Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement Thimphu, Bhutan June, 2013
Foreword
The rapid rate of urbanization and socio-economic changes taking place in the country could have an adverse effect on the environment and the peoples way of life. Unplanned developments are taking place rapidly which could also lead to loss of habitat, traditional settlement patterns and architecture of Bhutan. Besides, Bhutan being located in an extremely fragile terrain is highly susceptible to numerous natural and climate change related hazards such as extreme weather patterns, floods, earthquakes and landslides. In addition, rapid urbanization could lead to loss of prime agriculture land, land degradation, encroachment into forestland and water resource. Developments may extend to steep terrain with increased risks of natural disasters or located along the river valleys that are prone to Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), flash floods and landslides. Climate change could also significantly undermine development by threatening critical resources, especially water, and increasing the incidence and severity of natural disasters. Given the urgency of the problem, it is essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through mitigation and pursue climate/disaster resilient development. Lack of environment, climate change and poverty mainstreamed guidelines/codes in the preparation of development plans and layouts for human settlements both in urban and rural areas increases the vulnerability of the population, particularly the poor who depend mostly on environment and natural resources for their livelihood. Therefore, the primary objective of the study was to develop a framework of guidelines for human settlement in both urban and rural areas by mainstreaming Environment, Climate Change and Poverty (ECP). The guidelines focus on promotion of eco-friendly technologies, conservation of natural environment, management of environmental hazards (resilience planning). The best practices in planning and construction practiced in other parts of the world is also covered in the guideline.
This guideline has been prepared by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) based in New Delhi with the funding from the Joint Support Program (JSP). The project was led by Dr. Hina Zia and supported by a team of Engineers and Urban Planners from TERI and advised by Mr. Pradeep Kumar. From the Department of Human Settlement, Mr.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Table of Content
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................... III INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Aim/objective....................................................................................................................1 1.2 Limitation..........................................................................................................................1 GOAL SETTING............................................................................................................................... 3 GENERIC PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR ALL SETTLEMENTS .............................................. 7 OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................................. 13 SECTION 1: SUSTAINABLE SETTLEMENT ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING/SITE AND SUBDIVISION DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 17 Guideline1.1:SiteAssessment...........................................................................................18 Guideline1.2:PlanningtheDevelopment........................................................................19 Guideline1.3:Retainingnaturalvegetation....................................................................19 Guideline1.4:RevegetationandLandscaping.................................................................20 Guideline1.5:Transportplanning.....................................................................................21 Guideline1.6:EarthworksandGrading...........................................................................21 Guideline1.7:Soilerosionandsedimentationcontrol24 Guideline1.8:Preservationoffloraandfauna.31 Guideline1.9:Systemapproachadoptionwhilelanduseplan/subdivisionlayout.37 Guideline1.10:VisualQuality............................................................................................37 SECTION 2: ENERGY AND ENERGY SYSTEMS ................................................................. 40 Guideline2.1:ArchitecturalPlanning&Design..............................................................40 Guideline2.2:RenewableEnergySystems.......................................................................45 Guideline2.3:Electricitydistributionnetwork...............................................................48 SECTION 3: ENERGY EFFICIENT STREET LIGHTING .............................................................. 53 Guideline3.1:Energyefficientstreetlighting..................................................................54 SECTION 4: WATER & WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ......................... 65 Guideline4.1:Sustainablewatermanagement...............................................................67 Guideline4.2:Sustainablewastewatermanagement......................................................78 Guideline4.3:SustainableStormwatermanagement....................................................88 SECTION 5: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ................................................................ 101 Guideline5.1:Organic/Biodegradablewastetreatment.............................................105 Guideline5.2:Construction&Demolition(C&D)wastemanagement....................110 SECTION 6: RISK MITIGATION / ADAPTATION AND CLIMATE CHANGE ....... 117 Guideline6.1:Planningforclimatechangeadaptationinallsettlements.................119 SECTION 7: BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES...................... 123 SECTION 8: IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................. 131 v
Department of Human Settlement Ministry of Works and Human Settlement, RGOB
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
List of Table
Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 1 : Energy consumption for the following activities needs to be estimated: ......... 5 2: Electricity emission factors (tCO2/MWh) .............................................................. 6 3 :Tree survey format .................................................................................................. 33 4: Degree of maintenance required (for vegetation) ............................................... 36 5: Sunshine availability during winter months (Dec to Mar) ................................ 40 6: Minimum spacing between buildings .................................................................. 42 7: Solar hot water generating potential avg. lpd/m2 .............................................. 47 8 : Electricity generation potential from SPV ........................................................... 48 9 : Water treatment methods based on contaminants ............................................ 67 10: Recommended water reuse standards ................................................................ 75 11 : Summary of SUDS Components ....................................................................... 98 12 : Climate change impacts and suggested adaptation measures at settlement level ......................................................................................................................... 119 13 : Bamboo in Bhutan............................................................................................... 127
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
List of Figures
Figure 1 : Per capita carbon emissions in Bhutan and other countries ................................. 4 Figure 2 : Current practice of grading the entire site at one go ........................................... 22 Figure 3: Balanced cut and fill approach for construction in slopes ................................... 23 Figure 4 : Inappropriate soil erosion and sedimentation control ........................................ 24 Figure 5: Good practice of netting and anchoring in one of the big construction project 27 Figure 6 : Some of the soil erosion and sedimentation control strategies .......................... 31 Figure 7: A Ridgeline ................................................................................................................. 37 Figure 8 : Use of various colours as part of the external finish ............................................ 39 Figure 9: High reflective roofs of new buildings v/s green/ochre roofs of old buildings .............................................................................................................................................. 39 Fgure 10: Visual impact of streets with and without dimming ........................................... 63 Figure 11 : Water Sensitive Urban Design v/s conventional urban water use ................. 66 Figure 12: What could a water sensitive design do at neighbourhood scale? .................. 66 Figure 13 : Improvised Septic Tank ......................................................................................... 87 Figure 14: SUDS Management train-adapted from www.ciria.org..................................... 93 Figure 15 : Pervious pavements................................................................................................ 94 Figure 16: Green roof ................................................................................................................ 95 Figure 17: Infiltration trench ..................................................................................................... 95 Figure 18: Infiltration basin ....................................................................................................... 96 Figure 19 : Hierarchy of integrated solid waste management .......................................... 101 Figure 20 : Schematic of TEAM digester ............................................................................... 107 Figure 21: A demonstration project using HI CSEB in Bhutan .......................................... 125 Figure 22 : Map showing areas with different species of bamboo in Bhutan .................. 127
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Guidelines
DevelopmentTypology Applicability
Section RuralAreas UrbanAreas
Code
SECTION1:SUSTAINABLESETTLEMENTENVIRONMENTALPLANNING Guideline1.1 Guideline1.2 Guideline1.3 Guideline1.4 SiteAssessment PlanningtheDevelopment Retainingnaturalvegetation Revegetationand Landscaping Transportplanning EarthworksandGrading Soilerosionand sedimentationcontrol Preservationoffloraand fauna Systemapproachadoption forlanduseplan VisualQuality
Guideline1.8
Guideline1.9
Guideline1.10
Guideline2.2 Guideline2.3
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Guideline4.3
Guideline5.2
SECTION7:BUILDINGMATERIALSAND CONSTRUCTIONTECHNOLOGIES
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In tro d u cti o n
1.1
Aim/objective
The prim ary objective of the proposed stud y is to d evelop a fram ew ork of guid elines for hum an settlem ent in both urban and rural areas by m ainstream ing Environm ent, Clim ate Change and Poverty (ECP) The guid elines focus on prom otion of eco-friendly technologies, conservation of natural environm ent, m anagem ent of environm ental hazard s (resilience planning).
1.2
Limitation
The stud y d oes not cover the m apping and forecasting of clim a te ind uced changes and vulnerabilities thereof in future w ith im plications on settlem ent and build ings. Preparation of d etailed structure plan for the entire country is not w ithin the purview of this stud y. Due to tim e and resource constraint, prim ary d ata collection for energy consum ption d ata for various build ing types, construction typologies, inventory of building m aterials suppliers, etc., is not includ ed as part of this study. Instead, several interview / interactions w ere cond ucted w ith officials of key ministries and d epartm ents for an overview of these aspects. Key d epartm ents and m inistries contacted w ith the help of Departm ent of H um an Settlem ent are: Thim phu Municipal Corporation Dzhongkhag Engineer, Thim phu Dzhongkhag Bhutan Stand ard s Bureau Departm ent of H yd rom et Services, Ministry of Econom ic Affairs Departm ent of Geology and Mines, Ministry of Econom ic Affairs Departm ent of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture & Forests Departm ent of Renew able Energy, Ministry of Econom ic Affairs Departm ent of Forest and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture & Forests N ational Environm ent Com m ission Departm ent of Culture, Ministry of H om e & Cultural Affairs N ational H ousing Developm ent Corporation
Based on the m ethod ology proposed as part of the Inception report, these d raft guid elines have been prepared .
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
GO A L SETTIN G
Prior to m oving on the section on Guid elines for Settlem ents, goal setting is very im portant. The overarching goal of course, rem ains the achievem ent of sustainability in every aspect. One im portant aspect w hich a local authority (especially in the context of urban centers) can look at is the carbon footprint of the settlem ent/ city.
TARGETED CARBO N FO O TPRINT and Measurement and reduct ion of Set t lement carbon foot print
In the context of increasing concerns about clim ate change im pacts of increasing levels of carbon em issions in atm osphere, it has becom e critical to plan for low -carbon grow th of urban areas as they contribute tow ard s a significant share of carbon emissions. Retrofitting exiting urban settlem ents to red uce their carbon im pact is a daunting task for the city planners; how ever, the new urban d evelopm ents that are coming up in the country can m ake a contribution tow ard s achieving the goal of low -carbon grow th. To d o this, the new d evelop m ents have to be planned in a manner that they m inimize use of fossil fuels to sustain the activities that are planned to com e up w ithin their prem ises. The key interventions that can be taken includ e: 1. Red ucing and optim izing energy use in build ings 2. Red ucing and optim izing energy use in provision of services like w ater pum ping, etc. 3. Prom oting use of alternative clean fuels like solar energy, w ind energy, etc. 4. Red ucing use of personalized m otorized transport w ithin the d evelopm ent by a. Provid ing ad equate an d quality infrastructure for w alking and cycling b. Provid ing m ass transport options that run on clean fuels c. Prom oting use of clean fuels in personal vehicles by provid ing ad equate supporting infrastructure for use of clean fuels In ord er to fix the targeted carbon footprint, it is proposed to look at per capita basis in ord er to com pare it w ith national average values and / or other cities. For instance, the per capita carbon estim ate for Bhutan w as 0.55 tonnes, nearly oneeighth of the correspond ing global av erage of 4.55 tonnes. Per capita carbon footprint estim ates for various neighbouring Indian cities in 2007-08 w as also d one by ICLEI as part of a stud y.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Figure 1 : Per capita carbon emissions in Bhutan and other countries (Source: http:/ / tonto.eia.d oe.gov/ cfapps/ ipd bproject)
The per capita carbon em issions from the use of energy has show n a d ecreasing trend from 2007 onw ard s in Bhutan. Sim ilar d ata need s to be generated for urban centers to keep a target below the national level benchm ark. This has been ad opted by m any cities across the w orld to map their emissions every year and accord ingly d efine their targets/ vision. Once a targeted footprint has been set (for the time being national stand ard can be taken as the benchmark), all the local authorities for urban centers shall aspire to achieve the targeted carbon footprint through various interventions.
Carbon footprint is defined as the total carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) emissions released from energy use a development/city/state/country/sector. Framework towithin measure carbon footprint 1. Estim ate the total energy consum ption w ithin the settlem ent
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Table 1 : Energy consumption for the follow ing activities needs to be estimated:
Activity Building operations Total Energy consumption Electricity from grid Electricity from off-grid sources Services Electricity from grid Electricity from off-grid sources Other sources LPG, natural gas, etc. Transportation within the settlement Petrol Diesel CNG Auto-LPG Electricity from grid Electricity from off-grid sources Others Electricity generation (if electricity is being generated on-site) Fuel consumption for electricity generation
2. Estim ate the carbon emissions from energy use In ord er to estimate the carbon em issions from energy use, the total energy consum ption figures obtained in the previous step need to be m ultiplied by respective emission factors. Tables below give values for Bhutan -specific em ission factors.
CF = Ei * EFi w here, CF = Carbon Footp rint E = Energy consu m p tion i = Energy typ e (electricty, p etrol, d iesel, CN G, etc.) EFi = Em ission factor sp ecific to fu el typ e i
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Source: IGES, List of Grid Emission Factor, 2010. Institute of Global Environmental Strategies
For Bhutan-specific CO2 em ission coefficients of road transpor t (conventional and nonconventional), one can refer the tool d eveloped by N EC as part of the ADB Technical Assistance (Japan Governm ent Fund ed) capacity build ing of N EC for Transport Sector or take IPCC,2006 recomm end ed w orld average num bers.
The carbon em issions estim ated based on the total energy consum ption of the settlem ent w ill ind icate the im pact that the settlem ent has in term s of carbon released . Based on the estim ate, com parison has to be m ad e w ith the national level benchm arks and str ategies m ay be arrived at by the local authority to red uce the sam e in short term and long term and ind icate their com mitm ent to low carbon grow th.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
d. On-site treatment of municipal solid waste and arrangements for safe disposal of other kinds of waste in compliance to the Waste Management and Handling Regulations 2012 e. Appropriate adaptation/mitigation strategy in case the site is located in any vulnerable areas (as broadly marked in the adjoining map) f. Construction and Demolition waste management plan (for execution during the construction stage) g. Also, occupancy certificates should be provided only after checking the installed facilities in conformance to that proposed by the project proponent at the design stage.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
O BJECTIVES
The proposed Guid elines are intend ed to im pact d esign features to protect the natural environm ent by providing policy and regulatory d irection for environm entally sensitive d evelopm ent in Bhutan. The objectives can be separated into four m ajor categories w hich these Guid elines attem pt to ad d ress: 1) Site and Subd ivision Design, 2) Works and Services, Infrastructure 3) Build ings and Structures, and 4) N atural Environm ent.
1) SITE AN D SUBDIVISION DESIGN a. Id entify and incorporate significant site features in subd ivision design. Proposed d evelopm ent layout and the typical build ing site d esign m ust ackno w led ge these natural features. This is required to: - d evelop an und erstand ing of the environm ental and geological cond itions of the site prior to any construction to ensure that the most appropriate m ethod s are used to d evelop the site; and preserve and p rotect unique natural features w hich are a characteristic feature of Bhutan.
b. Und ertake subd ivision planning and d esign that respects the existing natural areas terrain and hazard ous cond itions, w hile enhancing the areas natural character. This is required to: - enable subd ivision planning and d esign that allow s as m uch undisturbed native green space as possible on a site; d irect m ore d evelopm ent d ensity to the less sensitive and flatter sections of a site, thereby creating clusters of d evelopm ent w h ich avoid ecologically sensitive areas 1; ensure that steeper portions of a site (w ith an existing slope of 30% or greater) are not includ ed in the d evelopable area calculation; and if allow ed (as less steep slopes m ay not be readily available in Bhutan) should preferably be d one w ith necessary precautions m inimize the im pact of grad ing and retain as m uch of the natural topographic character of the site so that natural vegetation and other features rem ain und isturbed in ord er to protect ecological values, m aintain slope stability and provid e aesthetically pleasing view s.
This need s to be integrated w ith the EIA clearance proced ure for all d evelopm ental activities from N EC.
Such ecologically sensitive areas (other than the protected areas) need to be identified by the RGoB
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Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
c. Protect and preserve the scenic characteristics of hills and places identified un d er heritage/ conservation plan (und er process by the Departm ent of H eritage Conservation) This is required to: - ensure significant rid gelines 2visible throughout the d evelopm ent are protected thereby m aintaining the natural appearance of skylines for public enjoyment and benefit; and - m aintain the conservation character of heritage villages and sites 2) WORKS AN D SERVICES a. Im plem ent m ethod s for collection, conveyance, control and treatm ent of storm w ater that m itigates potential im pacts and em ulates t he areas natural w ater cycle. This is required to: - lim it runoff from new d evelopm ent based on the soil capacity and sensitivity for ground recharge and overland conveyance.
b. Integrate onsite d esign w hich com plim ents the streetscape d esign. This is required to: - ensure w orks and services are suited to the d evelopm ent proposed and support the streetscape required for creation of a people orientated neighbourhood contrary to the conventional practise of vehicle oriented settlem ents.
c. Provid e m unicipal services and utilities on hillsid e d evelopm ents that m inimize red und ancy and provide cost efficient m aintenance and future replacem ent. This is required to: - ensure that d evelopm ent on hillsid es d oes not result in financially unsustainable increases in infrastructure relative to the num ber of units created , (i.e. single load ed road s or service m ains that only cater to m arket objectives); and - ensure com prehensive design of w ater and sew er system s based on ultim ate land use and topography. The service life of proposed infrastructure m ust be consid ered w hen examining the lim itations of required w orks. This is required to ensure the scope of initial w orks is consistent w ith proposed phasing and d oes not facilitate installation of w orks that w ill have no o r m inim al use d uring their service life.
A ridgeline is the continuous line that demarcates the contrast between the sky or distant hills and the earth
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
3) BUILDIN GS AN D STRUCTURES a. H illsid e zoning recognizes the unique nature of hillsid es and governs onsite coverage and setback issues necessary to provid e livable neighbourhood s that are not d om inated by vehicles or buildings. This is required to: provid e flexible front and sid e setbacks that red uce the am ount of cutting and filling required , and support level entry and good street presence; provid e a less im posing character on surround ing d evelopm e nts; and provid e opportunities on the new ly created lot for the planting of trees that w ill eventually m ature and contribute tow ard s the long -term aesthetic character of the d evelopm ent as view ed from the rest of the settlem ent. b. Avoid over height build ings and m inim ize the visual im pact of new build ings on hillsid es. 4) N ATURAL EN VIRON MEN T a. Minim ize slope alterations and retain the natural terrain and topography of the site. This is required to m inim ize disturbance to natural vegetation, to m aintain ecosystem integrity and protect natural buffers betw een d evelopm ent clusters w ith rem ovals based on an intimate know led ge of the site b. Id entify and protect significant organic and inorganic natural features and w ild life habitat corrid ors. This is required to ensure that natural features that support unique m icro-ecosystem s and provid e habitat rem ain und isturbed and linked to other open space features such as ravines, forested areas and w ater supply. c. Plant vegetation that helps m itigate the im pact of d evelopm ent enhances visual quality and ad d resses the need s of resid ents. It should ensure the use of ind igenous local plants and tree species w hich can provid e food and shelter for local w ildlife, cost less to m aintain, are d rought tolerant and fire resistant.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Ad d ition of w eight
Over steep ening (this term is u sed as rem oval of su p p ort) Vibrations Earthqu akes, nearby land slid es
Placing fill at a grad ient th at exceed s the angle of rep ose Blasting op eration of heavy equ ip m ent
As observed in the table, am ongst the hum an triggers m ost of them are d irectly or ind irectly related to construction activities. Guid elines proposed und er this section prim arily focus on am eliorating or preventing such hum an triggers.
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Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
An environm ent assessment (base case as recommend ed in the EIA by N EC) to id entify existing ecosystem s and special natural/ cultural/ heritage features of a site. This helps in d esigning as per the site cond itions, retain natural resources and allow for efficient construction and m aintenance.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
road s and m ain service lines), or spatially related (ie, clearing only one portion of the plot at a tim e, com pleting d evelopm ent and revegetation to control erosion before starting the next portion). For further d etails refer the soil erosion and control guid elines. For areas of the site w here vegetation m ust be rem oved but no construction w ill occur, leave soil intact (ie, avoid com paction, excavation, filling, etc) to allow for m ore successful replanting in these areas.
N ot only do site disturbances (cut and fill, clearing, compacted soil, dump sites, eroded areas, etc) have short-term impacts but, if not properly treated, these disturbances may have long-term negative impacts on personal safety, property and the environment.
2. It is strongly recom m ended to use native plants for site r estoration and land scaping as m uch as possible. Where the use of native plants is not d esirable given site or view constraints, select naturalised plants that is sim ilar in appearance, grow th habit, colour and texture to native plants, and that w ill not
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
act as a w eed in the natural environm ent (i.e., it w ill not out -com pete native plants, provid e habitat for und esirable w ild life, or act as a host for insect pests). 3. Plant shrubs and trees in m asses and patterns characteristic of a natural setting and w ith the intent of encouraging biod iversity. 4. For restoration or creation of habitat areas (e.g. riparian areas, ravines, greenw ays, etc.) use plant species that have value as food or cover for w ildlife. 5. For d ry or south facing slopes, replant w ith d rought and fire-resistant species. If list of such species is not available, the concerned d epartm ent of Agriculture and Forestry m ay provid e such list to the Ministry of Works and H um an Settlem ent for integration w ith build ing rules and bye-law s at all levels (includ ing rural settlem ents).
Straight lines and rectilinear shapes generally d o not com plement natural hillsid es. It is therefore, recom m end ed to lay out road s and lots in a pattern that offers a variety of sizes and configurations that com plem ent the topography and features of the site.
Trails and Open Space
Retain open space and corrid ors betw een d evelopm ent lots to provid e continuous habitat linkages w ithin the site as w ell as w ith neighbouring sites . Use trails or linear system s to link parts of the hillsid e com m unity w hich are not otherw ise linked by roads d ue to topographic constraints. An open space, streetscape and trail system should be d eveloped to provid e ped estrian access w ithin the hillsid e area and to/ from key d estinations in other parts of the com m unity (e.g., schools, com m ercial or tow n centers, parks, other trails, etc).
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Establish contours and grad ients that resem ble the naturally occurring terrain. Round out slope transitions and blend transitions betw een lots or ad jacent to und isturbed areas. Refrain from grad ing large flat terraces on hillside sites in ord er to expand d evelopable area or to develop housing or other uses characteristic of flat or gently-sloped sites. Developing smaller terraces (eg, for build ing pad s, stepped retaining w alls, etc) is preferred .
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts 2. Cut and Fill
In d esigning and d eveloping the site, m inim ize the total am ount of cut and / or fill and its environm ental and visual im pact by: Where the volum e of cut exceed s the volum e of fill m aterial for a proposed d evelopm ent, it should not be d ispose of on site in the form of unnecessary filling, or sid e-casting. Where necessary, dispose of excess m aterial at appropriate off-site locations.
Re-vegetate exposed slopes as quickly as possible to prevent erosion and slope stability problem s (Refer the section on guid elines for erosion control)
3. Retaining Walls
It is recom m end ed to use retaining w alls w here they can red uce disturbing the slope to provid e useable construction sites. Retaining w alls should respect the natural character of the site and not be d om inating. Retaining w all height m ay be limited to 3.0 m etres for road s and site w orks, 1.2 m etres for front plots, and 2.4 m etres for rear and sid e plots from the perspective of stability. H igher w alls m ay be appropriate w here they are articulated , have a surface texture/ pattern, or w here sufficient lan d scaping is provid ed at its base. Use of sm aller stepped retaining w alls over the use of a large uniform w all is preferred . The height and d epth of the w all steps should be consistent w ith the natural terrain. For stepped retaining w all systems, landscape the interm ed iate terraces.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Prior to d esigning a subd ivision or any other d evelopm ent, it is im portant that the d eveloper take into account the slope & soil limitations of the site. This w ill facilitate a d esign that is econom ically and environm entally feasible. Once the limitations of the site are know n, the d eveloper can begin to d esign a developm ent that is com patible w ith the natural environm ent. In areas prone to significant soil erosion and / or sed im en tation (w hich is prim arily the case for m ost parts of Bhutan), the developer m ust im plem ent a soil erosion and sed im entation plan of m anagem ent. Erosion and sed im entation control can be broad ly classified und er three sections: A. Source Erosion Control - stopping erosion before it starts, by keeping soil from being displaced . B. Runoff Control - red ucing the erosive energy of runoff and / or conveying it using non-erod ible surfaces. C. Sediment Control - trapping runoff and red ucing its velocity allow ing sed im ent to settle.
A. Source Erosion Control Methods: This is the m ost effective and econom ical w ay to keep soil on construction sites from getting erod ed by m inimising clearing and grad ing, and to keep exposed soil surfaces covered . This w orks on the fund am ental principle of keeping soil from being d isplaced at the outset and is in fact, the first line of d efence. Suggested strategies to source erosion control are as follow s: 1. Retained Vegetation: Retaining the existing trees and plants is the best and low est cost d efence against erosion. Places w here clearing has to be d one, grubbing of tree roots m ust be held back until grad ing is to proceed -the root m ass provid e substantial erosion control.
2. Clean w ater d iversion: Use strategies such as diversion sw ale above grad ed ar eas to d irect clean w ater from undisturbed areas aw ay from the grad ing activity. Sw ales m ust be gently sloped . For d ispersing the sw ale runoff into vegetated areas, use rock apron or d rainpipe to transport clean w ater to below the construction site.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Only those areas should be cleared that m ust be grad ed in the current phase of d evelopm ent. For larger sites, grad ing and erosion control should be first com pleted in one area before proceed ing to another. Vegetated areas m ust be left in place as long as possible to red uce erosion.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
4. Slope Design: Soil, runoff and groundw ater cond itions m ust be recognised w hen d esigning slopes. Saturated sand and silt soils are highly erod ible. Erod ible soil slopes over 2:1 m ust be avoid ed . Sheet d rainage is encouraged to avoid concentrated w ater flow d ow n unarm oured slopes. 5. Surface roughening: Surfaces should be roughened prior to seed ing by using ploughing or m achine tracking. This slow s run -off and encourages infiltration w hich prom otes germ inations and plant survival. 6. Seed ing and m ulching: Depend ing on the germ ination time, seed ing m ust be d one on d isturbed areas. Use of local species is strongly recom m end ed . Mulching is a tem porary soil stabilization technique w hich m ay also be used . Mulch is sim ply a protective layer of a m aterial that is spread on the top of the soil. Mulches can either be organic, such as grass, hay, straw , w ood chips, and similar m aterials, or inorganic, such as stones and brick chips. Mulching should be used w ith seed lings and plantings in steep slope areas (slopes>33%). Steep slopes are prone to heavy erosion. N etting or anchoring should be used to hold it in place. In ad d ition to stabilizing soils, m ulching red uces the storm w ater runoff over an area. Mulching w hen d one w ith seed lings or plantings, aid s plant grow th by hold ing the seed , fertilizers, and top soil in place. It retains m oisture and insulates the soil against extrem e tem peratures.
Figure 5: Good practice of netting and anchoring in one of the big construction pr oject
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
7. Plastic Covers: Plastic covers m ay be used for short term cover of sm all areas w hen other m ethod s are not feasible. H ow ever, for stockpiles not to be used for 2-3 or m ore d ays should alw ays be covered by plastic covers or w hen rain is expected . B. Runoff control methods Runoff control m ethod s red uce the erosive energy of runoff. The strategies to d o this should d ecrease the am ount of runoff, detain w ater to d ecrease the d ow nstream velocity (decreasing the velocity of running w ater by red uces the erosive energy by 4 tim es), d ivert the runoff to less erod ible areas and d issipate the runoff to facilitate sheet runoff. 1. Catchm ent area control: The site should be internally d ivid ed into sm all catchm ent areas (in case of large d evelopm ents), to avoid concentrating large volum e of runoff w ater. Collection and conveyance of runoff from each catchm ent area should be planned separately. 2. Slope Breaks: Slope breaks are recom mend ed for breaking the effective length of slopes. They are terraces w ith d iversion sw ales or d ykes, w hich collect sheet runoff from a catchm ent area and d irect it to a slope d rainpipe or other d rop structure. Sw ales should be gently sloping and may includ e check d ams, rock lining, or grass lining d epend ing on the soil types and slope. 3. Check Dams: Check d am s are recom mend ed to be used for both runoff control and sed im entation control. Steeper sw ales(>5% in stable soil) require check d am s to slow the velocity and red uce erosion.
Check d am s are usually m ad e in rocks, sand bags, gabions (w ire b asket of rocks), straw bales, logs or interlocking pre-cast concrete blocks, d epend ing
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
on the availability of local m aterial. N on -erod ible m aterial (gravel, cobble, etc.) is recom m end ed w herever w ater is concentrated (high velocity) or flow s rapid ly over the structure. 4. Grass sw ale/ rock channel lining: Sw ales upto 5% gradient in stable soils m ust be grass lined , prior to exposing them to high flow s. For channels w ith high runoff velocities, rock channel lining is preferred . 5. Slope d rainpipes: Slope d rainpipes should be provid ed tem porary or perm anent to convey runoff from sw ales and channels d ow n steep slopes. All necessary calculations should be done to size the pipe to match peak rainfall events. 6. Energy d issipators: These are either precast concrete structures or riprap/ geotextile solutions. They m ay be provid ed at the outfall of d rainpipes or high -velocity channels. It prim arily red uces the runoff velocity and d isperse the run -off.
C. Sed im ent Control m ethod s Som e of the sed im ent control strategies are listed as und er. 1. Sed im ent trap: A sed im ent trap can be constructed by excavating a pond across a low -lying area on the site. The trap should retain the run off enough to allow the sed im ent to settle before they are released . The outlet is constructed using large stones and aggregate to slow d ow n the release of run off. This system is appropriate for sm all d rainage areas not m ore than 10 acres (Source: EPA, Chapter 3 Sedim ent and Erosion Control). The volum e of the storage required d epend s upon the surface type and rainfall intensity of the place. 2. Sediment Barriers: Silt fence are the commonest sediment barriers employed with alternatives such as continuous berms of gravel or earth, straw bales, etc. A silt fence is a temporary m easure for sed im entation control to detain sed im ents from a small drainage area. This system consists of a filter fabric w hich is supported by posts. The low er ed ge of the fence is vertically trenched and covered by backfill. This system is m ost effective w here there is overland flow . It controls sed im ent run off from the site from entering into the receiving w aters. For large areas, silt fence is not appropriate to control the run off; how ever, it could be used in com bination w ith other erosion and
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
sed im ent control m easures. The sedim ents should be rem oved and d isposed once it is one third or one half the height of fence. Sed im ent barriers should be installed to create pond ed w ater -on flatter ground below exposed slopes, along the contour.
3. Sediment Basin/Pond: Sed im ent basins are approp riate for d isturbed site areas larger than 5 acres. A sed im ent basin could be d efined as a settling tank w ith a controlled storm w ater release structure w hich is used to collect and store sed im ent prod uced from d isturbed sites w here construction activities are carried out. It is im portant that the basin size should be calculated to hand le the m axim um am ount of d rainage expected from the site. The em bankm ent w hich form s the sed im entation pool should be com pacted and stabilised w ith vegetation. The outlet of the basin should be as far as possible from the entrance to provid e m axim um retention time. The outlet should be a gravel outlet to slow d ow n the run off and provid e extra sedim ent filtration. 4. Gravel access pads: Gravel access pad s -20 cm thick layer of gravel should be provid ed at the site access to red uce the tracking of m ud off the site onto ad jacent road s, w here it w ould eventually w ash into the storm w ater system or natural w aterw ays. These should be installed prior to use of heavy equipm ent or site grad ing operations and should be necessarily m aintained throughout the construction operations. Trucks and m aterials/ equipm ent transporting m od es should be restricted on these gravel access pad s and gravel runw ays. Reinstallation of gravel access pad s m ay be necessary on large construction sites.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
5. All sediment interception traps/ponds must be inspected after each storm event and must have sediment removed regularly to maintain capacity.
Figure 6 : Som e of the soil erosion and sed im entation control strategies
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
All existing vegetation should be m arked on a site survey plan. A tree survey in prescribed form at should be carried out as indicated in Table-x. The land scape plan should ind icate trees, w hich have been preserved , and also those, w hich had to be transplanted or rem oved clearly d ifferentiating betw een these three categories.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Table 3 :Tree survey form at Serial No. identifi able in survey plan Botanical name Com mon name Girth Heigh t Spread Conditio n Protected/pr eserved /transplante d /removed
Trees retained on the project site should be protected d uring the construction period by follow ing m easures: Dam age to roots should be prevented d uring trenching, placing backfill, driving or parking heavy equipm ent, d um ping of trash, oil, paint, and other m aterials d etrim ental to plant health by restricting these activities to outsid e the area of the canopy of the tree. Avoid cut and fill in the root zones, through d elineating and fencing the d rip line (the spread limit of a canopy projected on the ground ) of all the trees or group of trees. Separate the zones of m ovem ent of heavy equipm ent, parking, or excessive foot traffic from the fenced plant protection zones. Trees should not be used for support; their trunks should not be d amaged by cutting and carving or by nailing posters, ad vertisem ents or other m aterial. Lighting of fires or carrying out heat or gas em itting construction activity w ithin the ground , covered by canopy of the tree should be avoid ed . Young trees or saplings id entified for preservation (height less than 2.00m, 0.10m trunk girth at 1.00m height from finish ground , 2.00m crow n d iam eter) w ithin the construction site should preferably be protected using tree guard s of approved specification. Existing d rainage patterns through or into any preservation area should not be m od ified unless specifically d irected by the Land scape Architect / Architect/ Engineer-in-charge. Existing grad es should be m aintained around existing vegetation and low ering or raising the levels around the vegetation is not allow ed unless specifically d irected by the Land scape Architect / Architect / Engineer -in-charge. Maintenance activities should be perform ed as need ed to ensure that the vegetation rem ains healthy.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
The preserved vegetated area should be inspected by the Land scape Architect / Architect / Engineer-in-charge at regular intervals so that they rem ain und isturbed . The d ate of inspection, type of maintenance or restorat ive action follow ed should be record ed in the logbook. Or any alternative arrangem ents should be suggested by the respective m unicipal authority/ Dzongkhag
Phy sical and Bot anical Charact erist ics of Plant Mat erial
The inform ation on plant m aterial should be available in a system atic format to includ e d efinition, significance and d esign im plications of the follow ing aspects: N om enclature, Latin and com m on Origin, fam ily, natural habitat Grow th characteristic, form as a function of habit Physical characteristics, e.g. bark texture, foliage etc. Propagation and m aintenance Use in Land scape Design
Vegetation Types: Evergreen and d ecid uous: Som e exam ples of the functional im plications of using evergreen and d ecid uous plant m aterial for specific situations are: Evergreen trees for: i. ii. places requiring shad e throughout the year strong visual screening
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
iii. iv.
part of w ind break or shelter planting areas w here leaf litter is to be d iscouraged
Decid uous trees for: i. ii. iii. iv. v. greater visual variety partial visual barrier areas w here und er-planting is to be encouraged (e.g. grass) em phasis on branching and flow ering pattern. areas w here shad e is not required throughout the year.
Grow th rate and age of the vegetation: Grow th rate is d irectly related to the life -sp an of a tree and slow er grow ing trees have a life-span extend ing to hund red s of years. The fast grow ing trees to the exclusion of other slow er grow ing varieties is not recom m end ed . Land scapes are d eveloped to sustain future generations; slow grow ing & native trees m ust be includ ed in all m ajor planting schem es, especially those related to institutional cam puses and large urban d evelopm ent. H ow ever, fast grow ing species do have a lim ited role, and are appropriate in situations w here: Quick effects are required -for instance in w ind breaks and shelterbelts. Im m ed iate results w ith regard s to stabilization of soil etc. are necessary as for instance in soil conservation schem es. As nurse plants to protect slow er grow ing sensitive species w hen necessary.
The slow er grow ing species w ould generally be appropriate in situations w here sustained environm ental benefits are required such as road side planting, cam puses, tow nships, ind ustrial areas, and other public landscapes. Maintenance: The success of a d esigned landscape d epend s upon the grow th of vegetation over an extend ed period of tim e; therefore m aintenance of landscape is also a d esign com ponent. Maintenance need s and a practice in any given situation arises out of the inter-relationship betw een the grow th requirem ents of plant m aterial chosen and the environm ental cond itions existing on site. The likely d egree of m aintenance should be assessed based on the follow ing: i. ii. iii. Scale of the Design Project Financial and m anpow er resource Availability of m anures
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
iv. v.
In sm all-scale projects such as gard ens and small parks the natural environm ental cond itions can be changed and m aintained in this changed state by m anagem ent practices such as irrigation and application of fertilisers. The choice of plant species is therefore not very strictly lim ited by the existing environm ental cond itions. On larger scale schem es, such as very large parks, cam puses and settlem ents, this kind of intensive m aintenance is not possible, and any plan ting schem e, w hich d oes not take this into consid eration, fail. The process of choosing plants m ust therefore respond to the existing environm ental cond itions and also in such cases the choice of plant m aterial is restricted by these conditions and suitable species are lim ited . The type of treatm ent ad opted also serves as a guid e to the degree of m aintenance required : Table 4: D egree of maintenance required (for vegetation) a) Low Maintenance The lowest degree of maintenance is usually possible in areas treated with native species of trees only. A slightly higher degree is necessary where native shrubs are also used, as these may require pruning
b)
Medium
Areas treated with a mixture of native and exotic trees Exotic shrubs and trees
c)
High
Exotic shrubs and ground covers Lawns and maintained grass areas Annual flowers, special schemes
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Guideline 1.9: System approach adoption w hile land use plan/sub-division layout
All new settlem ents, resid ential colony, large campuses, etc., should follow a system approach w hile d oing the land use plan. Und erstanding of the formative systems w hile d oing land use planning/ sub-d ivision layout is im portant yet often ignored . For this, und erstand ing the physiographic (natural) character of a site is the key. Pred evelopm ent perform ance or mim icking the natural perform ance of the site w hile d oing any land use plan is extrem ely im portant. This becom es m ore significant in the case of Bhutan as the entire country is eco-sensitive. For instance, if the site d ischarged no overland flow s into surface channels before d evelopm ent, then it should not release surface runoff (storm w ater) into natural channels after d evelopm ent. Or take another exam ple of a site w hich is (say) a conveyance zone in a w atershed area w here m aintaining the continu ity of flow even after d evelopm ent is im portant from sustainability perspective and long-m ed ium terms ill consequences.
A rid geline is d efined as the continuous line d emarcating the contrast betw een the sky and the earth (i.e., the ground surface or top of tree line).
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Rid gelines should be protected to m aintain the characteristic visual quality of a place. Follow ing is recom m ended to achieve the same: Site build ing envelopes below the rid geline and retain trees and other veget ation on rid gelines as m uch as possible. Road s or large and continuous build ings should not be located on or over rid gelines w ith an overall aim that the ridgeline is seen as a continuous line of natural terrain or vegetation. In case of gaps in the ridgeline caused by site d evelopm ent (e.g., road s, utility poles, buildings, etc.) plant trees and vegetation in front of and behind the d isturbance to restore a naturally appearing rid geline.
2.
Scenic features hereby mean t are features visually unique and visible to the com m unity includ ing build ings/ sites of heritage. Site/ plot should be d esigned so as not to alter or d isturb any natural scenic features such as cliff, overhang, rid geline, gully, w ater bod y, stream s, etc. Apart from m aintaining the trad itional architectural style (as integrated in the d evelopm ent control regulations and build ing rules), it is strongly recom mend ed to m aintain such finishes and exterior colours w hich are com plem entary to the scenic feature, th rough the use of m uted colours and natural m aterials. 3 As seen in the figures below , use of vibrant exterior colour for w alls and high reflective roofs is not d esirable for visual quality. Location of build ings should be such as to not ham per the view of h eritage sites/ build ings. The architectural exterior view of all build ings in heritage villages should be in harm ony w ith the cultural and architectural view of the place.
During the site visit conducted by the authors, few new residential projects of startling colors (non harmonious with the natural terrain) were seen in and around Thimphu and need to be strictly controlled and restored.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Figure 9: H igh reflective roofs of new build ings v/ s green/ ochre roofs of old build ings
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Areas
Trashiyangtse Mongar Trashigang Sirang Sam tse Chukka Dagana Sarpang Zem gang Pem agatshel
26.22 26.22 26.22 27.04 26.87 25.93 25.93 27.04 26.87 26.87
26.56 26.56 26.56 26.92 25.61 26.24 26.24 26.92 25.61 25.61
24.78 24.78 24.78 23.94 24.61 23.87 23.87 23.94 24.61 24.61
27.69 27.69 27.69 28.17 28.48 26.96 26.96 28.17 28.48 28.48 27.93
Orientation As far as possible, the longer axis of the build ing should be oriented east-w est d irection to trap m axim um solar energy d uring w inter m onths.
Building Spacing Build ings should be spaced in such a w ay that they should not shad e each other or block sun d uring w inter. Minim um spacing for d ifferent types of housing for d ifferent cities of Bhutan are recom m end ed in table below although given the terrain characteristics it is extrem ely d ifficult to follow these spacing in all cond itions and regions;
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Zone 2 Slope G+1 1:20(2.86 deg) 1:10(5.71 deg) 1:5(11.3 deg) 1:3(18.43 deg) 5.4 4.8 3.7 2.9 Spacing (m) G+2 8.4 7.6 6.4 5.3 G+3 11.5 10.5 8.9 7.6 G+4 14.5 13.4 11.5 9.9
Zone 3 Slope G+1 1:20(2.86 deg) 1:10(5.71 deg) 1:5(11.3 deg) 1:3(18.43 deg) 5.3 4.7 3.6 2.8 Spacing (m) G+2 8.3 7.5 6.3 5.2 G+3 11.4 10.4 8.8 7.5 G+4 14.4 13.3 11.4 9.8
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Zone 2 5 6 7
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Planning for spaces The living spaces of a build ing should be d esigned as d ay lit spaces. The non-living spaces i.e., stair cases, toilets, stores and garages m ay be planned preferably on northern sid e to provid e as buffer to red uce heat loss from living spaces. N orth faade should have m inim um d oor and w ind ow openings. Southern faad e should have m axim um glazing in ord er to capture m axim um solar heat d uring w inters. It is recom m end ed that for new construction glazing should be in proportion to total surface area of the w all and preferably not exceed m ore than 50% in m id altitud e region i.e. 1500 m to 2200 m and not m ore than 70% in high altitud e regions i.e. 2200 m and higher. In w arm and hum id climate regions (Southern part of the country), high level of cross ventilation is required in the build ings to maintain the therm al com fort. Sm all size w ind ow s should be placed on w ind w ard sid e, w hile larger w ind ow s should be placed on leew ard sid e for facilitating d irect ventilation through pressure d ifference.
Integrating solar heating systems in building designs Passive solar heating system s like solar air heating, w ater heating, sun space, solar w alls, space heating green houses and solar trom be w all etc. shall be integrated in the build ing d esign w herever possible on southern sid e, so as to allow maxim um d irect solar access to these system s. The suitability of space heating system s to be installed or incorporated in the d esign of a solar passive build ing to be d ecid ed by the Architect/ Engineer/ Designer/ Solar expert in accord ance w ith building site, clim ate and space heating requirem ents.
Provision of thermal barrier to reduce heat loss Preference m ust be given to use local materials i.e. stone, slate and m ud and such construction practices to red uce heat loss and m aintain ad equate therm al com fort d uring peak w inter m onths.
Wall and roofs For all buildings w ith active (m echanized ) systems of space heating, w alls and roof s should preferably be insulated by ad equate insu lation m aterials to provid e
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
better therm al barrier outer and inner environm ents to red uce heat loss and m aintain good therm al com fort. For other building types (passive build ings), roofs m ay be ad equately insulated , cavity w alls w ith air or w ith insulation m ay be provid ed
Air leakages Proper sealing of all fenestrations (d oors and w ind ow s) to the extent possible is recom m end ed to red uce heat loss.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Gasa Punakha Wangdue Bumthang Lhuentse Haa Paro Thimphu Trongsa Trashiyangtse Mongar Trashigang Sirang Samtse Chukka Dagana Sarpang Zemgang Pemagatshel Samdrupjonkhar
27.55 27.61 27.46 27.6 27.66 27.38 27.43 27.48 27.51 27.35 27.26 27.33 26.96 27.3 27.05 27.11 26.86 27.23 27.51 26.81
89.41 89.86 89.9 90.81 91.18 89.27 89.41 89.63 90.5 91.27 91.28 91.56 90.11 90.6 89.56 89.76 90.26 90.65 90.43 91.56
Source: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/RETScreen/ Solar Photovoltaic Panel (SPV) for lighting It is recom m end ed that the solar photovoltaic panels be int egrated preferably in the build ing d esign for provid ing ind oor lighting and em ergency lighting. Stand -alone solar PV lighting along w ith electric back up m ay be provid ed for outd oor lighting applications i.e. street lighting and com m on area lighting.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
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Guidelines for Planning and Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Gasa Pu nakha Wangd u e Bu m thang Lhu entse H aa Paro Thim p hu Trongsa Trashiyangtse Mongar Trashigang Sirang Sam tse Chu kka Dagana Sarp ang Zem gang Pem agatshel Sam d ru p jonkhar
27.55 27.61 27.46 27.6 27.66 27.38 27.43 27.48 27.51 27.35 27.26 27.33 26.96 27.3 27.05 27.11 26.86 27.23 27.51 26.81
89.41 89.86 89.9 90.81 91.18 89.27 89.41 89.63 90.5 91.27 91.28 91.56 90.11 90.6 89.56 89.76 90.26 90.65 90.43 91.56
Source: https://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/sse/RETScreen/
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Transformers H igher the rating, higher w ill be the no load loss therefore it is recom m ended that correct rating of transform er shall be selected . Stand By transform er w ithout load also consum es energy. It is better to share the load on tw o transform ers rather than putting load on one transform er w hile keeping other as stand by. Losses are m ore, if transform er tem perature is m ore. The m axim um efficiency of the transform er should be d esigned at a load ing in the range of 50 to 65% of' its full load capacity. If the average load is 80% or m ore of the rated pow er, a bigger transform er or a second transform er m ay be consid ered because the short-circuit losses become a large portion of the total losses.
Cables Cables contribution is highest in the overall technical loss in a d istribution netw ork therefore they should be sized in such a w ay that their cable current rating ensure their suitability w .r.t m axim um current. Cable length should be selected w ith m inim um num bers of joints. Joints in cables not only increase the loss but also result in to frequent break d ow ns. It is recom m end ed to slightly oversize cable if length of cable is m ore. A good quality of cable term ination is also recomm end ed . The d istribution netw ork m ay be d esigned to ensure a voltage d rop less than 3% at highest load cond itions.
Sw itch Gears Sw itch gears contribute loss both d ue to heating and also may be d ue to their ow n consum p tions. All the sw itch gear shall be appropriately sized and shall have good quality of term ination and ad equate capacity of term inals. Sparking at terminals not only increases chances of break d ow n but also affects the technical loss. Design & specification should ensure no sparking.
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Guidelines for Planning and Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Motors Motor horsepow er ratings should not exceed 20% of the calculated m axim um load . Motors should be energy efficient i.e. eff-1 or eff-2 types.
Instrumentations Instrum entations in netw ork increases joints and contribute in to technical loss d ue to ow n consum ptions. Duplication of instrum ents in netw ork shall be avoid ed and it shall be installed in such a w ay that there should be only one instrum ent for current, PF and energy m easurement The m ore num ber of instrum ents in netw ork affect m easurem ents by over burd ening CTs and PTs of d istribution elem ents. Installation of CT norm ally results in tw o joints. Therefore installation of CTs should be minim ized and BUSH m ounting CTs m ay be used .
Protection and other numerical relay They contribute to technical loss in the sam e w ay as instrum ents d o. They should be includ ed in the d esign in less num ber w ith few joints and of good quality to red uce their ow n consum ption.
Pow er factor All electricity supplies exceed ing 100 A, 3-phase should preferably m aintain their pow er factor betw een 0.95 lag to unity at the point of connection As the technical loss is depend ent upon flow ing current, so it is im portant to ensure apparent current is equal to active current. The netw ork should have APFC units to m onitor and control pow er factor. This also helps in regulating voltage levels. H ow ever it should be ensured that capacitor bank is sw itched off, w henever load is sw itched off. APFC should be as near to load as possible.
Harmonics Presence of harm onics can increase technical loss, can cause heating, can increase neutral current, can affect m easurem ents and lastly can red uce efficiency of 49
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
d evices. Feeders w here load generates harm onics shall be isolated , so that it d oes not affect other load . If sam e is not possible harmonics filters should be installed .
N eutral current N eutral current and N eutral to Earth voltage are also useful and inform ative health param eters. By monitoring the sam e and ensuring them as low as possible, low losses is ensured .
Voltage drop H igher the voltage d rop betw een voltage feed ing point and at load point ind icates high level of technical loss and it shall not be m ore than 3%.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
i.
Energy Savings-Through use of efficient technologies and d esign practices, excess energy use can be avoid ed . Capital cost savings-Using the proper spacing and placem ent can red uce capital costs because m ore efficient systems can use few er poles and fixtures. Maintenance cost savings-Using lam ps w ith longer lives and layouts w ith proper spacing and placem ent m eans red uced costs for fixing burnouts and paintings or replacing d am aged poles. Im proved sense of security-Selection of efficient equip m ent and incorporating proper d esign can m ake an area appear safer and m ore secure w ithout increasing light levels. In fact, light levels w hich are too high w ill not m ake an area seem safer. Direct glare and high light levels red uce perceptions of safety m aking visibility m ore d ifficult. Attention to uniform ity d escribed as even light d istribution on the horizontal surface and light distribution on the vertical surface ad d to a persons sense of security. Evenly lit road s and w alkw ays-Good d esign im proves visibility by avoid ing overly bright and d ark patches on road s and w alkw ays. Red uce glare and im proved visibility-Overly high light levels create unw anted glare that d ecreases visibility. Careful selection of fixtures and lam ps that enhances visibility and im proves d etection of ped estrians by d rivers and increases seeing d istances beyond those provided by autom otive head lights alone. Econom ic d evelopm ent-Com m unities see street lighting as an im portant part of im proving economic d evelopm ent efforts in all set tlem ents.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Design basics & lighting system arrangem ents lam p selection Lum inaire selection Controls
1.
Road Classification and ROW Primary: Minimum 15 m Ideal 18 m Secondary: Minimum 10 m Ideal 12 m Access: Minimum 6 m Ideal 8 m
Carriageway
Minimum Widths
4 4
12.00 m 13.20 m
3.00 m 4.80 m
2 2
6.00 m 6.60 m
= 0.30 m
2.
All the lighting for d ifferent types of streets shall be d esigned to m eet the m inim um level of illum ination levels & uniformity coefficient as follow s: Prim ary Road s: Average lighting level on the surface of the road shall be m aintained around 30 lux. Uniform ity coefficient d efined as ratio of m inim um lighting level to average lighting level shall not be less than 0.4.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Second ary Road s: Average lighting level on the surface of the road shall be m aintained around 15 lux. Uniform ity coefficient shall not be less than 0.4. Access Road s: Average lighting level on the surface of the road shall be m aintained around 10 lux. Uniform ity coefficient shall not be less than 0.4.
Lighting level measurement Lighting levels shall be calculated or m easured at a grid of not m ore than 1M*1M on road surface betw een one spacing of street lighting system . The illum ination level on the street w ill be the average of all these lighting levels and uniform ity coefficient w ill be calculated by divid ing m inim um lighting level by illum ination level of the street.
3.
(i)
Design Basics
Mounting height (H )- The vertical d istance betw een the centre of the lum inaire and the surface of the carriagew ay m easured vertically is called the m ounting height of lighting installation. The optim um m ounting height shou ld be chosen by taking into account the light output of the sources, the light d istribution of lum inaries, and the geom etry of installation. Table below show s the recom m end ed m ounting heights for d ifferent category of road s and carriagew ay w id th. Spacing (S)- The distance, m easured horizontally, along the centre line of the carriagew ay, betw een successive lum inaries in an installation is d efined as spacing of lighting schem es. Carriagew ay-That portion of a highw ay intend ed prim arily for vehicular traffic.
(ii)
(iii)
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
(iv)
Dual carriagew ay-Dual carriage is d efined as a layout of tw o separated carriagew ays, each reserved for traffic in one direction only. Carriagew ay w id th (W)- The d istance betw een kerb lines m easured at right angles to the length of the carriagew ay is w id th of carriagew ay. Overhang (O)- The d istance m easured horizontally betw een the centre of a lum inaire m ounted on a bracket and the ad jacent ed ge of the carriagew ay is d efined as overhang.
(v)
(vi)
(vii) Span- That part of the highw ay lying betw een successive lum inaries in an installation is term ed as span (viii) Central verge-Central reserve is a longitud inal space d ividing a d ual carriagew ay. (ix) Verge-Unpaved area flanking a carriagew ay, forming part of the highw ay and substantially at the sam e level as the carriagew ay I called ver ge. Kerb-Kerb is form ed at the ed ge of a carriagew ay w ith the help of bord er of stone, concrete or other rigid m aterial.
(x)
St aggered arrangement
In staggered type arrangem ent, the luminaries are situated on either sid e of the carriage w ay and m ay be em ployed w hen the w id th of the carriage-w ay is of m edium size.
O pposit e
In opposite arrangem ent, the lum inaries situated on either sid e of the carriage -w ay opposite to one another is ad visable w hen the w id th of the carriage-w ay is big.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Other arrangem ents exist, but they result from the com bination of the four preced ing fund am ental types.
4.
Based on their p erform ance, the lighting com ponents can be grouped in three system s.
St ruct ural sy st em
Poles & pole found ation or base
O pt ical sy st em
Lum inaires
Elect rical sy st em
Lam ps, ballasts, and service cabinet or fuse box
Lam ps
Street lighting system s generally use three types of high intensity d ischarge (H ID) lam ps. They are high pressure sod ium vapour (H PSV) lam ps, m etal halid e (MH ) lam ps, and high pressure m ercury d ischarge (H PMV) lam ps. H PSV lam ps prod uce yellow ish light; have very high efficiency, high lum en m aintenance, very long life but very poor colour rend ition. MH lam ps are also having high efficiency and very good colour rend ering and being recom m ended for new installation but they tend to have a shorter life and poor lum en m aintenance. H PMV lam ps are not very frequently used in street lighting now . They are least energy efficient am ong H ID lam ps but they have colour rend ition better than H PSV lam ps. Light-em itting diod e (LED) technology is a fast d eveloping one w ith significant energy saving potential an d very long life. They do not use ballasts or starters and have excellent colour rend ering quality, how ever, their upfront cost is quite high as com pared to H ID lighting system s.
Depart ment of Human Set t lement Minist ry of W orks and Human Set t lement , RGO B
Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Lu m inaires
The lum inaire has a d ouble role of protecting the light source from the w eather and redistributing its lum inous flux. In the choice of the lum inaire, follow ing points should be consid ered : N ature and pow er of the source or source N ature of the optical arrangem ents and the light d istribution w hich they provid e Light output ratio Whether the lum inaire is open or closed type Resistance to heat, soiling and corrosion Protection against collection of d ust and insects Resistance to atm ospheric conditions Ease of installation and m aintenance Presence or absence of auxiliaries and Fixing arrangem ents, the w eight and area exposed to w ind pressure
The influence of all these factors varies accord ing to local circum stances, and it is d ifficult to recom mend one solution or each type of lighting installation. H ow ever, one essential characteristic of lum inaires the choice of w hich d irectly influences and quality of the lighting. That is, the general form of its d istribution curves of lum inous intensity particularly in d irections near the usual directions of vision. Three fund am ental form s of light d istribution are consid ered accord ing to the degree of glare w hich is acceptable: Cut-off lum inaires, Sem i-cut-off lum inaires, and N on-cut-off lum inaires
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Cu t-off lu m inaire
A lum inaire w hose light d istribution is char acterized by a rapid red uction of lum inous intensity in the region betw een 800 and horixontal 900. The intensity at the horizontal should not exceed 10 cd per 1000 lm of flux from the light sources and the intensity at 800 is of the ord er of 30 cd per 1000 lm . The d irection of the m axim um intensity m ay vary but should be below 650. The principal ad vantage of the cut-off system is the red uction of glare and its use is favoured und er the follow ing cond itions: Matt carrigew ay surfaces Absence of build ings Presence of large trees Long straight sections Slight hum ps, brid ges, and Few intersections and obstructions
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
5.
In Bhutan, the streetlights are sw itched on and off m anually. N o autom atic controls are currently being used . Manual systems often lead to energy w a stage d ue to various reasons. Therefore, it is recom m end ed that autom atic lighting controls sensitive to the seasonal variation and ad justs on & off tim e based on actual length of d ay/ night may be used for new settlem ents and / or existing settlem ents. Autom atic controls are provid ed for all the road lighting to autom atically respond to seasonal variation of sun set & sun rise tim ings
Mem ory of the unit has d ate w ise yearly sunset and sunrise tim ings for the required city, as the d ate ad v ances output relay gets ON as per the concurrent Sunset and Sunrise Tim ings. In case if it is required to change this tim ing, it can be d one w ith help of plus and m inus offset. Micro controllers RTC has got 5 years backup through battery; hence the set program rem ains intact even in pow er failure cond ition. Enough precautions for line supply surge are taken. The Output channel relay operates the electrical contactor that ultim ately controls the lam p load . Due to its versatile concept of sw itching at Sunset and Sunrise Tim ings throughout year, it gives saving in electrical units, w hich ultim ately result in, red uced electric bills.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
In ord er to further conserve energy, it is recom mend ed that street lighting system s are equipped w ith proper d evice to be d im m ed to 50% of total light output after m id night w hen there is no or very less traffic on the road Dim m ing of street lighting is possible w ith the help of new types of fixtures w hich are now equipped w ith change over or m ulti-tap ballasts. Instead of one, fixtures are fitted w ith tw o ballasts and sam e lam p can operate at tw o different w attages at set change over tim e w hich can be set w ith a tim er. Pow er/ tim e sw itch an auto d im d evice w hich can perform auto d im m ing. At m id night w hen traffic gets thin auto d im can change over from higher w attage ballast to low er w attage ballast. Typical installation w / o d im m ing Typical installation w ith d im ming
Electrical system Electrical d istribution for road lighting should be d esigned to m aintain a pow er factor m ore than 0.95 lag and a voltage fluctuation of not m ore than 5% throughout the year
Energy monitoring A d ed icated feed er should be provid ed for street lighting. Electronic energy m eters should be installed to record the consum ption in the street lighting system .
Green Pow er 15% (or any grad ed limits m ay be set in association w ith the Departm ent of RE) of the connected street lighting load may be catered through RE pow er w ith grid backup. This can be provid ed either through standalone solar lighting system or centralised RE pow er system .
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
As a result, one of the prim e requirem ents for build ings and settlem ents is to ad opt w ater sensitive urban d esign, rain w ater harvesting at ind ivid ual build ing and neighbourhood scales, proper m anagem ent of surface w ater sources, control on the spread of im pervious ground cover w hich im pedes the natural recharging of ground w ater sources and ad d s to the urban heat island effect. The approach for preparing the guid elines und er this section is illustrated in the ad joining figures. Guid elines proposed in this section are in ad d ition/ support of the existing m easures being taken up by the Divisions of Urban Infrastructure and Rural Infrastructure Services.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Figure 11 : Water Sensitive Urban Design v/ s conventional urban w ater use (Source: Prof. Rob Skinner, Monash University, Australia)
Downpipe dis
D ow npipe D isconnection :Red uces pressure on sew er system red ucing flood ing and w ater quality problem s Treepit raingardens: Introd uces more and healthier street trees that are naturally watered by runoff. Increases urban biod iversity, property values and helps local clim ate. Creative use of land scaping and vegetation creates a safer and m ore pleasant environm ent for ped estrians
Figure 12: What could a w ater sensitive d esign d o at neighbourhood scale? (Source: CIRIA, 2013,Water sensitive urban d esign in the U.K)
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Contaminant Od ou r
Treatment methods Aeration/ Oxid ation Activated carbon filter Charcoal Resin Boiling
Colou r
Flu orid e
N itrate
Am m onia
Chlorine Boiling
Iron
H ard ness
Boiling and settling/ Filtration Reverse Osm osis Resin Ion Exchange w ater softeners
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Contaminant
Source: 2009, TERI and TV PL, Environmental Building Guidelines for Hyderabad M etropolitan A rea, HM DA .
H ow ever, integration of a purification techniques and the type of technology to be used w ill d epend on several factors: 1. Kind of contaminant 2. Extent of contamination 3. Sim ple & d urable 4. Low m aintenance 5. Depend ency on pow er 6. Profile of the w ater users 7. Afford ability Often, in spite of precautions, contamination of w ater can occur d uring its storage or transportation to the point of consum ption. H ence storage and maintenance of treated w ater is as essential as is the purification process.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
c. Electrolytic changes: The purifying action of the filter can also be explained by theory of ionisation. Accord ing to this, a filter helps in purifying the w ater by changing the chem ical characteristics of w ater. Sand grains of the filter m ed ia and the im purities in the w ater carry electrical charges of opposite nature. When they com e in contact w ith each other, they neutralise each other, thereby changing the characteristics of w ater and m aking it purer.
3. Disinfect ion of W at er
This treatm ent d estroys harm ful germ s (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, etc.) by either killing them or m aking them inactive. Water can be d isinfected by several m eans: Application of heat or other physical agents Surface active chem icals Resin (iod ine based , e.g. Zero-B) Rad iation by ultraviolet light and rad ioactive ions Alkalis and acid s Metal ions like silver, copper, m ercury. Oxid ants w ith halogen, ozone other chem ical compound s like potassium perm anganate, brom ine, iod ine and chlorine. (Ozone at 0.5 ppm takes about 5 minutes to kill bacteria. Chlorine at 1ppm takes about 2 hours and silver takes about 4 to 10 hours.)
Local authorities com m only use chlorine, iod ine and silver to kill bacteria. UV rad iation and ozonation m ay also be used for large w ater supplies in tow nships/ resorts/ hotels located outsid e the m unicipal lim its.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
These Second ary level treatm ent technologies have been broad ly classified on the principle of w ater purification: 1. Disinfection: UV rad iation, Ozonation, Solar Disinfection 2. Filtration/ Demineralization: Ion Exchange, Activated Carbon Filtration, 3. Mem brane Processes (Micro filtration, N ano filtration, Ultra filtration, Reverse Osm osis, Electrod ialysis)
1. Disinfect ion
Ultra Violet radiation (UV ): UV is nature's w ay of purification. It is a band of invisible light in the electrom agnetic spectrum . This range 200 nm -285 nm is the germ icid al range. Proteins and nucleic acid , w hich all micro-organism s contain as their m ain constituents, absorb UV rad iation energy. After absorption, the UV energy d estroys or inactivates the DNA, thus preventing the m icroorganism s from reprod ucing. UV is also know n to bring d ow n Total Organic Carbon (TOC) consid erably in w ater.
Precaution: The w ater entering the UV unit m ust necessarily be clear as suspend ed solid s provid e a shield ing effect to microorganism s. H ence Pre-treatm ent is necessary. Ozonation: Ozone is the strongest oxid ising agent for w ater treatm ent. By virtue of its properties, ozone is also the strongest d isinfectant. Solar Disinfection: A sim ple m ethod of im proving the quality of w ater w ith the help of sunlight. It em ploys use of solar UVA rad iation and tem perature to inactivate pathogens. The d isinfection process is effective through a 2w ay process- exposure to UV-A rad iation and increased w ater tem perature. If the w ater tem perature rises above 50C, the d isinfection process m ay take one hour.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
W ater softening This is the process of rem oving ions from the w ater and replacing/ exchanging them w ith sod ium ions and chlorid e ions. Ion Exchange w ater softeners em ploy the use of N aCI (sod ium chlorid e) for a cation exchange process. N a or K replaces Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn etc in the w ater. The m ost com m on use for this is at household level. Deionization: H ere, the hard ness and other ions that are initially in the w ater are rem oved and replaced w ith H + and OH - ions, w hich can com bine to form w ater. H ence, it red uces d eposits and scale form ation because of high level of hard ness. This is used in applications w here extrem ely pu re w ater is required . A ctivated Carbon Filtration Activated carbon is extrem ely porous w ith a very large surface area. It em ploys a process called ad sorption, in w hich m olecules of the contam inants attach them selves to the surface of the carbon either by p hysical or chem ical attraction. The tw o main reasons that chemicals ad sorb onto activated carbon are- a "d islike" for w ater, and attraction for the activated carbon.
3. Membrane Processes
Reverse Osm osis (RO), N ano Filtration (N F), Ultra Filtration (UF) and Micro Filtration (MF) are the com m only used pressure d riven m em brane processes in the ord er of increasing pore opening. M embrane material Cellulose acetate, Arom atic polyamid e, nylon derivatives, Polyvinyl alcohol d erivative etc. These m em branes have a preferential attraction for w ater and rejection for charged ionic substances. The filtration is depend ent on the pore size, pore size d istribution and pressure. M icro Filtration A very low -pressure (less than 1 Kg/ sq. cm) process w hich separates particles above 0.05 m icrons and below 1 m icron from the solvent. MF mem branes are prim arily used to rem ove particulate matter and bacteria from w ater.
Ultra Filtration This is a low pressure (less than 10 Kg/ sq. cm ) separation process w hich allow s low m olecular solutes (>1000 MW) are retained . Ultra filtration m embranes (1nm to 10nm)
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
are used to rem ove particulate, colloid al m atter, bacteria, pyrogen and viruses from w ater. N ano Filtration This is a process in betw een ultra filtration and reverse osm osis. The N F a llow s m onovalent salts like N aCI, CaCI2to pass through and retains d ivalent anionic salts like N a2S04, MgS04 along w ith solutes having m olecular w eights greater than 300. N F m em branes are often called a loose RO and are used as softening m embranes or to rem ove d yes and organic com pound s from w ater and liquid effluents. Reverse Osmosis Reverse Osom osis is a high pressure (15 Kg/ sq. cm ); energy efficient separation process. Low organic salts are concentrated w hile w ater is allow ed to pass. The pore size of 520AD of the m em brane retains over 95-99% of the d issolved salts. In this process, w ater is forced through a sem i-perm eable m em brane und er pressure, because of w hich the d issolved salts are held back in d ischarge. All dissolved salts, sugars, bacteria, viru ses, pyrogens, proteins, d yes and other particles w ith a w eight greater than 150-250 d altons can be rem oved by RO to the highest extent. It is also used to rem ove inorganic salts, TDS from brackish w ater, seaw ater and w aste w ater. While ord inary filters can only rem ove suspend ed particles and sedim ents from w ater, RO can also rem ove high percentages of d issolved contam inants- molecule by m olecule- from w ater. Electrodialysis: Electrod ialysis units are norm ally used to d esalinate brackish w ater. It involves the separation of d issolved cations and anions by the use of ion exchange m em branes. Electromembrane (electrodialysis) Because of its low sensitivity tow ard s im purities in w ater and sim plicity of m od els, electrod ialysis seem s m ore attractive for sm all applications like hom es, tourist cottages, hotels and yachts. For large settlements, w ater should preferably be treated at a centralised level and then supplied to individual buildings. Precautions are recommended for storage and conveyance of the treated w ater to prevent any contaminants. Alternatively, w ater for potable application should be centrally treated to at least primary level and then supplied to individual buildings for further treatment and end-use application.
Guideline 4.1.2: Water quality stand ard s for Flushing is recom mend ed to be ad opted to prom ote use of recycled w astew ater There are no Bhutanese Stand ard s for using recycled w ater for flushing applications.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Reuse Stand ard s and to som e extent testing protocol exist in som e countries of Europe and in US. Find ings from a stud y d one by the CMH C, Canad a is presented in the follow ing table.
*Med ium based on d ata collected follow ing the US EPA ETV testing protocol, or a m inim um of five sam ples collected over a 30-d ay period .
Source: 2005, Research report on Water reuse stand ard s and testing protocol, H ealthy H ousing and Comm unity Series, CMH C, Canad a
W hat ev er may be t he reuse applicat ion, it is st rongly recommended t hat cross connect ion concerns be addressed by using an air gap bet w een pot able w at er supply for makeup w at er and reuse w at er st orage. Also, guidelines prescribed in t he Int ernat ional Green Plumbing Code or Uniform Plumbing Code of India may be referred and cust omized for Bhut an.
Guideline 4.1.3 To ensure ad equate w ater m onitoring and leak d etection plan at the settlem ent level, occasional w ater aud its or preferably regular m onitoring through SCADA system (for large cities such as Thimphu) is recom m end ed . Water aud its at settlem ent level m ust be taken at least once a year and the report m ust contain the follow ing:
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Am ount of m unicipal w ater available and total w ater utilized from both m unicipal w ater supply and other sources Water losses and efficiency of the system along w ith reasons for such losses Measures to check w ater losses and im prove efficiency
In lieu of the increasing m unicipal w ater supply-d em and gap in som e parts of the country and w hen unaccounted for w ater is unknow n, it becom es extrem ely im portant to have a strict m onitoring plan. Regular w ater aud its or real tim e based monitoring through SCADA system has the potential to save this loss of w ater.
Guidance N otes
What is a Water Aud it?
Water aud it d eterm ines the am ount of w ater lost from a d istribution system d ue to leakage and other reasons such as theft, unauthorised or illegal w ithd raw als from the system s and the cost of such losses to the utility. Com prehensive w ater aud its give a d etailed profile of the d istribution system and w ater users, thereby facilitating easier and effective m anagem ent of the resources w ith im proved reliability.
Step 2: Metering
Read ings from w ater m eters provid e an indication of how a building compares to other build ings, but it w ill not show w here to look for areas w here w ater use can be red uced , particularly if the build ing is large or com plex. Narrow ing use d ow n to possible areas w here use can be red uced requires sub-metering. Where and how sub-m eters are installed d epend s to a great extent on the d esign of the w ater system serving the settlem ents/ cam puses/ tow nship. Id eally, m eters and subm eters w ould be installed on each build ing and respective floors of the build ing. Each
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m eter should be read at least m onthly. All m eter read ings should be logged and review ed on a regular basis for unexplained changes. Tracking w ater m eter read ings provid es a baseline of w ater use for the entire settlem ent. The key to gaining useful inform ation from sub-m eters is to have the m eters read on a regular basis, and as frequently as possible. Frequent read ings help to quickly id entify and locate leaks.
There are a num ber of advan tages of SCADA for users. A few are: Water users d o not have to m anually read and record m eter read ings at regular intervals because d ata on w ater use is collected autom atically; Data can be d ow nload ed at the users convenience;
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wr/measuring/images/pdf/scada_systems.pdf
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Can be rigged for telem etry access by rad io, satellite, cell phone, or telephone land line and allow the user to rem otely control the entire supply system and access d ata instantly.
Grow ing urbanization accelerates the situation of increasing w ater d emand s for d om estic, ind ustrial, com m ercial, and agricultural purposes. As w ater d em and s and environm ental need s grow , w ater recycling w ill play a greater role in the overall w ater supply. By w orking together to overcom e obstacles, w ater recycling, along w ith w ater conservation can help to conserve and sustainably m anage vital w ater resources. Water recycling is reusing treated w astew ater for beneficial purposes such as agricultural irrigation, ind ustrial processes, toilet flushing. The term w ater recycling is generally used synonymously w ith w ater reclamation and recycled w ater can satisfy m ost w ater d em and s, as long as it is ad equately treated to ensure w ater quality appropriate for the use. As for any w ater source that is not properly treated , health problem s could arise from d rinking or being exposed to recycled w ater if it contains d isease-causing organism s or other contam inants. Water recycling is a sustainable approach and can be cost-effective in the long term , the treatm ent of w astew ater for reuse and the installation of d istribution system s can be initially expensive com pared to such w ater supply alternatives as im ported w ater. The ad d itional cost of providing a d ual system m ay ad d only 9-10% to the cost of plum bing.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
To red uce the load of w ater pollution. To red uce health hazards spread by w ater borne d iseases. Provid e a balanced , practical approach to w ater m a nagem ent.
Water recycling and reuse is beneficial as it elim inate d epend ence of d evelopm ental area on local w ater supply authoritys upto a large extent. And also contribute tow ard s m ore green and sustainable d evelopm ental activity as there is no d ischarg e of w aste effluents from the d evelopm ental area prem ises. The use of the treated effluent results in substantial savings in irrigation w ater costs and red uces the likelihood of w ater pollution, assum ing that the effluents w ould otherw ise have been disposed of treated / untreated through STPs. Reuse technology elim inates the need to use potable w ater supplied by the Municipal local authorities for irrigation and m akes it available for other uses.
Guidance notes:
What is Du al w ater d istribu tion system
As the nam e im plies, d ual d istribution system s involve the use of w ater supplies from tw o d ifferent sources in tw o separate d istribution netw orks. The tw o system s w ork ind epend ently of each other w ithin the sam e service area. Dual distribution system s are usually used to supply potable w ater through one d istribution netw ork and non -potable w ater through the other. The system s w ould be used to augm ent public w ater supplies by provid ing treated w aste w ater for purposes other than d rinking. Such purposes could includ e fire-fighting, sanitary flushing, street cleaning, or irrigation of ornam ental gard ens or law ns.
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The w ater is pum ped through a m anifold into the second ary or alternative d istribution system .
Determ ining the necessary treatm ent for the intend ed reuse application requires an und erstanding of the:
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1. Constituents of concern in w astew ater 2. Levels of treatm ent and processes applicable for red ucing these constituents to levels that achieve the desired recycled w ater quality. Levels of w astew ater treatm ent are generally classified as preliminary, prim ary, second ary, and ad vanced . Ad vanced w astew ater treatm ent, som etim es referred to as tertiary treatm ent, and is generally d efined as anything beyond second ary treatm ent. A num ber of technologies for w astew ater treatm ent have been applied w orld w id e for d ifferent scale applications. Selection of the treatm ent system d epend s on m any factors such as the quality of w ater required w hich in turn d epends on the application type, cost constraints, operation and m aintenance expertise and costs, energy requirem ent, etc.
Guideline 4.2.2 It is recommended to ensure Operation and Maintenance (O & M) of D ecentralised/Centralised Wastew ater Systems and Safe disposal of generated sludge in all settlements
Possible w ays to achieve the above are: a) All d ecentralized w aste w ater treatm ent system s and centralised w astew ater treatm ent system s installed in settlem ents should have at least one trained personnel on-site to perform the basic operations of the installed treatm ent system . This hold especially relevant for any large cam pus, tow nships, institute, etc. b) An annual m aintenance contract (AMC) should be signed , preferably w ith the sam e agency w hich installed the treatm ent system to und ertake the follow ing i. Ensure quality of treated w astew ater m eets national discharge stand ard s (if available) for reuse and d isposal though regular checks Maintain the system to ensure sm ooth operation Display m onthly treated w astew ater quality reports in the establishm ent office and on all com m on notice board s
ii. iii.
c) All w astew ater treatm ents system s m ust dispose of the resid uals or slud ge in a sustainable m anner. Possible w ays of d isposing the slud ge could be: i. On site slud ge processing by using Effective Micro organism s that eat the slud ge or d rying and converting it into organic manure
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ii.
Entering into a contract w ith a slud ge disposal com pany that w ill process the slud ge or arrangem ents w ith the Municipality/ local authority for safe d isposal
Guidance N otes
O & M com pliance requ irement:
For an effective O & M, follow ing requirem ent need s to be taken care of: 1. Description of proposed w astew ater system Flow d iagram indicating all unit operations and com ponents Main line, re-circulated effluent, slud ge flow s and d esign av erage/ peak values Expected influent/ effluent concentrations and d esign efficiencies
2. Personnel Responsibilities Outline of responsibilities of STP service em ployee Routine m onthly w ork sched ules Training on operational proced ures to service employee
3. Operation of Facility
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Specific operational inform ation and control techniques available for each unit operation Com m on operating problem s from past experience and rem ed ies Provision for slud ge m anagem ent viz., thickening, d ew atering and reuse options
4. Maintenance Measures for routine m aintenance to be perform ed d aily, m onthly and annual basis Provision for storeroom / tool room w ith a list of all m ajor tools required for, em ergency equipm ent inventory, spare parts inventory, sched ules and references of suppliers, etc
5. Sam pling and Laboratory Testing Explanation of representative sam pling of flow s and the d ifference betw een grab and com posite sam ples Exact location of each sam pling point Description of how sam ples are to be collected in general List of tests to be perform ed and their nature and purpose, w ith appropriate references to approved m ethod s for cond ucting tests
6. Record s and Reporting Requirem ents for operators w orksheets and d aily operating logs, includ ing: operational param eters for each unit operation; pow er consum ption, etc Annual & m onthly report requirem ents includ ing: operating d ata w ith m onthly averages of d aily flow s, quality parameters viz., BOD, SS levels etc. Requirem ents for availability of record s includ ing O & M Manual, equipment suppliers m anual s, construction photographs Details of operating cost breakd ow n and a record system for m onitoring plant costs
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7. Treatm ent Works Safety Description of safety hazard s involved w ith the operation of each unit operation in the process Description and requirem ents for an ongoing preventive safety program includ ing ed ucation in safety proced ures and training in first aid/ em ergency proced ures Listing of safety rules and process equipm ent and laboratory
8. Utilities List of utilities servicing treatm ent w orks w ith con tact personnel w ithin utility com pany Reliability of electrical service and effect on continuous operability of process Breakpoints in utility/ treatm ent plant responsibilities
Guideline 4.2.3: Water reuse and recycling (includ ing rainw ater harvesting) for all settlem ents It is proposed that all settlem ents should aspire for at least 10% 5 of the entire annual w ater d em and is m et through adequately stored and m aintained rainw ater for potable/ non potable applications and / or ensure at least entire potable w ater d em and during scarcity d ays (w herever the problem exists) is m et by rooftop harvested rainw ater. Ensure som e of the irrigation w ater d em and (in ad joining agricultural areas of settlem ents) is m et through recycled w ater from settlem ents. H ow ever, adequate m easures to m aintain the quality for agricultural applications should be follow ed . Wherever m echanised or biological treatment system s treating to the level of second ary stages is installed at settlem ent level, ensure that the treated w ater is either put to use for agricultural application as stated above or used for toilet flushing or any other non -potable application. Every settlem ent-new and old can plan installation of preferably biological treatm ent system in phases either at a centralised location or d ecentralised catering to com m unity scale.
This target percentage can be fixed by each municipality or Dhzongkhag based on their need assessment and future projections
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The Bhutan Building Rules 2002 and the Draft Developm ent and Construction Rules for non-planned settlem ents of Bhutan 2012 m ay further ad d provisions for Im provised Septic tanks in place of the conventional se ptic tanks and soak pits.
Bhutan, currently, d oes not have m uch installed capacity of treating the w astew ater. In 2008, an eco-friend ly sew age treatm ent plant (ecoline) w as com m issioned in Trashigang tow n for a capacity of 850 houses and is suitable for r em ote areas.6 Earlier, people had to clean their septic tanks and d iscard all the w aste in the nearby stream (ad ding biological load on the w ater). Thim phu, the capital city, has a lagoon system for treating its w astew ater but is now not able to m eet the current treatm ent d em and s. In a recent ADB initiative, installation of w astew ater treatm ent system based on m echanised treatm ent for a capacity of 14 MLD is und er process7. There is a consensus on the need for having appropriate w astew ater treatm ent syst em s at all settlem ents and these guid elines shall help in furthering and im plementing this.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Assum ing an area of 100 sq. m w ith run -off coefficient of 0.8, all these regions have enough potential to conserve rainw ater from the roof top of build ings and either use it for d ry d ays or to m eet at least the potable w ater requirem ents for the entire year.
Region
Himalayan regions Inner central valleys Southern foothills Southern border area
40 80 160-280 240-400
This is especially relevant for places like Mongar, w here increasingly incidences of shortage of w ater d uring sum m ers are felt. Places w here there is likely contam ination of surface w ater courses d uring som e seasons and w hich get their supplies from such w ater m ay also d epend m ore on rooftop stored rainw ater for potable applications. This can either be taken up at each household level or at neighbourhood scale. Rainw ater harvesting m ay also help control erosion and flood ing d uring period s of excessive rainfall. Im plem entation issues are not very big, Apart from capacity build ing and generating general aw areness am ong the people, apprehensions on increased investm ent cost needs to be taken care of. Financial investm ent is minimal w ith build ing ow ners required to purchase gutter for channeling of w ater to tank, a tank, and an electric m otor to pum p the w ater from low er tank to existing tank. For the local authorities, this means less energy required to treat w ater thereby benefitting the environm ent. Integrated rainw ater harvesting m ay also help the agricultural prod uction w hich is currently d epend ent on the rains. Som e of the strategies sug gested are: Micro-catchm ent runoff farm ing w ater harvesting system s Macro-catchm ent runoff farm ing w ater harvesting system s Flood w ater harvesting runoff farm ing (also called large catchm ent w ater harvesting or spate irrigation)
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Rainwater harvesting systems for agricultural applications are however, not within the purview of current study (which is focused on settlements)
Implementation mechanism:
The governm ent can influence the d em and by affecting the supply cost by either taxation or subsid y and increasin g the tariff on w ater to d iscourage use.
Figure 13 : Im provised Septic Tank (Source: CSE, Do-it-yourself:Recycle and Reuse Wastew ater)
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Measures should be taken to red uce hard paving on site to red uce storm w ater runoff attenuation and infiltration and red uce Urban H eat Island Effect 9.
Ensure that the storm w ater m anagem ent system is based on the principles of Sustain able Urban Drainage System s (SUDS) for all settlem ents and cam puses/ build ings; Ensure that the post-d evelopm ent peak run -off rate and quantity from 5-year 24-hour design storm d oes not exceed the pre-d evelopm ent peak run off rate and quantity; At least 50 % of the quantity should be treated by any of the SUDS techniques. The proposed system should be capable of also treating a minim um of 90% of storm w ater and achieve the follow ing stand ard s for quality control:
UHI is defined as the rise in temperature of any man-made area, resulting in a well-defined, distinct "warm island" among the "cool sea" represented by the lower temperature of the areas nearby natural landscape. Though heat islands may form on any rural or urban area, and at any spatial scale, cities are favoured, since their surfaces are prone to release large quantities of heat. Nonetheless, the UHI negatively impacts not only residents of urban-related environs, but also humans and their associated ecosystems located far away from cities. In fact, UHIs have been indirectly related to climate change due to their contribution to the greenhouse effect, and therefore, to global warming. (Source: http://www.urbanheatislands.com/)
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Maxim um rem oval of Total Suspend ed solid s Maxim um rem oval of litter Maxim um rem oval of hyd rocarbons
Provid e for ad equate measures for storm w ater managem ent in basem ents.
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Guidance notes
Gu id ance notes on red u ction of Hard paving
Urban areas are characterized by their high activity based build ings w hich require various subsid iary on-site requirem ents such as parking, w alkw ays and similar other circulation arrangem ents. There is a pertinent need to categorize and d em arcate these areas from other open areas w hich resulted in the paving of the sam e.
Where paving is required , the use of perm eable, pervious or porous paving m aterials w ill have the follow ing d irect and ind irect ad vantagesIncreased infiltration of storm w ater runoff into the ground w ater table or aquifer. Depend ing on d esign, paving material, soil type, and rainfall, perm eable paving can infiltrate as m uch as 70% to 80% of annual rainfall. Grass pavers can im prove site appearance by provid ing vegetation Provid es onsite storm w ater run -off attenuation allow ing infiltration thus red ucing the risk of w ater-logging and flood ing in low -lying areas
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Act as a prim ary w ater quality treatm ent m ed ium that captures the suspend ed solid s from trickling through, thus preventing the ground w ater contam ination. It red uces the need for storm w ater conveyances and treatm ent structures, resulting in cost savings elsew here. Red uces the am ount of land need ed for onsite storm w ater m anagem ent as it m ay satisfy requirem ents for green space, allow ing more paving on a site.
SUDS are prim arily aim ed at optim al storm w ater m anagem ent b yDealing w ith runoff close to w here the rain falls Managing potential pollution at its source for present and future site conditions Protecting w ater resources from point pollution (such as accid ental spills) and d iffused sources.
SUDS can be d esigned to fit into all d evelopm ents, from hard surfaced areas to soft land scaped features, as there are m any d esign options available. They can be d esigned to im prove am enity and biod iversity in d eveloped areas. For instance, ponds can be d esigned as a local featu re in large sites for recreational purposes and to provide valuable local w ildlife habitat nod es and corrid ors. This variety of options allow s d esigners to consid er local land use and the need s of local people w hen und ertaking the d rainage d esign, as w ell as consid ering the trad itional engineering com ponents of the d esign, such as peak flow and capacity in the system . The SUDS managem ent train is a useful concept in the d evelopm ent of a d rainage system and illustrates the m ethod ology of operation of SUDS as given in the ad joining Figure 14. Just as in a natural catchm ent, a com bination of d rainage techniques can be used in series to change the flow and the quality of the runoff in stages.
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Figure 14: SUDS Managem ent train -ad apted from w w w .ciria.org
This concept is fund am ental to designing a successful SUDS schem e it uses d rainage techniques in series to increm entally red uce pollution, flow rates and volum es. The hierarchy of techniques that should be consid ered in d eveloping the m anagem ent train are as follow sPrevention The use of good site d esign and site housekeeping m easures to prevent runoff and pollution (eg: sw eeping to rem ove surface d ust and d etritus from car parks) and rainw ater reuse/ harvesting. Prevention policies should generally be includ ed w ithin the site m anagem ent plan Source control- Control of runoff at or very near its source (eg. Soak w ays, other infiltration m ethod s, green roofs, pervious pavem ents) Site control- Managem ent of w ater in a local area or site (eg. Routing w ater from build ing roofs and car parks to a large soak w ay, infiltration or d etention basin) Regional control Managem ent of runoff from a site or several sites, typically in a balancing pond or w etland
Best Managem ent Practices or BMPs, w hich form a part of this m anagem ent strategy are the application tools of SUDS and categorised und er the follow ing heads based on their utilitarian efficiency: Source Control & prevention techniques Perm eable pavem ent surfaces Green Roofs Rain w ater collection 91
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Passive treatm ent system s Constructed w etland e.g. reed bed s Detention and retention pond s
Perm eable pavem ent is an alternative to conventional paving in w hich w ater perm eates through the paved structure rather than d raining off it. Both the surface and the sub -grad e need to be d esigned w ith this function in m ind . Where the cond itions are suitable the w ater m ay be allow ed to infiltrate d irectly into the subsoil. Alternatively, it can be held in a reservoir structure und er the paving for subsequent reuse, infiltration or delayed d ischarge, as show n in ad jacent figure (Figure ad apted from w w w .ciria.org). The perm eable paving can be m aterials such as gravel, grasscrete, concrete blocks d esigned for the purpose or porous asphalt. Overflow s can be constructed on all these systems w here a surface m ust be kept free of w ater in all cond itions or w here the base need s to be sealed to protect the aquifer.
Green Roofs
The system offers significant benefits in term s of red uction in the am ount of w ater running off the roof, the rate of runoff and quality im provem ents. Many conventional flat roof system s used in ind ustrial buildings could be converted to green roofs w ithout exceed ing d esign load ings and w ith the ad d itional benefit of im proving insulation and extending roof
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life. Green roofs built w ith the m ost appropriate base and vegetation has the potential to absorb 15 90% of roof run-off. Figure 16 show s a green roof section w ith its typical com ponents.
Figure 16: Green roof (Source: Karen Liu, PhD, from Proceedings of the Green Rooftops for Sustainable Com m unities Conference,Chicago, 2003, p.279)
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Sy st ems
These m ove runoff w ater slow ly tow ard s a receiving w atercourse, allow ing storage, filtering and som e loss of runoff w ater through evaporation and infiltration before the d ischarge point. There are tw o main types: und erground system s, such as filter d rains (or French d rains) and surface w ater sw ales.
Filt er Drains
The und erground system s are know n as filter (or French) d rains. They com prise a trench, filled w ith gravel w rapp ed in a geo-textile m em brane into w hich runoff w ater is led , either d irectly from the d rained surface or via a pipe system . The gravel in the filter d rain provid es som e filtering of the runoff, trapping sedim ent, organic matter and oil resid ues that can be broken d ow n by bacterial action through time. Runoff velocity is slow ed , and storage of runoff is also provided . Infiltration of stored w ater through the m em brane can also occur and som e filter d rains need not lead to a w atercourse at all. Filter d rain sy stem s have been w id ely used by the highw ay authorities for road s d rainage
Sw ales
Sw ales are grassed d epressions w hich lead surface w ater overland from the d rained surface to a storage or d ischarge system , typical using the green space of road sid e m argins. When com pared to a conventional ditch, a sw ale is shallow and relatively w id e, provid ing tem porary storage for storm w ater and red ucing peak flow s. They are appropriate close to
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source and can form a netw ork w ithin a developm ent schem e, linking storage po nd s and w etland s. A sw ale is d ry d uring d ry w eather but d uring a rainfall event w ater flow s over the ed ge and slow ly m oves through the grassed area. The flow of surface w ater is retard ed and filtered by the grass. Sed im ent is d eposited and oily resid ues an d organic m atter retained and broken d ow n in the top layer of soil and vegetation. Sw ales can be lined below the soil zone w here necessary, to protect the underlying aquifer. During a rainfall event a proportion of the runoff can be lost from the sw ale by infiltration, and by evaporation and transpiration. If necessary, overflow s can be placed at high level to provid e conveyance in tim es of exceptionally heavy rainfall. Sw ales should be d esigned to be d ry betw een storm events to enhance their pollutant rem oval capability.
Filt er St rips
Filter strips are vegetated sections of land d esigned to accept runoff as overland sheet flow . In ord er to be effective they should be 5 15 metres w id e and they m ay adopt any natural vegetated form , from grassy m ead ow to sm all w ood . The w id er the strip and the m ore d ense the vegetative cover the better the pollutant rem oval.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
storage volum e can still be provid ed . The perm anent w ater may be visually m ore attractive, although elevated nutrient concentrations m ay result in algal bloom s. To be successful as an am enity, a retention pond should have a catchm ent of at least 5 hectares and / or a reliable source of base flow .
W et lands
These are a further enhancem ent of retention pond s, and incorporate shallow areas planted w ith m arsh or w etland vegetation. These provid e a m uch greater d egree of filtering and rem oval of nutrients by algae and, to a lesser extent, by incorporation into plant m aterial. Inlet and outlet sum ps, as w ith d etention basins and retention pond s, w ill enhance perform ance and might be consid ered alm ost obligatory, since excessive sed im ent can quickly overw helm the shallow area. Only specially constructed w etland s should be used to treat surface w ater. It is not norm ally an acceptable practice to lead surface w ate r into an existing, natural, w etland area. Table 11 : Summary of SUD S Components
Pervious pavings Surfaces that allow inflow of rainwater into the underlying construction or soil Vegetated roofs that reduce the volume and rate of runoff and remove pollution. Linear drains consisting of trenches filled with a permeable material, often with a perforated pipe in the base of the trench to assist drainage, to store and conduct water; they may also permit infiltration. Filter strips Vegetated areas of gently sloping ground designed to drain water evenly off impermeable areas and to filter out silt and other particulates. Swales Shallow vegetated channels that conduct and retain water and may also permit infiltration; the vegetation filters particulate matte Detention Basins and Retention ponds Areas that may be utilised for surface runoff storage as well as to provide water quality Treatment Infiltration devices Sub-surface structures to promote the infiltration of surface water to ground. They can be trenches, basins or soak-aways. Pipes and accessories A series of conduits and their accessories normally laid
Green roofs
Filter drains
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Pervious pavings
Surfaces that allow inflow of rainwater into the underlying construction or soil underground that convey surface water to a suitable location or treatment and/or disposal. (Although sustainable, these techniques should be considered where other SUDS techniques are not practicable).
Constructed wetlands
Constructed Wetlands are ponds with shallow areas and wetland vegetation to improve pollutant removal and enhance wild life habitat
Source: Modified from the Interim Code of practice for SUDS- National SUDS Working Group
MAINTENANCE
All d rainage system s require m anagem ent and maintenance. Maintenance costs are red uced as SUDS schem es can be m anaged as part of normal land scape care and avoid s the need for expensive specialist contractors. Conventional site d rainage w hich uses gullies, pipes, inspection cham bers, and oil interceptors, requires regular specialist m aintenance w hich is often neglected until pollution occurs. Source Control elem ents require m aintenance w hich can be accomm od ated by norm al land scape m anagem ent practice. The inherent d esign tolerances of BMP techniques prevent catastrophic failure as w ell as background pollution of the environm ent
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The highest and m ost preferred rank of this integrated m anagement h ierarchy is w aste prevention or w aste m inim ization at source, w hich aim s at red ucing the am ount of the w aste prod uced . It is the m ost effective w ay to red uce the quantity of disposable w aste, the cost associated w ith its hand ling and its ad verse environm en tal im pacts. Reuse, recycling and energy recovery technologies then com e as m od erately suitable technologies. Land -filling is the last option of the hierarchy that involves controlled interm ent of the resid ual w aste w hich has no further use on or in the e arths m antle. N ational Environm ent Com m ission (N EC) is the apex m onitoring bod y und er this regulation w hich shall coord inate and m onitor the overall perform ance of Im plem enting
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Agencies d esignated to efficiently im plem ent the provisions of this Regulatio n and , the Royal Bhutan Police shall assist the im plem enting agencies in achieving full com pliance. This regulation is a strong m easure to d eal w ith the existing bad scenario of w aste d isposal and m anagem ent in Bhutan. It provid es for restriction of sanita ry landfill or open d um p site in certain locations such as w ithin a distance in or around hum an settlem ents, near w ater catchm ent areas, rivers, w etland s or ground w ater sources, land slid e prone areas, notified area of end angered w ild life habitation and near monum ents. This regulation has laid d ow n m any provisions for handling and m anagem ent of hazard ous or infectious w aste w hich are to be follow ed by im plem enting agency such as to have in place a system for safe storage, hand ling and d isposal of hazard ous w astes, provid ing personal protective equipm ents, labeling of containers having hazard ous contents and m aintaining d etail record s regard ing incid ents of injuries, accid ents and non -com pliance to the regulation. For w aste m anagem ent services, the im plem enting agency in consultation w ith the Sanitary Com m ittee m ay form ulate collection m echanism s and propose chargeable fee am ount that m ay vary for resid ential, com m ercial institutions and corporations. The fees, charges and fines collected are used for purposes such as outsourcing of w aste collection services; public ed ucation and aw areness program s; fund research, technical capacity d evelopm ent program s; cleaning campaigns, maintenance of existing w aste m anagem ent infrastructures; and incentives & aw ard s for exem plary w aste m anagem ent initiatives. The implementation agencies or responsible authorities for the general provisions are: 1. 2. 3. 4. The N ational Environm ent Com m ission The Royal Bhutan Police Dzongd ag m onitoring authority w ithin Dzongkhag jurisd iction Dungpa, Gup , Mangm i, Divisional Forest Officer, Park Managers and institutional head s shall be the im plem enting agencies w ithin respective territorial jurisd ictions 5. Departm ent of Road s in collaboration w ith the Road Safety and Transport Authority 6. Sanitary comm ittee WASTE MAN AGEMEN T CATEGORIES Im portantly, this regulation covers all kind s of w aste and has separate provisions for their m anagem ent . This regulation classifies w astes into four categories for the purpose of clearly d em arcating the roles of im plem enting agencies und er respective w aste categories for the effective w aste managem ent. The provisions und er these four w aste m anagem ent categories are as follow s: A. Medical Wastes Management Und er this section, the Ministry of H ealth and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests shall m onitor the Im plem enting agencies w hich includ e health clinics, hospitals, BH US, Departm ent of Livestock, Bhutan N arcotic Control Agency and Drug Regulatory Authority.
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B. Municipal Waste Management Und er this section, the M inistry of W orks and Human Settlement shall be responsible for m onitoring the im plem entation w ithin the jurisd iction of Throm d e w ith the help of m unicipal offices of the Throm d e and Dzongkhag as im plem enting agencies. Some of the responsibilities to be undertaken by Thromde for managing municipal w aste are: - Proper w aste m anagem ent includ ing segregation, collection, processing, transport and d isposal to d esignated sites - Provid e separate containers for biod egrad able and non -biod egrad able w astes at every point source for the w aste segregation - Collect w aste m anagem ent service fees and other charges - Safe hand ling, storage and d isposal of hazard ous or infectious w aste - Collection and treatment of leachate from a sanitary landfill before its release into the environm ent - Cond uction of ad vocacy program s and aw areness program s. The im plem enting agencies shall d esignate Throm d e Inspectors for the effective im plem entation of the municipal w aste m anagement provisions und er this regulation. Responsibilities are entrusted to w aste trad ers and scrap d ealers to ensure cleanliness w hile d ealing w ith m unicipal w astes, provid e protective equipm ent to their w orkers and ensure suspicious recyclable w astes are not purchased . C. Industrial Waste Management Und er this section, the Ministry of Econom ic Affairs in cooperation w ith other related agencies shall m onitor the im plem enting agencies. Incentives like exem ption from Bhutan sales tax, Incom e tax and custom d uties for 20 years, exem ption from license fee etc. m ay be provid ed to any licensed person engaged in the activities of w aste collection, recycling, reuse or value ad d ition to the w aste. Und er this section a Waste Managem ent Fund is established w hich d eposits any revenue generated from the im plem entation of this regulation and is used for m any activities related to w aste analysis, minimization and m anagem ent initiatives. D . E-Waste Management The provisions under this section shall be im plemented by the e-w aste m anagem ent entity and the Throm d es, Dzongkhags, Gew og and Chiw og w ith overall directives and guidelines from the Department of Inform ation Technology and Telecom m onitoring the im plem entation by the e-w aste m anagem ent entity. This section has laid d ow n d etailed provisions for every prod ucer, im porter, expo rter, transporter, consum er or bulk consum er for the managem ent and handling of e -w aste. An E-w aste fund is created und er this section by the Departm ent of Inform ation Technology and Telecom in consultation w ith the N EC to finance the im plem entation of e -w aste m anagem ent system and carry out related tasks.
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There is an entire chapter und er the Waste Prevention and Managem ent Regulation, 2012 d ealing w ith Waste m anagem ent in governm ent reserved forest including protected areas and Dzongkhag com m unities. The im plem enting agency for this purpose is the Divisional Forestry Officer or Park Manager and the m onitoring authority is the Ministry for Agriculture and Forests. The guid elines for solid w aste collection and transportation w ithin com munities are also m entioned und er this section. A Regional Waste Collection Centre m ay be coord inated by d ifferent Dzongkhags to prom ote econom ic viability of inorganic solid w aste for the reuse or recycling purposes by interested agencies. Fine and administrative action This regulation im poses fines and ad m inistrative actions on individ uals or organizations for various offences. The Waste Prevention and Management Regulation, 2012 in Bhutan seem s to be a w ell laid legislation covering all aspects related to w aste managem ent issues of the country but im portantly im plem entation is yet to be seen. The regulation is holistic in term s of clear responsibilities, d uties, penalty clauses, im plem enting agency roles, etc. and shall become a role m od el for other countries to follow if im plem entation also happens as envisaged .
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Biological treatment
Thermal treatment
Biological Processes
Biological treatm ent involves using m icro-organism s to d ecom pose the biod egrad able com ponents of w aste. Tw o types of processes are used , nam ely: a) Aerobic processes: Windrow com posting, aerated static pile com posting and in vessel com posting; vermi-com posting, com posting w ith bioculture m ethod etc. b) Anaerobic processes: Low -solid s anaerobic d igestion (w et process), high -solid s anaerobic d igestion (d ry process) and com bined processes. In the aerobic process the utilizable prod uct is com p ost. In the anaerobic process the utilizable prod uct is m ethane gas (for energy recovery). Both processes have been used for w aste processing in d ifferent countries a majority of the biological treatment process ad opted w orld -w id e are aerobic com posting; the use of anaerobic treatm ent has been m ore lim ited . In the neighbouring country India, aerobic com posting plants have been used to process up to 500 tons per d ay of w aste.
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
Vermicomposting In this type of com posting, the process of com posting is accelerated by introd ucing d eep burrow ing earthw orm s or surface earthw orm s.(the usual red w orm s). Vermicompost ing by use of Surface eart hw orms: They eat the w aste and verm i-com post is the excreta that they leave behind . This occurs after absorbing the nutrients for their ow n life cycle and leaves a higher fungal and actinom yte count, w hich is not beneficial to plant grow th, d ue to red uced oxygen and helpful m icrobial count. H igher m aintenance as they require d ung (expensive)
The availability of both type of earthw orm s needs to be checked for Bhutan .
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TEAM (TERI Enhanced Acidification and Methanation) is a high -rate d igester for biom ethanation of fibrous and semi-solid organic w astes.
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Elim ination of Scum form ation - a feature in sm all size plants. Proven perform ance of pilot plant (in India) since Jan. 1999. Low capital cost com pared to im ported d esign Energy and enriched m anure Suitability for sm all and d ecentralized application Very low w ater requirem ent d ue to recycling Low m aintenance cost Ease in m aterial hand ling Process suitable for ad aptation by sm all entrepreneurs
Thermal Processes
Therm al treatm ent involves conversion of w aste into gaseous, liquid and solid conversion prod ucts w ith concurrent or subsequent release of heat energy. Three types of system s can be ad opted , nam ely: a) Com bustion system s (Incinerators): Therm al processing w ith excess am ounts of air. b) Pyrolysis system s: Therm al processing in com plete absence of oxygen (low tem perature). c) Gasification system s: Therm al processing w ith less am ount of air (high tem perature). Com bustion system is the m ost w id ely ad opted therm al treatment process w orld -w id e for MSW. Though pyrolysis is a w id ely used ind ustrial process, the pyrolysis of m unicipal solid w aste has not been very successful. Sim ilarly, successful results w ith mass fired gasifiers have not been achieved . Three types of com bustion system s have been extensively used for energy recovery in d ifferent countries nam ely: a) Mass-fired combustion system s (MASS), b) Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF), c) Fired com bustion systems and Fluidized Bed (FB) com bustion system s
To be viable for energy recovery through therm al processing, the organic w aste m ust possess a relatively high calorific value. In the MSW generated in d eveloped countries, presence of significant quantity of paper and plastics yield s a high ca lorific value of the MSW (typically above 2000 kcal/ kg) w hich m akes it suitable for therm al processing. In case, the calorific value of organic w aste is lesser therm al processing m ay not be feasible. It is therefore, im portant to stud y the calorific value of m unicipal w aste streams for various
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locations (there could be regional differences in the w aste stream and calorific value) as w ell to arrive at a feasible centralised treatm ent option for organic w aste.
Param eters to be consid ered for selection of th e treatm ent option for biod egradable w aste
Som e of the param eters w hich should be consid ered for selecting the treatm ent type are listed as und er: Capital cost Operation & Maintenance cost Com position of the w aste, its calorific value Land requirem ents Sensitivity of the treatm ent technology to external param eters like tem perature, hum id ity, oxygen level, etc By-prod ucts Social acceptability Pay-back period Finances Viability of the scale of operation
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c. Material, w hich can be reused at the sam e site for the purpose of construction, levelling, m aking road / pavem ent etc. should also be kept in separate heaps from those, w hich are to be sold for landfilled or processing. d . The client m ay arrange to provid e appropriate num ber of skip containers/ trolleys on hire w hich m ay be parked at the site and rem oved w ith skip lifters or tractors as the case m ay be.
C. RECYCLIN G AN D REUSE
The use of these materials basically d epend s on their separation and condition of the separated m aterial. A m ajority of these m aterials are d urable and therefore, have a high potential of reuse. It w ould , how ever, be desirable to have quality stand ards for the recycled m aterials.
Const ruct ion and demolit ion w ast e can be used in t he follow ing manner:
a. Reuse (on site) of bricks, stone slabs, tim ber, conduits, piping railings etc. to the extent possible and d epend ing upon their cond ition. b. Sale / auction of m aterial w hich can not be used at the site d ue to d esign constraint or change in design. c. Plastics, broken glass, scrap m etal etc. can be used by recycling ind ustries. d . Rubble, brick bats, broken plaster/ concrete pieces etc. can be used for build ing activity, such as, levelling, und er coat of lanes w here the traffic d oes not constitute of heavy m oving load s. e. Larger unusable pieces can be sent for filling up low -lying areas. f. Fine m aterial, such as, sand , d ust etc. can be used as cover m aterial. 110
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Guidelines for Planning and Development of Human Settlements in Urban and Rural Areas of Bhutan to minimise environmental impacts
D. DISPOSAL
Being pred om inantly inert in nature, construction and d em olition w aste does not create chem ical or biochem ical pollution. H ence maximum effort should be m ade to reuse and recycle them as indicated above. The m aterial can be used for filling/ levelling of low -lying areas. H ow ever, proper sam pling of the m aterial for its physical and chemical characteristics has to be d one for evaluating its use und er the given circum stances.
Site operation stage is prim arily d one by the con tractors and involves a structured m ethod ology of three d istinct phases.
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18. Electronic ballast, PCBs, transform ers, capacitors, sw itchgear, lead cable, oil filled / gel filled cables. 19. Electronic w aste-com puter prod ucts, circuit board s, CRTs, electronic parts, sold er d ross, w eld w aste
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7. GLOF H azard Zoning (Pilot Schem e Cham kar Chu Basin) 8. Installation of Early Warning System on Pho Chu Basin 9. Prom ote Com m unity-based Forest Fire Managem ent and Prevention Of the above, projects w here there is a d efinite role and involvem ent of settlem ents is Land slid e m anagem ent and flood prevention and Rainw ater harvesting. Im portant conclusions draw n from this stud y w hich is useful for settlem ents planning and build ing construction are: Increased vulnerability to land slid es and flood s Increase in tem perature (m ore d em and for space cooling in certain seasons especially in the southern region) Spread of vector-borne tropical d isease (m alaria, d engue) into m ore areas (higher elevations) w ith w arm ing clim ate Loss of safe (d rinking) w ater resources increasing w ater borne d iseases. Interrupted supply of grid -based electricity from hyd ro-pow er plants
This section gives an introd uction to clim ate change im pacts and responses to these threats in the form of ad aptation and m itigation. It und erlines the need for settlements to plan for clim ate change im pacts at neighborhood levels not only to prepare and w ithstand these im pacts but also to enjoy the fruits of sustainable, clim ate and environm ent friendly d evelopm ent. Factoring clim ate change ad aptation and m itigation into settlem ents w ould equip them to w ithstand shocks and threats that are yet unforeseen and som etim es unpred ictable.
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Cause
Sectoral Response
Adaptation Measure
Conduct natural drainage pattern of the site analysis and place the built-up such that it allows for excess water to stream out rather than collect at various locations within settlement. Strong enforcement of soil sedimentation control measures erosion,
At building level, provision for flood resilient construction (measures incorporated into the building fabric, fixtures and fittings to reduce the impact of floodwater on the property e.g., raising the plinth level, provision of damp proof membranes, locating electrical sockets above predicted flood level, protecting wiring by suitable insulation, etc.) Decentralised grid; alternative means of clean electricity such as solar, wind, biomass based Drainage systems Managing flood pathways within site Providing for a well developed drainage system within site One way valves fitted in drains and sewage pipes to prevent backflow Water
10
resource
2009. Eckert Ronald and Schinkel Ulrikle. Livable cities TP. Ho Chi Monh- Adaptation as response to impacts of climate change. Proceedings REAL CORP 2009,Tagungsband,22-25 April 2009, Sitges.http://www.corp.at 11 2009. European Union. Adaptation to climate change-Policy instruments for adaptation to climate change in big European cities and metropolitan areas.
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Providing for collection of excess runoff on site and directing it to ground water recharge/sumpwell for future use based on site suitability Rainwater harvesting mechanisms installed in buildings Drains cleaning mechanisms to ensure unhindered water flow in flood prone areas of the site.
Health
Primary health care facilities available on site Mechanisms at place for prevention of water borne diseases At building level, ensure on-site clean source of water, provision of mosquito nets on the windows and openings
Flood defence
Building outfalls and storage reservoirs, sluices Flood defence walls on the vulnerable side of the site if adjoins river, canal , water body, hill or mountain foot etc (optional and very site specific measure)
Temperature rise
Heat wave
of
irrigated
open
of
Green infrastructure like wetland restoration within site, trees, green roofs etc Construct artificial ponds, lakes, canals
water
Shading and orientation of buildings to reduce excessive heat gain Cool pavement materials surface reflectivity to increase
Promotion of traditional housing typologies to capture natural climate friendly elements in design of site and buildings
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Ventilation Drought and water shortage Extensive rain water harvesting Water storage
Recharging and storing rain water to be used in summer season Water Recycling buildings systems installed in
Fittings
Developers /faucets
provide
for
efficient
fittings
Others
Restriction on car use for demarcated areas; use of mass transport systems based on clean fuel technologies Ensuring markets and utility areas within walking distance to discourage use of car and two-wheelers, provision of public transport outside/within campus Promote design and orientation of buildings such that less need for mechanical means for thermal comfort. Solar passive design features could be used. Provision of Green Areas/Plantation /green cover to improve air quality on site
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Apart from the above, Green Design Guid elines (currently und er d evelopm ent by the Departm ent of Engineering Services) shall further look at m ore strategies and solutions. 1. Compressed stabilised earth blocks: The first and the m ost critical step in CSEB technology is id entification of soil w hich is suitable for block prod uction and w ill be available locally in the required quantity. CSEB gives the ad vantage of local m anufacturing w ith less em bod ied energy involved (as com pared w ith the regular kiln -burnt bricks and transported from far off places in Ind ia).It is also less polluting than the fired bricks (2.4 -7.8 tim es less 12). Soil, consisting of sand , clay and silt is the basic raw m aterial for CEB. In general, soils containing 10 -15% clay and 60-75% sand are satisfactory for cem ent- stabilized CEB. It is preferable that the clay in the soil should be non-expansive, because it is extrem ely unstable in presence of w ater, although it can be stabilized in a com plicated m anner 13. If a stabilized CSEB is prod uced using a clayey soil m ore than 20% clay and if the cem ent stabilization is less than 5%, the block is likely to d evelop cracks d uring alternate w etting and d rying leading to surface cracks or spilling at corners after exposure to w eather for 2-3 years. Such problems can be avoid ed by ad d ing ad equate quantity of sand to the soil m ix to keep the percentage of clay below 15%.
Auroville Earth Institute, 2005. Training manual on Earthquake resistant buildings with hollow interlocking blocks.
12 13
http://www.ruralhousingnetwork.in/technical/stabilized-compressed-earth-blocks
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Proper Testing of soil is to be d one w ith respect to the com position of quality and particle size of sand &silt; w hich w ould aid in d etermining the quantity of cem ent/ stabilizing agent (fibres, lime, fly ash, straw , latex, resins, etc.) and soil im provem ent to achieve the d esired strength. CSEB is a very site specific m aterial and if used properly can be a great boon as an alternative construction m aterial. Basic D ata on CSEB (For 5% cement stabilized blocks) Dry com pressive strength (after 28 d ays curing) Wet com pressive strength (after 28 d ays curing) Dry bend ing strength(after 28 d ays curing) Dry shear strength (after 28 d ays curing) Water absorption by w eight (after 28 days curing) Apparent bulk d ensity (d ry) 3 to 6 MPa
1.5 to 3 MPa
0.5 to 1 MPa 0.4 to 0.6 MPa 8 to 12% (test d one after 3 d ays im m ersion)
Source: Training manual on Earthquake resistant buildings with hollow interlocking blocks, Auroville Earth Institute
2.
This is a technology using reinforced hollow concrete block and has been used in various w ays all over the w orld. Its principle is to reinforce the masonry by grouting a concrete into the hole of the block w here stand s a steel rod at the critical locations (like corners end s, near openings, etc.). H orizontal reinforcem ent is also cast in U -Shape blocks.
H ollow interlocking blocks are of tw o types 1. H ollow Interlocking Com pressed Stabilised earth blocks (H I CSEB) 2. H ollow Concrete Block
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The technology using H ollow interlocking Com pressed stabilised earth Block (H I CSEB) is based on the sam e principle: to reinforce horizontally and vertically the masonry w ith Reinforced Cem ent Concrete (RCC) m em bers. The ad vantage of hollow interlocking CSEB, com pared to hollow concrete block, is that they offer keys, w hich interlock the other blocks thus these w alls offer m ore resistance to shear and build ings w ould be even stronger. Such build ings can better resist earthquakes and w ithout m ajor d am ages. Advantages: Biod egrad able m aterials Energy efficiency and eco friend liness 5 15 times less energy consum ed than fired brick and around 3 8 tim es less emission Cost effectiveness Minim um m ortar required Keys that interlock w ith each other provid es better integrity H ollow provisions for laying vertical and horizontal reinforcements to im prove the lateral load resisting capacity
Limitations: Only for low rise structures: m axim um 2 storey Strength very m uch d epend ent on the properties of soil Too m uch stabilization(cem ent) w ill m ake no econom ic sense Interlocking features d o not provid e air tightness. Minim um gap is form ed d ue to w hich term ite/ air current can pass. For fram e structures, H I-CSEB can be used as filler m aterials but the structu ral m em bers sizes increases d ue to increase in the block w eight. H I-CSEB use in Bhutan Use of H I-CSEB blocks is reported in som e areas such as Jem ina in Bhutan.
Figure 21: A d em onstration project using H I CSEB in Bhutan Source: Presentation by Jigm e Tenzin at the 6 Annual Engineering Conference
th
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3.
Bamboo
Bam boo has a great potential to solve the scarcity of sustainable building m aterials for high end and afford able buildings in both urban as w ell as rural areas. The m odern d ays build ing m aterials, w hich m ainly constitute w ood , concrete and steel are not consider sustainable m aterials because they are associated w ith high -em bod ied energy. Som e issues d o exist such as using raw bam boos for the construction of houses have many ad vantages and d isad vantages. Use of raw bam boos is generally cheap, easy and d oes not require high tech m achineries and capital investments. Use of bam boo in housing how ever, has d isad vantages, as it is a non -d im ensional m aterial and d oes not often com e w ith uniform shape, size and age. Consid ering the above-m entioned d isad vantages there is how ever, a great opportunity to prom ote bam boo for the construction of houses as all the above problem s can be solved by converting or processing bam boo into engineered panels. All the d isadvant ages of natural bam boo w ould naturally be m itigated once it is processed . The other great ad vantage of the panel is that it could be fabricated accord ing to the stand ard requirem ent for the housing such as that of timber housing and w ould meet the requirem ents of build ing cod e. Major advantages of bamboo prefabricated housing: Bam boo prefabricated quality houses are relatively afford able com pared to bricks or stone m ad e concrete houses. These houses are environm ent friendly and have better earthquakes resistance (The lab test cond ucted in Ind ia supported by DFID has show n that bam boo house can easily stand 7-rector scale of earthquake) and they have good insulation characteristics. The experience from the IN BAR/ TN C bam boo housing project revealed that a 30 square m eter bam boo house w ould save about 10 cubic m eter of timber. In m ore general term s: build ing one sm all tw o-room house w ith bam boo rather than w ood could alread y save at least one big mature tree. A research cond ucted in Costa Rica revealed that only 70 hectares of bam boo plantation are sufficient to build 1,000 bam boo houses per year. If these houses w ere built w ith tim ber, 500 hectares of natural forests w ould be d estroyed every year. Stud ies show that processing of bamboo requires only 1/ 8 of the energy that concrete need s to create a build ing m aterial of the same capacity. In com parison to steel, bam boo need s only 1/ 50 the am ount of energy for processing. Bam boo has a zero w aste as all the parts of the bam boo can be utilized efficiently. Bamboo d u st has been used for m aking particleboard and insulation brick. These houses w ould contribute to the society by provid ing afford able but quality prefabricated bam boo houses to poor and hom eless people. These houses require m inim um tim e to construct and install (m inim um of one to m axim um of three m onths) hence, can be effectively used for relief purposes in the tim es of natural d isaster. Bamboo in Bhutan : The unpreced ented construction boom in Bhutan em erge a great pressure on the local forestry resources. As the d em and of tim ber increase in construction m arket, the supply continues to d im inish and result in price hike. Sustainable alternative to the timber is bam boo w hich grow s naturally in Bhutan because of the country's largely und isturbed forests and the limited agriculture practiced in areas w here bamboo proliferates (Table 13).
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Bhutanese bamboo is principally of H im alayan and Chinese-Japanese origins, w ith som e Southeast Asian and South Ind ian contributions. Bhutan has 15 genera and 31 species of bam boo. Possibly as m any as 50 m ore species exist, that prod uce strong, lightw eight, flexible poles excellent for use in earthquake-resistant build ing structures, bam boo has trad itionally been overlooked as a m aterial for local construction.
Figure 22 : Map show ing areas w ith d iffer ent species of bam boo in Bhutan
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Bhutans Ministry of Agriculture and Forests Joined IN BAR in 2009 and is w orking to prom ote the use of bam boo as a sustainable alternative to tim ber. In Dec 2011 the first bam boo d em onstration house w as built in Tingtibi, Bhutan. Recently, the Ministry has signed w ith IN BAR to im plem ent a new 2-year Com m on Fund for Com m od ities (CFC)fund ed pilot project on bam boo value chain d evelopm ent for construction prod ucts.
Bhutan alread y has a com prehensive bamboo harvesting guidelines in place given the likelihood of its increasing d em and (N ational Forest Policy Goal, Royal Governm ent of Bhutan) w hich further strengthens the basis to prom ote this as one of the alternative build ing m aterials
CASE STUD Y Name of Project Name of Developer / Owner / Promoter Name of Architect / Design Firm Project Completion Site Area Built Up Area Contact Detail 1. The new structure uses local bam boo as the framew ork of the house and for m any of the w alls, w ith tim ber still used for som e joints, w hilst the use of trad itional ad obe w alling and a thatched roof ensures that all m aterials, except the cem ent used in the found ations, w ere sourced locally. The house uses approxim ately 3 25.5m less w ood than an equivalent tim ber-fram ed hom e, and is nearly half the price, at a cost of US$140/ m 2.
Source: http://www.inbar.int/2012/01/bambooconstruction-bhutan/
Residence of the Tingtibi Community Chief Royal Government of Bhutan INBAR 2011 100 Sq.m www.inbar.in
2.
The house is built to last, w ith an expected life-span of at least 20 years, and its earthquake resistance has alread y been proven im m ed iately after com pletion in Septem ber 2011 the house w ithstood shocks from an earthquake in nearby Sikkim , Ind ia, w ithout suffering any d am age.
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3. This innovative project has show n that bam boo build ings clearly have the potentia l to help Bhutan d evelop sustainably, and as a result, the governm ent now plans to construct three m ore bam boo structures in 2012 w ith IN BARs support. 4. Areas w here bam boo is read ily available, such construction types should be prom oted by the local authorities.
Earthquake-Resistant Construction: The m ost d angerous natural hazard w hich d am ages build ings and m an -m ad e structures is Earthquake. Param eters such as intensity, d uration and frequency content of ground m otion, geological and soil cond ition, quality of construction etc., signifies the earthquake dam age. To construct Earthquake resistance build ing w hich w ill not get dam age in Strong earthquake such build ings w ill be too robust and also too expensive. Instead , the engineering intention is to m ake build ings earthquake resistant; such build ings resist the effects of ground shaking, m ay get d am aged severely but w ould not collapse d uring the strong earthquake thus ensuring the safety of people in earthquake and thereby a d isaster is avoid ed . Geo-physically, Bhutan is located in one of the most seism ically active zones in the w orld . its proxim ity to the N orth -eastern parts of In d ia, w hich is in the m ost active seism ic Zone V (accord ing to Bureau of In d ian Stand ard s), indicates that the m ajority of Bhu tan is either in Zone IV, according to the seism ic hazard m ap of Bhutan, d raw n by IIT Roorkee, Ind ia.
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Earthquake effects on a structure: Structural elem ents such as w alls, colum ns and beam s, are only bearing the w eight of the build ing and the live load und er norm al conditions. Mostly com pression forces for the w alls and columns and vertical bending for the beam s. The earthquake d esign philosophy m ay be sum marized as follow s: Minor: Und er m inor but frequent shaking, the m ain m embers of the build ing that carry vertical and horizontal forces should not be d am aged ; how ever building parts that d o not carry load may sustain repairable d am age. Moderate: Und er m od erate but occasional shaking, the m ain mem bers m ay sustain repairable d am age, w hile th e other parts of the build ing may be d amaged such that they m ay even have to be replaced after the earthquake; and Strong: Und er strong but rare shaking, the m ain m em bers m ay sustain severe (even irreparable) d amage, but the build ing should not collapse.
Thus, after minor shaking, the build ing w ill be fully operational w ithin a short tim e and the repair costs w ill be sm all. And, after m od erate shaking, the build ing w ill be operational once the repair and strengthening of the d amaged m ain m em bers is com plet ed . But, after a strong earthquake, the building m ay becom e d ysfunctional for further use, but w ill stand so that people can be evacuated and property recovered . Based on the above philosophy and the earthquake hazard of the country, there are regulations provid ed by respective local authorities to be follow ed . Strict enforcem ent of the structural guid elines as applicable for all planned settlem ents should be follow ed . In case, it is observed that there are not enough structural engineers available in the country, capacity enhancement program m ay be und ertaken. Guid elines for rural construction in stone m asonry prepared by the Stand ard s & Quality Control Authority should be referred to and w id ely d issem inated in non planned settlem ents. The guid elines is an excellent com pend ium providing sim ple techniques and w ell established construction practices to im prove the earthquake resisting capacity of non -engineered stone m asonry build ings. For further outreach, tip sheets in the local language w ith a lot of sket ches and training program s at the Geog level may be introd uced for w id er ad option.
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Given the high susceptibility of the entire country to various clim ate change ind uced extrem e events, each Dzon gkhag need to prepare resilience plan at settlement level Strict enforcem ent plan (m ay use incentives/ d isincentives/ or other policy tools) is essential There is a strong need for a separate Act on Planning as practiced in other countries so that overall better im plem entation is achieved Right to ad equate housing should not contrad ict w ith overall environm ental consid erations and should go hand in hand All environm entally sensitive areas and features should be protected and m easures to avoid , m inimize or m itigate environm ental impacts of the proposed d evelopm ent (especially in the case of large projects, tow nships, d am s, ind ustries, etc.) should be taken up. For m apping of areas w hich are extrem ely fragile, it is recom m end ed that organisations like N EC in association w ith Ministry of Works and H um an Settlem ent prepare such spatial m aps The approved list of construction m aterial should be regularly upd ated and as far as possible integrate region specific local m aterials as w ell such as the ones d iscussed in the section on Build ing Materials. Dissem ination of the use of tools and techniques on use of such local alternative m aterials am ong the various stakehold ers engaged in the construction sector and also am ong the users is equally im portant. Communication plan: An overarching m arketing and com m unication strategy m ay be evolved by the Ministry as a w hole and prioritized action plans can be taken up d uring the current Five-Year Plan. Com m unication and d issemination plan separately for im plem enters, build ing professionals and end users is required . Integration w ith existing Education system: The curriculum of architectural, planning and engineering program s in the country d o not have any focus on integrated design, green d esign and env ironm entally conscious d esign. As a result, im plem entation of any such guid elines becom es m ore challenging. It is therefore, strongly recom m end ed to m ake necessary changes in the curriculum of the ongoing engineering, planning and architectural courses. Skill upgradation for construction w orkers is also strongly recom m end ed given the d em and -supply gap and also to prom ote m ore jobs for Bhutanese. Co-ordination: Co-ord ination am ongst stakeholders at the d esign stage and d uring the construction stages of projects is very im portant from environm ental sustainability perspective w hich is currently missing and need s to be w orked upon through planned capacity build ing and aw areness program s.
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1. Balm ori, D. and Benoit, G., 2007. Land and N atural Developm ent (LAN D) Cod e Guid elines for Sustain able Land Developm ent, New Jersey, United States of Am erica 2. Beer, Anne R. and H iggins, C.,2000. Environm ental planning for site developm ent, E & FN Spon, N ew York 3. Certification Checklist 2006, Wastew ater Treatm ent Facility Operation & Maintenance Manual, Departm ent of N atural Resources, State of Wisconsin, Decem ber, Madison (USA) 4. CMCH , 2005. Research report on Water reuse stand ard s and testing protocol, H ealthy H ousing and Com m unity Series, CMH C, Canad a. 5. Developm ent Alternatives - Drinking Water Quality Monitoring and Managem ent , Training Manual 6. EPA 2002. Onsite Wastew ater Treatm ent Systems Manual, Office of Water, Office of Research & Developm ent, US Environm ental Protection Agency, Washington 7. EPA Guidelines 2000. Managem ent of Onsite/ Decentralised Wastew ater System s, Office of Water, US Environm ental Protection Agency, July, Washington 8. Ground Water Com pliance Com m ittee 2004, Michigan Departm ent of Environm ental Quality, May, Michigan 9. Guid elines for the control of soil erosion and sed im entation on build ing and d evelopm ent sites by Lism ore, City Council. 10. H and book on Managing Onsite & Decentralized Wastew ater Treatm ent System s 2005, Office of Water, US Environm ental Protection Agency, December, Washington 11. H ealth Canad a - http:/ / w w w .hc-sc.gc.ca/ ew h-sem t/ pubs/ w atereau/ escherichia_coli/ significance-im portance-eng.php 12. H MDA, 2009, Environmental Build ing Guid elines for H yd erabad Metropolitan Area, TERI and TVPL 13. http:/ / abari.org/ bamboohousing 14. http:/ / w w w .nec.gov.bt/ Waste%20final.pd f 15. http:/ / w w w .raonline.ch/ pages/ story/ bt/ btstquake01.htm l 16. ICAEN 2004, Sustainable Build ing Design Manual, Volum e 2, The Energy & Resources Institute (TERI), N ew Delhi 17. IGES, 2010. List of Grid Emission Factor, Institute of Global Environmental Strategies
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18. IPA, 2008. Uniform Plumbing Cod e-Ind ia, Ind ian Plum bing Association. 19. LWASA Shuaib, 2005. A Geo-Inform ation Approach for Urban Land Use Planning in Kam pala, Ugand a. From Pharaoh s to Geoinform atics FIG Working Week 2005 and GSDI-8 Cairo, Egypt April 16-21, 2005 20. Marsh, W.M., 2010. Landscape Planning: Environm ental Applications 5 th Ed ition. Wiley Publications, John Wiley & Sons Inc. 21. MN RE and TERI, 2010, GRIH A Manual-I-IV, TERI Press, N ew Delhi 22. MoEF, 2006. Manual on norm s & standard s for environm ental clearance of large construction projects, Ministry of Environm ent & Forests, Governm ent of Ind ia, N ew Delhi. 23. MoEF, 2007. Manual on norm s and stand ard s for environm ental clearance of larg e construction projects, Ministry of Environm ent and Forests, Govt. of India. 24. MoUD, 2000. Manual on Municipal Solid w aste managem ent CPH EEO, Ministry of Urban Developm ent, Govt. Of Ind ia. 25. Municipal Sew age Treatm ent Works Operation & Maintenance Manual 2006, Office of Wastew ater Engineering, Departm ent of Environm ental Quality, January, Virginia 26. N ational Build ing Cod e (N BC) of Ind ia 2005, Bureau of Indian Stand ard s (BIS), Governm ent of Ind ia. 27. N orth Carolina State University: H ealth Effects of Drinking Water Contaminants http:/ / w w w .bae.ncsu.ed u/ program s/ extension/ publicat/ w qw m / he393.htm l 28. Pathogens in Drinking Water - http:/ / w w w .eaw ag.ch/ publications/ eaw agnew s/ 29. Phelps, et al, 2007. AIA Best Practices Green Roof Design: Ad apted from an AIA Convention Sem inar by Cathy Garrett, Kenneth Klein, and And reas Phelps 30. Prasad , R. and Dorji, S., 2011. Earthquake and land slid e vulnerability: some selected stud ies from Bhutan, Sherub Doenm e: The Research Journal of Sherubtse College. 31. Roatru, A., Oajd ea, D., and Raileanu, P., 2007. Analysis of the Landslid e Movem ents, International Journal of Geology, Vol 1(3), pp. 70-79 32. Steep Slope Development Guidelines, City of Nanaimo 33. SUDSWG, 2004. Interim Cod e of practice for Sustainable Drainage Systems, N ational SUDS Working group 34. Sunita N arian 2007, A Wastew ater Recycling Manual for Urban Areas w ith Case Stud ies, Centre for Science & Environm ent, N ew Delhi 35. Sustainable Urban Drainage System s (SUDS)- An Introd uction, 2003. Environm ent Agency 36. Tchobanoglous, T. and Vigil, 1993. Integrated Solid Waste Managem ent: Engineering principles and Management issues, McGraw -H ill Inc.
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37. TERI and TVPL, 2009. Environm ental Building Guid elines for H yd erabad Metropolitan Area, H yderabad , H MDA. 38. The SUDS m anualWood s-Ballard B; Kellagher R; Martin, P; Jefferies, C; Bray, R; Shaffer,P CIRIA C 697 39. Urban Road s Stand ard s, 2002 40. Varnes, D.J., 1978. Slope m ovem ent types and processes, in Schuster, R.L., and Krizek, R.J.(ed s), land slid es-Analysis and Control: N avigation Research Council, Washington D.C. Transportation Research Board , Special Report 176, pp 11-33 41. Voluntary N ational Guidelines for Managem ent of Onsite & Decentralized Wastew ater Treatm ent System s 2003, Office of Water, US Environm ental Protectio n Agency, March, Washington 42. w w w .ciria.org
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Annexure: N eed for promoting adequate spacing betw een buildings Also know n in planning term inology as setbacks, spacing betw een buildings is an im portant com ponent. They serve m any purposes. Setback is the required d istance that a build ing m ust be located aw ay from the streets, easem ents, and other structures includ ing build ings. Setbacks allow a certain measure of privacy betw een neighbors, provid e space for light and air circulation, and provid e open space for landscaping an d recreational use. They also provid e d istance betw een neighbors to m itigate noise and od ors. It is particularly im portant in the context of Bhutan to allow for proper ventilation to m itigate the pollutants from kitchen and other spaces, given the fact that a lot of fuelw ood is used for fod d er cooking and space heating. Spacing betw een build ings is also im portant to allow for ad equate d ayligh t in living spaces of a d w elling. Along w ith the im portance of energy, stud ies have d em onstrated the non energy related benefits of d aylighting. Even if a build ing is d esigned w ell for d aylight, if there is inadequate spacing betw een buildings, not m any benefits can be availed of d aylight. H um ans are affected both psychologically and physiologically by the d ifferent spectrum s provid ed by the various types of light. These effects are the less quantifiable and easily overlooked benefits of daylighting. It is w ell recognised that good glarefree d aylight leads to im proved m ood , enhanced m orale, low er fatigue, im proved prod uctivity in w orkspaces and red uced eyestrain. One of the im portant psychological aspects from d aylighting is meeting a need for contact w ith the outsid e living environment (Robbins 1986). Wavelengths of light help control the hum an bodys chem ist ry. Many fu nctions, includ ing the nervous system , circad ian rhythms, pituitary gland , end ocrine system , and the pineal gland are affected by d ifferent w avelengths of light. Stud ies have show n that light can help cure rickets, osteom alacia, and Seasonal Affective Disord er (SAD). Given the aforem entioned ad vantages of provid ing certain spacing betw een buildings, it is recom m end ed to be observed to the extent possible.
Source: Ed w ard s,L and Torcellini, P., 2002. A Literature Review of the Effects of Natural Light on Build ing Occupants, N ational Renew able Energy Laboratory. CIBSE Guid e B2, Ventilation and air-cond itioning Robbins, Claud e L.,1986. Daylighting Design and Analysis. N ew York: Van N ostrand Reinhold Com pany.
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