(>9D

;nbilulu The :/no%er: of ri ers! 7e is the "od appointed in char"e of the Ti"ris and ;uphrates by ;n/i! C,ramer 1991 p! 91D Bsh/ur 1od appointed to be in char"e of the %inds by ;n/i! 7e is in char"e of :the sil er loc/ of the -heart- of hea en:! C,ramer 1991 p! 91D 7e is identified %ith the A//adian "od, Adad! C.lac/ and 1reen pp! 4>(49D ;n/imdu 1od placed in char"e of canals and ditches by ;n/i! C,ramer 1991 p! 91D ,abta 1od placed in char"e of the pic/a# and bric/mold by ;n/i! C,ramer 1991 p! 91D 8ushdamma 1od placed in char"e of foundations and houses by ;n/i! C,ramer 1991 p! 91D Sumu"an The "od of the plain or :/in" of the mountain:, he is the "od placed in char"e of the plant and animal life on the plain of Sumer by ;n/i! C,ramer 1991 pp! 91(92A ,ramer 1994 p! 220D

III. ). )emigods3 mortal Heroes3 and Monsters

?umu2i Cdemi"odD CTammu2D A shepherd, he is the son of ;n/i and Sirtur! CIol/stein 0 ,ramer p! 44D 7e is "i en char"e of stables and sheepfolds, filled %ith mil/ and fat by ;n/i! C,ramer 1991 p! 92D 7e has a palace in ,ur, and is due a isit by those enterin" ,ur! 7e is Bnanna-s husband! Bn life, he %as the shepherd /in" of <ru/! :The Courtship of Bnanna and ?umu2i: <tu tries to set Bnanna up %ith him but she initially rebuffs him, preferrin" the farmer! 7e assures her that his parents are as "ood as hers and she be"ins to desire him! The t%o consummate their relationship and %ith their e#ercise in fertility, the plants and "rains "ro% as %ell! After they spend time in the marria"e bed, Bnanna declares herself as his battle leader and sets his duties as includin" sittin" on the throne and "uidin" the path of %eapons! At =inshubur-s re)uest, she "i es him po%er o er the fertility of plants and animals! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! 40(>0D :?escent of Bnanna to the =ether Iorld: <pon her rescue from the dead, he %as pursued by "alla demons, %hich he eluded for a time %ith the aid of <tu! ; entually he %as cau"ht and slainA ho%e er, he %as partially freed from his stay in the under%orld by the actions of his sister 1eshtinanna! =o% he resides there only half of the year, %hile she li es there the other half yearA this represents seasonal chan"e Csee Bnanna and 1eshtinannaD! CIol/stein and ,ramer pp! +1(39D CSee also the .abylonian Tammu2!D 1eshtinanna Cdemi"oddessD

She is ?umu2i-s sister! After his death, she isited him in the under%orld %ith Bnanna, and %as allo%ed to ta/e his place there for si# months out of the year! 7er time in the under%orld and her periodic emer"ence from it are lin/ed %ith her ne% di ine authority o er the autumn ines and %ine! Csee also Bnanna, ?umu2iD Piusudra CPiusuraD Bn the Sumerian ersion of the flood story, the pious Piusudra of Shuruppa/ C,ramer 1994 p! 29D, the son of <bartutu Cor of Shuruppa/JD C,ramer 1994 p! 224D is informed of the "ods decision to destroy man/ind by listenin" to a %all! 7e %eathers the delu"e and %ind(storms aboard a hu"e boat! The only sur i in" detail of the boat is that it had a %indo%! The flood lasts for se en days before <tu appears dispersin" the flood %aters! After that, Piusudra ma/es appropriate sacrifices and protrations to <tu, An and ;nlil! 7e is "i en eternal life in ?ilmun by An and ;nlil! C,ramer 1994 pp! 194( 194A ,ramer 1991 pp! 9+(93D *acobsen reports a more complete ersion of :The ;ridu 1enesis: than ,ramer or .lac/ and 1reen %hich is close to the .abylonian story of Atrahasis! Bn this account, man had been directed to li e in cities by =intur but as they thri ed, the noise irritated ;nlil, %ho thus started the flood! Bn this account, ;n/i %arns Piusudra, instructin" him to build the boat for his family and for representati es of the animals! The remainder is consistent %ith the accounts of ,ramer and .lac/ and 1reen! C*acobsen p! 114D 1il"amesh Cdemi"odD 0he son3 either o4 a nomad or o4 the hero#%ing 5ugal-anda and o4 the goddess 'insun3 6ilgamesh3 may ha!e -een a histori*al 7ing o4 (re*h3 during the time o4 the 4irst $r dynasty! 7is /in"ship is mentioned in arious places, includin" the Sumerian ,in" list and he "as also an en3 a s/iritual head o4 a tem/le! 7e %as also the lord of ,ulab and -y one a**ount3 the -rother o4 Inanna! 7e %as :the prince belo ed of An:, C,ramer p! 290, 133D and :%ho performs heroic deeds for Bnanna: C,ramer 1994 p! 13+D :1il"amesh and A""a: ( CHritchard pp!44(4+A ,ramer 1994 pp! 13+(190D 7ing Agga o4 7ish sent an ultimatum to (re*h! 1il"amesh tried to con ince the elders that ;rech should sac/ ,ish in response, but the elders %anted to submit! He res/onded -y ta%ing the matter to the men o4 the *ity3 "ho agreed to ta%e u/ arms. Agga laid seige to (re*h and 6ilgamesh resisted "ith the hel/ o4 his ser!ant3 (n%idu! 7e sent a soldier throu"h the "ate to A""a! The soldier is captured and tortured %ith a brief respite %hile another of 1il"amesh-s soldiers climbs o er the %all! 1il"amesh himself then climbs the %all and A""a-s forces are so ta/en abac/ by the si"ht of them that A""a capitulates! 1il"amesh "raciously accepts A""a-s surrender, prasin" him for returnin" his city! After this episode, he apparently too/ =ippur from the son of the founder of the <r B dynasty! :1il"amesh and the 5and of the 5i in": CHritchard pp! 4+(>0, ,ramer 1994 pp! 190( 19+D 1il"amesh, saddened by the dyin" he sees in his city, decides to "o to the :5and of the 5i in": says so to ;n/idu! At ;n/idu-s ur"in", 1il"amesh ma/es a sacrifice and

first spea/s to <tu, %ho is in char"e of that land! After he informs <tu of his moti es, the "od calls off his se en "uardian %eather heroes! 1il"amesh recruits fifty sin"le men to accompany them and commissions s%ords and a#es! They tra el o er se en mountains, fellin" trees alon" the %ay e entually findin" the :cedar of his heart:! After some bro/en te#t 1il"amesh is in a deep sleep, presumably after an encounter %ith 7u%a%a! ;n/idu or one of the others %a/es him! They come upon 7u%a%a and 1il"amesh distracts him %ith flatery, then puts a nose rin" on him and binds his arms! 7u%a%a "ro els to 1il"amesh and ;n/idu and 1il"amesh almost releases him! ;n/idu ar"ues a"ainst it and %hen 7u%a%a protests, he decapitates 7u%a%a! 1il"amesh is an"ered by ;n/idu-s rash action! :1il"amesh, ;n/idu and the =ether%orld: C,ramer 1994 p!19+(20>D Bnanna appeals to 1il"amesh, here her brother, %hen her huluppu tree has been occupied and he is recepti e! 7e tears do%n the tree and ma/es it into a throne and bed for her! Bn return for the fa or, Bnanna manufactures a pukku and mikku for him! 7e lea es them out, "oes to sleep and can-t find them %here he left them %hen he a%a/ens! They had fallen into the under%orld! ;n/idu as/s him %hat is %ron" and 1il"amesh as/s him to retrie e them, "i in" him instructions on ho% to beha e in the under%orld! ;n/idu enters the :1reat ?%ellin": throu"h a "ate, but he bro/e se eral of the under%orld taboos of %hich 1il"amesh %arned, includin" the %earin" of clean clothes and sandals, -"ood- oil, carryin" a %eapon or staff, ma/in" a noise, or beha in" normally to%ards ones family C,ramer 1994& pp! 142(144D! For these iolations he %as :held fast by -the outcry of the nether %orld-:! 1il"amesh appeals to ;nlil, %ho refuses to help! Bnter ention by ;n/i, rescued the hero ( or at least raised his shade for 1il"amesh to spea/ %ith! :1il"amesh and the .ull of 7ea en: 7e reNects Bnanna-s ad ances, so she sends the :.ull of 7ea en: to ra a"e ;rech in retribution! C,ramer 1994 p! 292D :?eath of 1il"amesh: CHritchard pp! >0(>2, ,ramer 1994 pp! 140(141D 1il"amesh is fated by ;nlil to die but also to be unmatched as a %arrior! Ihen he dies, his %ife and household ser ants ma/e offerin"s Cof themsel esJD for 1il"amesh to the deities of the under%orld! 7e is "i en a palace in the nether %orld and enerated as lesser "od of the dead! Bt is respectful to pay him a isit upon arri al! Bf he /ne% you in life or is of your /in he may e#plain the rules of ,ur to you ( %hich he helps to re"ulate! 7is son and successor %as either <r(lu"al or <rnun"al! Csee .abylonian 1il"ameshD ;n/idu 6ilgamesh8s ser!ant and 4riend! 7e assists 1il"amesh in puttin" bac/ A""a-s sei"e of ;rech! 7e accompanies 1il"amesh and his soldiers on the trip to the :5and of the 5i in":! Hrobably after an initial encounter %ith 7u%a%a, 1il"amesh falls asleep and ;n/idu a%a/ens him! They come upon 7u%a%a and 1il"amesh distracts him %ith flatery, then puts a nose rin" on him and binds his arms! 7u%a%a "ro els to 1il"amesh and

;n/idu and 1il"amesh almost releases him! ;n/idu ar"ues a"ainst it and %hen 7u%a%a protests, he decapitates 7u%a%a! 1il"amesh is an"ered by ;n/idu-s rash action! The main body of the 1il"amesh tale includes a trip to the nether(%orld! ;n/idu enters the :1reat ?%ellin": throu"h a "ate, in order to reco er 1il"amesh-s pukku and mikku, obNects of an uncertain nature! 7e bro/e se eral taboos of the under%orld, includin" the %earin" of clean clothes and sandals, -"ood- oil, carryin" a %eapon or staff, ma/in" a noise, or beha in" normally to%ards ones family C,ramer 1994& pp! 142(144D! For these iolations he %as :held fast by -the outcry of the nether %orld-:! Bnter ention by ;n/i, rescued the hero or at least raised his shade for 1il"amesh to spea/ %ith! ,ur ,ur literally means :mountain:, :forei"n land:, or :land: and came to be identified both %ith the under%orld and, more specifically, the area %hich either %as contained by or contained the Ab2u! C,ramer 1991 p! +9D Bn the prelude to :1il"amesh, ;n/idu and the <nder%orld, ;resh/i"al %as carried off into the ,ur as it-s pri2e at about the same time as An and ;nlil carried off the hea en and the earth! 5ater in that same passa"e, ;n/i also stru""led %ith ,ur as and presumably %as ictorious, thereby able to claim the title :5ord of ,ur: Cthe realmD! ,ramer su""ests that ,ur %as a dra"on( li/e creature, callin" to mind Tiamat and 5e iathan! The te#ts su""ests that ;n/i-s stru""le may ha e been %ith instruments of the land of /ur ( its stones or its creatures hurlin" stones! C,ramer 1991 p! 4+(43, +3(+9D CSee also Apsu and Tiamat!D Bn :The Feats and ;#ploits of =inurta:, that deity sets out to destroy the ,ur! ,ur initially intimidates =inurta into retreatin", but %hen =inurta returns %ith "reater resol e, ,ur is destroyed! This looses the %aters of the Ab2u, causin" the fields to be flooded %ith unclean %aters! =inurta dams up the Ab2u by pilin" stones o er ,ur-s corpse! 7e then drains these %aters into the Ti"ris! C,ramer 1991 pp! 30(32D! The identification of =inurta-s anta"onist in this passa"e as ,ur appears to be miscast! .lac/ and 1reen identify his foe as the demon Asa", %ho %as the spa%n of An and ,i, and %ho produced monstrous offsprin" %ith ,ur! The remainder of the details of this story are the same as in ,ramer-s account, but %ith Asa" replacin" ,ur! Bn other ersions, =inurta is replaced by Adad'Bsh/ur! C.lac/ 0 1reen pp! 4>(49D :Bnanna and 8t! ;bih:& Bnanna is also described in 7ymns as a destroyer of ,ur! Bf one, as ,ramer does, identifies ,ur %ith 8t! ;bih, then %e learn that it has directed fear a"ainst the "ods, the Anunna/i and the land, sendin" forth rays of fire a"ainst the land! Bnanna declares to An that she %ill attac/ 8t! ;bih unless it submits! An %arns a"ainst such an attac/, but Bnanna procedes any%ay and destroys it! C,ramer 1991 pp! 32(34D! 1u"alanna C1u"al(anaD 7e is ;resh/i"al-s husband, and accordin" to ,ramer, the .ull of 7ea en! CIol/stein and ,ramer p! >>D .lac/ and 1reen tentati ely identify him %ith ;nnu"i, "od of canals and di/es, rather than the .ull of 7ea en! C.lac/ and 1reen p! ++D After 1il"amesh spurned Bnanna, she sends the .ull of 7ea en to terrori2e ;rech! C,ramer 1994 p! 292D

7u%a%a 1uardian of the cedar of the heart in the the :5and of the li in":, 7u%a%a has dra"on-s teeth, a lion-s face, a roar li/e rushin" flood %ater, hu"e cla%ed feet and a thic/ mane! 7e li ed there in a cedar house! 7e appears to ha e attac/ed 1il"amesh, ;n/idu and company %hen they felled that cedar! They then come upon 7u%a%a and 1il"amesh distracts him %ith flatery, then puts a nose rin" on him and binds his arms! 7u%a%a "ro els to 1il"amesh and ;n/idu and 1il"amesh almost releases him! ;n/idu ar"ues a"ainst it and %hen 7u%a%a protests, he decapitates 7u%a%a! See also the .abylonian 7umbaba
1ods in ,ur %ith palaces %ho are due re erence&

=amtar ( :Fate:, the demon responsible for death! =amtar has no hands or feet and does not eat or drin/! CHritchard p! >1D 7ubisha" =in"ish2ida ( the "od of da%n ?impeme/u" ( due "ifts, no palace =eti ( the chief "ate/eeper the scribe of ,ur ( due "ifts, no palace
The Sumerians had many other deities as %ell, most of %hich appear to ha e been minor!

IV. ,hat a-out the $nder"orld.

The under%orld of the Sumerians is re ealed, to some e#tent, by a composition about the death and afterlife of the /in" and %arlord <r(=ammu! After ha in" died on the battlefield, <r( =ammu arri es belo%, %here he offers sundry "ifts and sacrifices to the :se en "ods: of the nether %orld&

!!!=er"al, Qthe deifiedR 1il"amesh, ;resh/i"al Qthe )ueen of the under%orld, %ho is either "i en to ,ur in the under%orld or "i en dominion o er the under%orld in the prelude to 1il"amesh C,ramer 0 8aier 1939& p! 34D CIol/stein 0 ,ramer 1934& p! 4DR , ?umu2i Qthe shepherd, Bnanna-s husbandR, =amtar, 7ubisha", and =in"ish2ida ( each in his o%n palaceA he also presented "ifts to ?impime/u" and to the :scribe of the nether( %orld!:!!! QAfter arri in" at his assi"ned spotR !!!certain of the dead %ere turned o er to him, perhaps to be his attendants, and 1il"amesh, his belo ed brother, e#plained to him the rules and re"ulations of the nether %orld! C,ramer 1994& p! 141D
Another tablet indicates that the sun, moon, and their respecti e "ods, spent time in the under%orld as %ell! The sun Nourneyed there after settin", and the moon rested there at the end of the month! .oth <tu and =anna ---decreed the fate- of the dead: %hile there! C,ramer 1994& p! 142D ?ead heroes ate bread, dran/, and )uenched the dead-s thirst %ith %ater! The "ods of the nether %orld, the deceased, and his city, %ere prayed to for the benefit of the dead and his family! The Sumerian ersion of 1il"amesh includes a trip to the nether %orld as %ell! Bn the prolo"ue, ;n/i sails for the ,ur, presumably to rescue ;resh/i"al after she %as "i en o er to ,ur! 7e is assailed by creatures %ith stones! The main body of the tale includes a trip to the nether %orld as %ell! ;n/idu enters the :1reat ?%ellin": throu"h a "ate, in order to reco er 1il"amesh-s pu//u and mi//u, obNects of an uncertain nature! 7e bro/e se eral taboos of the under%orld, includin" the %earin" of clean clothes and sandals, -"ood- oil, carryin" a %eapon or staff, ma/in" a noise, or beha in" normally to%ards ones family C,ramer 1994& pp! 142(144D! For these iolations he %as :held fast by -the outcry of the nether %orld-:! Bnter ention by ;n/i, rescued the hero! Ihen ;nlil isits the nether %orld, he must pass by a "ate/eeper, follo%ed by a :man of the ri er: and a

:man of the boat: ( all of %hom act as "uardians!C,ramer 1991 pp! 4>(4+D Bnanna also isits ,ur, %hich results in a myth reminiscent of the 1ree/ seasonal story of Hersephone! She sets out to %itness the funeral rites of her sister(in(la% ;resh/i"al-s husband 1u"alanna, the .ull of 7ea en! She ta/es precaution before settin" out, by tellin" her ser ant =inshubur to see/ assistance from ;nlil, =anna, or ;n/i at their shrines, should she not return! Bnanna /noc/s on the outer "ates of ,ur and the "ate/eeper, =eti, )uestions her! 7e consults %ith )ueen ;resh/i"al and then allo%s Bnanna to pass throu"h the se en "ates of the under%orld! After each "ate, she is re)uired to remo e adornments and articles of clothin", until after the se enth "ate, she is na/ed! The Annuna pass Nud"ment a"ainst her and ;resh/i"al slays her and han"s her on the %all CIol/stein 0 ,ramer 1934 p! 90D Bnanna is rescued by the inter ention of ;n/i! 7e creates t%o se#less creatures that empathi2e %ith ;resh/i"al-s sufferin", and thereby "ain a "ift ( Bnanna-s corpse! They restore her to life %ith the .read of 5ife and the Iater of 5ife, but the Sumerian under%orld has a conser ation of death la%! =o one can lea e %ithout pro idin" someone to stay in their stead! Bnanna is escorted by "alla'demons past =inshubur and members of her family! She doesn-t allo% them to claim anyone until she sees ?umu2i on his throne in <ru/! They then sei2e ?umu2i, but he escapes them t%ice by transformin" himself, %ith the aid of <tu! ; entually he is cau"ht and slain! Bnanna spies his sister, 1eshtinanna, in mournin" and they "o to ?umu2i! She allo%s ?umu2i, the shepherd, to stay in the under%orld only si# months of the year, %hile 1eshtinanna %ill stay the other si#! CIol/stein 0 ,ramer pp! 90(39D As %ith the 1ree/ story of the /idnappin" of Hersephone, this lin/ed the chan"in" seasons, the emer"ence of the plants from the "round, %ith the return of a har est deity from the nether %orld! Althou"h he had al%ays been a shepherd Cand possibly a mortal /in"D he %as blessed %ith the po%ers of fertility follo%in" the consummation of his marria"e to Bnanna in :The Courtship of Bnanna and ?umu2i:!

As the farmer, let him ma/e the fields fertile, As the shepherd, let him ma/e the sheepfolds multiply, <nder his rei"n let there be e"etation, <nder his rei"n let there be rich "rain CIol/stein 0 ,ramer p! 4>D
1eshtinanna is also associated %ith "ro%th, but %here her brother rules o er the sprin" har ested "rain, she rules o er the autumn har ested ines CIol/stein 0 ,ramer p! 193D

V. ,hat are me any"ay.

Another important concept in Sumerian theolo"y, %as that of me! The me %ere uni ersal decrees of di ine authority! They are the in ocations that spread arts, crafts, and ci ili2ation! The me %ere assembled by ;nlil in ;/ur and "i en to ;n/i to "uard and impart to the %orld, be"innin" %ith ;ridu, his center of %orship! From there, he "uards the me and imparts them on the people! 7e directs the me to%ards <r and 8eluhha and ?ilmun, or"ani2in" the %orld %ith his decrees! 5ater, Bnanna comes to ;n/i and complains at ha in" been "i en too little po%er from his decrees! Bn a different te#t, she "ets ;n/i drun/ and he "rants her more po%ers, arts, crafts, and attributes ( a total of ninety(four me! Bnanna parts company %ith ;n/i to deli er the me to her cult center at ;rech! ;n/i reco ers his %its and tries to reco er the me from her, but she arri es safely in ;rech %ith them! C,ramer 0 8aier 1939& pp! 43(93D

VI. I8!e heard that there are a lot o4 2i-li*al /arallels in Sumerian literature. ,hat are they.
Traces of Sumerian reli"ion sur i e today and are reflected in %ritin"s of the .ible! As late as ;2e/iel, there is mention of a Sumerian deity! Bn ;2e/iel 3&14, the prophet sees %omen of Bsrael %eepin" for Tammu2 C?umu2iD durin" a drou"ht! The bul/ of Sumerian parallels can, ho%e er be found much earlier, in the boo/ of 1enesis! As in 1enesis, the Sumerians- %orld is formed out of the %atery abyss and the hea ens and earth are di inely separated from one another by a solid dome! The second chapter of 1enesis introduces the paradise ;den, a place %hich is similar to the Sumerian ?ilmun, described in the myth of :;n/i and =inhursa":! ?ilmun is a pure, bri"ht, and holy land ( no% often identified %ith .ahrain in the Hersian 1ulf! Bt is blessed by ;n/i to ha e o erflo%in", s%eet %ater! ;n/i fills it %ith la"oons and palm trees! 7e impre"nates =inhursa" and causes ei"ht ne% plants to "ro% from the earth! ;den, :in the ;ast: C1en! 2&3D has a ri er %hich also :rises: or

o erflo%s, to form four ri ers includin" the Ti"ris and ;uphrates! Bt too is lush and has fruit bearin" trees! C1en! 2&9(10D Bn the second ersion of the creation of man :The 5ord 1od formed man out of the clay of the "round and ble% into his nostrils the breath of life, and so man became a li in" bein"!: ;n/i and =inmah C=inhursa"D use a similar method in creatin" man! =ammu, )ueen of the abyss and ;n/i-s mother, bids ;n/i to :,need the -heart- of the clay that is o er the Ab2u : and :"i e it form: C,ramer 0 8aier p! 44D From there the similarities cease as the t%o create se eral malformed humans and then the t%o deities "et into an ar"ument! 6eturnin" to ;n/i and =inhursa", %e find a possible parallel to the creation of ; e! ;n/i consumed the plants that %ere =inhursa"-s children and so %as cursed by =inhursa", recei in" one %ound for each plant consumed! ;nlil and a fo# act on ;n/i-s behalf to call bac/ =inhursa" in order to undo the dama"e! She Noins %ith him a"ain and bears ei"ht ne% children, each of %hom are the cure to one of his %ounds! The one %ho cures his rib is named =inti, %hose name means the Queen of months, C,ramer 0 8aier 1939& pp! 23(40D the lady of the rib, or she %ho ma/es li e! This association carries o er to ; e! C,ramer, 7istory .e"ins at Sumer 1931& pp! 144(144D Bn 1enesis, ; e is fashioned from Adam-s rib and her name ha%%a is related to the 7ebre% %ord hay or li in"! C=e% American .ible p! +!D The prolo"ue of :1il"amesh, ;n/idu and the <nder%orld: may contain the predecessor to the tree of /no%led"e of "ood and e il! This tree not only contains a crafty serpent, but also 5ilith, the le"endary first %ife of Adam! The huluppu tree is transplanted by Bnanna from the ban/s of the ;uphrates to her "arden in <ru/, %here she finds that&

!!!a serpent %ho could not be charmed made its nest in the roots of the tree, The An2u bird set his youn" in the branches of the tree, And the dar/ maid 5ilith built her home in the trun/! CIol/stein and ,ramer 1934& p! 3D
Bt should be noted that ,ramer-s interpretation that this creature is 5ilith has come into )uiestion of late! Another possible Sumerian carry(o er related to the Fall of man is the lac/ of :pan"s of childbearin": for those in ?ilmun! Bn particular, =inhursa" "i es birth in nine days, not nine months, and the pass :li/e "ood princely cream: C,ramer 1931& p! 142,14>D or :fine oil: C,ramer 0 8aier 1939& p! 2>D The )uarrels bet%een herder "od and farmer deity pairs such as 5ahar and Ashnan or ;nten and ;mesh are similar in some respects to the )uarrels of Cain and Abel! Bn the Sumerian ersions death appears to be a oided, althou"h %e do not ha e the complete 5ahar and Ashnan story! C,ramer 1991 pp! 49(>1, >4(>4D The ten patriarchs in 1enesis born prior to the flood li ed ery lon" li es, most in e#cess of 900 years! The se enth patriarch, ;noch, li ed only 49> years before he :%al/ed %ith 1od:! C1enesis >D! The account %hich numbers those Hatriarchs as ten is attributed to the Hriestly source! The Oah%ist source C*D, details only se en Hatriarchs prior to =oah, so that %ith him included, there are ei"ht antedilu ian patriarchs! C1enesis 4& 1+(13D The ei"ht antedilu ian /in"s of in the Sumerian ,in" 5ist also li ed for hundreds of years! C,ramer 1994 p! 423D S! 7! 7oo/e notes another ersion of the Sumerian ,in" list, found in 5arsa details ten antedilu ian /in"s! C7oo/e, p! 140D The clearest .iblical parallel comes from the story of the Flood! Bn the Sumerian ersion, the pious Piusudra is informed of the "ods decision to destroy man/ind by listenin" to a %all! 7e too %eathers the delu"e aboard a hu"e boat! =oah-s flood lasts a lon" time, but Piusudra comes to rest %ithin se en days and not the near year of the .ible! 7e does not recei e a co enant, but is "i en eternal life! C,ramer 1994 pp! 194(194A ,ramer 1991 pp! 9+(93D As far as the =e% Testament "oes, many also dra% a parallel bet%een ?umu2i and *esus because ?umu2i is a shepherd(/in" and he is resurrected from the dead! This is perhaps appealin" to some as ?umu2i-s A//adian analo", Tammu2, appears in the .ible, ho%e er ?umu2i-s periodic return from the under%orld is not uni)ue e en in Sumerian literature! 7is sister 1eshtinanna also rises from the dead, and if one counts those born as deities, Bnanna does as %ell! Heriodic death and rebirth is a common theme in a"ricultural myths %here the return of the deities from the earth mirrors a return to life of plants!

VII. Sour*es

.lac/, *eremy and 1reen, Anthony, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary, <ni ersity of Te#as Hress, Austin, 1992! This up(to(date and thorou"h resource on 8esopotamian mytholo"y has "reat photos and illustrations by Tessa 6ic/ards and ery useful entries %hich often indicate the times and places %hen ariant tales %ere current! 8y

only complaint is that it is not al%ays clear %hether information in an entry is applicable to the Sumerian, A//adian, or both ersions of a particular deity or hero! Cra%ford, 7arriet, Sumer and the Sumerians, Cambrid"e <ni ersity Hress, Cambrid"e, 1991! CThis is a briefer but more up to date archaeolo"ical loo/ at the Sumerians than you-ll find %ith ,ramer! There isn-t much mythic content in this one, but there are many %onderful fi"ures detailin" city plans, and the structure of temples and other buildin"s!D *acobsen, Thor/ild, The Treasures of Darkness, Oale <ni ersity Hress, =e% 7a en, 19+9! A "ood alternati e to ,ramer, *acobsen e#plores 8esopotamian reli"ious de elopment from early Sumerian times throu"h the .abylonian numa lish! 8ost of the boo/ %inds up bein" on the Sumerians! ,ramer, Samuel =oah, and 8aier, *ohn, Myths of nki, the !rafty God, @#ford <ni ersity Hress, =e% Oor/,1939! The most recent %or/ that B- e been able to find by ,ramer! They translate and analy2e all of the a ailible myths %hich include ;n/i! B- e only seen it a ailible in hardco er and B ha en-t seen it in a boo/store yet! ,ramer, Samuel =oah, Sumerian Mythology, 7arper 0 .rothers, =e% Oor/, 1991! This slim olume contains much of the mytholo"ical material that %ound up in The Sumerians but concentrated in one spot and %ithout much cultural or historical detail! 8any of the myths are more de eloped here, some of %hich are only "lossed o er in The Sumerians, ho%e er in some cases The Sumerians holds the more complete or updated myth! ,ramer, Samuel =oah The Sumerians The <ni ersity of Chica"o Hress, Chica"o,1994! CThis is a more thorou"h %or/ than ,ramer-s Section at the end of Inanna, but the inter enin" 20 or so years of additional research and translation allo% Inanna-s section to be perhaps more complete, re"ardin" mytholo"y!D Iol/stein, ?iane and ,ramer, Samuel =oah, Inanna: "ueen of #ea$en and arth, 7arper 0 6o%, =O, 1934! C8s! Iol/stein-s erse translations of the Bnanna'?ummu2i cycle of myths are e#cellent, but differ some%hat ,ramer-s ori"inals! ,ramer "i es a 40 or so pa"e description of Sumerian cosmolo"y and society at the endD! The %e& American 'ible, Catholic .oo/ Hublishin" Co!, =e% Oor/, 19+0!

VIII.

ther -oo%s o4 interest

Al"a2e, 1uillermo, :The <ru/ ;#pansion:, Current Anthropolo"y, ?ec! 1939! This article helped %ith the introduction material! 7oo/e, S! 7! Middle astern Mythology, Hen"uin .oo/s, =e% Oor/, 1994! This %or/ co ers Sumerian, .abylonian, Canaanite'<"aritic, 7ittite, and 7ebre% mytholo"ic material in brief and %ith comparisons! Fa"an, .! 8!, (eople of the arth, 1len ie% Bl, Scott Forsman, 1939! This archaeolo"y te#t boo/ helped pro ide some of the introductory material! ,ramer, Samuel =oah, #istory 'egins at Sumer, <ni ersity of Hennsyl ania Hress, Hhiladelphia, 1931! CThis te#t runs throu"h a bunch of :firsts: that ,ramer attributes to the Sumerians! B only loo/ed at it briefly, but it seemed to contain about the same information as %as in The Sumerians only in a :Io% neatG: format instead of somethin" more coherent!D Hritchard *! .!, Ancient %ear astern Te)ts *elating to the +ld Testament , Hrinceton, 19>>! There is also a 1999 edition of this %or/ and a companion olume of pictures! Bt seems to be the authoritati e source for all complete te#ts of the Sumerians, .abylonians, Canaanites, 7ittites, and perhaps other "roups as %ell! Bt-s pricy but many libraries ha e a copy! Stephenson, =eal, Sno&crash, .antam .oo/s, =e% Oor/, 1992! Cyberpun/ meets :Bnanna, ;n/i, and the Me:! Iooley, C! 5eonard, )ca$ations at ,r, 19>4! This is one of the earlier %or/s on the subNect, and as such is not as complete as the others althou"h it is of historical interest!