CHEMISTRY IS

THE CENTRAL
SCIENCE.
 CHEMISTRY
Deals with the study of matter :
Chemistry
classification
properties
changes / transformations
energy involved in its transformations
 MATTER

 Matter is anything that occupies space and

has mass.
 Matter is the material of the universe.

 Mass is a measure of the quantity of

matter.
 Weight is the gravitational force of
attraction exerted by the earth on a body.
 TYPES OF MATTER

Pure Substances Mixtures

Homogeneous Heterogeneous
Elements mixtures mixtures
Compounds
Colloids
 TYPES OF MATTER
SUBSTANCES - definite composition and
properties

 ELEMENTS - simplest type of matter

 COMPOUNDS -combination of elements

in a definite ratio
molecules
Salt Crystals
ionic compounds
• This scanning electron micrograph shows pure salt,
or sodium chloride, that has been recrystallized from
distilled water. The crystal is built up from a cubic
lattice of sodium an chloride ions.
 TYPES OF MATTER

MIXTURES
• Homogeneous mixtures – true solutions
made up of only one phase
indefinite composition and properties
• Heterogeneous mixtures
made up of two or more phases
indefinite composition and properties
• Colloids
intermediate phase
 Test yourself !

Can you tell the type of matter

in each number?
1. Soda ash
2. Smoke
3. Table sugar
4. water
5. Brass door knob
6. Key
7. Salt
 PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Physical properties
Chemical properties

Intrinsic Properties :
Independent of the amount of material
Extrinsic Properties :
Dependent on the amount of material
 Test yourself !

Can you tell the property of matter

in each number?
1. Density
2. Size
3. Volume
4. Reactivity with water
5. Decomposition upon heating
6. Solubility in water
7. Melting point
 CHANGES THAT MATTER
UNDERGO

PHYSICAL CHANGES CHEMICAL CHANGES

No change in the Change in the
composition of matter composition of matter
Change in both
intrinsic and extrinsic
properties
 CHANGES THAT MATTER
UNDERGO
PHYSICAL CHANGES No change in the composition of matter
 CHANGES THAT MATTER
UNDERGO
CHEMICAL CHANGES
change in the composition of matter
both intrinsic and extrinsic
properties are changed
represented by a chemical
reaction
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
 Synthesis
A+B→C
 Decomposition
C→A+B
 Single displacement
AD + B → AB + D
 Double displacement
Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI 
AD + CB → AB + CD PbI2 + 2KNO3
 Test yourself !

 Can you tell whether the ff is a chemical or a

physical change?

1. Bronze statue becomes green

2. Wood floats in water
3. Digestion of food in the stomach
4. Slab of marble feels cool
5. Corrosion
 DEVELOPMENT
OF THE ATOMIC
Atoms Made Visible STRUCTURE
Individual atoms of the element germanium
can be seen in this computerized image
obtained through the use of a scanning
tunneling microscope. The microscope
maps an atomic-scale surface by detecting
an electric current flowing from the surface
to the point of a fine metal probe.
 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

 All matter consist of tiny particles

 Atoms are indestructible and
unchangeable
 Elements are made up the same kind
of atoms 1766-1844 British chemist and
physicist

 Elements combine in simple whole

number ratio
 PLUM PUDDING MODEL

• Developed by J.J.
THOMSON in 1904
• Sphere of positive
charge where negative
charges are embedded

(1856-1940), British physicist and

1906 Nobel laureate.
 RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR ATOM
• The atom is mostly empty space
• Positive charge is concentrated
+
in a very small volume:
+
NUCLEUS
+
• The mass of the atom is
+
+ concentrated in the nucleus

(1871-1937),
British physicist,
who became a
1908 Nobel
Alpha-particle scattering experiment laureate
 SUB- ATOMIC PARTICLES

Particle Mass Charge

Electron(e-) 9.11 x 10-28 g -1
Proton(p+) 1.67 x 10-24 g +1
Neutron(n) 1.67 x 10-24g none
 BOHR’S ELECTRONIC ATOM

• Based on a quantum
model – DEFINITE
ENERGY ORBITS
• Electrons in an atom
move around the
nucleus in circular
orbits.
(1885-1962), Danish
physicist and 1922
Nobel laureate,
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL ATOM

•Developed by Erwin SCHROEDINGER in the mid 1920

•Treats the electron as a wave
•Birth of quantum mechanics
HΨe- = E Ψe-
H is a mathematical operator
Ψe- is the wave function describing an e-
(1887-1961),
E is the energy of an e- Austrian physicist
and 1933 Nobel
laureate,
 ATOMIC ORBITALS

• Pictorial representation of the solution to

the Schroedinger’s equation
• Probable region occupied by an electron

HEISENBERG’S Uncertainty Principle

• The position and energy (momentum) of an
electron can not be measured accurately at
a given time
 QUANTUM NUMBERS

The quantum numbers n, l, ml, serve as

the solution to the Schroedinger
equation. Since the solution only has
allowed values, the electron can also be
treated as a discrete particle.
n, l, ml, and ms, the spin quantum
number, completely describe an e-
ALLOWED VALUES OF THE
QUANTUM NUMBERS FOR
AN ELECTRON
• n = 1, 2, 3, . . . n
• l = 0, 1, 2, . . . (n-1)
• ml = + l . . . 0 . . . - l
• ms = ± 1/2
 PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER

n = 1, 2, 3…
• gives the energy level or energy
shell the electron is in
• gives the atomic size of the atom
 AZIMUTHAL OR ORBITAL
QUANTUM NUMBER: l

• identifies the type or shape of orbital or

subshell
n=1, l = 0 1s orbital
n=3, l = 0 3s
n=2, l = 0 2s orbital
l = 1 3p
l = 1 2p orbital
l = 2 3d
 Electron Density and Orbital Shapes
Atomic orbitals are mathematical descriptions of where the electrons in an atom (or molecule) are most likely to be
found. These descriptions are obtained by solving an equation known as the Schrödinger equation, which
expresses our knowledge of the atomic world. As the angular momentum and energy of an electron increases, it
tends to reside in differently shaped orbitals. The orbitals corresponding to the three lowest energy states are s, p,
and d, respectively. The illustration shows the spatial distribution of electrons within these orbitals. The fundamental
nature of electrons prevents more than two from ever being in the same orbital. The overall distribution of electrons
in an atom is the sum of many such pictures. This description has been confirmed by many experiments in
chemistry and physics, including an actual picture of a p-orbital made by a Scanning Tunneling Microscope.
 MAGNETIC QUANTUM
NUMBER: ml
specifies the ORIENTATION of the orbitals in space
z z

n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0 1s orbital
y y

n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0 2s
x
orbital
x
2pz
2p x

l = 1, ml = +1, 0, -1
z
2px 2pz
y

x
2py
2py
 MAGNETIC QUANTUM
NUMBER: ml
     
 

n=3, l = 0, l =1
 
l = 2, m l = +2, +1, 0, -1, -2
z z z z z

y y y y y

3dxy x 3dyz 3dz2

x x 3dxz x 3dx2-y2 x

3dxy 3dxz 3dyz 3dx2-y2 3dz2

 SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER: mS

Imparts magnetic behavior to an atom

unpaired paired

N
Spin up (+1/2) Spin down(-1/2)
S
 ATOMIC NUMBER AND
ATOMIC MASS
A – MASS NUMBER = number of protons + neutrons
Z – ATOMIC NUMBER = number of protons

NEUTRAL ELEMENT : # of protons = # of electrons

ANION : gain of electrons A
CATION : loss of electrons Z E
ISOTOPES : same atomic number but different atomic
masses
ISOBARS: same mass numbers but different atomic
numbers
HYDROGEN ISOTOPES
Example of isobars
 ATOMIC NUMBER AND
ATOMIC MASS
32
16 S Sulfur has :
• 16 protons (Z)
• 32-16 = 16 neutrons (A)
• 16 electrons since it is
electrically neutral
 Test yourself !
Protons 56 21 28
Neutrons 81 23 16 31
Electrons 18 26
Atomic 50
No.
Mass No. 119
Charge 0 0 +3 -3
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE

1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s . . .
 PAULI’S EXCLUSION
PRINCIPLE
In a given atom, no two electrons can have
the same set of quantum numbers

Right ! EACH
ELECTRON
Wrong! IS UNIQUE!
1s
 HUND’S RULE OF
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY

Electrons when distributed among the

orbitals of the same energy will tend to
have maximum spin (SINGLY FIRST
BEFORE PAIRING)

Right !

Wrong!

2px 2py 2pz

 ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION

1 H1s↑ n= 1 l = 0 ml= 0 ms= + 1/2

4 Be 1s ↑↓
2s ↑↓ 1 0 0 - 1/2
7 N1s ↑↓

2s ↑↓ 2p ↑ 2p ↑ 2p ↑

2 1 -1 + 1/2
 Test yourself !

Write the electronic configuration and

determine the quantum numbers of the last
entering electron for the ff elements:

2He, 3Li, 5B, 6C, 8O, 9F, Ne, 23V

10

What is the atomic number of an element whose

quantum numbers are: n = 4, l = 3, ml = -1, ms =
-1/2
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PERIODIC TABLE
 PERIODIC TABLE
• Johann W. Dobereiner – TRIADS e.g. Li, Na, K;
Cl, Br, I
• John H. Newlands: OCTAVES
• Julius Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Mendeleev :
arranged elements in the order of increasing
MASS NUMBERS
• Henry Moseley : assigned correct ATOMIC
NUMBER to the elements
 MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Arranged in order of increasing atomic number

•GROUP OR FAMILY –vertical column; elements
with the same number of valence electrons;
elements with similar physical and chemical
properties
•PERIOD – horizontal rows
 CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS
• REPRESENTATIVE elements – A family; progressive
addition of electrons in the s and p orbitals
• TRANSITION elements – B group; last electron occupies
an inner d orbital
• INNER TRANSITION elements – lanthanides and
actinides; last electron is an f electron
• NOBLE GASES – with electronic configuration ns2np6;
colorless gases, chemically unreactive, and diamagnetic
G
M
R
C
H
B
N
P
A
S
F
T
Z
C
A
B
K
S
C
Z
A
S
N
T
I
L
O
C
H
B
N
P
K
V
F
Y
n
e
n
c
b
d
g
a
ou
h
r
i
l
S e
b
c
s
n
r
i
1 2
 
H He

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 
Li Be B C N O F Ne

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
 
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

87 88 89 104 105 106

                       
Fr Ra Ac Unq Unp Unh

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

10
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
3
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
Lr
 ATOMIC SIZE/RADIUS

•Half the distance from its

center of a like atom when
these atoms are touching
•ANIONS are bigger than the atoms
from which they are formed
•CATIONS are smaller than the atoms
from which they are formed
•Radius: Cl- > Cl, Ba2+< Ba
 IONIZATION ENERGY

• Energy required to remove an

electron from its gaseous atom/ion
X(g) → X+(g) + e- IE1 = +
• The reaction involving a loss in the #
e- is called OXIDATION
• METALLICITY
 ELECTRON AFFINITY

• Energy released when an electron is

added to a gaseous atom/ion
X(g) + e- → X-(g) EA1 = -
• The reaction involving a gain in # e- is
called REDUCTION
• NON-METALLICITY
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY

• The ability of an atom to attract electrons

to itself. This is a qualitative equivalent of
electron affinity.
• Electronegativity ∝ non-metallicity
 OXIDIZING AND REDUCING
PROPERTY

•An element is oxidized when it loses an

electron. This element is the REDUCING
AGENT.
•An element is reduced when it gains an
electron. This element is the OXIDIZING
AGENT.
 METALS / NON-METALS

METALS NON METALS

Easily lose an e- Easily gain e-
Low IE Large EA
Reducing agent Oxidizing agent
 PERIODIC TRENDS
MOVING DOWN A GROUP, there is an INCREASE
IN THE NUMBER OF ENERGY SHELLS and a
DECREASE IN NUCLEAR ATTRACTION:
•Increase in atomic size
•Decrease in IE
•Increase in metallic character
•Increase in reducing property
•Decrease EA
•Decrease electronegativity
 PERIODIC TRENDS
MOVING ACROSS A PERIOD, electrons are added to
the same energy shell. An increase in nuclear charge
without an increase in the no. of electron shells leads
to GREATER NUCLEAR ATTRACTION.
•Decrease in atomic size
•Increase in IE
•Increase in non-metallic character
•Increase in oxidizing property
•Increase in EA
•Increase electronegativity
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
PERIODIC TABLE
 Test yourself !

Compare the size / radius, IE, EA,

electronegativity, metallicity and
oxidizing ability of the following:
1. Ca, Sr, Ba
2. P, S, Cl
3. Al, Al3+
4. K, Ge, Br
5. Sr, Cl, N