POLI 13: Power and Justice

Professor Fonna Forman

University of California, San Diego
Fall 2013


Contents


1. The Perils of Obedience
Stanley Milgram
1

2. Panopticism
Michel Foucault
13

3. The Republic
Plato
31

4. Remarks on the Psychological Appeal of Totalitarianism
Bruno Bettelheim
33

5. Leni Riefenstahl, Filmmaker and Nazi Propagandist, Dies at 101
Alan Riding
43

6. Genocide and Mass Killing: Cultural-Societal and Psychological Origins
Ervin Staub
49

7. Altruism and the Theory of Rational Action: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe
Kristen R. Monroe, Michael C. Barton and Ute Klingemann
61

8. Sugiharas List
Hillel Levine
81

9. On Satyagraha and Satyagraha: The Power of Non-Violence
Mohandas K. Gandhi
83

10. Letter from Birmingham Jail
Martin Luther King, Jr.
89

11. The Ballot or the Bullet
Malcolm X
101

12. Famine, Affluence, and Morality
Peter Singer
111

13. Millennium Goals at the Midpoint
Jeffrey D. Sachs
121


14. Nonconforming Uses: Architect Teddy Cruz at the Borders of Tomorrow
Rebecca Solnit
123

Bibliography 135






















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The Perils of Obedience
by Stanley Milgram
Obedience is as basic an element in the structure of social life as one can point to. Some system
of authority is a requirement of all communal living, and it is only the person dwelling in
isolation who is not forced to respond, with defiance or submission, to the commands of others.
For many people, obedience is a deeply ingrained behavior tendency, indeed a potent impulse
overriding training in ethics, sympathy, and moral conduct.
The dilemma inherent in submission to authority is ancient, as old as the story of Abraham, and
the question of whether one should obey when commands conflict with conscience has been
argued by Plato, dramatized in Antigone, and treated to philosophic analysis in almost every
historical epoch. Conservative philosophers argue that the very fabric of society is threatened by
disobedience, while humanists stress the primacy ofthe individual conscience.
The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous import, but they say very little
about how most people behave in concrete situations. I set up a simple experiment at Yale
University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply
because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the
subjects' strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects' ears ringing
with the screams ofthe victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of
adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief fmding of
the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation.
In the basic experimental designs two people come to a psychology laboratory to take part in a
study of memory and learning. One of them is designated a "teacher" and the other a "learner."
The experimenter explains that the study is concerned with the effects of punishment on
learning. The learner is conducted into a room, seated in a kind of miniature electric chair, his
arms are strapped to prevent excessive movement, and an electrode is attached to his wrist. He is
told that he will be read lists of simple word pairs, and that he will then be tested on his ability to
remember the second word of a pair when he hears the first one again. whenever he makes an
error, he will receive electric shocks of increasing intensity.
The real focus of the experiment is the teacher. After watching the learner being strapped into
place, he is seated before an impressive shock generator. The instrument panel consists ofthirty
lever switches set in a horizontal line. Each switch is clearly labeled with a voltage designation
ranging from 14 to 450 volts.
The following designations are clearly indicated for groups of four switches. going from left to
right: Slight Shock, Moderate Shock, Strong Shock, Very Strong Shock, Intense Shock, Extreme
Intensity Shock, Danger: Severe Shock. (Two switches after this last designation are simply
marked XXX.)
When a switch is depressed, a pilot light corresponding to each switch is illuminated in bright
red; an electric buzzing is heard; a blue light, labeled "voltage energizer," flashes; the dial on the
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voltage meter swings to the right; and various relay clicks sound off.
The upper left hand comer of the generator is labeled SHOCK GENERATOR, TYPE ZLB.
DYSON INSTRUMENT COMPANY, WALTHAM, MASS., OUTPUT 15 VOLTS -- 450
VOLTS.
Each subject is given a sample 45 volt shock from the generator before his run as teacher, and
the jolt strengthens his belief in the authenticity of the machine.
The teacher is a genuinely naive subject who has corne to the laboratory for the experiment. The
leamer, or victim, is actually an actor who receives no shock at all. The point of the experiment
is to see how far a person will proceed in a concrete and measurable situation in which he is
ordered to inflict increasing pain on a protesting victim.
Conflict arises when the man receiving the shock begins to show that he is experiencing
discomfort. At 75 volts, he grunts; at 120 volts, he complains loudly; at 150, he demands to be
released from the experiment. As the voltage increases, his protests become more vehement and
emotional. At 285 volts, his response can be described only as an agonized scream. Soon
thereafter, he makes no sound at all.
For the teacher, the situation quickly becomes one of gripping tension. It is not a game for him:
conflict is intense obvious. The manifest suffering of the learner presses him to quit: but each
time he hesitates to administer a shock, the experimenter orders him to continue. To extricate
himself from this plight, the subject must make a clear break with authority.
The subject, Gretchen Brantt, is an attractive thirty-one year old medical technician who works
at the Yale Medical School. She had emigrated from Germany five years before.
On several occasions when the learner complains, she turns to the experimenter coolly and
inquires, "Shall I continue? She promptly returns to her task when the experimenter asks her to
do so. At the administration of210 volts she turns to the experimenter, remarking firmly, "Well,
I'm sorry, I don't think we should continue."
Experimenter: The experiment requires that you go on until he has learned all the word pairs
correctly.
Brandt: He has a heart condition, I'm sorry. He told you that before.
Experimenter: The shocks may be painful but they're not dangerous.
Brandt: Well, I'm sorry. I think when shocks continue like this they are dangerous. You ask him
ifhe wants to get out. It's his free will.
Experimenter: It is absolutely essential that we continue ....
Brandt: I'd like you to ask him. We carne here of our free will. Ifhe wants to continue I'll go
ahead. He told you he had a heart condition. I'm sorry. I don't want to be responsible for anything
happening to him. I wouldn't like it for me either.
Experimenter: Y ouhave no other choice.
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Brandt: I think we are here on our own free will. I don't want to be responsible if anything
happens to him. Please understand that.
She refuses to go further And the experiment is terminated.
The woman is firm and resolute throughout. She indicates in the interview that she was in no
way tense or nervous, and this corresponds to her controlled appearance during the experiment.
She feels that the last shock she administered to the learner was extremely painful and reiterates
that she "did not want to be responsible for any harm to him."
The woman's straightforward, courteous behavior in the experiment, lack of tension, and total
control of her own action seem to make disobedience a simple and rational deed. Her behavior is
the very embodiment of what I envisioned would be true for almost all subjects.
An Unexpected Outcome
Before the experiments, I sought predictions about the outcome from various kinds of people --
psychiatrists, college sophomores, middle-class adults, graduate students and faculty in the
behavioral sciences. With remarkable similarity, they predicted that virtually all the subjects
would refuse to obey the experimenter. The psychiatrist, specifically, predicted that most
subjects would not go beyond 150 volts, when the victim makes his first explicit demand to be
freed. They expected that only 4 percent would reach 300 volts, and that only a pathological
fringe of about one in a thousand would administer the highest shock on the board.
These predictions were unequivocally wrong. Of the forty subjects in the first experiment,
twenty-five obeyed the orders of the experimenter to the end, punishing the victim until they
reached the most potent shock available on the. generator. After 450 volts were administered
three times, the experimenter called a halt to the session. Many obedient subjects then heaved
sighs of relief, mopped their brows, rubbed their fingers over their eyes, or nervously fumbled
cigarettes. Others displayed only minimal signs of tension from beginning to end.
When the very first experiments were carried out, Yale undergraduates were used as subjects,
and about 60 percent of them were fully obedient. A colleague of mine immediately dismissed
these findings as having no relevance to "ordinary" people, asserting that Yale undergraduates
are a highly aggressive, competitive bunch who step on each other's necks on the slightest
provocation. He assured me that when "ordinary" people were tested, the results would be quite
different. As we moved from the pilot studies to the regular experimental series, people drawn
from every stratum of New Haven life came to be employed in the experiment professionals,
white collar workers, unemployed persons, and industrial workers. The experimental outcome
was the same as we had observed among the students.
Moreover, when the experiments were repeated in Princeton, Munich, Rome, South Africa, and
Australia, the level of obedience was invariably somewhat higher than found in the investigation
reported in this article. Thus one scientist in Munich found 85 percent of his subjects obedient.
Fred Prozi's reactions, if more dramatic than most, illuminate the conflicts experienced by others
in less visible form. About fifty years old and unemployed at the time of the experiment, he has a
good-natured. if slightly dissolute, appearance, and he strikes people as a rather ordinary fellow.
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He begins the session calmly but becomes tense as it proceeds. After delivering the 180-volt
shock, he pivots around in the chair and, shaking his head, addresses the experimenter in agitated
tones:
Prozi: I can't stand it I'm not going to kill that man in there. You hear him hollering?
Experimenter: As I told you before, the shocks may be painful, but ...
Prozi: But he's hollering. He can t stand it. What's going to happen to him?
Experimenter (his voice is patient, matter-of fact): The experiment requires that you continue,
Teacher.
Prozi: Aah, but, unh, I'm not going to get that man sick in there -- know what I mean?
Experimenter: Whether the learner likes it or not, we must go on, through all the word pairs.
Prozi: I refuse to take the responsibility. He's in there hollering
Experimenter: It's absolutely essential that you continue, Prozi.
Prozi (indicating the unused questions): There's too many left here, I mean, Jeez, ifhe gets them
wrong, there's too many of them left. I mean, who's going to take the responsibility if anything
happens to that gentleman?
Experimenter: I'm responsible for anything that happens to him. Continue, please.
Prozi: All right. (Consults list of words.) The next one's "Slow -- walk, truck, dance, music"
Answer please. (A buzzing sound indicates the learner has signaled his answer.) Wrong. A
hundred and ninety-five volts. "Dance." (Zzumph!)
Learner (yelling): Let me out of here My hearts bothering me (Teacher looks at experimenter.)
Experimenter: Continue, please.
Learner (screaming): Let me out of here! You have no right to keep me here! Let me out of
here, my hearts bothering me, let me out!
Prozi (shakes head, pats the table nervously): You see he's hollering. Hear that? Gee, I don't
know.
Experimenter: The experiment requires ...
Prozi (interrupting): I know it does sir, but I mean -- hunhl He don't know what he's getting in
for. He's up to 195 volts! (Experiment continues, through 210 volts, 225 volts, 240 volts, 255
volts, 270 volts, at which point Prozi, with evident relief, runs out of word-pair questions.)
Experimenter: You'll have to go back to the beginning of that page and go through them again
until be's learned them all correctly.
Prozi: Aw, no. I'm not going to kill that man. You mean I've got to keep going up with the scale?
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No sir. He's hollering in there. I'm not going to give him 450 volts.
Experimenter: The experiment requires that you go on.
Learner: Ohhh. I absolutely refuse to answer anymore. (Shouting urgently now.) Let me out of
here! You cant bold me here Get me out. Get-me-out-of-here!
Experimenter: Continue. The next word is "green," please.
Prozi: "Greengrass, hat, ink, apple." (Nothing happens. No answering buzz. Just gloomy
silence.)
Prozi: I don't think he is going to answer.
Experimenter: If the learner doesn't answer in a reasonable time, about four or five seconds,
consider the answer wrong. And follow the same procedures you have been doing for wrong
answers. Say, "Wrong," tell him the number of volts, give him the punishment, read him the
correct answer. Continue, please.
Prozi: "Green -- grass, hat, ink, apple." Answer, please. (More silence. Subject just sits there.)
Experimenter: Go on with the procedure, please.
Prozi: Three hundred and fifteen volts The answer is "ink" (Zzumph!)
Learner: Ohh. Ooohh
Prozi: (relieved to her response"). Next one ...
Learner: I absolutely refuse to answer.
Prozi: You got to. You get a shock if you don't answer. (Experiment continues with learner
refusing to answer, and, finally failing even to grunt or groan. At 375 volts, the subject stands
up.)
Prozi: I think something's happened to that fellow in there. I don't get no answer. He was
hollering at less voltage. Can't you check in and see ifhe's all right, please?
Experimenter (with same detached calm): Not once we've started. Please continue, Teacher.
Prozi (sits down, sighs deeply): "Cool day, shade, water, paint." Answer please. Are you all right
in there? Are you all right?
Experimenter: Please continue, Teacher. Continue, please. (Subject pushes lever. Zzumph!)
Prozi (swiveling around in his chair): Something's happened to that man in there. (Swiveling
back) Next one. "Low -- dollar, necklace, moon, paint." (Turning around again.) Something's
happened to that man in there. You better check in on him, sir. He won't answer or nothing.
Experimenter: Continue. Go on, please.
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Prozi: You accept all responsibility?
Experimenter: The responsibility is mine. Correct. Please go on. (Subject returns to his list,
starts running through words as rapidly as he can read them, works through to 450 volts.)
Prozi: That's that.
Experimenter: Continue using the 450 switch for each wrong answer. Continue, please.
Prozi: But I don't get anything!
Experimenter: Please continue. The next word is "white."
Prozi: Don't you think you should look in on him, please?
Experimenter: Not once we've started the experiment.
Prozi: What if he's dead in there? (Gestures toward the room with the electric chair.) I mean, he
told me he. can't stand the shock, sir. I don't mean to be rude, but I think you should look In on
him. All you have to do is look in on him. All you have to do is look in the door. I don't get no
answer, no noise. Something might have happened to the gentleman in there, sir.
Experimenter: We must continue. Go on, please.
Prozi: You mean keep giving that? Four-hundred-fifty volts, what he's got now?
Experimenter: That's correct. Continue. The next word is "white."
Prozi (now at a furious pace): "White -- cloud, horse, rock, house." Answer, please. The answer
is "horse." Four hundred and fifty volts. (Zzumph!) Next words, "Bag -- paint, music. clown,
girl." The next answer is 'paint." Four hundred and fifty volts. (Zzumph!) Next word is "Short --
sentence, movie ... "
Experimenter: Excuse me, Teacher. We'll have to discontinue the experiment.
Peculiar Reactions
Morris Braverman, another subject, is a thirty-nine-year-old social worker. He looks older than
his years because of his bald head and serious demeanor. His brow is furrowed, as if all the
world's burdens were carried on his face. Ho appears intelligent and concerned.
When the learner refuses to answer and the experimenter instructs Braverman to treat the
absence of an answer as equivalent to a wrong answer, he takes his instruction to heart. Before
administering 300 volts he asserts officiously to the victim, "Mr. Wallace, your silence has to be
considered as a wrong answer." Then he administers the shock He offers halfheartedly to change
places with the leamer, then asks the experimenter. "Do I have to follow these instructions
literally?" He is satisfied with the experimenter's answer that he does. His very refined and
authoritative manner of speaking is increasingly broken up by wheezing laughter.
The experimenter's notes on Mr. Braverman at the last few shocks are:
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Almost breaking up now each time gives shock. Rubbing face to hide laughter.
Squinting, trying to hide face with hand, sti11laughing
Cannot control his laughter at this point no matter what he does.
Clenching fist, pushing it onto table.
In an interview after the session, Mr. Braverman summarizes the experiment with impressive
fluency and intelligence. He feels the experiment may have been designed also to "test the
effects on the teacher of being in an essentially sadistic role, as well as the reactions of a student
to a learning situation that was authoritative and punitive."
When asked how painful the last few shocks administered to the learner were, he indicates that
the most extreme category on the scale is not adequate (it read EXTREMELY PAINFUL) and
places his mark at the edge of the scale with an arrow carrying it beyond the scale.
It is almost impossible to convey the greatly relaxed, sedate quality of his conversation in the
interview. In the most relaxed terms, he speaks about his severe inner tension.
Experimenter: At what point were you most tense or nervous?
Mr. Braverman: Well, when he first began to cry out in pain, and I realized this was hurting
him. This got worse when he just blocked and refused to answer. There was I. I'm a nice person,
I think, hurting somebody, and caught up in what seemed a mad situation ... and in the interest
of science, one goes through with it.
When the interviewer pursues the general question of tension, Mr. Braverman spontaneously
mentions his laughter.
"My reactions were awfully peculiar. I don't know if you were watching me, but my reactions
were giggly, and trying to stifle laughter. This isn't the way I usually am. This was a sheer
reaction to a totally impossible situation. And my reaction was to the situation of having to hurt
somebody. And being totally helpless and caught up in a set of circumstances where I just
couldn't deviate and I couldn't try to help. This is what got me."
Mr. Braverman, like all subjects, was told the actual nature and purpose ofthe experiment, and a
year later he affirmed in a questionnaire that he had learned something of personal importance:
"What appalled me was that I could possess this capacity for obedience and compliance to a
central idea, i.e., the adherence to this value was at the expense of violation of another value, i.e.,
don't hurt someone who is helpless and not hurting you. As my wife said, 'You can call yourself
Eichmann,' I hope I deal more effectively with any future conflicts of values I encounter."
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The Etiquette of Submission
One theoretical interpretation of this behavior holds that all people harbor deeply aggressive
instincts continually pressing for expression, and that the experiment provides institutional
justification for the release of these impulses. According to this view, if a person is placed in a
situation in which he has complete power over another individual, whom he may punish as much
as he likes, all that is sadistic and bestial in man comes to the fore. The impulse to shock the
victim is seen to flow from the potent aggressive tendencies, which are part of the motivational
life of the individual, and the experiment, because it provides social legitimacy, simply opens the
door to their expression.
It becomes vital, therefore, to compare the subject's performance when he is under orders and
when he is allowed to choose the shock level.
The procedure was identical to our standard experiment, except that the teacher was told that he
was free to select any shock level of any on the trials. (The experimenter took pains to point out
that the teacher could use the highest levels on the generator, the lowest, any in between, or any
combination of levels.) Each subject proceeded for thirty critical trials. The learner's protests
were coordinated to standard shock levels, his first grunt coming at 75 volts, his first vehement
protest at 150 volts.
The average shock used during the thirty critical trials was less than 60 volts -- lower than the
point at which the victim showed the first signs of discomfort. Three of the forty subjects did not
go beyond the very lowest level on the board, twenty-eight went no higher than 75 volts, and
thirty-eight did not go beyond the first loud protest at 150 volts. Two subjects provided the
exception, administering up to 325 and 450 volts, but the overall result was that the great
majority of people delivered very low, usually painless, shocks when the choice was explicitly
up to them.
The condition of the experiment undermines another commonly offered explanation ofthe
subjects' behavior -- that those who shocked the victim at the most severe levels came only from
the sadistic fringe of society. If one considers that almost two-thirds ofthe participants fall into
the category of "obedient" subjects, and that they represented ordinary people drawn from
working, managerial, and professional classes, the argument becomes very shaky. Indeed, it is
highly reminiscent of the issue that arose in connection with Hannah Arendt's 1963 book,
Eichmann in Jerusalem. Arendt contended that the prosecution's effort to depict Eichmann as a
sadistic monster was fundamentally wrong, that he came closer to being an uninspired bureaucrat
who simply sat at his desk and did his job. For asserting her views, Arendt became the object of
considerable scorn, even calumny. Somehow, it was felt that the monstrous deeds carried out by
Eichmann required a brutal, twisted personality, evil incarnate. After witnessing hundreds of
ordinary persons submit to the authority in our own experiments, I must conclude that Arendt's
conception of the banality of evil comes closer to the truth than one might dare imagine. The
ordinary person who shocked the victim did so out of a sense of obligation -- an impression of
his duties as a subject -- and not from any peculiarly aggressive tendencies.
This is, perhaps, the most fundamental lesson of our study: ordinary people, simply doing their
jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive
8
process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work become patently clear, and
they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with fundamental standards of morality,
relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority.
Many of the people were in some sense against what they did to the learner, and many protested
even while they obeyed. Some were totally convinced ofthe wrongness of their actions but could
not bring themselves to make an open break with authority. They often derived satisfaction from
their thoughts and felt that -- within themselves, at least -- they had been on the side of the
angels. They tried to reduce strain by obeying the experimenter but "only slightly," encouraging
the learner, touching the generator switches gingerly. When interviewed, such a subject would
stress that he "asserted my humanity" by administering the briefest shock possible. Handling the
conflict in this manner was easier than defiance.
The situation is constructed so that there is no way the subject can stop shocking the learner
without violating the experimenter's definitions of his own competence. The subject fears that he
will appear arrogant, untoward, and rude ifhe breaks off. Although these inhibiting emotions
appear small in scope alongside the violence being done to the learner, they suffuse the mind and
feelings ofthe subject, who is miserable at the prospect of having to repudiate the authority to
his face. (When the experiment was altered so that the experimenter gave his instructions by
telephone instead of in person, only a third as many people were fully obedient through 450
volts). It is a curious thing that a measure of compassion on the part of the subject -- an
unwillingness to "hurt" the experimenter's feelings -- is part ofthose binding forces inhibiting his
disobedience. The withdrawal of such deference may be as painful to the subject as to the
authority he defies.
Duty Without Conflict
The subjects do not derive satisfaction from inflicting pain, but they often like the feeling they
get from pleasing the experimenter. They are proud of doing a good job, obeying the
experimenter under difficult circumstances. While the subjects administered only mild shocks on
their own initiative, one experimental variation showed that, under orders, 30 percent of them
were willing to deliver 450 volts even when they had to forcibly push the learner's hand down on
the electrode.
Bruno Batta is a thirty-seven-year-old welder who took part in the variation requiring the use of
force. He was born in New Haven, his parents in Italy. He has a rough-hewn face that conveys a
conspicuous lack of altertness. He has some difficulty in mastering the experimental procedure
and needs to be corrected by the experimenter several times. He shows appreciation for the help
and willingness to do what is required. After the 150 volt level, Batta has to force the learner's
hand down on the shock plate, since the learner himself refuses to touch it.
When the learner first complains, Mr. Batta pays no attention to him. His face remains
impassive, as if to dissociate himself from the leamer's disruptive behavior. When the
experimenter instructs him to force the learner's hand down, he adopts a rigid, mechanical
procedure. He tests the generator switch. When it fails to function, he immediately forces the
leamer's hand onto the shock plate. All the while he maintains the same rigid mask. The learner,
seated alongside him, begs him to stop, but with robotic impassivity he continues the procedure.
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What is extraordinary is his apparent total indifference to the learner; he hardly takes cognizance
of him as a human being. Meanwhile, he relates to the experimenter in a submissive and
courteous fashion.
At the 330 volt level, the learner refuses not only to touch the shock plate but also to provide any
answers. Annoyed, Batta turns to him, and chastises him: "You better answer and get it over
with. We can't stay here all night." These are the only words he directs to the learner in the
course of an hour. Never again does he speak to him. The scene is brutal and depressing, his
hard, impassive face showing total indifference as he subdues the screaming learner and gives
him shocks. He seems to derive no pleasure from the act itself, only quiet satisfaction at doing
his job properly.
When he administers 450 volts, he turns to the experimenter and asks, "Where do we go from
here, Professor?" His tone is deferential and expresses his willingness to be a cooperative
subject, in contrast to the learner's obstinacy.
At the end of the session he tells the experimenter how honored he has been to help him, and in a
moment of contrition, remarks, "Sir, sorry it couldn't have been a full experiment."
He has done his honest best. It is only the deficient behavior of the learner that has denied the
experimenter full satisfaction.
The essence of obedience is that a person comes to view himself as the instrument for carrying
out another person's wishes, and he therefore no longer regards himself as responsible for his
actions. Once this critical shift of viewpoint has occurred, all of the essential features of
obedience follow. The most far-reaching consequence is that the person feels responsible to the
authority directing him but feels no responsibility for the content of the actions that the authority
prescribes. Morality does not disappear -- it acquires a radically different focus: the subordinate
person feels shame or pride depending on how adequately he has performed the actions called
for by authority.
Language provides numerous terms to pinpoint this type of morality: loyalty, duty, discipline are
all terms heavily saturated with moral meaning and refer to the degree to which a person fulfills
his obligations to authority. They refer not to the "goodness" of the person per se but to the
adequacy with which a subordinate fulfills his socially defined role. The most frequent defense
of the individual who has performed a heinous act under command of authority is that he has
simply done his duty. In asserting this defense, the individual is not introducing an alibi
concocted for the moment but is reporting honestly on the psychological attitude induced by
submission to authority.
For a person to feel responsible for his actions, he must sense that the behavior has flowed from
"the self." In the situation we have studied, subjects have precisely the opposite view of their
actions -- namely, they see them as originating in the motives of some other person. SUbjects in
the experiment frequently said, "if it were up to me, I would not have administered shocks to the
leamer."
Once authority has been isolated as the cause of the subject's behavior, it is legitimate to inquire
into the necessary elements of authority and how it must be perceived in order to gain his
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compliance. We conducted some investigations into the kinds of changes that would cause the
experimenter to lose his power and to be disobeyed by the subject. Some ofthe variations
revealed that:
The experimenter's physical presence has a marked impact on his authority -- As cited earlier,
obedience dropped off sharply when orders were given by telephone. The experimenter could
often induce a disobedient subject to go on by returning to the laboratory.
Conflicting authority severely paralyzes actions -- When two experimenters of equal status, both
seated at the command desk, gave incompatible orders,no shocks were delivered past the point
of their disagreement.
The rebellious action of others severely undermines authority -- In one variation, three teachers
(two actors and a real subject) administered a test and shocks. When the two actors disobeyed
the experimenter and refused to go beyond a certain shock level, thirty-six of forty subjeyts
joined their disobedient peers and refused as well.
Although the experimenter's authority was fragile in some respects, it is also true that he had
almost none ofthe tools used in ordinary command structures. For example, the experimenter
did not threaten the subjects with punishment -- such as loss of income, community ostracism, or
jail-- for failure to obey. Neither could he offer incentives. Indeed, we should expect the
experimenter's authority to be much less than that of someone like a general, since the
experimenter has no power to enforce his imperatives, and since participation in a psychological
experiment scarcely evokes the sense of urgency and dedication found in warfare. Despite these
limitations, he still managed to command a dismaying degree of obedience.
I will cite one final variation of the experiment that depicts a dilemma that is more common in
everyday life. The subject was not ordered to pull the lever that shocked the victim, but merely
to perform a subsidiary task (administering the word-pair test) while another person administered
the shock. In this situation, thirty-seven of forty adults continued to the highest level of the shock
generator. Predictably, they excused their behavior by saying that the responsibility belonged to
the man who actually pulled the switch. This may illustrate a dangerously typical arrangement in
a complex society: it is easy to ignore responsibility when one is only an intermediate link in a
chain of actions.
The problem of obedience is not wholly psychological. The form and shape of society and the
way it is developing have much to do with it. There was a time, perhaps, when people were able
to give a fully human response to any situation because they were fully absorbed in it as human
beings. But as soon as there was a division oflabor things changed. Beyond a certain point, the
breaking up of society into people carrying out narrow and very special jobs takes away from the
human quality of work and life. A person does not get to see the whole situation but only a small
part of it, and is thus unable to act without some kind of overall direction. He yields to authority
but in doing so is alienated from his own actions.
Even Eichmann was sickened when he toured the concentration camps, but he had only to sit at a
desk and shuffle papers. At the same time the man in the camp who actually dropped Cyclon-b
into the gas chambers was able to justify his behavior on the ground that he was only following
orders from above. Thus there is a fragmentation of the total human act; no one is confronted
11
with the consequences of his decision to carry out the evil act. The person who assumes
responsibility has evaporated. Perhaps this is the most common characteristic of socially
organized evil in modem society.
Notes
1. The ethical problems of carrying out an experiment of this sort are too complex to be dealt
with here, but they receive extended treatment in the book from which this article is taken.
2. Names of subjects described in this piece have been changed.
"The Perils of Obedience" as it appeared in Harper's Magazine. Abridged and adapted from
Obedience to Authority by Stanley Milgram. Copyright 1974 by Stanley Milgram.
12
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ana Ism
The following, according to an order published at the end of the
seventeenth century, were the measures to be taken h n the I ue
red i own.
l
First, a strict spatial partitiomng: the clOSing of the town and its
outlying districts, a prohibition to leave the town on pain of death,
iIIing I 5tra mals; ivisi the t into ct
ers, e gover y an dant. stre place un er
the authority of a syndic, who keeps it under surveillance; jf he
5 the t, he . be co ned ath. e ap ed
ever is or to s ndoo is fo den t ve
on pain of death. The syndic himself comes to lock the door of
each house from the outside; he takes the key with him and h ds
er to ntend f the rterj tend eeps til
the end of the quarantine. Each family Will have made its own
provisions; but, for bread and wine, small wooden canals are set up
een d eet a e inte of the ses, t 1I0wi ch
n to ve hi on w ut co nicati g ith t e sup-
pliers and other residents; meat, fish and herbs will be hoisted up
the h with ys an skets. . is ab ely ne ry
ave t use, n be in t avoid ny m g.
Only the intendants, syndics and guards will move about the
streets and also, between the infected houses, from one cor se to
her, tows can t to d ese a eople tie
substance who carry the sick, bury the dead, clean and do many vile
and abject offices'. It is a segmented, immobile, frozen space. Each
idual xed i place d, if oves, oes s he
of his , cont or p hmen .
Inspection functions ceaselessly. The gaze is alert everywhere: 'A
idera ody 0 . ilia, c ande good ers a en .
..... ,_ Of
3

II .I. C,. ,-' l,jI .w ,:
:Jcccl\:ing a,l .) .. p,ltli:-.hcd .. I .),1-: (If
:Cycr:tc<",o:h C:::r:t'l"Y, "crc the wc;:!:l;! e; I::: tl\:{{"r' ,,!1CH t!;" J:h;soe
in:! town!
First, a :1:( J: tne ICWnl;l':l in
I).d) i'lg ;CU the I.l''Vn.u ]l'lII' ')f (:.lht'1,
(')1:--'1;1 t"j':' rJf li-lC Lprvn ;f110
eae', gO'/"!:-w:d bj' J, ;WHIi:'C'T"L I"d. plzced 1;\;1C::::-
:oc ,:id:,ority cr <\ wIn ;t :Jlder su:"'cillaDce; jf;w
t!1c H;""d, b: cC'1dc'llrJCc! w ,kd:. Gn apt;,j;ntc::!
is f)T"dcl'[c: t') it ;5 ;prbif:o{'p t\) !taVf>
t')rt pa:u o.r:-' p,vnJ:c (:O'lTl('S 10 ';(,('1, t!1e !]J)c'r of
C f \. 1.
H'0m ,tjl.lt':_1ce; 4re, i:Cl.r,ee- t:l ,:l,;m ;:ltirttJ:
i:: C1't-1 .0 t'1!! of .:lItO :P:h.tii r!le :,:Ie,i(:ar:t 1:1:,;;
;'!:C 0; the :::p.:ar<l"dr:e. .,( h hm:l), \lfjE 1-:c:,;( fn::b :15 ov:n
b;r. ;qr <,pri ';\b,!. v/or)r:ler) !,U 1I?
h';>l"v;rCC:1i l!P! st:"Lf.t l'('HSCS, t;'-'PJS
jlt:IS;:;!' 10 Itce;ye b,; IatiC'f'. ,,!iltIO'l' ccr,lilIU'1'C?t'r, ',;."d r:lt5;1;>
pliei''; diG ocher tChident::.; UcEat, ltd, ard her'Js 11;J'stedl;}
tr.t;) I he ; 1;):.13C1: th If ,: (C' r'(-(C33a: y
H' 61e i, wi!! droP!" ):1 [\'rP, ;:;vo:r!i"g 'lrry In ...... I;'!;!;.
rhl": ; tc'1d;:;'1::;, sypc;ks ar.c; 'lVn mer ... :! abcL;t t;1e
. 1 L 1 C' 'I I ;'
24fl(1 a 1C' 'f1re':;:CL .. :l{DfT1 ta
,diUa_bel', t;lc o",hG 0l! tc' 2fc (,f lilde
':'c'ho C,h",y sh:k .tl'fY ;ltt. de.,!,:!, cicc;[; J,i ,];) v;]e
;10(: 1)0(f-5', !I ;S <i :::egrr'cr'tcJj i:T/Oobie, ([Oteo ;;;)]ct".2a:;1
ir.Civid'l',[: !1xd ::r. his pll.:t,. f_r:d,; i; 1:e !1:: ::t :IH-
of ,:l:i! Cf FI'P;,,;\;TIcrl'
l;;spo::crk.r. :lmr:;ri.J;-I] Th h }If'rt E\Try
0;)::!y;); .:0f'lf'l;.-,derl g:GGd anri f'lcr. ,
)(,1
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Discipline
of substance, guards at the gates, at the town ha I and in every
ua er e ur th ro pt be en 0 he eo e a d t m 5t
bs ut ut n of he ag' ra 5, also to observe all disorder,
theft and extortion'. At each of the town i ~ a t e s ; there will be an
observa n pos ,at e d ea s et nt eI Ev y y, e
'nte da v' 'ts he ua er 'n ar i ui s he her he
syndics have carried out their tasks, whether the mhabltants have
anyt ing to complain 0 , th y '0 ser t ir. ti s. v y,
00 th sy ic oe in th st et r hi h is sp nsible;
sto s before each house: gets all the inhabitants to appear at the
windows (those who live overloo ing th co ty d II e a o-
at a in w 00 ng nt th str taw 'h 0 e tty
rna show themselves); he calls each of them by name; informs
himself as to the state of each an everyone of t em - 'in w Ich
es ct e ha ta w I b co pe ed s ak he ut u er
ai of ath" if om n do not p ar at the window the syndic
must ask why: 'In this way he will find out eaSily enough whether
ea or sic a b ng 0 eal .' ve 0 I ke u m is
ag ev y e hi wi 0 an e g h' na e dhow' g
himself when asked - it is the great review of the livmg and the
dead,
is rv Ila e ba d a yst m pe a nt gi rat' n:
ep ts from the syndics to the intendants from the intendants to
the magistrates or mayor. At the beginning of t e ock up', t erie
f ch f t i ab nt pr en n t n la' d n n y
nth' do m t b ar 'rh a , a e, sex of eve one, notwith-
standing his condition': a copy is sent to the mtendant of the quarter,
another 0 e ce f t nail, n er 0 ab th sy ic
o ak his ail ro cal E ry 'n ha rna be bs ved du 'ng
the course of the visits - deaths, illnesses, complaints, irregularities -
IS note down and transmit ed th in nd ts nd a tr s.
Th mist tes av co pie c tro ov m ic tre m t; hey
have a ointed a physician in charge; no other practitioner may .
treat, no apothecary prepare me icine, no confe or is a ck
pe n ith ut vi r eiv d f m 'm w' te ot 'w re nt
n ne f 0 0 cealing and dealing with those sick of the contagion,
unknown to the magistrates, The registration of t e patho oglcal
mu be on an c tr ze T re io of ch di du to is
19
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Dan pti 's
disease and to his death passes throu h the represe tati es f p w ,
tIle registration tney make ot it, the decisions they take on it.
I 0 six Jay al r He ..,eglnning 01 the quarantine, the process
o pu . fy' g . Ie . ou's : eye h u A tL i a ta s a e
m de 0 I av ; i e h 0 ern' tu a 0 '. e is I
from the ground or suspended from the air' pe fit e' p it d
arouou tile room; after carefully sealing the windows, doors and
e n e ey __oJ w h ax, th p fu e IS set altght. Fmally, the
e ir ho 'se' 5 'w'liI th p fu e c s e, Los w
have r'lrried out the wo k e ar as h w re n nt ., ,.
the presence of the residents of the house, to see that the did n t
have somethmg on tueir persons as they leftthat they did nor have
o e eri g'. 0 r h ur la r, e 51 n ar alowe to re-enter
tr ir LO s.
This enclosec1 seo;menterl s"ac at v y 'oi t,
which the indiViduals' are inserted in a fixed place, in which the
slightest movements are supervised, In wnicn ail events are recorded,
i w d an un te u ed wo k rit g Inks t e centre and
p ipLer in h 0 r' e rc' ed it' ou di si , c di
to a continuous hierarcpir.allig e,' e h' di'd I i co -
stantly located, examined and distributed among the livin bein 5,
t SIck and the ea - all this constitutes a compact model of the
d ci in y ec an m. Th pI gu is e y rd rj s functIOn IS
t so 0 t er - p si e n si at f e is se w ch s
transmitted when bodies are mixed tog th ; th t C tl.-. e 'I, hi '1
is increased when tear and death overcome prohibitions. It la s
d wn for each lOdivldual \IIS place, hiS body, hiS disease and hIS
d at! h w 1- in, b m an of n m pr en an omniscient
p w tl- t b 'vi s sel in r gu r, ni ter lp d a ev n
to the ultimate determination of the 'nd' id ai, f ha h c ri s
him, of what belongs to him, of what happens to him. Against the
p g , hi .. is a mixture, discip me brings Into play ItS power,
ic is ne f al is A ho Ii ,fa 11 tio 0 h es va gr w
u a ou d he Ja ue' su pe e la 5, ift d ro' bi . on e
frenzy of passing time, bodies mingling together witho t r pe ,
in iVI uals unmasked, abandomng their statutory identity and the
Ii ur u er wI. ch h y d ee recognize, a lowing a qUIte
d' e nt 'U to p ar B t re a Is a oli ::a r m f e
Dl:::cipjiflf!
of guards ;it: the gZltt!E, at the town hall and f::"v'Ci"V
to cn:;llre the :.:ror:l}lt obedience of the ar:d the
.i, jo
ab:tnlt:u' of 'as to (lb,erve 3:1 dis:)ldf.::,
",,d ex to rtio,/ , At I!ach of the ther:: will be ,Xl
"" L" ,. . ,-
nbser'latlrm i,;,:; e:1d m ;;ent:l1:::ls. l:.v(:'ry (:3)': !.:1::
bte;dilnt ... i:;;t:o rll::: .1:: hir.; cbilrgl.::, lnq:.:lre:o 'whether the
sYlldic!; ba'Jl! out their have
anything te corep:ain they 'eb:;erv>: their. acdons'. Every day,
, ::1' ., f' ' L - '! I
lC goes lotC ,cr 'gfraCt! )
stops helen: >:ach housc: gClS :>U the Rt the
windows (th:Jsr: ",he liv::: Gy,:r:ooking the wm be ",!lo-
caced. a wsndGw Ic-oking onW ::he at '.'ibel', nco one
may show them:;elVf!s); hI:! calls ':ach or them by ilame; inD.Jl'iTli
hitmdf at; to die stale Df .each <l!ld tVf:ry one ... 'in
irih:c:bit;mt5 "0 '0 _.--'"-" l J
I" 'f '1 ;! SGme()!1e
::must <lsk. why: 'Tn ihis way
,-,ot appear OIl the windc.\>') the: syndic
fine:. uu ertlHy etlUugh wbe::her
d
, 1 ,. I d' I'
;:ca,":; C' G1C Z are r:elng CCf!Cca e ::p .;-:
. . " '. L ..l I .
cagt::
t
:;Vf;rYOf!(" ;!l, Wlra.10 ,\V, tc) hAS naane Clf:o S
. .
him,e\f whet a!iked .. it is the greet :review of the 2:::ld th..:
dt:::td.
surveiHance is bas:::ci on a. perm::.tner:;:
r",pc:-t:; L'on:. tho:: !;ndic!1 1:0 the ir:tendants, from:hc L'.i!cnd.:mt:: to
the w?gi';::r.3tl:s cr mayo;:-. At t:he begir,ning
of czd: of th(: l:l dw wwr, I:, laW jow;-:, rme
0;-::::; dGcurnent 'the [,ame, age, ,ex of everyone, 1'.Cltwitll
,;;:Roding l:h condnkn'; <-. ccpy is :lent to the in,e:::dant cF the quarter:,
illlotb::r t'J tht: oHk::: the '<)Wl'. hail, 4!':othcr te, enable the
to make h:s dai;.y roil (:.,11. Everylh;ng may be ab5::::v,:J dmlng
tHe cour$'! cf the Visits .- deatbs, ilbts$es, comF,b.:lt!;, irreglliaritie!; ".
is noter:: down ilod t::ansmltted TO the
m;:;gi;)trntes have ... c";-:!.r{)l over medk,,) tre;;,m;:"t; they
have ;:ppoir;ted 3. in cn;:;.:cgc; nCo other F{llcti1:;oncr m,:y
l " . - , ,
t::eat, no apc::neCl:,y p:repare J:;]-::Cl:t:::tnE) no CC-:::lressor V:Slt ;:: 3!e.K
pr::wn wiLham havl!:g rec;;;ived Eorn him aWl'iw:,::: note
:m)'ene I:c.ra concealir:g ar:d deaH.ng with dIOse tiick of kIt CC::ltagiGn,
l.Iuknownto the The of the pathological
mt:st he CETItr;:;;;ze.j, individu;;:
iO:;
i -
P
dilje'i:le 2nd to hi!: de;lrh p'IS5t!!: through the of power,
lb: regislraUG:l thty make of h) ih!! dt('isiG.ns they on
nr six days< ;tIter the beginning uf dw quararJI1:le:, the pr':JCesr;
()fpt:ri(}ring ;:he b)!Jsis b}, :s AtJ! tht: inh,1bil,c:.nts Hre
x':'l.::de to lea'\f"C; in e::.:h room 'the fi"milure good3' ::Ie rai:;ed
li'om thE: ground or :Hlspended ;twrn ale:; pOlj'ted
<tH),mci l!lt WOE":l; f;eaH:ng windows, a,.,J
even tb: keyhole:; v;:th r,he perflHl!I! lSSt!l alight. Fim:Hy, the
er:dre l::: desd while the perfmr;i;' h: cer:n:.:nd; ,,,.ho
1
. -<1 " 1 ;. lr I, ... _", . _L ,I ., . ... ., < .,.' t ,.
I::lVl.. ,,,dnr.U OIH. uk. v,,)t't. a .. ",.,a" . as .. h. r yt.n r.,l - . .<1 ry, In
the pre:lem:e DE tnt: (If tilt! tl) that thl:Y did nDt
on their penC;-l:"i a!i they thl:: thf::Y did nol
nn fClll,' hour5 13:::::;',che: :::1:'e anowe::.l to

'Thill endo:,f:d, segmr.meci space:, ohsen:::d at iv::;:y po.inL. in
;,hith the jndllliduak are in:;f!r::e:d in a llxed place; in
iiiightes:: ilI0'lc:lT:iC:;':IS arE: in 'l/ hkh :3 Jj are recc:"dec,
which <In ul1l:.terruFl5d work Df 7::dt:ng lill};s the t:clure and
. h . I' . , . .,. J" , .
per!!) Hl ",\\,:1;(:11 po,,",,!'er 1$ ( ;;ccorc:;;ng
,:0 it f:OlldnuOllS hierard:,ka,: figl.!:n:) in whkh I:'<F:-h ir;dlvidi.l;:;l is con,
Ill;ln::iy J.oCl:::tJ, distri1:JlIlctl the liv:ill
S
be:;,gs,
the skk and tlv de;td .-. all (his col1sli::utef; a model cf the
d;r,clpHn3.:"'y rr:e.:baDisl!', 'The plague is b,r nrder; irs flll1cdc.Jj is
to Bur::- OH;': ("-ver:/, :-ha.t of
when bodies are InfX'::C: togc;:!!,:,; rhEt e.r th.: evil, which.
I!:. 'W.ht:ll fear and d,;a1:h OVI:!t'C:lfile prohihitklHs. It iiiYs
dO'N:l [:or each indi:viciuai his place, h;s bed}' I his dis:::;!se .and his
.. by l,.)f =If:
pOwe'r r" a ,egcdar, u,-,intern.;pted W1Y
iO the Hlri:fll!te dete!-rnilHltion of if!Jiv!Jud.l, of will'll d:ilr;;a;wri:te!;
of what LeIOl:g; to him1 0fwh21 ha?peru; to hi:'n, the
phgue, which is a rnixture, bring!> l11W plilY its pc,v:l5::,
"Vlhit:h is nne of .... 4.. af festi"."zd
up <lroand the P;:1g:ut:; :mspended 1:1,,/[.; lifter1 prohl.hi lions, the
fi - .'- f ;')-".; ,ty I,, rl'" ,,: ,I' ',N - .... 1::- 't':',' ".' '(
)'_,1..1 G., . ,nb IL,Jlf, JLb .. WI JJO.lL n.,p',L:,
indivIduals abandcming tr,-:::r 51:lClllory iGlentilJ E!ld
\vhkh they had been alluwlHg; a quite
different m app>!ac Em th.:'::e Wl!:; ,,::;0 ::: pa!id{:l!: dn'i>!11 of Iht!
'::97
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Y)is ip"ne
pI 5u , 'n hi .1 . .'a ex cL / v se n ( e 01' cf e "es . v
b s IC d is n n t w tr ns re e(' t \e ,e t ti r:
reuu) io i 0 ve tI s ,ai' st1e ils f ve .,d y l' te gh
m Ii io or th c 1l[let hi a hy th a u d t!-je capillary tunc-
ti --; or: p 71; t "'1a 1,5 t!-jat were nut on and taken off but the
as . g me t to each inclivirlual of his 'true' name, his 'true' place, hIs
'trll e' horly, his 'true' disease. 'the plague as a torm, at once real
and imaginary, of (l1sorder haa as Its meuical and political correlative
discipl1ne. behind the dlscipJinat), mechani .ns ca L at. d.
haunting, memo.")' of 'c t bio s', o. tL t- .af, e, of reo ell n
cr .ne , v ga_o Jaoe, .. es rti ns, p p " 0 PI ar n' d' ap. ea
Ii a d 'ie n "s d
Tfi is ru th t tte I pe g e 'se 0 tu Is f e elusion, nrhich to
a er in ex n p v'rJerl the }node! tor and genera!" form of the
g at ConfineJTlent then the plag;ue gave rise to disciplinary pro-
jects. Tlather than the massive, binary division between one set
people and another, it called lor multiple separations, tndtvic.ualtzine;
distribUtiOnS, an organtzatlon in depth of sur ei .. an e d 0 ro.,
an mtens111cation and a raul if. at n f rm. r. It le
r
er ,va c gf
Up in a prac ic ot reJ ct n, of ex .e- c s e; 'le va Ie' t h'
d IT. in Las ar on.;' ':1i . l i W 5 eI S 0 "ff e ia ; LO
si . tl (ag e' er c gl U' i a Ie . u
l
u ta ic 1 p rtition-
in i w' 'd' 'w'y'.JU 1 d'C(e n' ti ns were the constrictinO' effects
of p w that "'1u1tip1ied articulated and subdivided Itself; the great
confineJTlem on the one hand; the correct trainmg on the OWer.
The Jeper and his separation; the plague and its segnlentations. fI.e
first is marked; the second anaiyseu and uistributeLo. 'L .1e x.e
the leper ano tne arrest 0; tue plafsue uO 0 br g.vi.1 .. eL tL
same pOlitical urea.n. n. 1. st s .1a o. a c u c m III 't} tl
seconJ t .. at f di cil-.in j ci y T oa: 0" e rc' in _ p w
o r .ne f on tl ir re' ti ns of se-ar the'
d g 0 I ix re ....... he .)1 'u st 'de 11 w, ay rs .:J through-
o 'it! h' ra ch", r iJ1 n ,obse':"Vation, urritinp' the town
iJrIl erl by the functioning of an extensive power that bears In
a rlistinct way over all individual bodies - thiS is the utopia 01 die
perfectly governed city. (he plague (envisaged as a possluih y
least) IS the trial in the course 01 vv lIic" one mal d .o id all J tL
exerCise of oisclpltnary poVver . n c(. r 0 .. JaL 6r d a
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Panopticism .
function according to pure theory, the jurists place. themselves in
'mag' ion' he s of n rej i rder see ect iplin
unctJOning, ru ers reamt of Jhe state of plague. UnderlYing dIs-
ciplinary projects the image of the lague stands for all forms of
onf n an isor jus the ge he Ie , cu fro
all human contact, underlies projects of exclusion.
Tare ren ojec hen t no com ible s.
see t em coming slow y together, and it IS the peculiarIty of the
nineteenth century that it applied to the space of exclusion of which
he I wa sy lic i bita begg va nds adm
and the disorderly formed the real population) the technique of
ow rop 0 di . lina art! ing. eat' erst plag
ICt! ,pr ) t th subtle segmentations of diSCIpline onto t e
confused space of internment, combine it with the methods of analy-
icat ribu n pr r to wer, divi ize exc d, b
use procedures of individualization to mark exclusion - this is what
was rate gul by' cipli po r fr the inni
f th nete h ce yin e psyc Iatric asylum, t e penitentiary,
the reformatory, the approved school and to some extent, the
osp Ge lIy kin I th thor exe ing 'vid
control function according to a double modej that of binary division
nd ndin mad nei gero har Sin alia rm
nd of cive ign t, of ere I dis r1 ution (who e
is; where he must be; how he is to be characterized; how he is to be
reca zedi w a tan rveil ce is be e cise er h
in an individual way, etc.). On the one hand, the lepers are treated as
plag iet! the ks . divi lizi isci' es a mpo
on t xci d; a , on t othe nd, e universality of diSCI-
plinary controls makes it possible to brand the 'leper' and to bring
into y a st h the listi ech ms xci n.
constant division between the normal and the abnormal, to which
eve . div' I is ject brin us b to ow 'me,
app g th nary ndi g nd of leper a quite itferent
objects; the existence of a whole set of techniques and institutions
for suri sup sing d eo ling ab mal gs i
play the disciplinary mechanisms to which the fear of the plague
gav se. the chan' 5 0 we hich en ay,
disp d ar d th nor ind ual, ran m a to a er
99
Disdplir:e
,,1'!O'Uf' whil'!. "Ya" "'''FrI, "lJ: Ul'" cr.!j"'.-tive ;-'..0.' < .. '"' " .J "-",/"'1-( "'--, "-' .... '- "' ... "'" '"- '--- .....
L I" I"! ..J' .. '''' "t" 1" 1' t\ .,'"' , .,(
lill .. ,L.le. ul'vL., .. lil"'1 .<I.w:' ll . 't';.C;"sc;'''j tit: 'L ..
.. -, 'J." ." . , .. ", .. .,I!QI 1.'- .. '\' . ,...l. 'l'r d "n'} d,
U::"ll. , .. ,IO!. .. :r1l0 C"'-.:.! . L. ,Hl :, ... :;. {_r3:::o G: !.'.r 1r>:',lb,J ulL
G .
m,:diali.on cf tb:: cOTflDlere hier;H"Chy ilS$ured ::he c;:1)i!!al'v fi):'l,{;
...' .;. .1
of pOW.Cf, masks th;;:t were pnt O!l ;md tai{e:l1 bUl: the
tG each In(hvidllal d his 'true' n3.-:-ne, hir. "me' ph.ee, hi:;
,_1 1 .d, }:<I '. ). , .:\'" , '1:,.,., Ln.' <If.. '. ( . ),.1
. \1 . , .. I. trJC I. I.'. as"" L. prag",- a. a lOfI!l, d .tItce
,.!. , ;_ .. ,_1;l,".io.: i . .J -", ::rJ ,: foC>\
an .... Irr:,lgdbl. "1 'J! '.,.,.HL,(, IIdU d$ L, D.K ,IDL. l1Dllh, .lt I..orr!. .. ilLv <.
..J J :r
di:;ciplin .... Rd:.1m1 lhe disciplinary .:::ar: l.Jt:
1
r j c, L' J" 'j'
,13.'.U-:tlfig memU!',',' G. ;;'onti1gwne) 0, tni':' plRgUf::. p( n,r.dIGnS,
Vaf!;abc.ndagc) de3ertkr.s; p-:::opi-::: who :::ppe,:" and di!'3.?p<':3.!',
livt! ;;Iml dir: in di!,()rdr,.
is tl".H: that the
.i. Ct::ftall'.
:-isr: to !"!tu:.:lt;
the model for and
-1;" ....
lLwn, "u!_.1 to
gefll:!n.I form '':If tl-:.e
r ,. "1 .. I" "
I;';e;-: U'H: p<>gHe g;;v,-: use to {Is.r:!plm.;;ry plO-
Had;er" th: mar.:ilve:, bf:r:.'lry divisinr:.. net7/een one set of
l
' , '1 Ie. ' . ". c, 1"
peop e and :a::ot.::!erj ;:t WI' f!IIIJtip eSI!pal':O;Wlrl!}j !nCl;Vlilua 11.lr:.g
atl G::g;',:'li1'.Hior. in depth of End comrol,
", ..l ' fi' I' "<'1 1 '
an anci a rflffi1 0.t poV:i.r;r. 1
,1P a practice of ::,{ left to
1::'i c.l m,::;s amnng \::u-hich it wa:' to dK,:;e
:,ir.k or the plaguf! '}H':te c;:::ughr up in a mer::uloU5 t;;,cticEl pat:,iric,n'
, - ' .
ing in which IF,.dlviJual ddf;-:r;cf!.timiGns were: the tffe::ts
Df a p0wer ':hat muhip:;ed, jrricu;::,t.::a :md su::divitbf t::sdf; the great
(l" til" (;;<:: hat; . .::); the c:[)rrect IrzJlnil1l!. :11 the other.
.... d -,p"" tl..,- _l.;:..v, ....... \' l ,f'" t:.( f' -1'''1,,,-
1 ,i Ft .. flo . !lS :t! I.-'l .. :<,llt: ,mu 1.
fir::::. i::: m:::'ked: analysed .and The ::-xile Dr
, .
1"'"''"'' p"" ..... - . ,. r 1,1",;,\ ,,1, --":TH!. h; _ - t";","\. +-=-"')1"";'-
,,"I;J ",tl. f.5" o ... h. jJ u" ::<1' ,._'.1 .ag '(l, I.:1 l!!v.!!
dr:::a:. . first is of :i PU!.r t.he
.. d "h" f" J: , . : . j' .\ ... ... - !.; .,' ,
0: a tnet . ..,I.,,,t.:le.y.. wO Wo,)':: Or e-,>i..
olJer of CC1fltrc-U:ng, thdr rr:htiGflS, '.'If lil:'p::>r,,-dr;g 01H:
danR'er.::JUs mi:cul"'::s ;:.:J,:-::ut:-strkke.n ;own. mwen;ecl thWi.lgh-
/I .....
out 'with hierarchy) sOJ.""/eiH::>rKf!: nbsetv::nian, ',v::it:ng; .. he lo\vn
by ihe func::toni"lg G{ an I!Ktensive power::h<1t bears
a ".:ay f)Ver all ; fl(liY:.dila I b:Jriies _. tni:; is the mopia dIe
l
"Jerfect!; v(lv{:rr:ed z-!.tv. The plaglle B,$" nossibiiit.v at.
.J '.) .I... t", r }
:ca:,r) ;:; !hc: Hi;JI in the C:lUfse of whkh on.; may de.fine :.de;:liy the
c)fei.'dsc of po W ..:f. In ode:- to
. !nR
f
Pan OptidSlll .
2,::,:ordingw purl! theory" !:he jm:;ms Fla;:e thr.msdves in
- 'I :--,4 ,-_C"", ..,...._.; ,,,.-"',,,1 ..... (- ' tl"- -_ .. ......... -,(..
lEh::,IlI,IIIO:11L t .. ,,,ate !:!.H'.he, 111 L .. ue. to per e'ut t ..
fu::cdoHing, rulers rlrl:!lllllt cf dlt: titale of '[}nderlyil;g dis,
C::plilii:l.ry the c,f the plague uands fClr 31: f:mns
confw;ion ;md disode:r; j",3t as the i:-:l<"ge of !:::: l:::pcr, ,::1. :)ir fr:-;m
aU COil.:',,:::,-, of exdu;'.ioD.
Tl':c::y lH! dift::r::nt p!ojecls, b:H nm C,',tS. \Ve
'!"' r. f ,,.'l- f'l --., o ... .. .:,,-"1;. ;:r ..... ... , '" ';',4
,e ..: t .,!" tL6,---,\,Li;. anc. '" L tL oJ
'. \. 1 L ",' . I' L
1:!Jflt l1.:a,yp IW tn:' :space of ,::XC,UHOfl (H W l!CI:
leperw,"s the SY:llDOilf; (beggars:,:zgauonds, mldnwn
the disnrdedy fonr:,::d the neal populat:on) the lechr;ique of
power proper ;:0 dhdpHna!}' pnrtilionh:g. '['re"t ':c0e;-:1' ",s 'pI3:!:"e
victir:-;s', project tho., s,lbtle tltgmem:;tior:" 0f r:isdpli n.f: U1Ho d:::
otinternment, i.: Ivith tlw method:; of
. I " .. . . J' 'I ..l 1
tlca ::nll:on pruprr !.O pnWf::f, :nr ;vlduat;u: [ It
\.!.',c of iC.ldi'/idllHliz::tion to I'm.::!, eXcif.1Sion --this what
',\lIS ollerall;d reg'ulari,! by tlbdpli::ar-v Dower [rom the Lt:;finnit:;:'
_ .. '"' [ 4..-.0 W
. Qr in tnl! psycniatdc a5ylull1, ,he
the die appr.:)Ved :;choc::ilwl, .. to SOIT-.:: .::x'eJlI. the
['; '[.j I'" ,.,.":..k-" " th;:;o. r, -":" ,.'1'
.IO.'Ill a ,'p ..... 1)'0' _ . _ c:U"GA .. ,r .. C.'i.t., v_lng 1.._,'\11., __ ,
flmctior; according: a d()l;bk Him::.:; that c-fbinary thvisiull
and branding \'4.3c!:::an:;
alll: that of c!.:crdve i!ssignmrr:l., c:t disrihuL.ion (,)I h,: .. he:
mUH:bt; hew he i!. 10 De dIRracterh,,:d; hew he is lei be
how .3 :;:nm:tant :iurveiHance is t:) be exer:::ised OH:f
l',,;..1 .. r." ., ') 1"'1 tl." ,,', n,'d "-"""'t" r.. t "J"<. ;1,,
,(! a" . "ul, ..ll. .. at .I.i)') et ...... ""H ... :'. de".l LI, .. ";-'_' ,.I '1... e r , ...... ,,:;
" t '''. l' '.J J" ,.,.. ,
vletH-'-"" t,w ..'t .. .. s '''I 'VJi:r:a i'll''"i 'ICC!":''''':! " ..... '--"' ........... ... ..... ',L- . ,.", ' r-'
en 1':h::: e):eiuG .... d; and, on the (Jihe.:: ;,3IH1, 1.1I:.;ver!;ali Iy of
pHn::lry controb ::!lEkes .it FossihIe w br,mo ']l.::p.;;r',.::lo to :-.rhg
... t 1, g';'" h; .. 'fl ..1. '1' -i.. y 1-
1.;.1 0- p a,1 .1 iL!1S .... l!1i , e "I,;) .. , 0 eJ"Clu,,,nr:. ... ,.
constant dl\';!>10n between the ;:'lormEl and the: abnonn.J,ji) tcl\ddch
everr individUal i-; tr:i.::r,s w; b;:ck TO (fur O'tln
applying tht: hh;;ry brand::1!! and (;xile Gr !he l::pel to qUlte
ohjects; ,he e:1.::ster;ce of:1 whdeset of and inSIHut;.:J!lt;
f')[ .rne,:suE"in:?:, and the imo
'.'''' '," ','
the disdplin<:ry mechanisms to which Ihe {If ph;;lle
g,,-ye rise, AU themechaiii:'illlS of fX)W[;S whi;:-;'; even today, ,Fe
di!<pos.:ci <,-round the :rdivid;;:j!, to b,;;'1d him and to alter

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, ciplin
him, are composed of those two forms from which they distantly
deri
Bentham's Panopticon is the architequrJI figure of this composi-
tion know princ' n wh' 'was : atth riphe
an a r bui ; at t tre, a er; th er is ed w
wide windows that open onto the inner side of the ring; the peri-
pheric building is divided into cells, each of which extends the whole
wid the b ng; t ave windo one 0 insi
corresponding to the win ows of t e tower; t e other, on the 0
side, allows the light to cross the cell from one end to the other.
All s nee then, plac uperv in a I tow
and ut up ach c madm pad con ed m
a worker or a schoolboy. By the effect of backlighting, one can
obs from h tOwe t nding t precisel against the light
the I cap hado the of th riphe hey
like so many cages, so many small theatres, In which each actor IS
alone, perfectly individualized and consrantly visible, The panoptic
mec mas spa nides mak ossib see c
srant y and to r gnize ediat y. n sho, reve he pr
ciple of the dungeon; or rather of its three functions - to enclose, to
dep of Jig d to ' - it P es 0 e firs elim'
ates other Full 'ng a e eye supe capt
better than darkness; which ultimately protected. Visibility is a trap.
To b gin with this made it possible - as a negative effect - to
avo ose c act, 5 ing, ling s tha re to
found in places of confinement, those painted by Goya or described
by Howard. Each individual, in his place, is securely confined to a
cell whi is se om th nt by supe ; but
side w Is pre him comi g to co with comp
ions. He is seen, but he does not see; he is the object of information,
nev subj com 'catio e arra men! is roo
op the al to 'mpo n him axial lity;
the divisions of the ring, those separated celis, imply a lateral
invisibility. And this invisibility is a guarantee of order. If the lo-
rna re co 5, th no er of lot, a temp
collective escape, the planning of new crimes for the future, a
reciprocal influences; if they are patients, there is no danger of
:100
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an tici
contagion; if they are madmen there is no risk of their committing
iol ce on ne ot r; i he are ch ch re th is 0
copying, no noise, no c h t t e ~ n-o waste of time; if they are workers,
er re 0 d ord 5, ih t, co tio ,none 0 those IS-
tractions hat I w dow the te f w k, ak 't I P ect r
cause accidents. The crowd, a compact mass, a locus of multiple
xch ge in' id It! m in og he a c lec e ect s
abolished ,and replaced by a collection of separated individualities.
ro the oin f w th ua ian, t is pi d ya !tip-
city that can be numbered and supe vis d' fr th po' of iew f
t e Inmates, y a sequestered and observed solitude (Bentham,
0-
Hence the major effect of the Panopticon: to induce in the inmate
st 0 on ou nd er nen vis lit ha ss s t au -
maric functioning of power. So to arrange thing tha he urv '1-
nce IS permanent In its effects, even If it IS discontinuous in Its
cti ; th th er tio of w sh d d re er ac al
exercise unnecessary; that this architectural apparatus should be a
ac ne r c ati an su ini a ow re ion nd end t
of the person who exercises it, in short that the inmates should be
aug t up in po r Sl uatlOn 0 which t ey are themselves the
bea s. T ac 'ev his' is on to mu an 00 'ttl hat e
prisoner should be constantly observed by an inspector: too little,
or at au is at kn s ms to 0 rv ; t m h,
because he has no need in fact of being so. In view of this, Bentham
aid ow th pri pIe hat pow sh uld e visible and unveri-
fiabl V' 'ble' he' m w co tan y h e for his es e
tall outhne of the central tower from which he is spied upon,
n ifi e: e rna m n er no wh he e b g
looked at at anyone moment; but he must be sure that he rna alwa 5
e lord to ak the pre ce r a sence of t e Inspector
unve ifiable, th the ris er n ir Is, nn e s a
shadow, Bentham envisaged not _only venetian blinds on the
win w f t ce al se tio al ut n t in e, tit s
that intersected the hall at right angles and, in order to pass from
ne ua r t the the) no do b zi zag pe gs, or e
slightest noise a gleam of Ii ht, a brigt ne n half pe d d r
wou betray t e presence of the guardIan. The Panopocon IS a
,',
..c.';,SClp:'Ene
him,,;.:e co::nposed of those rWD f{wrns from, lNhich
..
......... MII"!!.. Y
..
..
Bentham'!; is the of (his ccrnpcsl"
r;cr.. \Ve kr.cw pri:1dple or. whkh it wii$ fJi!i;ea; at tile periphe!) I
, h '1.1 ' I . . " d'}
an s!'lHuiar . mom!!,; ;n t 1e C!:!T,,,;;, ;;:; tow!':r; ::=1.1", tow!':r :.:; pier,:! Wit I
lhal omo the inn,:r 0:[ I:he ring;
phcdc ImUding;;s divided into of wh;"b {x;:md:;
'iHidth of the l:mHding: they ha"l': twc on: :n:,
cow:spor:t!lng to the '1'IttIC!OWti cf tower; th,: Dtiler
l
on t\-:::: {Jut
side, allow!l to (TOSS the:.eH from or.'! r:nd to the
l" l' "1-. 1
,'l..n wat JS neeoe'..ll t ... "n, Jb lu r:a.-:t: a :mpervlbOt ;n ;; (;t:fllr,c;, tOWf::r
:tud to ::hu!: up in each "d! a 11 p:tt:ent] il cOudt!lIlned m,lII)
a wo;rker or il:l:h001boy. By ::he of bac:kligE!1ir.g, one c:m
0bscn;e {:0f:l thr: iUYlct) ')tar:dillg; 0'':1: preci :dy again::t dH: !igh'l
rhe small c::::Jdve Ehdnws ir, rhe cells d ;:he pt:;-iphery.. They an:
lEk.:: ::;0 many flO wallY ,m;;)! illwhic:h
alone, perfectly andc:onfa;;ndy vi!dble.
spatiallmit:ts th:;:t mak(: it pos5:Lle::o !it:t con-
!ltantly ;;ra1 to rccngnb:c b ::!::Orl, it lhc
ciple IDr.- r:bu(!(!or.; or:rali1r.-r OLliS. ... tt:) f!ldr:se. to
.... t.., ,
. . .. I' . 1'" , ! h ')"
-Jt ,ig i'C ,HId to ude - H prt:;I:f"Y'cS 0f:':'1' t ":E tirs!: ;:;HU C Im:!!I"
ates !he Other w'O. Full ;lghtlng and ,he eye of a :mpef"vi50r !:l:ipIUrC
ht:tter dum darkuesH, which ultirnl:.ldy pr:lH!cted. Vi:iibiilty is :.l.
Tn begin with: this made II :l: negati"t: dT,;cr it:
twoir:: swarming, howling masses that were 'to be
j
. j 'i f ,. I 'J: b -,
l)'ilEu 1Il p,:lces oJ conHnemefll:; t lOse pamt'::u y tlOyZ! or
by Howard. El:cb individll:i:l!: in hii hi :;ecurdy t;onliH':d to .2:
which he iS3een f::om the i.'::Unl. by dJt: sl.lpc::"lbur; but the
'1" l.'" ,- .' h h'
til: f: w;;::s p::evem: Jllm rrom cc'r,Blnf, :mo {:onmct Yin 15 COIll:pan
:: .. , H ',.- ,-,' b I ' ',' I L.,. :: I':":!' h)' v-t . f'
; .. ur..s. t. .;: I .. , ",,,el1, U _ L.U ,).,1;; 1-. .... ,' ".1..0 I ... " 0, ,p,." .. L<:.,n..
" ",,- "h:' . .-, ' ... ',r' ,: ... "':'h .. " f h; - ",
IH':":::! ;'! $,l"jt"_! !:I '::;',mn,l.:.::CL.,OH. '" e ;ilT,."gcrcen, 0 1.1 lC'.ffi,
oppc:;it.e the (entIal to'.',::!, ir.:,po:;::s on hil a:! m<1:).i visibiliry; but
the division, of ehe ring, dwm sepill;H:;d tdh, :\HI;:ly a !;Jf.Cl,::l
h"av;:;ibWt.lIf..Ar.d in':.dsibJilY is a Il":.u,,antee (:if ocd:::-, If
._ _J
mac,:::; are COf!Vict8) t1'::;r.;; :$ !'10 '-!;mgel.' of ;;:; plot? an att:en:,pt at
escape, the planrkl,; of new t:rtm.;;s fOl'cilc h:::d
}'ldprm:,,1 jf they aft: th,:crei! [;() c,f
':lOO
PanoJltidsm
.:ontagiofl; if th,::y :ue m;;dmen ;SflO risk of the:! camrr::rrinf';
,: : o' .. ,,...,. , :{ .,' . " --. 'j-h,!j ?', -h,'" 'n
. ,t}J .. n ..> ..... dL ..... 1L. ," .,.f:.L cu '. ru ':' " tic IS L,
::op),ing, no :nohe, no ch:IEe!1 n0 waS1e of 1ime; if they lEe
th::::e an: r'.o ci,():t.!r:r:'i, no theft, no caalitwn:'l, rIm:!: (;f thG5!:
::l0w down the rate of m::lkt l,;s! perfect:lr
,:all"e ;)cddem:l, Th,: crc'wd, ,1 compact mas:" ;:; hx::,,:! cf rnu:;ip1e
. . d' " .. , , . I'" 'I' ,
eX(:=1:Hlf';r'S, :=1 1'y:::H13Hr:i';S mergmg ;:; co ;eeu,,!!,::> ect , l!l
. j'!.l .1 I . J '1" ]. " . J I"
lP;) IS leu l:ep ac.::c :'y a ':C"; f:;:;:;:lon 01. se::,,:::;:;:::( :nill-";';U;J ;;;If::i.
F
. . ,.. ' , d'" I . I I' \.
[Cm t;-o,:: DOliH ot of t;-ot lIlja, 1;::1:", It: H=P, ,:I,:c;C; lya ;'fllI 110 1-
,JI. ':".J, .. . ;
:il:y ca.'::l be numbered and s':Jpt!"l.<1::nl; fi.(;'(llhe point of view c:[
the inm<lte!; by a and Ub:i!!t'I'fd sulit:..:de (Benrham;
6c
H.;:r:.('o: majer of the PRllopticon: to in(:u,-., lfl th::
;1 state of :::In,,::::cil.l!: unci perm:af!-::nt tha':: [J,e ;;utc-
power. So :) ;mang:,: rhi:lgs t:hat the .m':'JI:il ..
iar::::e;s permanent in it; ,f it is discor:tim . .:ous i,: it::;
act:on; p.f:::feGion nf pov.'el' sh,mld lend to :its il.::tual
exnd!::: th,;JI:: rhit; ar:::h:itcclu,ai sh.Juld be (:
E'sraining a pou;er felationincieper:-d"Tlt
cf t>:lf: per;iOE whc ex,:crci:;.es ir:- ::hor:t, ::hat the shoc,ld be
t.:l) ;:: a ::Jcwe! simadon of whk:h ihe\j an, :he
L... ...
be;:;rers.TD 3chkv,::; ::hi::;, it!:;l at O::C1: nluch ar,:! 100 little thzt
p'isoner should b,: observed :tll' an im;ll-t,.:,wr; taG lirde,
fOt" what mi:l!lr,r, r:.f: know:; to Ohsr:Tverl;coe ,[JII1r.h,
b!CaWi!:: he has no nf:ed b Cof heillg 3(". Ir; vi:::w
pri!'l{.ipk chat pC'"""'e, shOl;Jd be visible and l::wer:-
lnl1!;Jte win cO:1standy h;:;ve his eyes
ted I ,)f::hc Co-t:fltn.: te'i,e::- f::om Ivhkh r.:: :s Spt:;r.
lJnyedt",b;e: the i"mate milS::: neycr know wberl"II=:! he is being
hoked ill at anyone (flOmenl:; bill: 11-= 11::, list tH! :iu::e tht he rna y alv/ays
b: 5C. T:: r::rd::r tz, :::ke ,he or absfflc!: of dl':: ir::;pr::cior
ull';fedfic,bie, so pf330ners, jr; theif' cdls, Car1::-<H even "ee ,;
'. !:) L ., l.. .. J .
s::;,,:cO'V, aent,;;!:e'[i ,:r,vlsag;ec not ,om), ver.::t!3r. v::r. S OD
n[ the; 1::::ntr:lE hall, hut, nn the inr-.ide, partidon!;
that iJHt::rs,;:c!):d tbl; hill! <;,: r.igh: ang:::r> ::;:rd) ill order t'J p:::ss
cne quarter t,:} oIher, nOe dOC':5 b-cH zig-zag {)penh',gs; for ,he
!lOisc, n 0f ligh::
s
a in i:! ha:f-op,:e:ed d00r
would i::,et::'(lY th{ pre:lence th,: gt:n:rdi;JI:.
2
The Pilnopt:co,lJs ;:;
2en
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Discipline
achine for dissociating the see/bein seen dyad' in the eriph-
ic r ,on to se with ev eein n th entr
tower, one sees everything without ever being seen.
3
It n im tan cha m, f t au adz nd div
dualizes power. Power has its principle not so much 10 a person as
, act in concerted distribution of bodies surfaces lights gazes'
an nge ot w e in al m anis pro e th ado
in which individuals are caught up. The ceremonies, the rituals, the
ark wh the erei 5 su s po r wa ani d a
useless. There IS a machinery that assures Issymmetry, Isequilt-
brium difference. Consequently, it does not matterwho exercises
owe ny ivid tak aim at rom, op e tI
machine: in the absence of the director, his family, his friends, his
isito eve s s nts nth 45) 'mila it s n
matter what mottve animates 1m: t e curiosity of t e Indiscreet, the
malice of a child, the thirst for knowledge of a philosopher who
ishe vis is m urn hum natu or t perv ty
those who take pleasure in spying and punishing. The more
ume s tho non ous tern ary rve e, th reat
the risk for the mmate 0 being surprised an t e greater his anxious
awareness of being observed. The Panopticon is a marvellous
ach whi wha r us ne wis 0 pu to, duc
homogeneous effects of power.
A sub ion om chan' Iy f a fi IOUS atio
So it 15 not necessary to use orce to cons tram the convic goo
behaviour, the madman to calm, the worker to work the schoolboy
ap atio he eot the erva of re tion
Bentham was surprised that panoptic institutions could be so light:
ere re n ore 5, n ore . ns, mor avy ks; a
t at was nee e was t at tle separ ons uld c1ea d t
openings well arranged. The heaviness of the old 'houses of security',
ith r fo s-li rchi ure, Id b plac y t mp!
economic geometry of a 'house of certainty'. The efficiency of
owe scram for ave as, pa ov 0 th
other 51 e - the e 0 sur of pplica . H ho
subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it, assumes responsi-
ility the nstr s of wer; rna the ay tan
ously upon himself; he inscribes in himself the power relation In
202
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Panopticism .
ic he m an u p YS ot 01 ; h be m t e prlOcip e
of hi ow s bje 'on By hi ve fa, t e er I w m y
throw off its physical weight; it tends to the non-corporal' and, the
re t ppr ch t s ltmit, the more constant, profound and
rm en ar its ffe s:' is p et I ct y at oi a
physical confrontation and which is always decided in advance,
Ben ham does not say w et er he was inspired, in his project, by
V x' me ag . e V sai s: e st en ge in wh h e
different elements are not, as they traditionally er di ib ed' n
a par ( oisel, 104-7). At the centre was an octagonal pavilion
ic 0 he rs 0 c si d 0 y a in e r m, he ing s
salon' on ever side I ge wi do I ked 0 0 0 ve ca s
\the eighth side was reserved for the entrance), containing different
ec 0 an rna B B th m' im, t s en ger ha dls-
pe ed Bu 0 fi s p gr mm 0 th Pa op . 0 a
similar concern with individualizing observation with characteriza-
n d ass ca n, it he ana ytica arrangement of space. The
n tic n i a ya me ag . e; he ni I re ac b m ,
individual distribution by specific grouping and the king by the
mac lOery 0 a furtive power. Pith this exceptton, the Panopticon
so oe he 0 0 n tur st. t ke it ss Ie d w p
differences: amon patients to observe the s mp m of ch' nd' '-
dual, without the proxImity of beds, the circulation of miasmas, the
ec 0 co ag n n lo th cI ca ta S; m g ho 1-
children 't ak it 0 'bl to bs ve er rm nc (. th
there belOg any Imitation or copying), to map aptitudes, to assess
ar te , t dr p r gor s ss cations an , in relatIOn to
or al ve pm nt, d' in is 'Ia' es an tu 0 ne ' fr m
'incurable imbecility'; among workers it makes it possible to note
e pdt de f ch or er, compare the time e takes to perform
ta , d' th y p 'd y e y, c cu te el w es
(Bentham, 6cr-64).
So much or t e question 0 observation. But the Panopticon was
so la ra ry t c uld e ed s a a in 0 rr u xp i-
ments, to alter behaviour to train o'r COrre t ind'vid al To xp i-
ment Wit medicines and mOnitor theIr effects. To tryout different
un hm nts n is er ac rd g th r m an c ra r,
and to seek the most eff tlv on ,T t eh iff en tee ni es
20
3
D;scj:)li::t
m,lchinc Fe:' di;;;;;;e:d;;ring the see/heing :leen i"iY,ld; in the pen ph-
-!ric ring, one is totally seen: without eVer :;eel:<g; in th::: ccntr;;:l
:JIle ::eet evervthiDil e
1o
/er set:n ..
-i ,oJ .>.l
It j" all in:,p0rlcUlt mechanism) 1"0, it t;.lwm2:the,: disindivi-
, ! '" l' ." , .
utEl lZfS YOWCf. H<$ Hs pnfli.::rple :lot 3e fi':Jch In" persn!: l!S
. . ... .." . '"' '1' I'
,n a::ertall1 ccr;:erted. ,::!;stn";:':.mC:1 ot bOG:es, 5uri'::lce!:,
!fl an in!.e!!l:;'! mechanislIl!; prGdu:x the rehtior;
in wh::.:.h indi(l(Juills arc up, The: th; riw<lk, the
m"rks hy whkh Ih,: sovereigr:'5 51::rpbs power war: ar:",
i!; a madunen: that <lr:r:Ul':::S riise:luili-
; ." "'-,
C::;meqlJCr;tiy, h d.::;es not rD2,:tler,who exerci:;t5
POWE:!. Any indivdual, l;llten aln>J::l al: randcnl; Cf:!! r.:::::
(:!ilchine: in ,:h:,eflCf: of Ii!t: dlr::'dOt, his (""':lil.y, hb :fl:end!" his
visatGrs, f:ven b, (Bttltham,(n. Simihdy; it :.ices nnt
maHer whrlt him: til" rudo-;ity !:-:c h,di:cf'.('r.t, thr!
h
.. ..l 1 I' <". , d r h'I'" l
;;:. c ":"': t 11:: t u::.;, i:Gr xno"ne @'}: i1 P I C!iOphErWIIO
to "'ish this museUIllD[ hll1':'I.,1:1 r:,;;wl'c! or th:: perver:;hy vi
l :n,>" '" :.'1 ;'" .. 1'''';,..... "',' ." 'lO)' (',I'll'l''':- ":["1'" ):""I:Jte
.. ,.,. "',", ,_._- t .. ... -,'.1'"0''' ;--" ';:" .1 ......
;-Jume,GUS ,hose and ten:;xmlry ;lX,,, the greater
t.he r;"k f.:-r <he bm,me: rlbcing :il;rpris(:o ;lnd til ..: gr::>lI<:f hh. lInxict;:;
aW2,-:::'1[;S:: d bd::g The PE::Jpt:ccnis a marvelloE';
,:or\<:chin<"which. u:;,: may wl5.":1 ::Q !Jut it to, nroc:..:ces
i .....; l
(f POV,/tf ..
A neal '3L:'::1je:::!ior: hi bo<o mer.hanH.:'llly from"
., !'" d
E Sf, no, w !orce to the ccnvlct to goc
heL:<:im,:r, lhe maJm;m tv calm, dIe 'wr;rker to'NOl"r:, the schodJ:JOY
to application, the Fd'::Ie:nt 1:/ the obsr.rvadon nf the
WriS insrh:utior.!1 be: Eght!
there were no mc.rc Lan, no frlOr;: ch:l:in5, flO mGIe heavy lUf:k,,: ;,:H
tbat wa:; needed ,,''15 t:lat the tpa:;::ions
'.--- .... n "-":)"""':;'IrP ,,' .r'''T''"': :"l'- ... , '11"--;-0."',"' :.
(. .. -,' ,1ft (,. It: ..<,.3 \ .. 11..>., :)1 L.'. C,_ 11. <lA.S _.I.LUt l Y ;,
with (::>[::ress .. lik,: architecturt, {,)uld hy !he :;i:J:plc,
eC::Jr::Jmk of <! eJic.iem:y of
liS (:otls!rainlllg force h<:.vt':, J;::1 a SI:I:;SC, pas:;ed r,ver ,n
sid.;; - c:) thr. !.:ide of ils snrf,:ct: of Ht: wh::: i$
to a fielti ofvI5ib;lity; and who bwws a:;:iUm'::5 re!;ponsi ..
lhc,':oll!;ir:,,: nt!; of pCIWt!; he ,fJI:kC'; them p:a)'
" .. ... ",.")" ;'JP ; ... ;n l'l"l"""!( t: .. nr)'Uer ,<.:11".['01' 1')'1 "'--"'.,.JI,,::'1I.,::, u
t
- ... Jjl Lt .i.; L ...... ..... .......... oj JI. ................ .a,o,_ r'l. - >;,,' !;
:102
Panopticism
wb:h hI! pkys hoth roks; he h::(':::f1H'::: Frinci pie:
cf own :mb;,::ctJem. Bv this very (;3':t, th-:: e:-:rerm:l PO'7/-::f fn2V
j. .-I _. ... ,;
'1 ,'. . 1 I' ,
to t it: : anc) ti':::
.... r
more it appl'O<l":}les tbis ;lir:::lt,c the rnc:-e pn;.f(}u:1d and
ff
.. l'"
permanent a!'/? lL:; It: ]:;; <:. rerpeIC<l, v1Ctr.:-y rn,::t ;;'':O!O:; "ny
;lnd =h:::-h i::: fllw:::ys in 2.dvanr.c.
de":$ nGt 'i\,,f:.t'lh.:r W;J5 f'lspired, til his preli<>::::, by
Le Vatu.':; :rnenageri(! trH: firtit menr.geri.: in whieh the
iHff<:!ent are !10l, E$ they tuciiionally' ',:e;'e, ihule:l 1:1
a park (Leise!, At rhe cer::'r!: tv;,!; an octagcnd pavilion
which, on t'lf: fil':3tflonr, cor,si!;ted of only s!r,f,le 1'(lr,r!J; rh,= kiLg'!)
on every :drlt: h:.rge wir;;1ows looked Gm:) 5c'.te;;
(
I h ' , "LT
t:-::e i"'gl1t:-:: s:::e ,";;$ rC5,:'VCo. !Qr t ,f; Cllill:renl
Ep(':cies of ':::limak By B-!!ltham's time, this had dis
appe;w:d. But one: fhds: the ':)wgrarnme of tbe Panoptico:; a
-;ifnH;;:- c0;)ccw 'with wir.h char.I("I:;:::i:;cCl
.' . :; -:. ,,:fi .... ' th l, ," 1 .' ,,-1,,- ) 7 ,t"" ',., - T'"
,lon anC. . "j .... , . Cl.dOll, w.. Lit .. ;kill.XU" .. " t11 .. Cltlb . c, +,.lLr. .. :-j,;
Panop:ic:on is ;,: royal menagerie; the an!ma! is replac-::ci by tr.,u""
ciis\:rL1:mtic'n by SPf:Cd1C grouping and the king hy lhc
of a furtive ;:.:oq.fct, ,\Vhh e:xcepr'::ltlj the Pancpticor:
aho the work of a p,Jr:;;ib:e te, ora>;'.' 1Jp
dinert'nce:';; ;m:0ng pat:e:;t::;, to ohe.!"','e Eympums 0f eaeh i;;<:11'/:-
j
' .. ,. L ,., "b" . . I" f' l
f W!ii,:mt the 'J! ...cd.s) ,he ct::Cll at::.:m 0 11::I;;'SJT,aS, :ene
I
. .,. , ,". 1 t'. "
0: {;!)nI'ag':cHI E',.e; Ct:::ls:.;al ?H!ong
:::h:;dren, it ma:':'es. pOlslble to observe performances (With-3D t
bdflg ;my imitad:::n or copyiHg), to map aptitud,::>; tc <l3Se%
character:;, to draw up l.'igo:mu.5 da5silicaliom:, and, in r.;:13,io,, TO
rt0r:TIl:i to al:d
h::h:::.:ility'; lJ.mo::g it pGss:bleto note:
the Hptiwdes of 'rio!"kc!", ,x,mpil:-e tilt he "akes to
a t3!ik) and if they <Ire paid l:,y the day, to caleulare their ,,:,:ager:

So the Gf oho::::vatiGr.." Eut the Filflopticon 'vas
3:50 :3 hbora::oryj it could be m:ed,:s a rnadd!:e CZ1rrjf expe:ri-
"".. 1,-,1; . '-."'ha', '0'" t ... , :" ::l',. 'r- .... I' .{: ,'; ,j . )" T., ',n"
rrk;;,S, .d aLe)' 11" .J, _t, _,il",. L,>Lec .n.", .UI>_ .). L,;->,.L
mtmwir.h :r:r;d::':ll1t::'; 3r:2 rno.nitor ddr '1'0 try om di([erem
puni.shm.:nts on pr:sone:-s;, aco:.rding to ti::ci:- ;:.Timcs ar:d charactcr-?
ar:c tos.;:t':k the most efffxtlve ones. To 'tea:ch Jinere;'1t t;:dmic:1Jn
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ciplin
simultaneousl to the workers, to decide which is the best. To try
out gogic peri - a part r to up 0
again the well-debated problem of secluded edUcation, by uSing
orphans. One would see what would happen when, in their six-
teen eigh h yea ey w resen ith 0 boys
girls, coul ify w er, as etius ght, ne co
learn anything; one would follow 'the genealqgy of every observable
idea' e cou ing 'fferen 'Idren rdin differ
syst of th t, rna certa ildre ieve two a
two do not make four or that the moon is a cheese, then put them
together when they are twenty or twenty-five years old; one would
then e dis ns t ould Drth at de ore t
the sermons or ectures on whic so muc money IS spent; one
would have at least an opportunity of making discoveries in the
dom of m ysics Pan on is rivile lace
exp nts 0 n, an anal with plete inty
transformations that may be obtained from them. The Panopticon
may pro 'd n ap us for rvisi 'own hanis
In t ntral r, th ctor spy 0 the e yees t
he has under his orders: nurses, doctors, foremen, teachers, war-
ders; he will be able to judge them continuously, alter their be-
hav impo pon t the m ds he ks be d it
even e PoSS! e to 0 serve the !rector Imself. n nspec
arriving unexpectedly at the centre of the Panopticon will be able to
jud a gla witho ythin ng co led fr im, h
the e est men uncti . An any enclo
as he is in the middle of this architectural mechanism, is not the
dir 's ow f e ent' I bou d p with . > The' mpet t
phy n wh s allo cont to s , the mpe
prison governor or workshop manager will be the first victims of an
epidemic ora revolt . "By every tie I could devise", said the master
of ano!, , "m n fat been nd u me w
theirs (Bent am, 177). he Panopticon u tions kind
laboratory of power. Thanks to. its mechanisms of observation, it
gai effici and e abi ' 0 pen e int n's be
vio nowl folio e ad 5 of r, dis ring
objects of knowledge over all the surfaces on which power IS
exe ' d.
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opti m
Th lag tric to the nop esta hme - t
djfferences are important. They'mark, at a distance of a century and
hal e t form cns the ipli pr amm In t
rst case, there IS an exceptIOnal situation: against an extraordinary
evil, power is mobilized; it makes itself everywhe e pr ta d
isib t in ts n mec isms sep es, mmo zes,
partitions; it constructs for a time what is both a counter-city and
he p ct sty; po an i fun nin ut 0 that
reduce ,in t e nal ana ysis, like the evil that It combats, to a simple
dualism of life and death: that which moves brings death and one
ills wh mo Th ano on, the er h ,m
be understood as a generalizable model of functioning; a way of
efiri' po rela' s in ms he e da eon.
oub entham presents it as a part/cu ar institution, closed In upon
itself. Utopias, perfectly closed in upon themselves are common
nOll As osed the ed ons, red h m anis
of torture, to be seen in Piranese's engravings, the Panopticon
rese a cr ing 'ous e. T act it s Id h giv
ise, n in our own time, to so many variations, projected or
realized, is evidence of the imaginary intensity that it has possessed
orst hu d y . B he opti mu not
understood as a dream building: it is the diagram of a mechanism of
ow duc 0 it' al f ; its cdo' g, ab cte m a
bst , res nce r riction, must e represente as a pure archi-
tectural and optical system: it is in fact a figure of political technology
hat an ust eta fro ny cific
It is polyvalent in its applications; it serves to reform prisoners,
but to t pa ts, t stru cho ildr to c ne
nsa ,0 supervise workers, to put eggars and j ers to work. It IS
a type of location of bodies in space of distribution of individuals
n re on t ne a her, hier ical ani on, isp
don of centres and channels of power,of definition of the instru-
men nd m es 0 erve n 0 wer ich be lem
ed hosp s, w shops, schoo s, prIsons. en ever one JS
dealing with a multiplicity of individuals on whom a task or a
part ar fo of b viou ust mpo , th nop sche
may be used. It is - necessary modifications apart - applicable 'to
II e !ish ts w oev n w' ,w' n a s e no 0 la
'C)' . ,
J'_
3i;;:)cJt<1l1cously to the w:Hk,::rs, to decide which 1:: !he besfo T c-
'1 \ 'I I
out P,:GzgOglci1J eXptli,m,nts - ;lnn m pat::lCILlr 10 ta <I: up 0]0:
again pl'obJC!m of sedlJc::-d edilC<1rioll) by :,3ic:g
orpha1l:;. 0,:-:,,; 'Ilould see what would happen when, i!1 their ::ix
teenth or eightu:nth year) they ptesentedwilh boys Gt
gids; :::0uld whet:'e:, as 1'{dvei!U5; :hought
1
Rnycr:e could
:eam onl: f;=,lluw 'the ge:1::a!ogy
id e;,l , ; 'JDe ccdd bring up diffe:,ent chiic:,en ac()rd:"g to different
r.yr.tcf'!,;; of thought, belir.vr. dlat two and
two do l,at four or thar. the Hille,,, if, a ciJf:e'1t', rh,::';
wher:. tllt!y ::>7C cr ye;;n:
::h("r. have dlilt,vCH.l;':i be w")rth :!I gre;;:; deal more
I I l
. 1. 1. "
L ,t: SerTIlOES or ectul'cS on w :,C '!l'.le,; rr.oney "peHl; One
wuuld hl:lVe at ;l" (lppG::tt..:nity making di!;:::overie!; b
dOm;;lZ"l
exprriments On mrn, and amdysing
:rnay ohralfltd
i5 :1 privilegr!d place for
coml)]e:te certain!\! ;:he
, ,
then!. Tbe
F<l,;Y eVe:: provide an apparaim: t:.:ptr,rhh:g rywq mechanism!;.
,his central the director spy 0;; an the empb)'e':s
he h;J!i :'lIIder :'is nnJem: r.:.use,,:, do("wr:,ll fcr::m::f:, t:::;r:n::r::;) W<lr-
ch!rsj he will be able te. judge th;:G c();ltir:.'.ww31y, a;::-::r thei:::' be-
, upon ti:eiH rhe mc}:0d:, hI':: lhh'lb and it " ...m
even be ":){)ssihle iO:Jb!;e::ve d,e dln>:::ur h:rmdf Ar!
, . J" .' I . ." h 1!
anlvmg III1e:q::p.r:tel;'j,,:t cen::re m tIe: ".r.optlcon -;;::1, ".e 30W to
jUdge ;;t a ghfHX. ,vithGHt :;;-.ythbg bdr:g wf.-:r.<lled li:om him, hour
: C''', ,." ";:,, L "" l-" '"t.' " .. i"; :,' "'"' ,'. "I
t,h :::.::.1, t.,t,':::";:I:oun.uH 1_ .,nt. lU::::ll::' ::l an.r c.::::;e, i.I :'.u::;eu
,,'; he if, ,n the mid:dl: of this mect!anis:r;;., is nN
dirr:-::;,,'s D'i"i;-, f:;tt: emi;-dy bOWld :;pwith it? The
phy:kian ;'lh'J ;':;;'s ,,!iO'.1!ed conr.agi'JTI to spread, the
prison governor Dr' '1I':lr];.shop managerwHl bt thp. fin:. Vietir:,3 Qf:::i!
epidemic 0'<1 revolt. ' "By every tie I could cev::;e") the masre:'
('. o .." r -.l' '; h '1..
(')l. f:1f' ,fwopn::-:oD] my r,-.;;;n lal:::-: :1,,> . .:xml1o up ,y Wltl;
th,:in" , 1'7'1). Tht! P;;noptktxl ::IS a k:ml of
JaboratDry of power.. T'h:.mh to. it5 met:b,;n'sms of ot.so"'rvatlori, it
:W,4
to inw men's ht!ha-
....<, ( "owel' di;"c'lVer'in!" (. ............ ;,.. 'I -,).... ":, " ....
the 011 which po\\,/f:r is
Panoptkhm
Ti:::, tcwn. aanoDtic cstab!ishmerH -
,'}
6ifTen:[I:e!; <:1e They mark, .:: dist.::n:::e of.:: :::entury
1 n .,. ''''t' J',,,' \.... ,"'''' r J ,,'
r. ,..,.:) {,ll" ,L1:l:\".m."J!",,(l .. , 0 .,";. u::."Jp 1l.,a"iY progl"mmt .. ,n t lL
!' h' ..... ..
,Est t er,e '15 :;;.n exception:,]," agamst extraOtC:'ERty
power :, i1t makes, ::tself
it il:,:;,nit; ne,,," mechanbm::; il1: stpnrates,it immohi:h,e!l, it
part::ion:;; it for a ::imew'hat i:; both;:: cC'3ntercity :lnd
l'., " " I (" ., h
tn, pe, H imposer, "n :df::,l Dut one:: llt :'"
c'cr.1H:ed; in the [-m;J: analysis, Ilk.: r1:1:t: :-hi:l!. i: .:-."1mbar:;, ':') i! -::i:-:;ple
dualism of ;iJ(! and de,lth: th;l1:: whicbl ;;love::; brings clcrnh, and ':)he
J
"j h . " 'L h l'
5 t ,at: Wi!:C[l f11C.Yt:s. 1 i!e 01; t!le o::lIer anL,m:"t:
heunde1'5tood a cf fur:cdnnbg; a W2.j' of
PC,;:'::f :,d:::.tiofl$ :n ter::l$ of ::lit! evel.yday life of ml:[";.
Ih:n;h;ul'l pn:seflls it ;J!j H panlcd;;r ;f:stltHdGn; dG-::::d in uP::>f)
'1,,,1/' t},' ".j:- l, ,,,:, ;," . :...- v ! .. ", ' . -
1 .h.... . ,J)}Jlas, pe[ . .;:,ct) "",,0 1. "I '.1pon t",:'LLt: 'f .5, t:;t: . .I,H;:"):,
enough .. As 0ppmed 10 pdsnn;, Etter:'.::! 'with rnechanisins
of tGrtL:n!, to be seer.i!l Pir.m,;se\ engr.::ving5; P.::;;optiC(Jr;
present; a ingedous C<1i-:e. The f:lct that it;hould g:vtn
rVff! i.;"1 t: f!IC , tG tiO J;1iJflY Jr
I d
"d - I' . . . , .. .
re:a ::IE IS, tVl (!nc:e Ot tle ,magtnary mtef'.sIty nEt Et l"Ji1S
[or 2.;iIHJst 1\':0 hU!!il'cdycaf:i. Rut Pallc.p,ticon ;:nU!it nc t he
w-;:lertJtcfxi as a d,e<:fn hlxddinf:;: it :s tbe cliagrarr, Ej{:::::3r:i5,1l nf
powC"r ::,) 1t:> i<lr;;;J form; a;:.,>rractec:l fwm hny
Of must repr-::sented ;E5 :3 ?ur::
t;:I:l':lual and c:ptiCtll :;;ysterr::: it i" in a fig",!:!, nf polll:cal tcd:nology
that may lfd m;Js:t detached from any specif;,: me,
I: poIY"';JleIl1: in it !:it:,.;r& to rrform pr:S(XKrS,
als0 t(', treat p<:Jlem:1) Ie lht
insane. tG ciJjllervise wotkers. 111;:1 and idler:; w werk. Ii is
i' r ,
;:I type of loC:<ltiol', of hClii,:$ disrr:hi..H;on :)[ inri:vidu;:;:s
, . } , "I ,. f..1' ,
m relat;:),h to ':-;W: ano:: !.er, oi ll1er;;!C,,:I(:a orgatllZatK'fi, 0 'lWPOSl-
of and chEnnds c:t power, of of ;:1$:: l..!-
r);'::,:.::o and me:.k:; of nf ",hkh be imptcTnen-
hi hmp:rds, werksb':JpS,iChcob, F!'i:::ons. Wr:.ene:er oue ;$
del,::nR w!,th a Illu:tiph.::ity nfilldiv:ciuals (lfl 'Ii/hom a ;;;sk ('7 ;l
I . I
tcrm ot Ceta"llOL!! f11Lltlt De ImpCI'Seu, t ie i=1l:'lOptlC !,C
may b"" W;f:J. It - ller:,:!;saL'Y rnodiiic:aI'iC'I!S apan - npi=,;j-::"bl" '20
eu::!uHshmellf,'iw!:at::oevel', in ',y!ihi:;, ""pac!! lC:O largt
:Wj
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cipl
o be vere r co and y b ngs urn of p ns a
meant to be kept under inspection' (Bentham, 40; although Bentham
akes pen ntiar ouse his p e ex pie, bec it h
many different functIOns to fulfil ...:. safe custody, confinement,
olit d for d lab and i struction).
In h a app ion mak t po Ie to rfec ex
cise of power. It does this in several ways: because it can reduce the
urn of t e w exer it, Ie i asin he n ber
those on whom it is exercised. Because it is possib e to intervene at
any moment and because the constant pressure acts even before the
ffen , mi es 0 ime ve b com ted. caus the
conditions, its strength is that it never intervenes, it is exercised
pan eous nd out se, i nsti s a hani who
effects follow from one another. ecause, without any p ysica
instrument other than architecture and geometry, it acts directly on
ndiv als; give ow f m ov min The nop
schema makes any apparatus of power more intense: it assures its
con y (in teri n p nne tim t as s its caci
by its preventative character, its continuous functioning and Its
automatic mechanisms It is a way of obtaining from power 'in
ithe un mple uan, eat ne nstr ent
government; .. ; its great excellence consists in the great strength
tis ble ivin an stitu it be ght per
apply It to' ( entham, 66).
It's a case of 'it's easy once you've thought of it' in the political
phe It c n fa be irate nto fun n ( catio
medical treatment, production, punishment); it can increase the
ffec this ctio by b . g lin clo wit it c cons
tute a mixed mechantsm in w Ich re adons 0 power and kno
ledge) may be precisely adjusted, in the smallest detail, to the pro-
esse at a 0 b perv ; it est h a ct p orti
between 'surplus power' and 'surplus production', In short, it
rra thi in hay th he cise po is n
ad de on from the outside, ke gid, vy strai, to t
functions it invests, but is so subtly present in them as to increase
heir cie by f in sing ow oint co t. T
panoptic mechanism is not simply a hinge, a point of exchange
etw am anis f po and unc ; it i way aki
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Panopticism
ow re tio fu tio in fun ion, an f ki a nc n
function through these power relations. Bentham's Pr face 0
~ ptic op s h a 1St 0 -the ene t5 to be obtained [rom his
ns cti -ho e';' ilio Is or d - ea p ery -' dus y
Inyigorated - instruction drfJused -public hurthens lightened - Economy
eat ,a w ,u n oc t go an no [t Po -L s
not cut; but untied - all by a simple idea in architecture t' (Bentham,
9)
Furth.-rno th ar ge nt f thO m hi is ch ha 't5
enclosed nature does not preclude a permanent presence [rom the
ut . e: ha se th an ne ay me nd erc in e 1-
tral tower the functions of surveillance, and that, this being the case,
ec ga ac ri 0 ew in hie he rv an isp cds d.
In fact, any panoptic i titu' n, en' fit' as igo us cI d
as a penitentiary, may without difficulty be subjected to such megu-
ar d c sta in ect ns: d toy b the pp te ns c-
tors, but also by the public; any member of society will have the
ig to me d w h ow ey ho the ho s, ospita s,
factories risons function. The is r' k, h ref re, at e
Increase 0 power created by the panoptIc machine may degenerate
'nto yr ny, he SCI na m ha m III e mo tic y
controlled, since it will be constantly accessible 'to the great tribunal
om itt of e rid T P op on, ubt ar ge so at
an observer f!1ay observe at a glance, so man diff re ind' id Is,
Is na s ery ne to come an 0 serve any of the observers.
Th see' g ch' woe or of rk 00 in w ch
indivIduals spied; it has become a transparent building in which the
xe se p er ay s erv ed s ety s a h
The panoptic schema without disap eari as uch r 1 . ng ny
of i pr pertles, was destine to spread throughout the social body;
'ts ca' n s be m g er 'ed un on Th pia e-
stricken town provided an exceptional disciplinary model: perfect,
bu bs tel vi nt; a t d ase ha ro ht eat, p er
opposed its perpetual threat of death; life inside it was red ced to
ts pte pres n; wa, ag nst t e power of death, the meti-
cuI s e rCI of he 'ht th sw d. e no co on he
other hand, has a role of amplIficatIOn; although it arranges power,
alt ug IS ten d t rna it re on IC d re ec e,
Dis::.plille
t(l b: covered or by a mIme=::- of ar;"
W ker-t under inspe;"::10t;' J:C); although 'Scllth3:Tl
take's tne peIlite:r;:tiary nousf: his prime tx;mpl,!, it is bec;;.u!';,: it h;::s
d
' a:. (' ." " ,,..' ,.. .1 fi
H!;>ny . !);i;,;:'ent to IU;;l: -' S:O,:'; ClJ:iw::JY: lllen1f:nt,
laiJe'Jt ai'lct
:b eich of its 3pplicaticni, iI: makes to
. f y, h" . ,
c.;;c (J _ power .. It does t \\1;;YS: i c;,n
numb,::r of th)!1; who exer:::i:le h, whli.-:- incr:::;;sir:g
tho::;; on :r is e.xerc:sed. B"'(:;UlSco it j" pc:ss:hlt: to btervefie :1::
or,y ITH::mer,t and beC3.u;:E die constant pre:;SL:fE ;;.etG even
orcrir!l::::; have bi:en cc-'-'Jrniu:tJ. in
str:::ngt:h r.h:;,t it !nrr.r"lt!'-!(!s* i:1 exercised
,lnd '"ithcut lKllse
l
it consti':mes :a'1;e:char.ism ,;,;hn!,c
. 'I f h I' . h " ,
' .... : r-;Wi.:-Jm u' fl(:' r. w:- .,'," 'I "n" .fjC'YSl("ll - . ..,} w iff --'0- _ ".. ( ""'J c_ C J ".J (l ...f t .',
. .,. , , 'd' I
otill':! Ulan 4,cllltect:.!!e :mcl gf:omt:try, it . l::'crl: Y (In
i:-,d:vidU315; ii, ghes 'power of m:nd cv:r mind', pal'"::Jptk
.. e ,
,:!ly or pO'wc:- :non: m::'!IIS,:':. lr <L:,sure:> Wi
(in m:.w::rial, ::31 perscZ1ncl, in tim::)j i;: aSt;:Jfes its
j
C'h_
t Cn"i'Ecter; continunm functio!ling
"llwmatic It is R way t::btainh:g power
hithert,:, qU<:iltity', 'a great tIeil;;,
. ,. .. I I
gG"' ... ;. -; exceUC':1_Cf: ln t H! go;:-cat 1
it is capahlc: 01" giving to it ['I;'Y he P:'op<', I.e
apply it ::0' (6),
3, cf easy =+oce thought d it' In the pc.litical
sphere. It lin [a.:t be iUl0 :my [Ul:':.:.iOI; (:::dw:.:ai:un,
., , \,' h \'.' I
mcalca: proa::;,,::lOH; pums .rDcf:t;; 1t Cl:i"1 mCI',:flr.e tie
effect lhl ftH1.Ctl0l1" by t..:l-:lg Ii"k:t:d clo!i:::)' with
a El:xd medHmisrn ::1 wh:::h U:tuiOl::' :)(p;IIi::r
may he djusted. in the $mallest deta;:, to the pro-
::hatJre LI he :mp':)',.Jj:,t':d; 1:: con eSci<1hlhh a di:-ect pr0pon!0n
betWEf:,1 '5lEplus p,::Jwer' "nd pr;;.:1uction' .. If! short, it
arr<l!lges thkg:: k, 5uch a way t::la of puw{;r is not
.. J d ,. I " t l't . " .. .'
't; un i a l'"lglG} C0i1!'itr-3;!;Cit; 'to
it tnvc3ts: hut is :;:J :mbr.iy :,( them,::;
dldr dfieiency by it5elf increasing its own poin:t; o(
panoptic meCh'lHism is nor sin':ply <1 a point of exchange
t,,:t;,'e::e::n a n',cd:;lr:i,l!J of power and a h is a wav ct
.lu6
Panc:)rid!;m
a hmctio!L aDd cE :11aking, d fu nction
, '.
...
:!unctlc'!1
fUJ::.('don th::ough the!;e pow;:;: rda/lom:, [\'ct.1co; to
Pa71opcicon cp':"'S with a list oftbc ,0 be otlt::dm:::i his
'klm!.!!j' ... AarltA prt;.f/!r::,eJ .. inll/i.:!I)'
., 1 c 1'ff, d I.!' 1 , 1'; ;'-'
YJ)-'l.g-otaf:?t1 .- In.rtr2J.Cr:t::r" "-Sf. .. }}"!..-f-... iE .. ' tll.trt/!t';r .... (J.i.g,.':!.tener: -"l:.!:onorny
st3r';:ci; 33 it were: :;pon a nJck- thc gonl;::n knot: ofdle PDOl',Laws
not (ut; btu untied -. aU by a sImFI;.: idea :!l 3,.d:irccr:;;:,c [' (Bc!:d:arn,
J
Cl ':0
'-
Furthennnie, rh:: :1rIiIngnYlf::nt of +i:> machine i> such Ih:::J Its
nat'.ue not preclud::: a P::::ffiilHcut pre3enc:e
we have: 5f:f:n "hot anyo!!e may come ?na ill tht: c<:n-
Ir:al t(j'Yle::I' the:: fUIH.:tk'!l$ (if sUlTt:JlJanct:, ,:,ml thai, thIs heir::::; the c?se,
he C;il1 :::aiil a cb;r idcB of the wa'v'b which :lu:tveiU31,,:'i: is oractiscd.
o.,J Ji
b . any evr,n if it h as closed
a J;eni:tentiarv, may without difficult', be W fiueh i,Te:)u-
4- "' ,).
h:: and !nSpecdells: ami not only by the clppc.ilnted impet>
tor!), :but (IJ$O by the p:Jblic; nny meml::::: ot' w::l h;::vf::
fight ro ane :,ee with his n-.;rn he'I'" the schoc,h,
l;,ct('Jies; pri:;oos Th.':re is no ri::lk, tbat the
iEcn:2:se cf pmver cr::ater:i by the p:3nopric r;)3CUne !1':3y
into t,/::Hnl:'/: the d:"dI}I;:l;;:ry :'!Jc:d:;;:nis:nwJIl be 1:lemGcf':.dt:tlllv
.. -". .",
con:rolle:l, !;inc:::it ",m h:: cO'lscantly 3ccf:st;ible 'w ,he grez.t trihL"lZ.:
comn,ittee 0:: the ''1'or:d', 'This mbtly arnlflgcd so that
an ob$erl'er may ob;et'v,e, at a glance, flO rr:;:my indivH
er;;;t.jt:s t:ve:-yonc to r.ome (;Jlti obscrve ;;r. y ;; f
The seeing rnaeh:ne was ,::mr.e a SCott of dark roon') inlo wHd':
ludi-,idua\s it has become a lram:l;;rc;lt Lllild:::g 1:: whIch
he by dr-;
Tb-: p;1r;.JptX::: schema, Wi::hOU1 as sueh or aT,y
c{ delt1ned tel 5pread thrnughou:: the social body;
iO b::t:e:;ne ::: ge:::;:';:'dlh:ed [lll1cticlll. 'fhe plage,:,.
scrick":l1 town pIc,vicied 3)":. exc,f;pticni:l c:sc:i?lir,::t;:'y :neG.;:::
::tbsnluto:iy vic:cr,c; to he di:;case. th,:t hrOIlg.'H oeal;', PO""'I::'
opp05ed its threat of dc"dlj W;: ;::::;,<3(' it ')I'll:; n:<:h1:uJ I:,
: ts simplnf i, t:':e pnwer nf de;;:.:l: the DV"cj
of the right of th.: The Panopticc", o:l:he
olh,;:r'l,:nd, has a of arnpfific:;:,l;J(lI::; ailho,-:gh !c <'lHi!ngcs pow::r,
illthough:t is W milke h :UUH: :::cn!lofnic 3:1:1 more efli:ct!Vf,
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isc' ne
t d so t fo ow itse, no r t im iat alv n 0
threatened society: its aim is to strengthen the social forces - to
ncr e p duc n, de op ec, om spr e ad
raise the level of public morality; to increase and multiply.
H is we 0 b tre he in ch way at, fr
impeding progress, far from weighing upon it with its rules and
egu ion, t ac ally cilit s s pr ress Wh nte fica
of power will be able at the same time to be a multiplicator of pro-
uct ? H w w po , b cre ng i orc be e t ere
those of society instead of confiscating them or impeding them? The
an ico so on thi ob is t th ro tiv cre
of power can be assured only if, on. the one hand, it can be exercised
on uou in e y f nda ns so ty, the ubt
possible way, and if, on the other hand, it functions outside these
ud ,vent isco nu fo star ou up th
exercise of sovereignty. The body of the king, with its strange
mat I a phy al p en wit he f e t he sel epl
or transmits to some few others, is at the opposite extreme of this
ew hys of we pr me y p opt m; e d ain
panopticism is, on the contrary, that whole lower region, that region
f i gul bo, t dIs, ir !tip mo me
their heterogeneous forces, their spatial relations; what are required
re ch sms at alys dist uti ,g ,S 5, mbi
tions and which use instruments that render visible, record,
iff ntia an am re: hy sore on od ubi
power, which has its maximum intensity not in the person of the
kin , ut the die at be div ali by esc ado .
At the theoretical level, Bentham defines another way of analysing
the cial dy d t po rei ons at ers ; in rm f
practice, he defines a procedure of subordination of bodies and forces
ha ust rea the Iity po r w e p USl the ono
of the prince. Panopticism is the general principle of a new 'political
na y' as bje nd d a at re ons so eig
but the relations of discipline.
ce rat tr par , ci lar ge, i th hi to ,
powerful and knowing, may have been for Bentham a project of a
er di plin in tuti bu e al set t to ow w
may 'unlock' the disciplines and get them to function in a diffused,
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Panopticism
multiple, polyvalent way throughout the whole social body. These
disciplines, which the classical age had elaborated in specific,
relatively enclosed places . ...., schools, workshops - and
whose total implementation had been imagined only at the limited
and temporary scale of a plague-stricken town, Bentham dreamt of
transforming into a network of mechanisms that would be every-
where and always alert, running through society without interrup-
tion in or in time. The panoptic arrangement provides the
formula for this generalization. It programmes, at the level of an
elementary and easily transferable mechanism, the basic functioning
of a society penetrated through and through with disciplinary
mechanisms. .
There are two images, then, of discipline. At one extreme, the
discipline-blockade, the enclosed institution, established on the
edges of society, turned inwards towards negative functions:
arresting evil, breaking communications, suspending time. At the
other extreme, with panopticism, is the discipline-mechanism: a
functional mechanism that must improve the exercise of power by
making it lighter, more rapid, more effective, a design of subtle
coercion for a society to come. The movement from one project
to the other, from a schema of exceptional discipline to one of
a generalized surveillance, rests on a historical transformation:
the gradual extension of the mechanisms of discipline throughout
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, their spread throughout the
whole social body, the formation of what might be called iil general
the disciplinary society.
A whole disciplinary generalization - the Benthamite physics of
power represents an acknowledgement of this - had operated
throughout the classical age. The spread of disciplinary institutions,
whose network was beginning to cover an ever larger surface and
occupying above all a less and less marginal position, testifies to
this: what was an islet, a privileged.place, a circumstantial measure,
or a singular model, became a general formula; the regulations
characteristic of the Protestant and pious armies of William of
Orange or of Gustavus Adolphus were transformed into regulations
for all the armies of Europe; the model colleges of the Jesuits, or the
of Batencour or Demia, following the example set by Sturm,
Disciplir:t
it SJ Dnt }lower itself: HOr fGf Ihl:' immr!oial;: of a
. , , L" , n
3ccl:ety: It!i ;,.,HI 33 1:0 5tzcngt]!en !JOCla! torcES '. te.
increase plorkcdon,w develop the sp:eiold education,
rals': the:evd of public morality; to k:creust "DC fE::hipJy_
r' , f ,. h r '
dow 15 power W Dr, $UenW,lenf';l Jf: $1.1(:.1 ;1 war:: at; jtlf ircm
im pcdi:"g {'Ir fi"om weighiIlg '-lpeG i:: hs l'-lIES
!f:g!11aio;1::, it ;)ct'-l3Hy r:uch progr:::;s? 'V/hal
of Ji)'J',Verwill i:.ble at the 5an:l-: tin,., to bc: a !i!,Jtipl:i;awr Dr pro
duniel:? He,,-' pGwer
J
by ittl {;)::cesj be able lC b,,:j'ez,:>c
tJ.'lc,se of sGdetyins ted of !'h"m or impeding them?
PUHGpdcor;';; wlur::)H to this pwhlr;m that lJW pn:ducliv.:
of pcnvet can as:",ncd only if) on ,he o!,e h'J.;lci, h caE be {;x{;;'c.b:J
::.:or:.dm.:ou::.l V ihe '.'elY J0'-!ndal!0nS of';cdet)'. in :::tIe
., ,
p)!;$:blc! -,,/a),., and if, Dlher hand, Ii: outsicie the:;e
$\,drienjviD)er:l:) dis':Dnt:,",UDU5 forms that are ht:'tmo up with thr:
. f ' "['h I . f' .. "l '
r.;[t::tC:1S::: (l Joey 0 tr:(: k:ng, 'it:,,! In stra"gc
and physical F,cser:cf:; 1;vitil the fore!! that deploys
or traHsmits::o som,:: few ::Jthcrs:. 1!l at t1::': 0ppo51:;{; :,:Xlf',::ll1e G[ tith;
new phys:::::; Df pcwer by dC::-nidl of
P:3I1optlcu;m hi, 0n cc:r1trlzy, tim! whoic lower dB, regic,n
of witil their detail:.) the:,! nmltipIe
their b:1:,;rog,:r:.,:ous their :;pati:1i :rdwdnn::;wha:: ,<t'(: fe:.}uir:,:d
;He roar dl,,:r;hmlon!i, gaps, series, cmn!:dna
dons; ;3.n-::1 Idlich use i.:r:lS.lw::nf::nts "1-:",, r;;micl:' ,ecGr=L
d:rretenti:lle ,mJ a physict; of a relational ?o:HI ml..ltiple
power; whj,:b has b, maXirn'lllll lnl.er:t.ity the person uk the
ill;:: in ::he that can r:e ir.dividuali;.ced C)' the!4t! re1atiom.
At tht:oretical kvd., Benlh;H),; defines another way Df
" I'" " l' I . .
t!'1e scoa bOdy aHd ,He pc.,;;,':,;r r.r.di.0m t l:at tr,:ver$t;: :It; 0;
pra<:tke, hI! definf!!; 3-. pnlcedure of Sl)lbO!di:<ation of bodies a:<d fc,.::ces
It;a!: must the of pew(:r whHe fJraed:iing die
of thf: Vr;':J:>:. Pancptidsru is the gener:tl pdndp:;: of a ne'.'! 'p:::i!tkal
.' h' " I I' l' '
an,Hc:my 'W!j;lf,C oeJect aD;l t!lG are !,;l( I:.'; ::-e atlc;:l.S ,:Ii 50verelgnty
but the ,dollie,,:; (If discipline.
The ceiebrated
J
trampa:n:!Ht; drc:Jbr cage, with i:s high towel',
powerful ard [fj?O)' have been Eer,tham a pn:.ject of;l
perift disciplinary but he also !let nlll !.O r;fww how on('
, 1 .\., l :I" '''. . . d I . f ....' .. 'T ' 1
ffi.,y \Jr.. 01:': tHe (;sclj}:Jncs dE get: t ;:::n1 r::: .. m a "Hl.use'l,



1 ctEupt!,-!::dT,
,uay:hrrlllghG.,:.t the
, the
relarh,.;:i.}, enclos::d places ,-. b21nacks) schods, -- and
ir::lpielllent.ljoll had !magir:ec: or:l y th:: lir:':j
:;Gllt: of ,; plagt:e,st.ricken tow:r:, Bentbm
, in!:o :1 netwerk of mech:.;nkms rh3t would be
always akrt) sockty 'wi:J1OL:thter;'\Jp-
lic', : n :H' if to.me. The panoptic
k.r thd genera:,:tLa!:loll. It progsamr:lf::s, at thc: level of an
<Iflt! eil::.ly lrandi:rab:e mech;mi:mL the
of a
" s
two
v:i ,\,
a
of pc-,:':;:',
mol':: dkci'lve, h de:'<ign of subtle
come, The movement one project
te ::me of
Gn a tr&E3f;)rn1ation:
alld dght.::er:th
whc.i.:' sodal body the fc.!:"mati.::m of w-n<;1: be in gfilcr;;!
the disdplinary society"
A .,vholo:: dis{;lplit"!ary ge::'lefali:!.dL!011 - tho:: Bc!!l1!di!!ik c.r
.," ",l,'!l"",:wd" .. ,',,,,,; "1- - :,-.u: """" ";e'::
...... "''-r _.;l\"" ... .... VI' ........ b ........................ '-'" ............ ......... ...... .r ....... _ ... ---
. h ." I "'" . ,'" , . ' ",
tnroug tae age .. 1 ne spre;JG at
nr:twe.,.k w,,, br:ginr-ing to nrV':-;r iin ;:Y<'r ;;:rg"''' fi,;"[a:::::: ann
o':-cuf'ying above all a lc..,s arid kS5 mafgir;ai p'::-'5i::ion, ::c,t::l", t,
::his: what W,H aE l:;;'::j a a eifcum3o"tial m';';'Silff,
or a singula model, bEcame a general formuia: regulati.:H1s
of the Prote!ltant auJ Dlous armies 0f V!llb,-';} of
Ora:-:ge Of of Gusta'/t::s Adolpht::::; ',ve::-e r:,:g!lbiiu:l:O
tor .,:: the d Euw;)'" the r'v,cle! C',::u.yg", tt'e J",,'''i*-' c"
... ..... .. ,II.); ., ...... , A. ............. ....,n......... p.l __.... '" ... ...... ......... 1- .... , .6. ......... _
'" h :- H ,-f} : i' h" . :Q r:" ',,, '"
,)C oc, ... (j" _ CJrq3.? .. 0._ l oil.," i!-,n,pmp--,,, __ ... ......
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DlsclOhne
-provldeJ the outhnes lor th 5e erJ :OI.n 0': lu a 0 al d' -
cioline; the ordering of the naval an" IdjJ at! 2i I p 0 'd d
the model tor the entire reorganization Oi hospitals in tue e gut n
e wry
13 1i e te sion of the disciplinary institutions was no dOUDt
on'y h r 0 a '"lecr of various, more profound Drocesses,
T' e _ 'Un ti n I i y s' n of th Jisci'Jlines A t first, they were
e' t eu ra'iz c n=e , 0 t.\x u Ie s r rlisturberl nonula-
ri ns, t o'd h i c n n'en e ol' e -I rg- s '11hli s; no'\'
h y Ne e Je g, t f.'a) a ,,0 'ti e 0' ,l'or h y -,e e OF'-
aule t9"'0 0, tic a e h p s ti" y ol' i :Ii ic a' ,
MIlitary dIscIpline IS no.o l,e am re m a .: 1- e e i.;' o 'in.:;,
desertion or railure to oue)' orders arr. n5 t:.e ro F; t 5 01 e
a baSIC tecnmque to enaule tile arluy to eXIst, n t s n 5 n.:!:!1 d
crowel, hut as a umty that derives lroln thiS very uni i c ea e
'n its forces; discinline Increases tne skIll of each inuivldual, co-
odi e skills accelerates movements, mcreases hre power,
')r a.le ,e [ n s [attaclc without their vIgour, in-
cr as s h c)a it' [r e 'st n , t The discinline of the work-
sh p, v. :Iil r m a v j f f rc'nr r p ct fo tt>e regulations
U.IO it 5, 0': lee i .; h ('t 0 I ss 5, te d 'nc ease
aptitudes, sp ec., U a d h re'or F o"ts it e s ro I
mnuence over r, b 1.10 e nL LO esc '0 5 'n
terms ot their resUlts, Introuuces .JoJi i to.a 1.,a hi e /,':0 e in 0
an economy. When, in tIle seventeenul century, tI.e t>r v c'al
or the Christian elementary schools 'w'ere ,oune. d, tHe
iu tihcatio 5 given for them were above all negative: tnose l'oor
WI ION e u b
1
e 0 hri g ur tPeir children left them in ignorance
or tJ ei o'lli..;a '0 5: ?;i e the -:lifl1culties they have in earmng: a
Ii in.;, n 1 '1e 11 Ish i g be n b rll" hought up they are
u aLe 0 c n lU a so n pr i gi g th t the" the'llselves
neve l. d, .11 I o:v e la;or 'n 0 V nc s: ig 0 ance of
God, k .. enes (,/i.1 5 0 se.,u n dl m':e n 5 in-? i :', lar e y,
bnganoage); anJ l1e [ n. t n ot t1. s & nus rs al-v :'5
readv to stir up publiC uisor ... er anJ i u]l} t e h 5 tI e run Is
ot the tf6tel-Dleu (Vemla, u0-61) J 11, at t1. Leg, n 'n,; f 'le
Revolution, the end laid down for priulary educa i n ,;ra t :"e,
ano g other tPinITs, to 'fortHy to 'oevelop the body', to pr p e
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Panopttcism
e ild [0 f ur n m m ha cal 0 , g ve 1m an
bse an ey as e nd' nd ro pt ab' ( all ra s ep t
to the Constituent Assembly, 10 September 1791, quoted by Leon,
6). Th dis pli s nc n Increasing y as tec niques for makIng
ef in 'vi als He ce ei m ge e m m gi I P sit n
on the confines of society, and detachment from the forms f
elus on or expiation, confinement or retreat. Hence the slow
os in of ei in ip ith eli ou re lar 'es nd nc su
Hence also their rooting in the most important m st nt I a d
most pro uctlve sectors of socIety. They become attached to some
th gr teen I f ct ns ac ry 0 cd n, e t ns . ss n
of knowledge the diffusion of ti de nd kill ,th w -m hi
Hence, too, the double tendency one sees developing throughout
e gh nt ce u to cr se e m r d ip ary in -
tudo sad t di ipl' e he e 'sri a ar us
2. The swarming oj diSCIplinary mechanisms. While, on the one
an ,th d ip ar es bl m ts nc as, theIr mec anisms
hav c tai te en t be m 'de 'nst' uti al' ed to ne e
from the closed fortresses in which they once functioned and to
rc ate a re sta ej the massive, compact dlscipltnes are broken
ow in fl ib m ho s 0 Co ro w ch a be ra fer d
and adapted. Sometimes the closed apparatuses add to their' te al
and speCific unction a role of external survetllance, developIng
o d em e1v a h e arg 0 la ral on 01 T 5 e
Christian School must not sim Iy ai do 'Ie hild n;' m t 0
make it possible to supervIse the parents, to gain information as to
ei w 0 Iif, th r so ce, th r p ty, th r ra s. e
ch I t ds 0 c sf ute' in te ci ob rv or' t t p et te
even to the adults and exercise regular supervision over them: the
ad eh io 0 th hi , r his absence, is a legitimate pretext,
cc di t De ia or ne 0 a d es n e eig bo s,
especially if there is any reason to believe that the family will not
ell e uth, one can then go an question the parents themselves,
o d ut he er he kn w ei cat hi d e ay s,
whether they are determined to roorout the vices of their ch'ld n,
ow many be s t ere are In the house and what the sleepIng arrange-
e 'a th vi mew h t g in of ms, he re nt a
religious picture, or the provision of additi al b ds IDe ia, 9- ).
2 I I
Di:dpHne
J h /' f' I C f"" ,.
p:;ovldec! :r It! out .:,nr.5 .,or tile o. e(jJ},:;aLonal alS"
cipline; of the r;:1val and military ho!;pit;J\:; fHol'ided
the rnodel for dw emire reorga"i].;;riDn of in the eight,:<!n::h

, j' l'
ot m,:: Ol!ir:,? Inar,;: was t-:o:}
the :hest visible as,P{;:( nf pr:::!rJuncl
'1". l: ..' .,', f,',' ,'",. ,r " l' ". j' j'e ".
x. f". ,n"crJil1 . tnt. ,A ,'p .l1L".,\ ',I}I_'y \,Y."re
::0 neut!'altze d3::g,T:l} to fix or disturbed pc.pda-
t1ons, !o ilVdd ,he c-f now
rhey were hEing :1d{ed teo pb.y a pm::ri'lC role) for they were
inl ! abie to do 50, ,(j the utiEty of indivicilwi:.
Lt . A ..
f'llilitary dI:;ciplbe 15 no l.:mgt![ a :ilere mearw of
dt:;f:,:tion cr 0 oi>!:)' Grd1'T> the twopo; it bs become
;> Ie ... 'FTHy t:: C}{lst, nc,t as
c'."mwL hut ?'i 3. dial fr:m:'l (his very
.... " f, ... '''' ..... ' .1... ,!r:1l '-.",,' ,.j ."
III . HU,S, ;J1"''''JlJ IllC die ::"", .. ,," ,d ... ' ,j"d,\JdU ... "
[, .. 1.1: r: .... .... ,'" 'it--::r" ...--"'" tr .,-.... --; '-'i"C' :--.;w .,f,'"
.. _ ,L }h:', <"''oce Cr<1,e., .nc,,;:,.!kn :0, 1,1-.,Ea:: .... :1. ',' lA};;',::,
h"!'" .... -, _'W'- , .. f " ......- r; 'h -, .. ""'. ellle_," c ...... .. t' ......
t.l.'t b,ufL. .. !........ !_C ...!!...h!b LL ..... li ......
Ci.:n,,:::;t'I fer ftc, The &$ciolb-:: Df the
#- ,., A
. . .. ,". r, J'
r::'f:1<!:mnf, a 01 r,sfJ(!ct j(,r U,i': ri':guatlG!;:;
and aud'.orir;.,,::;) of pre';cGtbg thefts ,:It k'5!ies: 1:::,,::15 1:0 increase
:lpt:tlldero) 0Ulpet and ther::f:orz prOhl!i; it: 5tHi eXf:Jts <1 mora]
over Dr:hn'lG:Jr, hut rr,':m! and cHore it tr,,:ats a::tlon!; ill
;terms lb-:::tr a rr.:H:hi;-;I::rY
l
kltt:et
;r, ::1"""'-' '" -' t, '" po; -:t,':' l-l CP'..:-,t- "l-'U j:;'(" ,. --.,., I
.. n l.ce,n,llll)," In tnt .,-" THol\nua
!;H:hoc;,:i 1.:1'1' the Chnstian SdlOo!.S'!lCfe fr.Jl!!"lt1;;!.i, t.be
J
J
. Eivf!n fo:: them ,'.'ere abfJV;; all ileg-l1tive: those Door
a
,'r ... " ll";)b!(' r.r'-tY lljJ ,+,l":r;>;-; ldl them ;"W''''l.!1''{ .. 1, ., !-, , .1",_,1,.,,;. --, ,p,"- ' ,,,' \;..... -
of thci::: obliga.l.ic,-,s: given che dHf.,::..::lties
H ...,tiER1> \'t:s hd""tlng hndi y brought t.tp: they :j.F'f;;
b
' , .I I" . I
UGa. re: a S(llJn(" :JP Jrmgl!':gmat
never h",d'j thb; invoh.'t:!i lb',:!! ITUlj[)!' illccr;:veniences; .1gncE'artce :of
Gal!l (wirh its conr,equccl: impurIty:
ilrig2.i:'I:.lage); and (If tho!,e gill';g,; of heggan: lllway!:
n:ady 10 :;t'r up publk and 'virlFally to exham:t
of the (D:':,nia, ;t :the of
Hc"diclticn; the end iaiJ down kT prhnary W:lS 'to be,
"mOll;! other Ibitl(J's, 'fort;!',,', tG 'de'fe/G!) the
,,_, ,,I
; ::0
:1 i Co
Paooptidsm
the r.hi;c.1 'for a fut:..lre in some l'fKe.hanic:::.1 w:Jrk', to him 'an
, h j J , ' .. l ., r;
ie. ,)1Jrf! aBC, i:.;ln prompt na?:::t" t: s It'::p:'itt
Assembly, iO Seytemb(e;::'-175'II quoted by l./!on?
The disdnlines as f.'Jt ;-ni'lkinir
'a "-' J ... ,_J
mehll thd, ':'1':'K,-gt::m::e 1:l:1<1 a
0i': the ('oDfinC's of society, ft,,:.m the fount:.
exc:lL!Sjc:< or r:Xpiiition, connf!erne!lt or .!ct:'e<lt. Hence the ,;(JI\'
kosening of their kln;,hlp'iii:.h l.e;;gkJt:::; r::gular:tki ;;nd ende:m,es.
Hence also their E'oc:ting i;:l dlt! rnDst imflOrtan.t, most cef',tral and
most ;:;roductive 5edors of society. They ))-::come attached to ,,(,me
of Ill; greilt function:.;: facF':fY fm:dur:ti0t1, the tr:;;;:ls1'11Sti!Cor.
,l"'ck'A t"'" ;;n" "" t:",-j .. ..]c";l" .. n.- "1',,
co,:, ,,,,./ t:)'h-;;- t :..,.. C:. U:il,un <) ap ... .(.o,!-H..c r k. 'tV
II<,;-H':c, to:) ::he douUe one dl!:v;doping dU':lUg"tDUI:
tb: century to inr:n:::a:1{; the ;;nmD(t r.f i"$ri ..
:l"d 10 discipline the eX1E::ing apparatuses.
4 "?,"'A, '>" .. ,"#".,.., { .... ...l; _ -, I IJ',.f, "\'I"'"} '!-l, ,., 1'-
.' 1, .. e "W_I ;""'"c (!.t m .. LllCl !L ... J, I H L) OJ. ",ne
h,rnd. dIe disc:iplir:IL'Y establi3;,mcms thei:: f't;echa;',isf't;s
have a cereal:< ter:c:':T,:::y ,Co be-:o::ne 1.;) erDr:q:;e
(rem dH:: ;:::(lsc:r. f()<rH:S!;t,; in which. dley once a,d tG
,::,rcu),atc :l "flee' 5tH<:j ::n::::nie,sr.lve, COlnpact dif:dplines ae b;-olu=r.
down ir: to fle,:ihl'(: iiwth0d" r.f ;::0!lt:-e: I \'lhkh may be
adapted. S::;metb;;;,s the dO!ied apparamses add t;) thdr int,:;mal
n' J .. t. __ .... r , .. 1 t' <"-,,,,-, I '0 -.11 ,.,1,,,,1 "'''C(
<>.:lU :;,jJ(':,: (' d ... : .. :l,," a rue 0 '''\ na ,)\1, vu ill."e, 1,.,:::\ ,:IDI,J'b
ar:J1Hlc dlem!idves a mar:;dn d C('!':trok '!'hU5
.,'
"} .. i .... 1 . d' '1' j"d' I
.::(;;00: not,;;np y IX:;:<1 . uc; e ;: ll: [!::;}; 1t 1'1':Js as:)
make it pO$"ible ;:0 :ruper'lise the pan:ms, 10 gain iIlforr:lal:icn to
way 0:: ::hei!' res.ClHce3) their piety) their morah. The
(.r'I" ,-)(): to 51)"1',,1 .L.,. ..
..J ...... -"'1...'\.,.'11,-- ... j :1." .... ,_ ..... -"t..::.h ..... .. u .... (" . ....."
ev."r: t-:-. the adub a:ld f!xt:rc:is:: regular sL:pervi,ion ::wer tb::ill' the
bad hehavio'.ll Ol: t:-l'; :);: abs,::rm::, if. a :egitimale pret::n,
acc:miiag tc Demia) f:E' O"E te f!co :;nd qucstio:1:'he ne!ghb0ur::,
f:spix':a:1y if:hi':rt: ;:;111' to helieve ihat the Iii/nil) '"HI nol
tell:he truth; 0,,1:;; i':{:!! t::en gCl and que,;tiOl; the f'",::c:nts dlemseJ ves,
Ie f:H1 ou!whether they knov: t.he;r catechitlfl1 and ,he prayer;.,
they are determir:t:G to rocd:'C:iJi the of their
hr.\\' marlV beds ther:: ilfC ill tn:: ;'(lus.; and <;\,hat the sleepjr;oG'
.. :,,)
'are; the visit ::n,'y EnG ,\,i}th the :;,;i'l::-:15 of' alms, tht: p!t:sen of d
I'dirduus::Jkwr;::. l!r rk () ddditiot';<:1 b:::o" (Dem;.::.
.II " ... , .' '" ,"
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Discipline
Similarly, the hospital IS Increasingly conceived of as b eAr
e ed...al bs'. vL,'O of e op at n ut de ft t b ni g
(' w 0" h H" el"')i i 17 2, 'le 'v'/re "ev al de nr' tr t
the I g bu'
l
di s, 0 heavu and so disordereci should be replaced
by a series of smaller hospitals; their function would be to take In
tne sick of the quarter, but also to gat er n rm ti , b al t
a y d ic or pi m p en m a, 0 pe d' pe ar' 5, 0
've d 'e t e i ha 'ta s d 0 k ep' he u hor' 'es informed
f the sanitary state of the region,6
One also sees the spread of disciplinary proce ures, not 10 t e
orm 0 enc os st ti ns, bu as ce re 0 ob n tio d -
m at r gus ie, el' ;io 5 ,rEps an
ga iz 0 h dig la d this role of ',fisciplining' the popula-
tion--From the Counter-Reformation to the phllantnropy of tne
July monarcny, initiatives of tHis Lipe continued 0 Incr as ) tt r
alms were ig u (c V SI ado lZ io ,I, 0 m ( d
d nc ur e n 0 0) P lit' al / h tr ggl a in c'-
nt nt r it '0 \. (lne has onl to cite b wa of example the
regulations for the charity associations in the Paris panshes. 1 ne
territory to be covered was divide into quarters an .. canto a d
t e mem e o. th as oc tio s vi d he se es p 10 g e
m Ii s. T se m b s ad to vi ' ei re ec' ve ar s
gr rI w'l\ st ive to eradit-Ate places of ill-repute tobacco
shops, life-classes, gaming house, public scandals, blasphemy, im-
piety, and any other dtsor ers that may come 0 e k w dg:
hey wi. 0 .. av to rna e di du 1 v it 0 'Ie 00 a:l e
fo na on 0 e ta' ed '5 1 'd ow i rei la 'on . tl-- s bi\' y
f t I dg' g, kno ledge of rayers, attendance at the sacraments,
knowledge of a trade, morality (and whether they have not rahen
lOto poverty through t eir own ault /; 1 dy,' e u Ie n y
il I q es on g W at a h b a a 0 e. wrh he th e
. p ce etee th m nd he' n 'ghbou , he her the are care-
fit bing up their children in the fear of God ... whether they do
not have their older children of different sexes sleeping toget er and
with them, whether t y 0 t 10 I en ou es a C 01 Y
L ir am ie, e ec II n el 01 r au ht s. 0 l- s y
ou ts t wLet
L
rear m ri d, e must ask to see their
ar . age certificate' 5
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Panopticism
he sta ntrol e mec ms of pline. ngla t
was private religIOus groups that carried out, for a long time, the
functions of social discipline ~ c f Radzinovitz, 23-14); in France,
alt hap f this rem in t nds 0 rish g
or ity as tions, ther no d the impo
part - was very soon taken over by the police apparatus.
Th orga' 'on of ntrali olice long rega
ev y co porar s th st di expre of
absolutis'm; the sovereign had wished to have 'his own magistrate to
whom he might directly entrust his orders, his commissions, inten-
tio nd was sted the tion rder
or under King' private sea (a note y Duva, rst secretary
at the police magistrature, quoted in Funck-Brentano, I). In effect,
in . g ov numb f pre- ing f ons - searc
cri Is, ur surve e, ec ic an Iitiea ervis
the police magistratures and the magistrature-general that presided
over them in Paris trans osed the into a' Ie, str' dmin'
tiv achin II th latto f for d in ation t
spread from the circumference culminate in the magistrate-general.
... It is he who operates all the wheels that together produce order
an rmon he e of h minis on ca be
co p ed t to th ovem of the ce estia 0 ies' ( es
Essarts, 344 and 528).
altho he po' as an ution e cert orga
in form state aratu d alt h thi s cer
. linked directly to the centre of political sovereignty, the type of
power that it exercises the mechanisms it 0 e tes a d he ele
to h it a s the e spec It is a parat at mu
coextensive WIth the entire social body and not only by the extreme
limits that it embraces, but by the minuteness of the details it is
co ned w Polic er m ear' every ': it i
ho er the Iity 0 state of th gdom isibl
invisible body of the monarch; it is the dust of events, actions,
beh our, ons' eryth' hat ns';7 polic
co ned whose s of mo , thos impo
things', of which Catherine II spoke in her Great Instruction
(Supplement to the Instruction for the drawing up of a new code, 1769
ar 53 5), h the ce, 0 in t defin orld
21J
Discipli:l,z
Si;";")ihdy, hl)sp::.ta! conceived of as a
::he m::dical cb:;en;;rrtr,:l of pG}l;jiath::r1 0ut!;idc:; ;;fl.r:,
,iOW;'l of ill::: in '7'/,-1, 3e-':'ral de!T:.ir,ds
;arge 50 he,.vy and .w dborde:rnJ: :,hGuld be tep:.:lr.ed
hy i . of sW<lller tiwil' L:nction wm.dd bE te tab: in
the of thlf.: qu,n:tI?T, h;!l .1150 to gather iniormatio:l:. W bc 11 iert
w any endeIT!k Cor epidemic phenUn1ef,a, ,0 npen di"penr,:;'rtes,
give advi.;:::;: tu tb:: ;nhahit;tr.t:l tbe au::horitie-, ;nformed
of >:1:0:: liJ.:,itary 1itale e,f the n:g;bn!>
On!'! also th.::pread of disciplir:n:y pr.'}c,:d-.ltesj ,'!-Jl in
form otcndo:;ed bm as ce:ltres of oh!':o::rvl!tie;-,
" ., L ' r.: ,1: ,
::;enunateo. !WC!Cr'''. ::::W:ipS and
haJ"lolig ;Jlayed ;his r::,le tbe
l!0n. F'ic.::n 1:0 the phihr:.thropy of the
1 :.tly ini:ti"tivt:ti of type continued ;:0 in:::rea::a:;
ret;giolls (COt:.vt.:!:'slan and t(:O!'l0H'!1::
Bnd en;.::mr::!S1:O:;J:ent to or po:i!.ic;lt (the srrtlff,g!e 3.lfainst dis-
_- "" t __ ,-...
content c.r a:.!:it,,;ion!_ Om: hilS md).i t0dte 'llav of :t,X-;;!1]il!e the
........ J:r
for the charity aswdat:onr. h ::hePar:::1 parisher., The
,erd.::ny to he cove::er!ln:.:l divid.-:d imo
+1' ",em:"e'" ,,1' ti: 4 rEvlihd tl'p-h'!{:+'es "J.3 ;1.", ... __ ' __ ,' __ ;... -..-'" a ...... l.: ... oJ -",II l- .... _' ___ ,"-,,'L. ... ,", __ ",,, ... .:1.. .i'';oit" ..... _ ..
same JiHeS, ;,zd W'Vi5it rhdr :esp!:crivf:
I
-. "e' 'Il' . I "'II .
regll any. '" ili::.y 'Y{,", f:!trlV': ,0 er:>e:!cate p aCt::!i 011 .. .rcpu::{;, Ici),_cc(}
.,ho;Jf.
1
lif;:-d";s-:::,, gamin:i'; b:nlr.,::. public b la!iphem:f:. Im-
:<.;--,;. lr . .l 'In" oll-:<-,' .l-"t "01'1-:" '>' ;l.f>;r .r 1 _r ',;J. (j 1_... ... .......... ,-............ J, ..... ,,(4. .j, 'C"J) 'l_ ,10.,. .. _I O;.& ...... .L
Tl.o>',- "'11 i-v IF<- .,.-- ;", 1=-;-;'l tkr "" ..... ,.<.!
h Y Wi , ,"_" ,,<1\ '., t,J '!l"".(,. B:i ,.\ ,( Vbh." "0 ,; __ (,00,; Z,;L1 l,:{.
j'lfcl!ll'!;::tkm to be ontaincd -:s laid de'I:E in regulatio!lg: the stability
f
-I I I' I 1 I C 1
(.I gwg, >ilO"N c( ge n; f,ray::;:f" "ttentiac,.::e al::ne
k,,;:;w;cdge (If a trade, 1Il0:'ality (:lr:d "ilht:her they have not
poverty tbeir O"Nfi 6dt'); lasdy, 'one must lea:'!'!
qcl:'::5t::::nir:;;,; in v:hat way :_hey behave at hGll'!iC. V/he:J::,::,
is pe;:ll:e tr.c:m :6:0<1 tht:;r !:t:ighJ:Il.:!.!r!1, 'Nor-tb,::: the), can:
1:0 briG::: :'IC' cheir .:h:ildren in thf: fear of Gnd " " whetht!r tilt!V de
"'..... .. ..,
r:,j, h<l';" their oldc:: child!en n{ dill;:rtcnt r.':::It:s s:lt:epif!?; alld
with ::h:,m, II'b:th.:r l.b:y do lWi: aUG\\:' ;;md
" l ,'. ;-.'1"", L., d"" ,.'. It 1..." -.
It. LilLi: ,.;=.",1,1,,5:. ) 1,! ti;t:S Co, e, ' ... J- ::a:: 3ny
, I j hI' '1 I I .
1:'(IU1W; ,,3 W Wf;;:, ,el: t :-:v an: marriCC. or:c {;:5 t to !it,:- l '!(:U'
lr,;;r::lage r.ercificate',"
r_
P a:lOpdcism
t. the :t
"" .... ,..,... !I-. J
private :relig:iuus g:rcups thi, earned O1;t, fDi' a Im'lg rim,,:;
tiJt:cticms of :socia! disc:.iplir:e (d. :Rarhl!10vitt:, :luJ-I
il)r}wug:h a o( this roie Te",aine::i i:l rhe har.ds :::f
or ch3rlrl another --. and r.:l rlo:Jht thf b: yDrt;Hi1
par::--- W,H very scon t;::;k'1:Jn eve: the poHof:
'Th.: ':-'rS1:<'nizad':-.n c.[ a j)olke had kf!S1: been re>TJfded.
''-' '-J
even by, ar; nlos1 direct eXpfeSS!OH of
absoh:.tism; t::w :lc-v-::reign h;;d whlhed to hall!: 'hi:; CW.::l to
./nom he mig;hl directly entrust order!;, his ccrnrni!;sions, in ten
ar.d w:::s emrustcd ,\\,'1th -::hr; executicn of ,),rdtrs 2nd
crders '1:ldi:;r t:he King's prh1ate ::ear I;uv:::l, tnt seefl:
H die pc:;;::;: magistr:.:tlll":, quoted it! Fnnck,-B:rcnt<'.rio
1
I), Ir:
b taking o\'l:r n !:!.!!nber ef
...... ,........
. ., . . 'I!' 'l ,.", I .. .
r,mnr:;;::::;, ::;un:e,cmce. eCODomlc
the polier! and iiJeTI<;:;;istr<lrtu":"gr.nr.r,J th".t pres:r1ed
u\'N them in P.Jxis tr;;mp,:lsed a single, 5H:C:, adr;-;inistri!-
tive m;:d:!::e: < Ail ()f (()tcr: ar:j
spn::lc: !;'orr; tb: ,:;::clIIllference cuir:linatf! in
... Itls n;;who op{;ratesaU the wheels that tog;erher produce order
;;;:d harm':::E}', The effects nt his c;onne:1. he
cmnpareJ th.:m 0 the Hlr;;:f'li1f:fH r;[ ill: hCKlif;s'
ES!i.3;:lS, J44 fl3).
:::lrr:ougb:-hc pd:cc as a!! in:;titl;t;rm f'[;r::;::nl y org:2o;d7.;:,J
;" L,,> t'_ ,(, .. .. ':.r'..... ...; ;, +4:,_ . 1"
." du. H"), ill ,.1.1. ,\ ::-""e '''I-'j3"" an, .... a t.10Ug" t!!;., 1'.- <I" c . l<lln ';
lir.;ud Jin:ctiy to the centre of pt::.:::tical ,ovf:ldgnty) the typ:: of
p::rwer that h exe::cis:s, the mechanisms it :1:-:d the elemem,;:
to \'lfhich H. app:i.r::l them 2or;: It is a"l ;;pparatl!!i t:::.>.: be
c Oc:ttc:--l:::i v::: with die t!nti::-e !"(Iei,,,j bee)' and ,-,ot only by the t:x:tre;1l[:
)jrnits thar iit -::!nbnces, but by of the d:::tails it is
whh. Pnlice pow:;:: r,::;13;: bear \)Ver -cvcrytbi'",g'; .:t is E::t
1l:Jwever the UJtali:.y f the Btate"C'r d'the ;".ingd.:)m as visible and
body of monarch.; it th,; of e'ler.:.::S. ;llcti':HlS,
b eha v.i0 th"1 p,=ipfl.::ns); the are
('o;:;c;c!Tlt'd -with 'dIOt:f: ofe':ery moment', those
1
' . l " . . l'j . . } (' '!. .
t:mW; , W!JICII til ler .,J feat . IlSlrur:tlOn
'c 1 r' {" I I' , "
t,wpp ernent to "Fl-"!I'L::?lOrt,or in'! ,""!twmg Up ,l1i<!W COtli!; '7()9l
arcic;e 535), the one ;;; b ,hr "(odd :)f a
:t.1 )
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Discipline
supervision that seeks ideall to reach the most elementary article
he t pa g ph me of t oci ody. he m stry
the magistrates and police officers is of the greatest importance; the
hje that mb sar a e de te, rna rcei
them only by a sufficiently detailed examlOation (Delamare, un-
umb ed Preface): the infinitely small of olitical ower
A in r to exe ed, po had be en t
instrument of permanent, exhaustive, omnipresent surveillance,
capa of m ng a isibl s 10 s it d it rem lOVI
ble. It had to be Ii e a face ess gaze that transformed t e who e
social body into a field of perception: thousands of eyes posted
very ere, bile end ever the t, a , hi chiz
network which, according to Le Maire, comprised for Paris the
orty . ht c miss' s, th enty' pee , th he '0 rver
who were pal regu ar y, t e asses mouch ,or 5 tag 5, w
were paid by the day then the informers, paid according to the job
one nd fi Iy t ros tes. d th nce g 0 rvan
had to be accumulated in a series of reports and registers; throughout
he e' teen ent an j ens lice t inc ing over
society by means 0 a comp ex do ent ry org atio on t
police registers in the eighteenth century, cf. Chassaigne). And,
nli he m ods judi or lnlS ve ing, at w
registered in this way were forms of behaviour, attitudes, possibili-
ies, pid - a an acco of' 'vidu 'beh our.
N , it uld ote at, oug is pes rvlSI
was entirely 'in the hands of the king', it did not function in a single
dire n. It s in a d e-e sys it hoc spo
by manipulating the machinery of justice, to the immediate wishes
of t ing t it als apab f re ndi 0 sol' 'tatio
rom low, e crate ttre cae, or ers er
king"s private seal, which were long the symbol of arbitrary royal
ule d w h b ght tent' int isre on oUti
grounds, were in fact demanded by families, masters, local notables,
eig urs, rish 'ests d th' fun . n w to ish h
onfi men who fra- alit, at 0 sor agit n, d
obedience, bad conduct; those things that Ledoux wanted to exclude
rom arc ctu per cit d w he ed ' nces
non-surveillance'. In short, the eighteenth-century police added a
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Panopticism
di 'plin f tio 0 i ole th aux ry ju e i he
pursuit of crimmals and as an instrument for the political supervision
of ots, ppo' 'on ove nts re ts. was co ex c-
cion since It linked the absolute power of the monarch to the lowest
Ie so we iss nat in iet inc bet n ted er-
ent, enclosed institutions of discipline (workshops, armies, schools),
it en an 'te dia net rk, ing he he oul ot
intervene, discIplining the non-dlsciplmary spaces; but it filled in
th aps 'nk the og er, ara ed 'h i rm for an
interstitial discIpline and a meta-discIpline, By means of a wise
p l' e, th so eig ccu ms p Ie rd and ed' ce'
(Vattel, 1(2).
The ani 'on f the lice par s i e e tee ce ry
sanctione a generaltzation of ~ discIplines that became co-exten-
si with he e it If. A ou it lin din em t ex 'cit
way wi everything m t e royal power that exceeded the exercise
of gul jus , 1t un sta able hy e p e 0 red ch
sltg t resIstance to t e rearrangement of the Judicial power; and why
it h 5 n ce d t 'mp it rer tiv up it, 'th er-
increasing welg t, nght up to the present day; thIs is no doubt
b use' is th sec I r ar of ju ary ut" s a1 be se,
to a far greater degree than the JudiCIal institution, it is Identified,
b eas of's e nt d ha 'ms, ith SOC' ty the
d pH ry type. Yet it would e wrong to belt eve that the dis-
CI !ina functions re fis d d ab bed nc nd all
by sta app atu.
'Disci line' may bide (fied ith with n in tuti no ith
a ppa us; s a ype 0 power, a modaltty for ItS exercise, com-
prising a whole set f ins! me tech iqu pr du Ie of
app ica n, t gets, is a 'phYSICS' or an anatomy' 0 power, a
technolo y. And it may be take ver 'the by's iali d' i tu-
t s (t pe nti es 0 ho S 0 correction' 0 the nineteenth
century) or b institutions that use it an e nti I 'nst men for a
p icu en sch Is, spit), r by pre-existing authorities
that find in it a means of reinforcir;g or reo ani' g th 'r in nal
m han s pow (0 day e s Id ow ow in ra-famllial
relations essentially in the arents-children cell, hav be me 'd' sci-
p ed', bso ng ce e c Ica ge ern schemata, rst
21 5
Disdplit:e
tht seeks it!eally to reach mo!;t demenr.!l"v D:ll"tide.
.. . ,
most p3sslfl(!. pfienom;:(lOn of the sodal b:Jdy; 'The ministrY of
, t ... :. .,.,)
ma\!istra!e!> ,md :J.' (Jiice :l{:::::ers h; of the QrC2I!esr. the
- '-
I
. Lor .' J .
(} 1 t CII1L<tfll.{:l llrc In a sense ct=lntte; oE!c may
only bv :;; ;,uffider.dv det,.liled eX:ll:'dnatiC:l; {,;J,:::;3fHue, lin"
... -' ...
lb: s;'mdl
J ... <l-
II .:', ... d.r:.-..- t -', .. -:c:'"J t,;.;- - -.r"-;, b- Q -; ..... ...
'.' ,no, .'en ::.lr _.1 L, J..:e (.J-.f.n:l",.'.t) t. .. pv'" _. ,,; . c (." e.1 t ... ;
!mmH!:ent or .. surveillance.
cf,paHe ':.If J::,zk.illg :tn ;u: il" Jt ;:ql;H remain invisi-
., h < 1 I' t f' 1 , -(' l'
fHe .. :.t an to :e 1,,{;;l J,';:f,C,f,C!,S g;zzl! Lmlt. ttlof' 'il lO;e
'I' \. .. h I I' d
1,,!ClCl :.>on)' miO ;,! :"H":f. pf:!"'cepnon: 1;: OWi2lIU S (I eyes f,m;te,
everywh:t:,::e, mobile att,::r;Jior;g eve:: on :;;ie;:-t? :it hi-e,:arcbzed
l" d' "k& ' .1 f' P , 1
wmch? ;scem: ,Co ,Le !Yl,,;::re, cOmp:rls!:6 ';l(W t it!
,:vmml:rsG!!',e5', the twentv irl':'PU'tt!!!l s, ther! the ob!>erve::s'.
. I <- ,Jf
,-..-",.= ':"..-1 r 't l .,. .1 ..... , it 'r..f'* .... _<. ;'\J'P--D ,'h
"J.i',At. ;-' ... .c1 h:gu.a. )} Ik PulLS mOlLfhS) 01 "',Cle, ',L.: .. t')j
o 1 ' . ] } ., f' 'd d' }' b
were P,Ut oy ,n:; , ay, t H:H tn", JI: onner:i, pz/" ,1:::':0:::' JJ:::g to t 111: )0
":, ... :: j: ",t' "C An' y!.: --Q-:'" 1"'-' ,,,.',,,
ant" ;no .:' Itl'=' p,dJ . tltlltt"N r_,.G dhS l'lntk:!SLlg u:.J::clV ", . .il:l:
had be ac:::c..:llwlatcd :n ,1 selles ft!pG:,t:; lllJd registers; tb::-cugbout
rhe eighteenth cenwry, an immer:::;e pclke rex:- inCrZ;ISJl1g:y
krv means of a {'olnpb:x. dnCl.,meHIll.:CY (n:-ganizflt;':>H
, }' L' f . " A I
registers t 1e century, C. ,'l.f:(.
l)illike the judicial or "dmtl:J:;!xatIvt: WT:t!q;,9:,r}::ll was
reg:t;tered in thb ',va;' ',;;ere elf beb:::. ... ioul', atr,tlldeti, possibili
fies, sus?idons - 3. peIE1:::'rl{:Dt accelint d bdivichl;:,l:;'be::;::Vl:1Dr.
it shou;d noted that, thi;:; police;
, 1 ' , , ' l' ".1' 1 f . . . 1
UJa-o: ;!> m::' 01 t:l';; ,Jj:'lg I I:: qH. (:l0tL!:r!cltr" ill a smge
dire:ctioTl. III',,5 k: hlrt a d01;:lle-E:1try 5Y5tem: it hac to
bv r::;:miIJUlatinQ the of ::nstkt. to the i:mmeJia1'':
"'" ...... ,#
of the king, hu:: it,va.:i Z:5C' c<;p"hle of .. Ging tc
l:hr celeb,ated de ,.,did:, or fHd::-:-::;
Hr.c;:\, :11;-;;;'t: wr::.+ ';lieF loner the 5'11'" hoI (jf " .. bit['lJ'l' fO"'II
.t - _\ -"- :1_ -:w ;0____ - - t:) ., ;1 . ,1-'0.- >.' '- j. -J ) I
mle anJ\'ihich brollght deteniiGn diSf",p:1te :J11
grol:nds,'Nere h: fact dtr::::lnded ::,y l;llll:Ht,: loc;i:
f.',eighbours, pari511 an:::' fu:-:.ction was to pnn:sb
CG"f.Hemenl <:, who;:;: inf;"a-p::::'l<::ir)'! cf di;:;order, <:ghadon, :::'i,,
:thflt Ledoux to exdudt:
, t 1 " '[ f' , I' d' /'Of
:,{umII1S :y pe:r f!ct CEY aDC! he ca lc '0:::- e''lCC3
;'''r''4;::;'.',,'u' :,.. :1 ... elr.rll""el .. '...'I'llC" ',1
.. ri"'"ll .... _' ...... 4.\, _ fj t--.'>., ..... 1 ... -..... } \,..
1
Paclopdd5m
J
. . I' 11' , . ", ,.,,'
l!'C::IP mary L;nctlOr: -::0 i:); role tile ;::Jxt!Jary nf j:JSHCf: in Eie
of Cf!:!li:oab :u;d a:; an, !:ostnIC'lent fot ;Jolidcd 3UDetvi,iotl
<-. ...
of pkrs, lll(}Vrmenr;:; or revolts, h w<:, :! complr:x
don since it Hnked ,he "b30]::Jte perl'.::r tho: ::rlonan:h to II-:.:
level" of :){PNer dissf!mif,ltcd i::l sacit:ty;
er:::, el:dnSfdlnstltc..:ilrm;O::.lf (-;volh.;hops, ZlnElt'l, :ichoc',,),
itel:tended ::etwork,:F:ting 'Ivllerl:' c8:J:d
:nrer.,'ene, dhciplining d:e ncn.d:;dp1naty space,; bltit ll:1:-:I Hl
th: gap!:, Hr.,Ked th.r.m togt':th:-;r; gu"r;::!"ted wi!'h its ;-;:r;;-:ed f-:;r.:::e 3n
,;;;:;cip;b:: a 'By means of 3. '\'.-'ise
pt:Jlk::-:, th,: SGv::::r.ign ];CC1;:;'lGmS th:; peop:'" 1O orrif:! ;::nri Qbf:ciencr;'
('ht::d, l
Tte organiZfttior; of the police apparams En the eigh::eenth cenmry
2: gr,ne.::alhation of d}t! disciplbe:l::hat C()-eXT:'I-
sive 'i'f:th [he !I:z.te itsdL Altbow:rt:, it ;y'as lir..ked ir.. the
c: }
way with :,:;,'nything in foya! power that the n,:n:1sr:'
oJf regular it h; Ilflder3t<!nd;bl-,:: why
! re (If Ibe judicial power; ar:d why
it not cea3f!G tf) hllpOS-:= :fS p:-erngativ.::s up.:1n it, tvi::h {;ver'"'
it:crc:ls:np; wC:F!,ht, uf-l to th,: day; t.hls .is no ckubt
Dccdt,Se it b the secu;ar ar;;} cf rh" jud:c:;'!!"y; but it is .
r.:) a far grtate!.' dtgree than rhl? jwEciai in!iti,ut!:on, It is identified.
; .. y of Wi e).;Lent a1!d ';'/i:,h a !inc!et)! or the
dbdplinary type, h YIOll;d be wrong to b,:::Jtve ![hal th:-: t:!:., ..
dpHna!"'y Y,ere and <l.bt;t:;rb-::d t:;:1ce and for "H
by <l s tilte appari:IW!;.
l',p .' --"f l i ' .... ,. .... : -,'", - .. ....
.L-'L"pd,,!e , .. ,J) 'A! 1,1,.,,., IcC "r,tll,, wi! ",L H.,.ilJth.n .l.,I ",h .
an i:: i!: a typt: of :3 modaHty for llS exercise, corr:"
1",r:";':I)' " .. "'tip:" ""t of tcdllll,:,l"'" np'''''el:l''':; ........ ..... ...... -:J'",. .. ........... "-."- ... ." ....... ; i: ..... - w ......... , ......
applic.:"don, tarr,ets; it hi 3. 'physics' or Ll 'a:CI':wrr:.y' o i=",:lV.'er:" a
trchnc,Ja;?;\,. And i: mny taL!':n over ::,;!her hy'spcdak'rd
1

(tb: or 'he:,,]3c& of CC'f!'::;,:don' of Ih,:,
, 1" '. I' , l' .
ceIH;;J")'), or ,y 1n:'lti!:UTIOIlS l ;;'11': l1!'e 11: a:::in tcr a
Pf!if::::,;lE:.t end (:1' by pn,.existing; a:Jthofi
that fnd in it a meant; of teinIur::::r;g or thei, i1'1iennJ
me:::hanlsmi power (Gce day 'V.,'e S;';OU;l :-:0'1'1
l',,;:;rkms, if< p::>:'enm--cbi:dten r:cll, I:a'vl: 'disci-
}',1;' -:" ,,; ",I "'I:' py'" -I., -I, . ' fi "I
P Inu, 1 h'I:' u,e vC ,emd]) 1 r.,
"1 "
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Discipline
educational and military, then medical, psychiatric, psychological,
which have made the family the privileged locus of emergence for
the disciplinary question of the normal and ~ h e ab,riormal); or by
apparatuses that have made discipline their priribiple of internal
functioning (the disciplinarization of the administrative apparatus
from the Napoleonic period), or finally by state apparatuses whose
major, if not exclusive, function is to assure that discipline reigns
over society as a whole (the police).
On the whole, therefore, one can speak of the formation of a
disciplinary society in this movement that stretches from the
enclosed disciplines, a sort of social 'quarantine', to an indefinitely
generalizable mechanism of 'panopticism'. Not because the disci-
plinary modality of power has replaced all the others; but because
it has infiltrated the others, sometimes undermining them, but
serving as an intermediary between them, linking them together,
extending them and above all making it possible to bring the effects
of power to the most minute and distant elements. It assures an
infinitesimal distribution of the power relations.
A few years after Bentham, Julius gave this society its birth
certificate (Julius, 384-6). Speaking of the panoptic principle, he
said that there was much more there than architectural ingenuity:
it was an event in the 'history of the human mind'. In appearance,
it is merely the solution of a technical problem; but, through it, a
whole type of society emerges. Antiquity had been a civilization of
spectacle. 'To render accessible to a multitude of men the inspection
of a small number of objects': this was the problem to which the
architecture of temples, theatres and circuses responded. With
spectacle, there was a predominance of public life, the intensity of
festivals, sensual proximity. In these rituals in which blood flowed,
society found new vigour and formed for a moment a single great
body. The modem age poses the opposite problerp: 'To procure
for a small number, or even for a single individual, the instantaneous
view of a great multitude.' In a society in which the principal
elements are no longer the community and public life, but, on the
one hand, private individuals and, on the other, the state, relations
can be regulated only in a form that is the exact reverse of the
spectacle: 'It was to the modern age, to the ever-growing influence
of the state, to its ever more profound intervention in all the details
216
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Pan pti sm
and all the relations of socIal It fe, that was reserved the task of
in ea ng nd er Ctl g g ra ee, b us g d ir dng
towards that g at imhe byild'ng n dis ib io of uil 'ng
intended to observe a great of men at the same time.'
uli s a fu lie hi ori I p ce th w ch en am ha
drib d a ech ic p gr m 0 r ciy 0 n 0
spectacle, but of surveillance; under the surface of images one
in st bo es d pth, be nd he gre abstractIOn of exchange,
th e nt" ue th me' ul s, on et ra' in of se f ce
the circuits of communication are the supports of an accumulation
a a en ali tion 0 nowle ge; the play of signs defines the
a ho ge of 0 r; IS 0 ha th be ti I t al 0 th
individual is amputated repressed, altered b our so 'I de it'
rat er that the indiVIdual is carefully fabricated in It, according to a
w ole c iq of rc a b ie W re u Ie G ek ha
we believe We are neither' n he a ph' he re, or n e ag
but in the panoptic machme, mvested by its effects of power, which
w b g rs es in w ar pa 0 its me an m, The
im ort nc in his ric I m th og 0 he Na Ie ic ha cte
probably derives from the fact that it is at the point of junction of
m ar ic , ri al er se s veretgnty an the hierarchical,
p rna en xe ise f i efi' te isc' lin H 's e i iv ua wh
looms over everything with a single gaze which no detail however
m ut, ca es pe. You may consi er t at no part of the Empire
is it ut urv ill ce, 0 'm no ff ce 0 nt ve io th
remains unpunished and that the e e of the ge ius wh ca en
lig ten all embraces the whole of thIs vast machine, without, how-
e r, e gh st ta es pin hi art ti ( re ar, I /' A
the moment of its full bl so 'n th di ip' a so' et sti
assumes with the Emperor the old aspect of the power of spectacle,
A a on ch h is 0 a t s e m a usurper 0 the
a ie th ne nd th or ni 0 th ne s e, em' ne
into a smgle symbolic, ultimate figure the whole of the long process
b w ch he po p s er gn y, t e necessari y spectacular
m if tat" ns f p we wee in is d e 0 in he ail
exercise of surveillance, in a panopticism in which the vi ilance of
in rs ing gazes was soon to ren er useless both the eagle and
th su
17
Discipline
eCl1c"tiofwl 3r:d
vihkh have rnadr: the frunily the locus
the disdplfnuy qL'e'stion the normal
ap::Jar.;HuSe$ tll;,!: have made
dhdylinanz.3bon the ;tdminlf<trathre
rorr:. the Napoleonic period\ nr s.ppar::::t:x,f:S
r,'ul-je,") if nm 1$ to nssnn, th;;.t di3dpllnc reigns
On
disciplinary :icdety !il
l' . "
;:l sort
. -; !
ql:3.:rantme, to a11

plimlry H1Odn!i t)/ of pnWf:r hils rfI:<h:::erJ all the others; bec:wse
i, 1<,,5 lnfilcrated the ()I ht:r::. ::omethEt::s
;"lS
extending them al1dabove ;::li
of pDWt"X ro tbe n10:;, mimHe
''''Sllf.;'S "n
t!i:;t!"ibut1cn uf the DU\\'er
'\ .!p, r ", ... -t' ... f'- D ... , .::. r ry .... .... ... -..... ........ ....
h, (..-. f ..,<}' n ..:.r.., o.m- Jb . ,d,:- C!f ..... ,, __ .L._y i""
certifi:a.te (1 J. Cof th!! panoptic h::
th:?t !ht::fc il1l.!ch th::tf!
it \'"l;;:$ t:vr:Hl in the Df ll!t rn::nd" In aDDe3.rance.,
.. !'-
_ I' -- .",-.,.. Ii j *
t$ 0; a
,;yrc (1f nGcicty .. /\ h3C. n ::.[
specta.:::ie. 'Te. renG-:r a.:::.:-:ssii.::,je to a m;.;Jtiti1de of men the inspec!.io!i
uf ;t. sH::.aH H:..:::nber 0f u115 tht to tht:
8f -::heatres cj::c"Use;:;
, h .." . l' j.r ,. . r
t ere was Q. or p;;u (".!
fe3ti-Y-ai3
r
pro:r,dmityfO In i!1 bi00d
foi.!!!.j EE"Yl ?E1d fOf!"il.ed t":jf mC-!"!1e.nt a.
Tht HH.:J::;:'OH a:;:::e da:: oLn)csilc ur;:;hlel1'!; 0 ':JtCCc.:::
., ....... r j, .. .. ' '"
, ... ," ,. '" . ! . ,
!'Dr 4 $!";lZJi nureoe:::-; cr e" ...en rc!:';::, s::ip:te -1
y:,\Xf :::f a g:-,:;r mvhit::.::h;, 'h a gr:,:,ry in\Xf;'::c;,: th,
an: no k,ng"';- ::he
l::'!:: E-i'::'1!J, p:: kV'.i:!::: Hltl:. ,tiJt!df:) and, on i.!lt: u:.hci': t.he ::1..1::::
(.2H be reguiated only in fOtfH that is Lht! revtrtie of the

" ... ..,-. ...rt'! ..... -:o.W'oP>. t,
'''''w ..... I . rr.,)::h,t., "';",", t. ever
Gf tG pr:::[.,--;i;:-"d in
'II i
-"- .......... .-
_,pi" __
1.16
w ,
l'aoopttcl!;m
and all the re:lt:Dl1S Df !iDciai life, that wa3 rcsc:-vcd the task of
ir.:rc3sing f::nd pnft!c'ting:its f,uar;;,':Jeei) .by using HIrl directir.g
ttlal: gre"t aim ::he and distribudon Gf buiJ
intended to on:.e!ve a great multitude :f me,'! at rhe 5ame ti,J1L'
.ItJimi as;.a fuHiHed hiswri;:al diM whkh Bentham bd
desc:ib.:d a::; a ted;nk:al 0,;: soddy i, Dlle 1:0t :.;f
'"f"C,w1w b' o( >:qhf'lP''';'e -lilt.trr '}F' til'rf,re 'Jf jr1?1!e' Oll{' -.1;"",_ Ii.- ........... ...... -... .... ... ,w ........... ,. ;. _ ..... 0.-._': -.... """ 'i. .... \.:..' "";}.
invests Lodie!; L:l behind the g.::e;:,t z.bstrz.cti:ln of exchange,
rherr! the metkult)us. cor.(L'Nerrairxing of usdiJ iurr:fs;
the c:n:IIits (of cC'TJmnr;k;:;::ion ;:;re the :;:;pp0rts cf ar; aC:Ul!E1:;>.tiofl
and. de cenl::aliz':.t;0!l of l:J1Gwl::r1ge; th:: ph.yof :;ignr; du!
anchorages of Fower; it j!' not chat trw Le2::Jti':1I1 totality of tho:'
ir.dividlia! is <="1)fm,;;;,ed: rtprcti$ed, "he-cd by :)Uf !Socia: ':Hdet, h,
r::tthrr:h;;t inrliv10:;a! :" carduiiy in it, aCfordim; to a
. 0
whole tedHlEque of f:m:es and: \Ve are rr:ilch JeS!i Grf:tks
lIfe Vie are neitner in the arnphithe,rrfe, r.01 on Ihe
if:. the pancpdc by ;,t:: 0[' v/l-.dLh
W::: (It::-lg to 0UI"3e1'JeS $ir:::e we arc p:,<'t of its mechani$lT. The
in r:!stodcal rnytho!c:gy, of j\Llpoleonk char.octl:1"
L b' " 0 , (
pWGa .fl' denve:" i[0.!ll tht: ;'K( m;i( It is H pe3nt ot junuwn 0,
the In.:)nllf"ch::cal, ti,md exercbe ofsc.vereignty 2lnti hieran::hic<,l,
of bJefilllJ::,:' Ji,dpline. He i:; iirl{li',iJllal whu
1 ; , . t . j \ . t 'I'
.Gorns over \.\ittr.:, a g{l:."'.t: '\;t;lnicrl nu ,
mim::te; can ''1 (JU mz.y cCf1si::.le:r rh"t :>J p:::n at' Emp:rr.
.is without surveillance, no no cHene:::, ne ('OHtraventlon
re?Tiabs unpunished, <!nd th;;;.t ;:he eye c.E the "7lho en-
..;. ...
lighte!! ;1I1 th:: "ihoIr: of d115 vast n:ad;i!li::, widl0l::.,
ever, the s!ig;rltes:: del::lH elcaping hh; ;lltention' (Tndharo:L4).
. > f:" bi . 1 1" r . . ..
Jt:; .. t!:: . f!j;,c'IP 1r:Jry socIety sw:
., p ". f ' , 1
as'm!'"H<:S y/:m me 1<,mpr:r0f me 0i;::: 0 .. p0we, spe:::::ac c.
As a monarch who i!; at (l"e and the !;Efje: time .3 US;;Xpt:' cf the
thton ..::; and,:he of rhe new he combnf:J
in::.; a t:ngie symb:JHcj ddmatr: d,e whd.: d the :0Hg;
:ly ",/ nw"! pomp nf sovereignty, nr:ces;,;;rily
::m;nlecstatic::!; of IXlH'ef
l
,',.-:ore or..':: hy one ill ::he cl;.lHy
(0".-;-;:;,,:: of survdH'lnce, i!'J <l pan0ptkism in which of
" d "L I I
mter1,e:ung ga.re:; ""fa:; soon !O fer; er W:e:es" nOli; :: 1f! tas,e ant:!
:,he St.::!!.
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Discipline
The formation of the disciplinary society is connected with a
number of broad historical processes - economic, juridico-political
and, lastly, scientific - of which it forms part.
I. Generally speaking, it might be said that the disciplines are
techniques for assuring the ordering of human multiplicities. It is
true that there is nothing exceptional or even characteristic in this:
every system of power is presented with the same problem. But the
peculiarity of the disciplines is that they try to define in relation to
the multiplicities a tactics of power that fulfils three criteria: firstly,
to obtain the exercise of power at the lowest possible cost (economic-
ally, by the low expenditure it involves; politically, by its discretion,
its low exteriorization, its relative invisibility, the little resistance it
arouses); secondly, to bring the effects of this social power to their
maximum intensity and to extend them as far as possible, without
either failure or interval; thirdly, to link this 'economic' growth of
power with the output of the apparatuses (educational, military,
industrial or medical) within which It is exercised; in short, to
increase both the docility and the utility of all the elements of the
system. This triple objective of the disciplines corresponds to a
well-known historical conjuncture. One aspect of this conjuncture
was the large demographic thrust of the eighteenth century; an
increase in the floating population (one of the primary objects of
discipline is to fix; it is an' anti-nomadic technique); a change of
quantitative scale in the groups to be supervised or manipulated
(from the beginning of the seventeenth century to the eve of the
French Revolution, the school population had been increasing
rapidly, as had no doubt the hospital population; by the end of the
eighteenth century, the peace-time army exceeded 200,000 men).
The other aspect of the conjuncture was the growth in the apparatus
of production, which was becoming more and more extended and
complex; it was also becoming more costly and its profitability had
to be increased. The development of the disciplinary methods
corresponded to these two processes, or rather, no doubt, to the new
need to adjust their correlation. Neither the residual forms of feudal
power nor the structures of the administrative monarchy, nor the
local mechanisms of supervision, nor the unstable, tangled mass
they all formed together could carry out this role: they were
hindered from doing so by the irregular and inadequate extension of
218
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"")a OF- ic n.
t1. ir ne work, by dleir often conflicting functioning but ahove all
b J costly nature of tile power Wat was exercised in them. It
v, s os.y In several senses: vecause Olrectly it cost a great deal to
tlo re su.y; 0ecause t.le system or' corrupt otnces and farmed-out
ta es v, ig.le ... indirect.y, but vel j lIeavilY, on the population;
base h r is an e encountered ,orceu it Into a cycle ot per-
p u. in.or el .. e ; use it proceeued essentiallY Dy levying
(l nb 0 LO Y r fir d t by. ro ya., seig,niorial, ecclesiastical
ta a on, I :'r ng, 0 n. n or til .. e .Jy coryees 0,' press-ganging, oy
10 k' g p' or ja is:. nb v 6a..;0 d J' he developIJ1ent of tne aisci-
p"n n ar's :Ie Prea an e f .elue arj teclinillues belongIng to
a ;u' e 'iF r t c 0 .. 1),. n. n. 0: yO\ver which, instead of
P oc ec" nb b J i d ct n, a t 6r eeo in 0 the prouuctlveerri-
c' n j f h a
r
,1a at se for .. \.iti. n, in 0 the growth or tnis
c' n -' d' n t:,e se fA" t P oc. ces. or the Old fJfinciple
0" '1 V) 'nb v Ie c ,,:h h 60 e eu tl.e econOlllY of power, We
d' ci, Ii es u Le rri cirle of ffil;dness-proouCtlon-proht',
T'le e he te :1fl q s h r..ak i p sSlule to adjust tile multi-
p"ci j r I e a J :le.n :tirli ti n f .le apparatuses of produc-
ti n :a 1 'li IT a t n.! ti n' 'n he strict sense, Lut
a' 0 h F Ot'UC '0 .' LnoJI Jg d slUs in t;le SelIOOI, toe
p 0(' c' 0 o hit:, i d. I. Sr t .s, h productIOn of destructive
f c in th a n
J
),
I tt's 5, 0 - a 'ju rL n , c: sc fli e t solve a nUlnuer of
p ol'er s r r ,t 'c!: th 0'1 0 O:.IY f r!0 .. 'e was not sUlllclently,
e ,ui. p l. It 0 Id r Ju e h i fl. ie Cj 0, IIjaSS pnenolliena:
r Iu e rh t, 'n n, I pi it J , 1 a1. S t lull .1 .ess than
a un'ty, r lu e :h t i 0rP se_ t se of each of ItS elelllents
a d f 'Ie' s n, re'u e er
J
tL nb th t I a] counter the auvantag,es
or n Je , t' c sc ,-IIi e .1x S; t rres s or reg,ulates
r OV IT n; c au,' c n_ s n, it Ji if- te c ffipac groupings
0" i 1i 'd al Vv n( r' g b u h c u 1) in u pf Ji au,e ""a jS;
i e allisl es ca' u te 1 t"S ib ti ns I n. s a. .n ,I .1e
f fC 5 '13 a f rr ee' Fr m h V ry, co s tu 0 o. a organized
r' ul 'pI' ci .; 't IU eu ra "ze tl ,Ie ts of co n f po rief t"at
s::-ri g I"fO 1 'le I nc' w'!c' f rL a re s n .le pOwer tHat
,,'51- s (' r 'n e ; Ji ti ns, re of s, ?O t e u ofca ZIOns,
c al' io s n} ':Ii g h ] a: e al L r 0 aa c nj n ions.
21"
",",,, ii

:- "!""m ..... ...... j-,t.+' .: . ""-''''';;:''r"Y at" ,... .. d " I, .
.t ,,'- ,{}nLntl" .. ". t . a.:od::,!!naI y :::'UL._. f I., ccnnc,.,c, \\ H: a
numbs! of trod hi<:fDri(';)i [H OCeS:leS - juridico"poIHc31
.I i l ' .. l ' .'
laSt Y1 :it:lent!hc - ot p3!:'L
(;ener.1Hy :i;Je;,Jdnli. 'l hI' "aid tllli ihe db::I::Jlines are
-'... -'.
:.;:+niq:11'-:; fGr ;:::;SUt!!:g ':<'f"";.:?ing c.r h;man Ii i3
tb::;: ::here ;:; :18th:ng excepti.:<n"l or even characterisdc in this:
eve.ry cf pcwer iz the
pecul!adty of the ci-:;ci;::incs !:l dUH to (1.:11,-. .: in n:hdon to
ibe muldd!d::ies " !"ctin .:if ::;::;wet that th,ee criteria: nrstlv.
A /L .,I I
to obtair: exer-:::lse :Jf PC'W'EX at the !owe!;t possihle WE {ewnc:-nic-
!..". :"\'" --y ...... it 0" i"s
J.", .. ' ......... !""_ .... '-4 ..... _ ,!,''''''''''j. . 11.)./ u. ... :) ,.
it5 low e:{!:eric.;:-i:.-.atiGn, it:; tel"t!"e inv13ibiliry, the Ettie resistance it
, "' ... , .. ... , ,'. ' .1,., ,.. 'J... dIU ,o.!.' -' I I' .
__ to.' ""Hr .... " e .... " SCd'l power tu t lelr
maxltllu::: ",,-::1 to f;')'.tenc the::: as ["r wit.hnur
. thirdly, tel
-rvi th of
0" wirhin
!:l,:;:'r:aS(: bmh::he d061ity and the !3!ilhy
"f 'c:'
U, t::c t:J:,Ul,.1lL"
':If this
was the h.rge da(:ographk
incJ'f:ase if': Boadng po::miatio!1 (one
disdpbe is w it t!:dmi'llle}; it
qmmtir;niv: scale (.t m;uli,pulaled
(hom
to
need to adjmt their
_,..v
u
e.}
,J... I
tW\) proce:;se"j or rather) n,:} doubt, to
forms of
nor
the
1 I ' j
Ui1S'tFl) e, tang;,:,!: ;:l1".:,t;
c.:any mlt this tole: they ,vere
extewiion
Panoptici!lm
theirm>nvork, hy Lhdr .Dft,:n,CClIlflie:tlng functio:'1ing, bl; t above all
'costly' natuH! af the dmt w'as en:rds"d in tlwm. It
, . , , J' I'
w::;tl ce:,t1y ;n tif:Vtral lrect;y It CO!ir ;:; great ::0
'[ f "{' J ,
, rtasury;, DeC:jIJs/! tnt: 5y:>tl::w (] or lee!': ::;"u !3rmec!0'-!t
r3xe:; weighed indirectiv, bill: heavih', CD the
" "'" . , - ... .
;:h:c re::istanc-z 1;, I':f':.counte:red fc;,;:-ced ;:ltr. a cvde nr ,lef-
. ,
it by LVYlng
fjuv''';f)c- nr. ,r,nr."" ;".! nrdw.::t., ;)'1' r:-l'rd e;p:'"r.ic-;-!al
\ ..... ) ... ,b - .- , .. "-'." " t -' ..,."' . ' ""'5' ,. ';: .... '"- ... ,.-.... 4.,.._ .... -.
. l ' 'I I" "
taxatIon; C" men ('3:' tun.: .oJ' ,'D.,-VIJ' 0, press-gaq::Jng,0)'
J k' l' t ' .' 'T' I 1 r' I' .
t.:p nr DanlS(!H1g .... ne fH tne
.. I" r ,'l!'
p;;,"!",. !YO"" t'le ':'j)t!C',rUF'c r.r "ll'meDt''l'"'' ."' .. 'n'(IU-- S'''' oro'" . ..,. ;:1 ........ _ .. . ., 4 '-' . .. J>. t. j ........ ..... .u.li c:::.J _ _ ...
..... .. ", ."'-'::<t:'>... n 7, "'f' . :-._=,.. -fO ..... "\."'r,n II .. ,,'ll
<>. Ot<..,,: . nt ',,"-'1 .. 01:1;:; 11,=:C,nD':"\\l" ., 'C,Jl:f.l.,
" , . l' . ,1" I '., ".
pror:eec.ung Dy are F1t.f) 1:: ,priJQuct.:-ve c:!:";l--
den,:}' of the appara(U$es fi.'on .. within, 10/0 r.he: GE ,\-::"
'}' . , , " h" r I ld
f:' KH:n:::y ,md W:': :.HC (:i w, at E pn.:dllces, l'::;r ',t c .
{ " , " "1 ! I ' r'
..:,nDU:nre '\J.(hlCln t -if' ernn:;nj,v
oJ .. ' .,"", ,"," ;0 ........ ,0"""" ...... -, """ .. ,,_, ... 1-' '""";
';, ' I;. -- -,'toot ,L" "t' :\,.1 "'-'" .-.;'.
",,0,,_1 " e p .. lB. _'L::;,-PIY_lckt:,.ll-j,l;)qt '
, :i .. ""l"',, tt." _,.,:,,, ; ...... 1\ .. ', " J' +t, ,,1'
:k:;C arc \;,,: , pl):,:;I,.1::: !U ",uP,>i, \..:t Dl . U-
plidty .")t and the of t::t :,t
(and thh me .. ns not only 'p::c.dl.u:ticn' ):n !ne
. l' .' . '" .1' '11' !
;lis;) tnt P3:'O{ HCt!"fl o! kn::;1;'lnig:e I'ml.l ![l tIe
, ,'" L' ',) c 1" l' f
p1'0durt;on 0.: ilf:i11lt; In s, prGLHU1G:: D.,
in dIC :may).
In tilh task r:f' discipline oz.d ;;0/-;(: a
"l (. 'hh I' r fl '"
jJr:Jb ems r ,f: :J d (J p0wcr n::;t su dc:er:tiy
f;olliDped. It r.o1Jid 'edl1ce t.he i,nemder:c\{ of rnas;:; ph.;fl0n:CH::';
,', .1 .,/_
I, ; , " , l' I b' I
In ;;; mu:,!p,lClt)', m"l.::es It mlle,l maEage3"ir.:
:l reth;Cf; ;;; to usc 0f of its
:1nc of their 5um; reduce ev'e:-y::hing Wl"y ':OU"tei ;:he
nf HLH1"!h::A,. 'I'h3! is jt: (,If
it ,;;kan; :":[-l cor.Ju<:im;, it diBs!p,:te,: (;omp<I.-t grn:p:ng:;
0f 'N3t:(::c::ing (jt-Ol::: th(; ,,;Jucltry ir: unptedicl:a.i:.l!e
h {CstablisfleS calcdated di3ai1:)Utlc;;5, 1:: rrlU!it als() all ths
{;)n::c:l the Arc fn;-mCfl f:-nm the ven:cc.cI3dtndon of an cn:ar.:'uo:d.
I:A
e'i,_I'," ,;. "r +!--- ffi' -I' - "'. +'
f" ,1;,,1L1i/, ,t mt.!.,t l!, ... . f: ,.:"; e eets u. l:OlJ:JtLr'pOY,.( d!;)'
spring from ther;; ar:G "'Ihkh form" :::-e,i.:Hance to the p.::nver t.hat
to domir:ate It: agb:.::i0 f'.S, rev0lts} or?::!nizatiorls,
anything rh:;, :':'H",bliilh

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'sci e
enc he t t th isc nes e p ced S 0 art oin
and verticality, that they introduce, between the different elements
th am vel, s. so se ati as ssi .. th the din
compact hierarchical networks, in short, that they oppose to the
trin ,a rse rce mu Iici the hn e 0 e c tin
ous, individualizing pyramid. They must also increase the particular
ilit f ea ele nt he !tip ity, t b ea tha e t
most rapid and the least costly, that is to say, by using the multi-
tClt tse s a nst men f t gr tho enc n er
extract from bodies the maximum time and force, the use of those
ver me ds w ti tab co tiv ain , e cise
total and detailed surveillance. Furthermore, the disciplines must
cre th ffec flit Y P er the hi ltIe 0 t ea
is made more useful than the simple sum of its elements: it is in
de in ase e u ab ffe of mu pie t t disc
plines define tactics of distribution, reciprocal adjustment of bodies,
stu an rhy ms, ffer taU of pac 5, ipr I c
ordination in relation to apparatuses or tasks. Lastly, the disciplines
ve br in pia he wer lati 5, n ab bu nsi
the very texture of the multiplicity, as discreetly as possible, as well
tic ed th the nc ns hes ul icit an Iso
the least expensive way possible: to this correspond anonymous
str ent f per, ext ive ith e m ipli t th
regiment, such as hierarchical surveillance, continuous registration,
erp al a ssm t a cia cat . I hor 0 s tit for
power that is manifested through the brilliance of those who exercise
, a wer at i dio y 0 cti th on ho is plie
to form a body of knowledge about these individuals, rather than to
ept the ten iou gn f so reig y. I w ,t dis
plines are the ensemble of minute technical inventions that made it
oss to crea the efu ze 0 ul ICIt by crea g t
inconveniences of the power which, in order to make them useful,
ust om th A ult city wh er i a w ksh or
nation, an army or a school, reaches the threshold of a discipline
he e r tio f th ne the her co fa ra
If the economic take-off of the West began with the techniques
at de sib the cum ario f c tal, mi pe ps
said that the methods for administering the accumulation of men
220
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.
Panopttcism
mad ssible litica -off j don e trad aI, ri
costly, violent forms of power, which soon fell into disuse and were
superseded by a subtle, calculated technology of subjection. In fact
the proce - the mula of me d the mula
of capital - cannot be separated; It would not have been possible
to solve the problem of the accumulation of men without the growth
of a parat prod n cap of b ustain them
usin e!l1; rsely tech es th de t mula
multiplicity of men useful accelerated the accumulation of capital.
At a less general level, the technolo ical mutati ns of th appar
of uctio e div of I rand e1ab n of
disciplinary techniques sustained an ensemble of very close relations
(cf. Marx, Capital, vol. I, chapter XIII and the very interesting
ana in G and ule). make othe sible
nec y; ea ovid mode the . Th cipli ry
pyramid constituted the small cell of power within which the
sep n, co . natio supe' on 0 s wa osed
rna fficien d an at p ning time, tures
bodily forces constituted an operational schema that could easily be
transferred from the groups to be subjected to the mechanisms of
pro oni t assive ectio milita etho to in
trial organization was an example of this modelling of the divisIOn
of labour following the model laid down by the schemata of power.
But the han e tec I ana of t roces
pro on, i echa brea -dow, ere P J ted
the labour force whose task it was to implement it: the constitution
of disc" ry m es in 'ch th . ivid rces
the ng t er a mpo nto ole there
increased is the effect of this projection. Let us say that discipline
is the unitary technique by which the body is reduced as a 'political'
for the Ie ost a aximi s a u force e gro
of a capitalist economy gave rise to the speCific modality of disCI-
plinary power, whose general formulas, techniques of submitting
for nd bo In 5 'poli ana to coul oper
in t ost d e pol regl , ppar s or i ution .
2. The panoptic modality of power - at the elementary, tech-
nical erely ical I at w it is ted -' ot u
the ediat pend or ect sion he g
221
<):""',n);:'.-
L. }oJ ......... f' .....
that the dis,:i:Jlines l1:;e proe:ede::-r.: of ::u:l!t1oni::'l;:t
,'. ,," , CJ
'1nd verde:,lity, that they i:1tr.::dllce, betwee" the .iitlerent
al the level, as. solid. s{';?-':,atic::-Ji Pl pm:,ibk, rllt)'
comn3cl netwGrb, in short; fhev cppos<: th"
t J "_
i:idvICl':ie f:::ice cf l;:::clltip:!icity:he tedlllir:;:J:: of the eom:irlU-
:-;W;, Pl'ramkL ITH.l5t "isG
utility d ea-:ioo, e:e",e:1t d the muhiplicky, bwt hy me3,',5
JHO!it l',,-pid a"d l:he leaE ':::osriy, tba[ is to ::3.Y1 by ming ,he
plkit}' !tsdf as 3,', of this growth. Efnce! in e::der w
fJctract from b:ldies r:"cd:Tmm l.i'Ee :::nd nr:.::,,;, the ':.!s(! of those
methods knc-w!! ;:,s thnc-tahles, collective tminir:g, cxe::c:isi:!i)
and cletai':,:d tillrvei;i;,n:.::e. Fnr!hr:rr;1.or":. the r3,;sdplines mE:;t
the af utility prc:p:r to the r:1ultlpHci lieS) so lhat I:ach
'..1 L', h ' ., .. . 1 . . ,
IS r(!aUernnre :diel!;.!:: a:-: :i!mp::" sum of 1:" f:; em"ntj; 1t lS E!
0TdeT 1:0 incrcase tnf: utilizable o:f tn.;: mubple tn"t tilf::
plin,es define tactics of diHrihudon; reciprocz.!' zdjuSUYlent n1' b.:niif$;
rtestures "nd dif[f.::enll:niun capacities, tedpwcz.! co
in r:ldDn W ;;'!'JfJar:Hu:;e;; or i,,.,k::;. L,,:::dy,
blve to hri'lg imp phy the powel' ::wt "bove but ir;,;ide
the tc!xLu'n! of (he f!-mhiplkitv; as dinc.'.eetlv ar; fJoss;hle. <!s well
..., .., 4 .-
0:1 the other ft.::rl:dons (;f thrse also in
th: leasl way tG this c0'rr:c:;pOf!G .>!:wnY:Yl0HC:
:n:':Ef'ilffien:s cf co,,:C:enSkV,= with zher!mlnplicity that they
. I h' .,.... .
sue 1
p::q}Nuai ar;d ,.:.ta!isihcat:.nn. In Sh':JHj 1.L. fL'! :1
jlG'Net dial is the brilliance of t:;()$e 'whe e:<ercise
;; power Ihflt :W,,;rli0USi.y ab:t:('diel on ",hOI::. it is .2Qpplicd;
10 foc:Tl '" body ofk.nowlcdge 3D::nH theSE individuals,
depby th:: ,)Sit:::tatlO:lS of 50vf:reig:'lty.
:;llines ilre the en:;embi,;\}t mimHe invel1dons m3ce :t
p(:!;sib;c usdi;j size of hy dec:reasing
i:n'::.;}!"Vt:::1iem:'E3 of::hc power which; in order to
muse :::.J.ntrol them. A HlUlt:iplicity, whether in B worhhop or,:
ar! army or a,ch001, 1':::3.cbl:$ d::reshnld of l!. disdDilne
'N::er, the :eiail(;D of the one 'to tht: other
{FdIC I!c:onomk ;)f In", \Ve:;, with
t .. I . I' . I' . I . ,
tnat m3(:!e po:;s,;::. e the aC':lJmuaw:m C;: G:,plta ) It Fnl.!i It pcrtl3?5
said the methods j;)f drb,iHistt:rit:g the accU!Y!ubtio!! of ,rwn

:Panc-:::, tici !itll
82de ::I()SSible :1 '"elidc;:l take-.Jft rebd';}l1 w the tnci{tionaL rltl.l<:l,
'. J'. ;.
v:u!e::t {om-::; of pGT,':::r,which suor: Idl bto dis'.lsl! and1l'elt:
s;;persedt:d by ;3 ca::uI3ted ["och:J.olcf,), cf suhjt:ct'on. In filet)
h
" . ..l
t e t'll,] proce,:;es t"e aCCUffi,::;;W.H': pt mICn ;1:')(. ttl.::: aceumu;;:;t1C:1
of c::iph31 - cannot be it would not: have been
to pfohl!:t';l 0f the accul!:tdat::oll whh01;t tht':
of ar..apparanls of ;::rcti:xt!o:: L;lpRhle of Loth 'S:.!::>tairdng the!:l and
usi:1g them; ':OJlVe::Sc:y, the techniques thlH made the
m:;:!.ip1Icity nr lr:en '.Jselil! accelerated the acciJrndzdol'l ot cap:tal.
-'! le:'is gene".:!J le .. e:; the f:chnolegic;d cf ::h:;:
Df pwd;.1<.tiGn, the rli.vislon of JarxH:r anri ::hi:' e:;;;"ok'l!dcn of
.rlisdpEn;;ry tedmiqllcs sll!i!ained ;l[: t:::'!:;emble of vTry n:l;;;.tie;-:.i
/_I: ;. ! ,1 -' - t. 'IrTII _., I t':-". "',c''o' <" ,oo,:!" 1
1.1.1,,,",, L'"p.tCl j '\. 0, J, .,n",p U ./1.. ,..,.,.l( d., Y"'j
a!utysi.:; b Guerry a1,d Ddeui:::). Each makes the oil:e]' r}(;;;5;jbl,,; ,mci .
, '. 'j' f' , .'iq d' . I'
"."''','''llY "'<'i"':" '."1' .. '1"00> " d,U"'" nr t' .... n;'clf'f llo '5"''''. '''''''I'V A '\,... ...... : 1,.... ....... ,1 __ V" 1- ................. _ ......... .. ...... \--"' 41.. o.-ty ..
pyramkl dw small Df with.!nwhich the
- . , ,.), ,-+'-,-.', .J ,;,' - -{t ... 'Y . --,.1 --,'
C:OLl!.ln",J.,.1 aHu ;, .l
made d1J.dem; aDd E!lJ<J.lyr:cat p<milior:ing :.in!e! ::flr}
bodily fore::s cr;.,.,:;titl:ted an operatkHlal !Jchcrna th;::t could e<lsi1y
,. L L" I hi'
trom tne groups to to t e mec lanlsms
J
"",; t I .l -1,--- .... V .. rl'''' ..... t:''""' '1{ - .... F'I i ''\ +,- r:"
prO(ULLOn, t II. . c prL ' .. , m""a.) LkC!!'j\ :; \,n:v !!lull.:'
ulal nr;;anizadrm was an :::::nmple cf rhis modelling of divj":ln
., j \. 1 j 11 . j I L 'l \ '
0': laoGur !!J!!c<;;lng t le m:){ e alU::lovrn 1Jy 1:lle of P<},;;,:::',
tl ,,-,,l,...',., '-d - - ...... ..... t ._ ?'"""" ... :("' - ,'- -h """ r- t::'-'
n "ttl c., Ie Gttle. lh,n ; ... e tec.1 {:J."i_ . ur , e !.roue.:.. 0,
.1 '.. .. t ' . .! . j
PI'(J;:I1JCt:'OH, W; weit: .:):'0lecteu :::;'1tc
labot:r for':E ",he:;e task it: W<l5 to impleme"t ic: the C0n!Hi;lIli011
( ..)j:. '\-10"'" ;<! ."j.:;,l; ;.,.II,,; ..j .. 1 {""'ce;' ..
!..... o..J_ .. t" J,. ... '"" -' ..... _ ........... J... ........ ............ '-'" "lI_::.:I ............. ",' .....
th,t:y hring are into n wholt: nnrl
" h' .. I '!' l'
e;; :: IS p:cyct:.oll. _,':-r. w"ay t=l;:;t Ine
,5 it",e ;;n!tary by the b:Jd:1 io; reduced as ii'yc:itical'
.. ,: ;..-?V;:";7 .... j ''''S " '1"""1" .. 1 '("t'{'" Tl.;> ;),,.,,,"tl.
... t.. '''-'; __ .. ..... _ ........ ................ {. .I . , ......, ........... -:':)A ,j .....
;.:. c::DitaEst ec:cnc-nl" :;:::e:ve riEl; to lh.: s::)ecific IEc,da!irv of
" ) .. J
plinnry pO'.'Jer; whes!! ted;niCJut:ti of
I
' . 1 t.l' ., ,. 1" , l..l .
C'l: .. e, =>.flC . J(JIJ>(:'S. m :,rmfr, anatomy. CC:Uj t.e opet'ltcc!
in:he mosl: po:itic;:;l ;:;ppa,';:;wses or
1. The: pan0t:iJc fl1c,J",llty puwer ... ,::I:Crltfltary)
. I ' ." , . , ., . '.
p at ft lE s:G.lated -.. root unGer
,the (H" nf grrar
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Discipline
juri polit struc of ciety is no less
absolutely independent. Historically, the process by which the
bourgeoisie became in the course of the eighteenth century the politi-
call min an ss wa ked e esta ment expl
code and forma y ega Hanan juri Ical framework, rna e POSSI e
by the organization of a parliamentary, representative regime. But
the lopm and raliza ' of d' . inary chani
con ed t her, side hese sses. gen
juridical form that guaranteed a system of rights that were egali-
tarian in princi Ie was su orted b these tiny everyday physical
mec ms, thos ems cr(')-p that senti
non-egalitarian and asymmetrical that we call the disclpltnes. And
although, in a formal way, the representative regime makes it pos-
sibl ectly ndire with ithou ys, f e wi!
all t m th dame utho f sov my, t scipli
provide, at the base, a guarantee of the submission of forces and
bod' he r orpo 'scipli . onsti the ation
the ai, ju Ilibe The ract ave b regar
as the ideal foundation of law and political power; panoptlcism
constituted the technique universally widespread, of coercion.
It cued t rk in h on uridic ructur socie
in order to make the effective mechanisms of power function In
opposition to the formal framework that it had acquired. The
'Enl nme hich over libe . also nted
disc pes.
In appearance, the disciplines constitute nothing more than an
infra . Th m to nd th eral defi d by law
the tesim el of vidua s; or appe meth
of training that enable individuals to become integrated into these
gen I demands They seem to constitute the same type of law on
a di nt sc here akin more iculo d m
indulgent. The disciplines should be regarded as a sort of counter-
law. They have the precise role of introducing insuperable asym-
met nd ex ng re citie st, be e disc e crea
betw ndiv sa 'p link, ch is tion nstrai
entirely different from contractual obligation; the acceptance of a
disci may nder' en b tract, way' hich i .
imp the ants brin to pI he n versi
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Pa pti m
subordination of one group of people by another the 'surplus'
po r t tis wa fi a the m id, the eq lity f p si-
don of the different 'partner' in r lati to he c mm r ula' n,
all t ese Istinguis the disciplinary link from the contractual lInk,
and ma it ssi e t dis t t c tra al nk ste ati ly
from the moment it has as its content a mechanism of discipline.
W no fo ex pIe 0 ma re pr ed es de ___ jn he
legal fiction of the work contract worksho discipline i not he
ea imp rt oreover, whereas t e Juridical systems define
'ur' d' cal 'ub' ~ co in to niv salon, d' cip es
charactenze, classify, specialize; they distribute along a scale,
aro d no ,h rar ize di ua in lat n t on an er
and, if necessary, disqualify and invalidate. In any case in the s ace
an ur g t ti in hi th y ex is heir control and bnng
int pia the sy et . s of the' po er, ey ffec s pen' on
of the law that is never total, but IS never annulled either. Regular
an ns ti al a 't y th dis lin in s m ha sm s a
'counter-law'. And, althol!gh the universal juridicism of modern
so ty em 0 Ii s 0 th xe se power, Its universally
widespr d op CIS en bles' to per e, th un rsi of
the law, a machinery that is both Immense and minute, which sup-
po , r nfo es, ul lie he ym et of ow a u er-
mines the limits that are traced around the law. The minute disci-
pli S, P op ism of ery ay ay el e e ow the eve!
of emer en of the rea ap rat es d e ea pol" cal
struggles. But, in the genealogy of modern society, they have been,
wi th las do nat n t t tr ers it, e liti c nte art
of the juridical norms according to which power was redistributed.
H ce, 0 d bt, he po an th ha een given for so ong
to he s II hn' ues f di 'pli , t hos app en in ni an
tricks that it has invented, and even to those 'sciences' that give it a
re ect e e; nc he ar ab do ng em f 0 c no
find any substitute; hence the affirmation that they are at the very
fo da n so ty, nd n e fIle in s equili num, whereas
the are a s ies f m ha 'sm for nb nc' g p we ela' ns
de nitively and everywhere; hence the persistence in regarding them
as e mb b co ret or of er mo ity wh eas ey
are a set of physico-political techniques,
23
DhcipE!le
jmi: ..b.;:J .. politk::::.1 s;tructures of a wd::')'; it i5 r:ot
.. l "."Itt"l,, -.-!.- ,) a ... :...., .1 '-1-, ;...-
d J .I"H " J .opeL, ... f.fI ......... OlhJnr' '-'.1,., l'r .... ctiS "J 'W,1tc. t,,-:::
bOL:rgeoi!de :tJr,::-ar,;,:: k.1 CGu:,:;e of ;:he eigh::eenth cenmry duo
d?ss was masked by of all explicit,
coded alld fi:.:mally eg;;!:ta:h:,1 i'J:itb:.;;:;\ ;n;:neworlt; :a::de
b" the ol"c!tlnization of:: -ca:liament::::-v, renn':$entathr, ;-t::::,ime.
"t... J 1. - '<J
the c,vdGpn!f:'f'.r and dhc:ipll:'''1.3::Y me::h.'lfIlsms
t;v :')ther, G3;:,l\ side 0; tiles: .. The
t..r
dr4 ('In;--nt,,.''d 4 -v';;[,!" nf ri;:rhts e(Ya1'-
-___ , :).1 '- H -, ,"'"-,:) - -",J).: - , L...., o,- ... t
:tari:an in pdnciple Vla!; by everyday, physic::::l
mcOch;:ll15;m, by ali those Iblt: are css,:r,tiaUv
. . ,1" .. - , 1 .. ,,, . ., ........ ,',, 1 ,h-,, il;r> .1' -,.:.,1:,, ,.
flon .. ega 1_, .. I.11l iHI{ ""J . I..,_ . 4. WI. 1 .1 , l.e:;,
,-,':t1... }- . -'<, .,.. f"- ... 1- -t.n ..... .... i a ...-",-. .. ;
](,UP:, " IE.. ,', Urb .. h .. tl.'O ....... ,t
riin::ctly or ir:dlr.;;:dy; with cr 'withe-elt relays, for the will of
I I . j' . L ,. , ",
to ,,'}rm tn: mnc:arm:nt3.: 31.;:t le::-Jt't' o. :)o'ir:re1gl11:Y, II'.;' dl5.t:!plmc3
, 'I... . l '" - .
prl)"Jti::, al ute ua:if:.J: guaramee 0; t.ile 5Ui::!!1i:;:;,nr: 0; !or:::er, 3:(:d
real: cc-rporat thsdplincti constitutcd tl1l! {;)Undl::ion ;)f
rhO' rUil.':'J:3:, jllridit:al Hbr.ni!!, The c:mtract n:ay .hz.ve heen
as the idcill ;;rw :3l1d
'" -" "A. !
L0:lHirutcd the cf co-::!'c!on,
h :::cJf:,im::':G W work in depdl on th: j'.lrtdk;:. or sodel:)',
jn .')[der to make th::- e:'Tec .. mechanit.mt. of 1'8-';;:"f fm,:('rion m
opposi:::ion to the: for;r;al rh:3t it h:;:c <1f;qulr::-d, The
'E.,1' 0 ..... '''' ' .. 1-;-:""I'f-.' 1 I)"" '1'" I ..... 0. 1 '
L .. llt",L.f:L ... _.1, ) W.,._,l " 1..,,,L vrru... II.' .1. 11...,) a so IIht,.Ehe:! t It.

'! . n_ , ,. h d .. , :; .. ,. - 'c";; , .. ,. .. 1: ".' .... 'f'" tL .....
Il .1ppe,,,aIlU., ! ,e COf,.", .. U.t: .iL, .lI'
b
!,.iJ , .. cd1
I'''''' dh If' .. ' .1"
i!:tr;;''';<lw. 1 bey seem t:)::x::en r e gencr3 . orrns Gcr.neo Dy :aw to
-::he iflll"ite:>!:n;,llcvet Ji:v;'s; or rltey appear,:> metho(i!;
f
,. h hI'" ,,; 1
o tr,!lr:mg t at ella e lH(,lYlr.:;2:$ to necumc
d::':rn;:.rJ(\!'. They stem c''} constitute rhi: sa,.-:[' type
a !';c?le, l.her tby r::dklng.t more :TI;:-ricuiot:) ;lfH-i mc::e
ThE! s:;uuld be n;gaid"d a SOft of
1 'J'l hI- i " -j ,. It. ,
_ 1t::"'y' ;)"it: t ole C! i:.:5p...
J... ...
metries 3f:!i c:..::cIUcHf:!g "-C! ci I:: 1: 0 c:iti es, Fil'St, hecC!lI5e discipLine creates
', .. " <".; .;: -''';', .,:- '- :<,t' l' k .... l', h'l ,:!t 'f", t
L_lW-:.<.n at-HI \ ,. t. In, I> .ILC S I.tt"," 10". u Lon!> r., ... 1
d:ffell::l::t h'0Ul cont''':''J?1 oblig;:;;:icll1; thr ;:;CCi:ptance 0[:S
dbdphne he underwrittcn Lv wa'! inwhicl-, it is
i!!1p(Jsed, ::h[''' mech;;ni;'!E5 it: br!!;gs1n to play l lh:,:'
1.22

:lIlbotdiillitic:l (;f une gtCH.';J of ;Jeop!e by ;murher, the ":mrpi;..l5
Dc-v:er t!:2t is a1w<'.)'s fixed side, int:ou<J.lilv of ..
). ;
don of c;"{: diifC!rem ill In +e cOIn.fJlon !eguli:ltiG",
t
l.,,,, ':"'1' ;y ;:-h ':',.,:-j". - v 1:-1- "')-; . ,.,- .,_ .. ,' ::-k
"C.,t. '.'1., lDot .. L ;', '2L(';'t-.1,1"1) ",I--. r.J!! "Je CI.,,,tr_'.,,wl
m"ke it pos:;ible fCo di.:Hon: rhe cC'!Jtr,:ctual linJ, sYf:tr:mat::caliy
tbe mOEY;ent 3S its rl m::dBnlsm of J!::ciP!i::f:.
IllY .." many prucedure,
kg:.:! of the c:JIMaU: 'wurkshup disdpli::e' is not
least l\1'cren''v'"er:f ;:he r:yste!i1$ de.nt!t:
ji.,ddi.:.al '$,jJj;;:::!::; 3ecordinr:; to etll'ler:;;t1 norm;., the disc::pli,,"s
., . I' ...
c.:I"r,H:ter;u;: C ;1SS;ty: a fi"=,;:e;
a no,m, :bierarchil:e ind;ividu:,';:; in reLadon to one :3;'<olh:::
,md! neee:;!;?,}', di:;qIJ"Uy al!d 1!!v3li-:hte. It! Clny C3Se! in d:1: fipan,
2nd Jl;xi,-,;:: t]:e rime in whi:ch thev their iH:d
-
intu DIa', or their IJO'V/":J', -::hev effi:ct 3. ,::JS!:":r1Si(lll"
., J ..
th: Iw h nrve;- ton:, hut is f:C;":::" ;;;:(lillicd
30,j ,13 11 may b-:,
, . I" I "..
CQI:;nter, aw. Ailc alrn':'H;g;1 u:;:; t!!:ryt:!:',n JWt(J!'-.::,m u( H!Udcrr:
$[:i:klV to fix un till: ,:xer,;sc of Du',>;e:. its .. enajJv
.,;" i ..t
wi<::(s1'n:ad eml,tes it to c-perale, 011 tb: lI".:i.eTside of
the law) a machinery ellat i:; hGth immen5e ani r:-:inme. ,d":::h
n:,:Jltiplle5 r]'J::: 0f power ane'
lhe Iirn;b ;!n; i:acCo'd ar;:w.!!(; lav.'. The mim.;te ..
pE;l::2:>, the p<, .. nn)tici!;HlS uf every day maj'IVet\ be below the level
of f:mergencf: of gr,f;l! appar<;tuse-; ;,:fld ILr: gre;, p())llir:::;;
3t:ruggle:". in tb.: gen;c;:;logy of !!1ol:..icrr, s.'};clery, ,hey hav;c
cia:'.:, clornb;:don that l1'3.Vc[S':; h, Iht: pcjitkal cC: ..Ulterpart
t
'} . ." I ... . i
n t June:.::!. D(:onn:; to p'Y;v<:r w;;:;
Hem."::, no doubt. the that bc;cn ;;::iven fo:' 5: Ion;;::
. - ---' "-
tv the srnatl tf:dwiqueti:JF to 1+:;):';1: apparently msigm'l::a:yt
. 1 I .!. . I ,.. ,. . .
trlc t It ;-,,3$ ':fl1.-'ente:c;" 2na even ::-0 tnose ZCf-2r!ces r:lat f!)ve It z_
face; benee i:he {::3r of ab,: ....don:ng ther,; iF (XI::: canno t
fir.::! any ;v:m:[' "i11rm;Jtion l'har the,- arc <oJ. thr: vr:;-y
fou:l:htk:n of society, and an e!e",ent in its f;(p;iIi)riun-!, whereas
the:}' are a ::erles of mechanisms for unbahll:dng pow-c;: rdarlo11S
;1I:d everywhere; he::ce per's::;;re::z:!: i::,(:g;;:rding ::hen::
a:; h:.uable, h:,lt COTlcrete :form of::ve::-y mo.:ality, whereas they
ar,: set of nhv$icc ..
;(.f,t .,
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10 return to the problem ot legal punishments, the orison v/ith
au rue corrective technology at its disposal IS to be resituated at the
point where me codihed power to pUnish turns into a disciplinary
pOVver to observe; at tne pomt where the uhiVefSill nunishments of
L.e ,aVv are applied selecttvelY to certain mdivlduals awl ahvavs the
same ones, at the pomt wnere the redecimrion ot the jurirlical subiect
L; L,e penalty becomes a userul tramlng of the criminal, at the ooint
\ .. le e ole la w is inverteu and passes outSide Itself, and where the
cute I w uecon,es the el1ecUve and mstItutionalized content of
t:_e ,U Ji 1 .Or .. 1S. V. .1at generalizes the power to pumsh then is
t.h u v s, consciousness 01 the law In each juridical sUbject
i is th r gL.ar extension, the inlimte\y minute web of oanoptic
t cL is e .
3. T k n n Lj one, ,uost of tI1ese tecnniques nave a long:
L st I) b .Ii J .le .. l .Jut Vv"at was new, in the eighteenth century
' .. as th t, ....y.Je g cOu1bmeu and generalized, they attamed a level
,. hi h h f IT. ti n of r:.now.ede,e anu Ule.mcrease of power
g_Ja:y ei fo ce on ano ,ler in a circular process. At mis pomt,
di s cr ss d he tecunologlC<U' threshola. l"irst the
J oS,it :, :Ie t .. e ct 0., t .. en, later, tbe worAsbop were not sim-
lOy r rLer j' .:l) tl. lo s pimes, hley LeD1Ifle, tllanKS to them,
,)P ra us s UC.. .13 a y .1echanis.n of objectification could be
e I Ler a a S1. .Huen 0; subjection, and any growth ot
, m er 0 Ie: gi e is in d. IT, to possiule DranClies ot knOWledge;
,. as th . nL, .I- oyer to tLe tecl.nolog,lcal systems, tnat made
,os ib:o:it . .in tt <.. sc plmalj e1e'lient tlier'ormation or clinical
Ie, c e, p Jc .ia "y, d.l<.. pyc,w,ogy, educatIOnal psychology,
Ie a 0 Ii at n f .ab u . I is a uouule process, then: an eplste-
. la 0/ th 0 5[. a re,inement 01 {lower relations; a
lU" iI "ic .. i f th .Fe ts 0, power the 10rmatJon
n(o a ti n f e\. f IT.. : knowleJge.
e e io :' t .. e ... is nary ,,}et.lOuS IS inscnbed In a broaa
IS r' a1?r c s: h d e. p .. le t auout tue san.e tlme 01 many
d r Ln -06 e - gr n mal, inJu rial, econoulic. Dut It fllust
e e og iz d th t, CO_HI- r J .Ii.J .le n. ning inuustries, the
11 rg"ng cI nOca: i Ju tr s r . le .1OJS f na IOnal accountancy,
OJ p e(' v. th h b: s fu na es or h 5 at" engtne, panopticlsnJ
as e i d tt t n. It s g rd d s not much more than a
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Pa op lcism
b' ar Ii Ie op a er rse re m rat r th ug B th
had been the Fourier of a police society, and the Phalanste had
e on e rm f e anopticon. nd yet this represented the
str t rm la f a ve r I t hn oL, at f j iv ua .
There were many reasons why it received little praise' th m t
vious IS that the discourses to which It gave rise rarely acquired,
ce in e ad mi la fic io t st us f s en s; t e
real reason is no doubt that the power that 't 0 rat a d which 't
augments is a direct, physical power that men exercise upon one
ot r. n gl io c mi ti h a 0 in ha co d e
only grud in Iyacknowledged B it ould bun' st c p e
the dlscipltnary techniques with such inventions as the steam engine
A ici m os p T yam ch 55, nd yet, n way, they
are much m e. If a his ric I e iv nt r I st p 'nt f
comparison had to be found for them, it would be rather in the
q it aI' ec iq .
Th e' hte nth en ry' ve ted he ch 'q 0 dis 'pi e a d
the examination, rather as the Middle Ages invented the 'udicial
ve ga on. u t d so y quite di erent means. The tnvestiga-
n ro du , cal n ad in ra e ch qu h d
developed above all with the reorganization of the Chu h d he
tncrease of t e prince y states in the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
rie A th ti i er ea d aery ar d re th ju
prudence first of the ecc1esia t'cal 0 ts, he of he y ou
The tnvestigation as an authoritarian search for a truth observed
a est w s us pp ed 0 e d p oc U 0 th oat ,
the de I, th jud'ci I d I, t j ge en of 0 or e of e
transaction between private individuals. The investigation was the
v ig po er rogati g t ts the rig t to establis t e truth
by a u er f r ul ed ch 'qu. w It u th in sti
don has since then been an integral part of western justice (even up
oro nay), one must not forget either. its political origin, Its
'nk it th Ir 0 he at an of 0 rc cal ov ei ty r
its later extension and its role in th-e formation of kn ledge. In
act, the investigatIOn as been the no doubt crude, but fundamental
em nt' th co tit io of e p cal de es, t s b n e
. juridico- olitical matrix of this ex ri nt I k wi dg w' ch s
we know, was very rapidly released at the end of the Middle Ages.
2 5
,'" . I'
U1SCIP;"';::
!ctL!m iO ihe i,ltohlem (Ilk:!;;l n:.misiln:er the pr..S(iQ with
_ r '.
,II! 1::hr: :::onccth'e te:::hnoloiZv at di::oosai is ro be resirJ"td al ihe
"J..., .J
. h r -t. " -l ' h' ,1" I'
POUH Wllere 1t;e ;::Oulneu pOWI"t' PU:;l:); !,ntCI a cmc;p.m'lry
po'i'}cr t::- nbscn'e; at the pc)lm where ulih,.;!:ri':ll pur;:3hment!i Oi:
the \zw .:!!e ar;pHd vely ;:n r:er;:;:;;!l :lndf'.+:luaitie<!ld always ,:he
I " '. f'" 'I' 5 ,',
ones; ;!t ti'lC ff)s:1t wne,e We reCo;;;:mtlOo (' t::e jUtl.'::;lCh suoJ':-CI':
by me penalty be:::omeE a 113eft:! of the .:dn:::m:J; t II-:.: poinr
where :the iE inverted an(i outskle and
:;:OHl1t(!I',\aw become:::: the di'r;elj''':e <-,In ir.r.{::t1l1lo!liized ('ontt!ni of
thi? jmidk,,; (G,n;,;;. \Vh;:;t g(:r:.:r;;!lz(s ,he ;Hlwc:r 10 fl1ll;::.,h, th;:u, is
net the UniVC!lsa! cnn:a:i':msne5:' Gf laW in t!adl juriJi:cal SUbjfct;
il iii lb: r:go1ar extensiUfl; the mltllJt: web cf panoptic
tedmiqf::e:;L
'1 'l-"II"n 'In" 1,\,' - -I'. \" ro," ,. r . <-_1. n'!I'!I)'<' IIIlV" 'I Ic'''-'''
,)" j, ,,_t., '... \ ... l: . L{V0\. t ..H .''' __ ",) .... , .... _ Ld' , .. , -i/,,"<;
history ,:ilCllL But what new, in tIll! clgr:.t{:{'::,th r.CIl::J.Il}\
was that, by heing mmbincd a;1d g,;:n;::;'aH:leci; they :"wined a. ievel
al 'Nhich Ihe [orwntiGH of <':ld i!1cl'tarie pGW';:I:
regubrly rekJorze anether ;:; a drcular proc-ess . i:u:: this
d.! -- ';'4-;.--1",-/ l' ,,' ",'-t',
"J.,C.IP Jr.,.", "d,HISc{\ tnt., I..".,H"U Vb!'-:!'; ,.nlt .. ,I1C (" I ".,. ulL
b:'l3pital, 1.h;:I:'.1 tb;: !ichooij then; later, tht! v/orksh0p wen: not :>Im
ply;rt!ordered' hy th,: disciplines; they bl!C, mel thanks to rhem,
ilpp'lr:lW!;,:t; that any o[ Gbj{:ciiicc:.tic.n ,:oulJ he
cl5.ed ill th(!r;',! 3S 3::', ;mrll;mem '::I{ ana emy gwwth
ld
' . . , .\. 1 l (' 'i
pawr:: eGa .. give :rise m tn:::;;-i tv PO"o:::.Jie K(10WICt gCj
iit '}ILli this liuk) prcptf to technological [Clade
pO!isibb: wirhin thf: c1i$ciplir;ary dtrm:nt the [e:rna!io!l of dink:.!.1
child psycho!c.?,y> 1: C 'lIcat:Juna I psychology:,
tb:: (A h is ;j double th(!r,,; ,Hl
1
1 'h , .. I . r ,.
mo ogH.:<;_ '1. aw ttlfOUg 1 a retmemcnt or p0Wc:r <l
n':.lhiplkatkHl uf tb:: of p,,::n::;.:er formaticn
- "
and accumdatior. of !lew fOHns of k::owledg;:: ..
'I" . " L -l' .. d' ., t - ,;
c; .,;1: uHClp;marYU!ctno, ,5 :s f:13Crlllt:f\ lr:. .f: nr:),;Q
h::.sw:dc':ll procr:ss: tli-:l' dr:velopml:r.t at ab)u! the sam,: tim(! Clf many
(.the;: .. indmtrial: .. ;CCDomir., HUI it mU!t
h:; ff!{;ognhed cOl:-Jpared 'with tht: mining ind ll!'!lip.s, the
"hej":rJic,j ir:.::liltitd:::; or melhoJ!'l :::f
:.oJ t.. .
compar,;d with the htast fllrnnCt;S or the stem:1 cHgir:,i::
.. ,. -. <., 'J ]',:, J. I"" . f ,1 .j' ,,. -, ..", 1"1, ... ,,,, ..,
h.I., ,LCd.yrc It..Lt a ,,',.D tlC.,,1 , 1 I. .. rr
6
",Ll!'1, fl,J nUl ,,,..J,,,,,,l ,r..'",lt. L! I <t
22{

hblfrr: lir.t:e tito)',:ia, f\ perVer!iE: dream - !,ather l!:;: Bendlam
, ,.l
had heen the F':'c;ri;::!: of a s:lcJety, and Lhe Phalanste;-"
t . ./
on ;'he Ii)!!"(: of the P;;::opdcon. A nd yet tilts n:pre;etw:d
for::nuia c[ a very real technc-iG;T.Y; that of individt;als.
rr-; ... .,."-r.) _ ..... - . ......,.. h ... ..... ::a,'" i ':; :!t .,.,,' 'hJ"'"
_ .]., . .(0 ';l;..,d, H,<lD! .. ,\1S0"S iN f It 1<r.U ,'=L J tLt.. t .. ;";If.Jot
obvicH,:'; :'$ discolm;c;'; to wl:!ich gave ::t:iC t':1rdy flcquired.
::xcep::: in ;the ac;;.demic s,atU5 or s::::-:C',:-:C'3; but
rea; rea5:.fj n:. dc",bt that the power that ;1 Co;Jf;!'ale:; and \':hkh i[
:mgmeDts i:; a direct, p,yuer dlat men exercise upon c.ne
"nath,:r. /!t':lnglod0':J, clll:fJination !:3d urigin ::hat (:udJ
nn:', .... dc;r'rr!)' adlnwkj)'yd i" ' .... j\rt ... )_":) ......... .. .... -- .... ) _ ... \:;,<--" ......... ... ...
,edlr:iques with :;uch im'{:ntic-:i5 as th: fiteam I:ngille
0)' An,;:;;":! micrGscope. T"!:::y alt! fiueh h:ss; ;,mri yn:, ir: tJ w'"')"
are much more. H CI historical {"{jt:iv,Jlent or ;J,t least :I Foint DE
:::ompnri50" hz.d to be foun'll tr;E' t::l-:crn, it wF,Jld be rathe, in tne
te::;tJrlique,
The eighte.cnth cenll)ty ir:.venld the t.:::::hniquf:s of d::;cip:int and
cxamiuari::m; as h1iddk Ap,;:s inver, ted d',e jtdicial
BUi:t rlie: :>0 by quit,: rliffer':'r,t rr;eans. lovestig;j:-
don pro:ed,ue, ::In :,md admintst:::atiYe techni-:;ue, had
, .' L 'f I "'1 1 J!
df:velcpeG above 3s! Wit!, I,;e n:org;HE2;lU0I1 0 :: Ie L an r le
in:::::ease of princely in the twelfth imd thirteenth cen
turie" At t:-ll5 t:,m:: iii: perrnealed m a '/ery large degrN: rhr:
}
W' fir< (, ;-;f h", :si:>";'J' ,;;) ,,;-;. "'r:: th"'I'/ d-:", ]"'\: ".i;;rt", ..... . ul t ___= ..",,, ,,, ___ ,}.,,._. ",, __ ,_M. <...1 .... .t:-4.j "-_,,,- a
Tl-!,:; ilPie:aig.arl:m 3'! 3u;:i1nrlti!rian sear:::1 for a
or at::tsted was thut; '::(; the Z)!Jpruced:.:n:3 ef oath,
the ordt!zt, the jlld:i;;a: ':1ueL, the judgement God or even the
bet'\veen nr; individual;.. 'rht' was the
,_I
F')Wt:: 'lrrog"dng to i!$df the right 10 Lhr: trw"1
by a Dllmber of rrgulated c-:cd-nir(Uc3" ]Jow, ;,hhc.ugh (he iW-i'::Stig2'
tic:, hilS 3inCe :hen been ;u::ntcgral p,!l jWilh::e (even up
t(J Car:nvn day), ene ml!$t forg.et d;:htt '115 poJitr.:al.)cigin, its
;:nk -';v.;!h the of the ,me of mc.n;::rch:cal ;;overeiv,;;;-Yl Of
its 1!fld iw role rhE ;ol'uw.lic;"j (,If kn()'.;::led1";f;. In
["ct:, ril:;ir:.vec:rlg"rit)fl hee;r: dll: n) rlG',:bt cl'utie, b;Jt ftwdamen:.d
elemellt 3n rftee::mstinHion of the em;:>irical sciences
,; ":1',, , I:"'",! ",."',,:,,'" ,1 ]." .. I ... J ...
JU' r 11:: L(p_t ,!!!_nra. ,.h.: ,,' _
we knC-'N, very rapidy :11: tb: er,,:1 d the Mddle Ages,
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Dis pH
It is perhaps true to say that, in Greece, mathematics were born
ro ec iqu of ea em t; sc nce of ur n c)
er bor to m extent, at the end of the Middle Ages, from the
practices of mvestlgation. The great emplrica knowledge t at
ov de' ng of e rid nd ran rib' t m 0, e
ordering of an indefinite discourse that observes, describes and
sta sh th ac (a ti w n t we rn or wa eg -
nin the economic and political conquest of this same world) had
ItS operating mode no ou in he q'u tio - time e
nv io ha ur ce m' nes has lac d in he d rk ces s
of our memory. But what this poltttco-Juridical, administrative and
rim aI, eli us nd y, ve gat n 5 th sci ces f
nature, disciplinary analysis has been to the sciences of man. These
sciences, whic have so Jig dr' rna y' 0 r a ntu ,
av he' tec ic rna 'x i the ett m r io m tiae of the
disciplines and their IfIvestigauons. These investigations are perhaps
o ch og ps hia , da gy, rim 01 y, d s m y
other strange sciences, what the terrible power of investigation was
to t e ca m now edg of e a rna , t pi s th ea
n er w an he no led 0 the hre hold of the classi-
cal age, Bacon, lawyer and statesman, tried to develop a methodology
f i es ati fo the mp ca cie es, h Gr t 0 ser r
will roduce the methodology of examination for the human
sciences? Un ess, 0 c rse, uc a ng 5 p sib F,
Ith gh' is ue at,' b m' g a ch 'qu for he empirical
sciences, the investigation has detached Itself from the mqUlsitorlal
ro du in hic it s h or lIy ot , th ex ina n s
remained extremely close to the disciplinary power that shaped it.
t has always een and lin i in eI en f t dis pH
Of ur it ms 0 h e u der ne spe lat' e purification by
integrating itself with such sCiences as psychology and psychiatry.
An in Ife it app ra i the or of st int ie ,
interrogations and consultations is apparently in order to rectify
the mechanis of 5cip ne. duc, ion ps hoI y i up se 0
or t t ri urs f th 5ch oi, ' 5t 5 the medical or ps chiatric
interview is supposed to rectify the effects of the dlScip me 0 wor .
ut e 5t t b is ; t e t hni e5 ere ref in 'id s
from one disciplinary authority to another, and they reproduce, in
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ano icis
a concentrate or formahzed form, the schema of power-knowledge
per t e h di ' plin (on his bje cf. ort Th rea
investigation t at gave nse to the sCiences of nature has become
d tach d fro its litic 'urid' al del; e e min on, th
er and, IS still caught up in isclpltnary technology.
In th M'ddle A es, he p ed of ' ve 'ati gr all
pers d t old accusatory Justice, by a process inttlated from
above; the disci plinary t hni e, 0 the her hand . nsid' usl
as fro be , h inv ed a pena Justtce that is stt I, in
princi Ie in uisitorial. All the reat ov ent f e nsi tha
rac ze der pen y - e pro lematizatton 0 t e crtmina
behind his crime, the concern with a ish nt h t is or Ion
her ,a orm zat , t div n the act 0 Judgement
between various authorities that are supposed to me re, ses
gno , cu ,tra or ndi ual all s bays e p netra-.
tion of the disciplinary examination into the judicial in qui 'don
Wh s n im sed pe I ju e asp t 0 ppl ion,
its 'useful' object, will no longer be the bod of the guilty n se
ag t t bod of t kil g, no ill e t jur cal subject
of an ideal contract' it will be the disci Iinar individual Th
rem poi of at tice nde he cie Reg e the
infinite segmentation of the body of the re icide' a manifestatio
the ro st wer ver e b y the grea cr ina,
whose total destruction made the crime ex lode into its truth Th
al nr pen y t ay uld an de te cip ne: an
interrogation without end an investi arion that would be ext nded
tho im 0 a tic us ev mo ana y ical serv tion,
a judgement that would at the same time be the constitution of a fil
t w nev clo , th alcu ed ien y of a p nal y tha oul
be interlaced with the ruthless curiosity of an examination, a roce-
re t w ld at sa tim the p rm nt asu of
gap in relation to an Inaccessible norm and the asym totic move-
nt t st es me n i ity he bli xec on s th
logical culmination of a procedure governed by the Inquisition The
cd of ping div als der se tio s a ura ten
sion of a justice imbued with disciplinary methods and examination
oce es. it s risl th he lula ris ,wi its ula
chronologies, forced labour, its authorities of surveillance and
2
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,l !;;::':
1:: ;5 p:e:,hap:; tEU:: to say tl1at,in GJ'le:ece, marhemadcswt!e burn
t ... -.>,--",",(." ... -.'- __ ';,' __ - : . , ;'0 ..... 0-),4......
.re ...... \ .... :J .... .a .. u.d,J_.l(> ... _ n" ure1,n an: ..
were hom, to ;;(;me at die t!nd of Middle Agr.:, fmlll ,he
practices vI', inVI:!itigativn. The great .::r::lpirk:ll kn0wle:dge t::ht
things of l.h(; ,,;cdd ar.d tr<<1lscrlbed them tJ!(!
or'c'::)),ng 0: an ic.ddinhe: thai descdbe:: ;mel
the (dr_ Q. '\vhr:;] the \\"-::;;rerl! bcg=.n""
fling dte economit: and polilical conquest of thit! same world)
;t!; operating ':nudel no doubt in oJ:e InquislriGn that immense
in dii.k l.'t,,:::r-;ses
of ou::: rr;,::r::IOI)'. But what ::hhi politico .. jl1ridicz:\ admblstrativ-::
c1!!nin;:j, rdigious nl!d lay, ''i'i3S to the t;(;!"::;KCS
nat1lre, Jisdr:timuy nnalysl:; 'tla:; to the !,,::i::n,:e.!l of man, Thf:lt:
cience!i, Wllich hz.ve S:J delighted ou: 'hu::l:::nity' for eve:::: cenrt::.ry:
bve their technical ;nalrlx :nrhe ;r.alci(;us ;r.mutbe of the:
dis.:iplin:s and their inve5tigatkm. in'lestigati0m; are perhap
to osychnbi::v, crimirk::l:)fJ,v. nnd so
!... --' J ..... ... , r t:>; __ t ,_
otber st::'ilnge terrible Fowrr of inve:;tig:J:tionw'lt:
,to the calm knowlt:dge r;f the anima;5j -:-he plant; tn-!:
Ar;ot}l-::r POW!::f: :;r;::Hh.-:r k,Dowkc:lge. On th" thr,?::;::,o!d c,f the classi-
ell ag'::: B"Kon, and stale!.manl tried to develop a tlwtb:dolol?;Y
c-( :nve::;dg:::don for the cnt?irical "denCt;i;, \Vklt G::TiH
will produc:e of c>:aminat:all for ;:he humar.
sciences? Ud::;s, of COUTS;;') a thing 1:; not
I; 1. 1 " ,I' f'
II !:i true .;!:. tec(ln1q:Jf: 'J!
:;ciellces; the: LII'cstigatic,n has detached ctseE f::orn the
prc.cedme, in\\ihkh ')jJS th:: f:'x.lf:linal.ic,n
r",r:l:2jEed extrerm:ly dose cO the PO't',I::r that shaped it
'{, ;" ,L, ... "I"" '''d' ,,,,,:;; '" '" ' ,,,I """r 1",1 .. , d' "
... :11')6, :.1.1k''I }l.en at.", ,-)1...(:. --:.. h .. c r.n.leb" (} :.ur; l::Llp ..
Of CGurS{: it 3eems to have unde:-gone :'l !lpe:''''Jhdve plJI:ificatio:'1 by
iudi' WilD such sdenc::.u as p;.II:hck1gy and psychiat:'y ..
in h::: ,lppc;;"'ance in the form. of intervie\vs,
int::D'Cll''l;:)ons :;;:rd consultations 13 al'pal'::ntlv ir. (lrrle:r !O r':I:t:Jv
_1 .'"
I l' ,.. " ," '!" ,
l/11: c; eoucatlOfEl PSYC[l(J;Ogy 13 supposea ta
cm:rect the rlgems (;f th::: 2.S rhe medical :;r
".
im:;rview h;,".:pposd 10 rectify tbe of the ditlc1pli,-.,: of
n !'" 'h " ." , -1' ",
11m we Eusr !I'Jt );: esc m(:re'r rete;" lno:vwmHS
h'om (ne Ji!;dplkary ::n.!l:horily to ar;c: tb:y it:
22{)
<I 01' (crmajizeJ (orr;"l, the: o[
prC-!)erto Nch J:sciei:l1c thh sl..;blect, d, T crt). The
!' ... t;
inve::.tigat:iao geeV" thr. ,dl:r.ces ()f has bt'cGm(:
dct<iched [,.Jm its world; th.: cx,::ni,.atio:m, eel the
mh-::( tnr:d; I:; :itiH c3ugi'!t llP in lech:cl:,je-gy,
In lbe: Ages, th:;l,mceduI'e: of inVf.:stig,h(On ;:;r;:dually
the old ",(Cllsatory Justice, b;J a;ltO(;eSS il!!ll<llt:J
l'lLuve;. Ii J$ci tech niqw:, '.1H thr :::thr:r ht:n6:
;!r:d as if 1'rm1: neb;:, Z1;;:S in-y';;:ded a penal justice that i:> still , in
prillci pIe: l die ()f III 2r
, , .l .., ., r .' I
:;-;;:;ractGi:.::e "':::H::rr; - ;:;-;r: C't m:: cr;mn-:a
behi:nd hi!;:::rin'!,e,:he::oTlcen;. with a punishf'!!cnt th"t J:, " correction,
;, nonr:,,[,z:lt!0H, th", riivisi0r; L'[ a(:t of )'Jdgemf:n:.
ben,'i:er: various aL:tlicril;::s that are supposed to TfH:'J5ur;:',
diagnc-::;e, :E,di'::Clli1h all this he:rays dIe pr:::etra
ria1l cf the disciplinary ex.2,:'rlinati:1O ill!::;) th!: judicial irqu;si:-ioJl.
L nCYij impc-sed .JTI per:al jU3rj.:::r: as i!s pc-i"t c f aJ:.rpliciltion.
'me{u]' object, ,;./:]1 no long::! the boll:, of 1L: guilty man :wi
u:; 'IbG':::::lst the bod\' of rhe ];jgUj will it :.::<: the J't:r:dical
l _ b ,
of all ie::;!l CO:'IIJ'3cr; it will bethr. cLicip;if!,I!Y individual. Tbe
, \. I I .. "., I
cxtrer;;c pam t of: j:""f,a: F'5t:ce !BWt-:- ue ; .. ,.Cler- WClS: v
idinirc "f tb,: body of ftg,iciJe: ,I
e( the 5::r.:1nttest pow'.::r th{: bedy o( the
toLL des::!l::nioll mctde th:: cd",:: expiod,: ir> !:"',lrh. The:
cf per:'l;\V today wculd he ar: 1,-,de:lnite d;scipline; a;-,
lHterre:g,,-ionwithuut enG: an hwnrlgaticn ,}Ju,lld
Hn'!it rn a rr:eti':l!bU5 and ever mme ana:yrical Cb3UVJtio::,
:; judgeffi/:Lt waui'd:;t the :mrne timt: be tb: CGas tt:ticn ()r a flIt:
::hat W:;.3 nt'/er t::j3ed) the e::t!cl::;:::d k"ienc}, "',(;{ p."!':a:::y that w":Juli
be in::erlace:d the ;:llthles!; curiosity or an::iarr-,ination, :
lhac he 3!: the :12{ne :irne the pf.!"rna.ftent rneZlSU(e. elf r.;,
gap in :relation u an [IOrr!l and die !Tlc-'/<'-
me;t char :arlvC!; to meet in The pU!Jlic e>:.ecwi::m wa:; the
Icg):::all.:uimination of a p:'ocedUJ'''f:;o'lerned by the lnqu'siric'(j,
0f pbd;,:;s iml:,Jduals und::r 'OhS{,f',ati0n' :-; a 0,,,,''-;:;
sion of, justice imb'JtJ wit;' dhciplir:a!'}' C'I,'dlOds ar!d
n,..v .. Ie;' '''''''', ; .: ... 1"1""0'1 " . d" 'l" Tf'l'U:':' 1" 1 .......... ail. U .1,,!/.i. ..... \ __ ...... PI.>;. 1 . .&&"- ... .. u. ,i ........ _ ) .v ........ ...J, .-, ')
chro:lologies, forced b.buur, to Ll1Jchorlties of sur',,: ,i:!ancc
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Discipline
registration, its experts in normality, who continue multiply the
functions of the judge, should have instrument
of penality? Is it surprising that prisons resemble faCtories, schools,
barracks, hospitals, which all resemble prisons?
228
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h-:J3p;rnJs., rr3cmb:::
223
3
0
THE REPUBLIC
by Plato
translated by Benjamin Jowett
(as posted on the Internet Classics Archive at MIT)
BOOK Vll: 514a - 517s
Socrates - GLAUCON
And now, I said, let me show in a figure how far our nature is enlightened or unenlightened: -Behold! human beings
living in a underground den, which has a mouth open towards the light and reaching all along the den; here they have been
from their childhood, and have their legs and necks chained so that they cannot move, and can only see before them, being
by the chains from turning round their heads. Above and behind them a fire is blazing at a distance, and between
the fire and the prisoners there is a raised way; and you will see, if you look, a low wall built along the way, the screen
which marionette players have in front of them, over which they show the puppets .
. ,
I see.
And do you see, I said, men passing along the wall carrying all sorts of vessels, and statues and figures of animals made of
wood and stone and various materials, which appear over the wall? Some of them are talking, others silent.
You have shown me a strange image, and they are strange prisoners.
Like ourselves, I replied; and they see only their own shadows, or the shadows of one another, which the fire throws on the
opposite wall of the cave?
True, he said; how could they see anything but the shadows if they were never allowed to move their heads?
And of the objects which are being carried in like manner they would only see the shadows?
Yes, he said.
And if they were able to converse with one another, would they not suppose that they were naming what was actually
before them?
Very true.
And Sl,lppose further that the prison had an echo which came from the other side, would they not be sure to fancy when one
of the passers-by spoke that the wice which they heard came from the passing shadow?
No question, he replied.
To them, I said, the truth would be literally nothing but the shadows of the images.
That is certain.
And now look again, and see what will naturally follow it' the prisoners are released and disabused of their error. At first,
when any of them is liberated and compelled suddenly to stand up and turn his neck round and walk and look towards the
light, he will suffer sharp pains; the glare will distress him, and he will be unable to see the realities of which in his fonner
state he had seen the shadows; and then conceive some one saying to him, that what he saw before was an illusion, but that
now, when he is approaching nearer to being and his eye is turned towards more real existence, he has a clearer vision, -
what will be his reply? And you may further imagine that his instructor is pointing to the objects as they pass and requiring
him to name them, -will he not be perplexed? Will he not fancy that the shadows which he formerly saw are truer than the
objects which are now shown to him?
Far truer.
And ifhe is compelled to look straight at the light, will he not have a pain in his eyes which will make him turn away to
take and take in the objects of vision which he can see, and which he will conceive to be in reality clearer than the things
31
which are now being shown to him?
True, he n()w
And suppose once more, that he is reluctantly dragged up a steep and rugged ascent, and held fast until he is forced into
the presence of the sun himself, is he not likely to be pained and irritated? When he approaches the light his eyes will be
dazzled, and he will not be able to see anything at all of what are now called realities. .
Not all in a moment, he said.
He will require to grow accustomed to the sight of the upper world. And first he will see the shadows best, next the
reflections of men and other objects in the water, and then the objects themselves; then he will gaze upon the light of the
moon and the stars and the spangled heaven; and he will see the sky and the stars by night better than the sun or the light of
the sun by day?
Certainly.
Last of he wilLbe able to see the sun, and not mere reflections of him in the water, but he will see him in his own proper
place, and notin another, and he will contemplate him as he is.
Certainly.
He will then proceed to argue that this is he who gives the season and the years, and is the guardian of all that is in the
visible world, and in a certain way the cause of all things which he and his fellows have been accustomed to behold?
Clearly, he said; he would fIrst see the sun and then reason about him.
And when he remembered his old habitation, and the wisdom of the den and his fellow-prisoners, do you not suppose that
he would felicitate himself on the change, and pity them?
Certainly,.he would.
And if they were in the habit of conferring honours among themselves on those who were quickest to observe the passing
shadows and to remark which of them went before, and which followed after, and which were together; and who were
therefore best able to draw conclusions as to the future, do you think that he would care for such honours and glories, or
envy the possessors of them? Would he not say with Homer,
Better to be the poor servant of a poor master, and to endure anything, rather than think as they do and live after their
manner?
Yes, he said;Lthink that he :would rather suffer anything than entertain these false notions and live in this miserab Ie
manner.
Imagine once more, I said; such an one coming suddenly out of the sun to be replaced in his old situation; would he not be
certain to have his eyes full of darkness? .
To be sure, he said.
And if there were a contest, and he had to compete in measuring the shadows with the prisoners who had never moved out
of the den, while his sight was still weak, and before his eyes had become steady (and the time which WOUld. be needed to
acquire this new habit of sight might be very considerable) would he not be ridiculous? Men would say ofhirn that up he
went and down he came without his eyes; and that it was better not even to think of ascending; and if anyone tried to loose
another and lead him up to the light, let them only catch the offender, and they would put him to death.
No question, he said.
32
9
5
R m r1..
Acp at
o t . e JIL cl. k. Ji at
f T af ta ia is 1
Fo me' ns,' is h d to nde and how opl ho h ve known
freedom could succumb to the spell 0 totalitariamsm. In fac , such
reg' es ad in e u of wer ps 010' al tiv that
can mduce even former opponents of a totalItarian regime to vo un-
tar' ace it er i as om ecu es lis , a the hen
make its values their own.
o c pre d na e a ps 01 . al pea f m ern
totalitarianism, it is useful to. consider how it differs from other types
of po r rde n h ory. 'ke e m em tal' rian' 0
Stalin, Mussolini, Hitler, and Franco, despotIc systems of the past
pe tte 0 0 osi ; t e w fo ht t reg ewe cr hed
But in past times, either the despot did not demand voluntary agree-
m fro his bje th s, a nn ace anc f h ere and
methods, or else he could not enforce this demand. Everybody was
su sed 0 th tyra bu f th di he all are ittl
what they thought about him as long as they kept these thoughts to
th selv if no er son an thad wa 0 fi ou
what they thought. Whatever system of spying the medieval despot
em aye was ve lim d e ctiv ess, m ed ele ani
listening devices for example. In modern .!Q.talitarian state,s, the!!!ass
m a p vid ea un ite opp un s t inB nee very
b'od 's thoughts. In addition, modern technology
(J e;;- pri e a itie Th! nd ueh ore rm
a totalitarian dictatorship to i.!l,sist Jhat its __ JQ.-JbinlLQn
their ow -p bly eca th omp exi of def tee 10
and rna oci re uires this in man areas of human endeavor-
REMARKS ON THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPEAL OF TOTALITARIANISM: Reprinted with COn-
sid Ie c ges add ns fr the eric Tou of E om nd 'olog
11 (October pp. 89-96. Included are segments of an afterword to Charlotte
Be's T Thir eich Dr. (C' go: adra Bo 19 ,pp 9-7
317
nn the j
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3
3
3 8 mar on t e Psyc ologlca Appeaof TotalitananilnTI
ut ert ess ive ex Iy se vic IOns w ich e sate
wishes fhem to holrl.
--.y .. Sw e in past Ictators ips an opponent could sUrvive withm
the stem d st'll m . tain ons' rab 'nd rid' e i hOl
and 0 ten, to some degree, In achon, and with it retain his self-
spe in mo rn alit' n s e it' not ssib to r in t
self-respect and live in mner opposItIon to the system.
1
Every such
od no onf mis . co ont wit dil rna e c ex e
hImself as an enemy of the government and thus invite persecution
d, Ie en an ,d ruc n. he n 0 tly fes 0
believe m somethmg that covertly he deeply rejects and despises.
co qu e 0 his tha e will su ct to i-
tarian society comes to trick himself, to look for excuses and subter-
ges n d g s e I s e tly t s resp t w h h 5 try g
to maintain, a self-respect he needs desperately in order to retain his
eli oJ...; Q!!.Q '. A exa Ie the y t wo m be n
in the\ Hitler salute\ This salute was deliberately introduced so that
her rp Te"i 'Ou red ch er t pu capri e m t-
ing places such as in restaurants, railroad cars, offices, or factories,
nd the eet t w Id b asy rec mz nyo wh un n
to the old "democratic" forms of greeting his friends, To Hitler's
110 5, ng sa e m y ti s e da as ex ssio f
self-assertion, of power. Each time a loyal subject performed it his
go bo ed.
For an opponent of the regime it worked exactl the opposite
ay. very me h to g et s eb y in publi e an ex-
perience that shook his e 0 and weakened his integraf . H d it b n
nly ssp reg tha bie d to he sa ute, It would ave een
easier' but the sal te d and lit th 0 ne eg 'gh wn e
id
A ord' to ych nal . th ry, ta of t eg to 0-
ect
'ndi
e inner an outer well- emg and, most of all, the survIVal of the
'dual b med' tin etw n text al a int al rids d
ringmg them into concordance.
1 This difference has been discussed. for one example. by Robert Waelder,
Aut 'tan sm T itar sm. n W u( M ster g ( ).
Psychoanalysis. and Culture (New York: International Universities Press, 1951),
p, 1 --<)5'
9
6
Remarks on the Psychological Appeal of Totalltt1Tiamsm 319
The ego of the German anti-NazI supported his desire to enJoy the
its fre om -th it as in eve thi H er od r, d
it ided with the superego in the conviction that totalitarianism was a
vIle system one ought to resist. But this 'Yas only par of e eg 's
f ctJ ny may i ad 0 pos bo th e s nd . n
order to fulfill its main task-protection of the individual from de-
s ruet n ( y th ges po -fo exa pIe, y In he it! sal e.
1"':' s t 0 on t f th to J"ta' n im who needed a
strong ego to be able to survive In an Inimical society, and to hold on
his on tio w n en ssl 0 ar b th rna m ia
with messaes which tried to invalidate an he believed, found himself
In situations w Ich Isintegrate his ego ec u e i wa orc t 0
ttle n 0 0 os fr ts: as rt w f fre om an to
protect him against being destroyed by the state because he resisted Its
rna s,
'fh H'ler lute: .. 3. ..,o"1a1l a ....Ie t illustrate how difficult it is
to retan;-7m;';ld;;} of &ee<iQffi ud-"
"_t_9_E.L .. n i ppiti. Vi .. . n? "",Ii sin to" ita' n
If the situati;;;Torcea-aIi"opponenFofthe"sys"tem"to iive the
Iller salu e- at IS, to raise is ght m d yolo " il
'tIe" th as rti hi oya t nd dm' ti of he Foohr a
person he hated-he immediately felt a traitor to hIS most cherished
eas ne nly ay t s t re d hi elf at e ute id
t count that iven the reality in which one found oneself it was all
nght to render the salute, because It was t e on y way no to be
res b the est 0, 11, e's 'nte ati de nd on tin in
accordance with one's beliefs. So one could retain one's integration
while saIl! g y by cha ging ne bel th sal ing as d,
D 'ng is 5 f he orc 0 he' di 'dual bec e th's s lute
was to be given so many times each day, not just to all officials such as
ad s, lic en ai en tc., ut en m tin on cI est
friends. Notwithstanding that one thought a friend felt the same way
one dId oneself--{)f whlC one could rarely be quit sur -0 ers
ho w t to di no ve e 'tle alu mi t r ort his nd
often enough did, It is possible once in a while to act openly agalOst
e' on tio ,w n ce to so y ces d s I n-
in me rnb! nc" fit gr t'on throu h mental reservations about"
doing It. But thiS deception becomes extremely di cult when It ha to
at al he me n dif st u wo h ita to
< l'l ;ttlm1'J..s nn /'f'iJtai 'J;! TlJtIIJloria'l:So.
td a;eve at (Cla ,,/L slat

p;s: ?r'tcfTC'[lcur t;,),t'ci 5,l,:vive wJl>u
lh:: ,J.ld,lill Iii
;:;nd of tell, ,,('rr..: .lepee, in ,:.,:ti.:n. it r.i'l
re!'Itct, :11 t.!e WGCeld,: H ,h);: to 1,,:t2:I.
;'lId '..iv.- j;:,illr.cr ppp>"it;cr:. to t:]r: :-pb!)r.. Eyr,::T SoJC.;'
Po..:::),],f.),:mist COn;1('1'!-.::J'vlr1. a r1;l.:c.l.ma. II'! car. ':!'tJ.J3e
t-:r.wjf a!> the gc\'er,1me),I;: .:x,.dh!
:aod, I);ten {(I, c:evmer;(l!:. C't ;;.n w
hdieH: ... :ovedy ,md
cf "h:s t'::21: (}.e ll[1Vd ' itlg uf .l
;;'0 S,K;Cty .. j Ii I 0\00;'; fer find M' ble.-
n lhe f:Y?ct!v .. t VV',,;C}; F.e ;5
;(, r'1'{;r.taill. J. te w:eC!, hi orc:er 'T
f:!r,;i:1,g !!L'l:J .. ... 11.::1 I'n:Gp;r: t;,r ',V,lY r1:i:! mJ? l'r: s;::eIl
1 i'y T' i '"T"TI _ 'I ."
.P .;;,Iltf:.\ ,H: 5;,I'j[": ""'1,'; Al.I'l'CCl,c.eC' 5')'''11:,
;-::<21: ;J::!'bl;c :;,.,d prl,,t;:e ::TIr.d
?:i i'1 J,IJro;,d r?B, ')r
ar.G 'Tn -j;: won;!! to Ic(:9g.l11/.e :l.-l ... or.
;(. tb:- d !1:s bfO,C:S. Hrt:tr's
'5;.1, ing :h,e each .-1-1-, ?n of
:;(11:, ,,[ jJCWLf. t;lf,f :1 ;.\.11]:e::l: perf.)crec
egc 'va) CC('lt23.
or (If the I egiTf tl:e
W;I/, F\u{ -ialC Ie ':1'1<1::0 trr:t:t b ;Jr e:
:1'(,01 -:-u.!! !1h: ;it be":!'
olily hi; Ibat ):) tbr! it ','J:.lld !:'ee.)
('aJle':; t;" .... :,::;1nte. ... ie-fTI.3.Jd the :!.g0 .,.;.f;hr dnvm the
}[.ilJie.
I ,) oI . ceq, the I);' t!u: j: to ;:;:0-
r.':c.t tn(' ann ,"cll.h,,!.iq. <}').l all, fiJe fLrv;y?l of rr.e
iprJu;Jllnl L.', r:.l'eJia t;x'E beh.ILLn e:l'tei,l1! :hlJ aad
.tcrr. irotJ cOf)cord"r.ce..
..-..--..---.-.. ..-..-..... o_.-.-.- -__ ._ .. --_._
! Thi- t.?S IA.e.'1 ,J;SCl'S"t'C:, 0('[ ddf': t'x,L['rif':.:J:I t{:>').!rt'VI.lf':JrI p r,
c.r.d '[ :r> Y{iH:o( IT:1:! M:::::r.,kJ (::1:.).
Fs;dw<lTliy,.;,;Jd Culfl'!" (t,/I'W :'Tl: ':';1.5';,
rIo lil5-);
ReiJ""ks /II. L'J" of ; S'
TJ'v: es') of Jw G("[,l.afi 'J ,.I:,NdLi .<UppriltCti +oJ;r'; to er 1/ tho
troJi!:s lir !::eedcI:1--tl:w:t \'{a3 Hi:1e:s::llcc! ;:))r, ;.1(d
i; Si0P C'. ,,1i:::.\ tbe j.1 rt>r,; r:0'1\';rtio.l '0ta!'[Q;;an' SLl 'V,ll ;I
vile :i)'!:teila E'lt Prilt e; e,:sC'j
tl'llcti!)ll. !\'hr.y t;r.:11' I! a day ;1 tJ :hf:!f: ctar.c!s ir.
t'l':f;.F c,f frarn
5I:n,,::ii:if. tcst:lfHl) - -fo: f:Jl.ar:l?;e, the S,,;lltt
f(Je cppcneqt ,)f Itgi:;r.(', who A
st;('nl.; tc, be :N,. t,) Cl'rlli"e IU i'l;I.1Jr.rol ;".1'" t') Dr'
:0 1,;s C",\J:c\;(.nc wt:er. bll:r:b;.I r.) t;le 01,,5:;
with :l;ts5'1ge" ... hi"d rn in'i:1!i::l.ar,- all bdi,-.ve0, iOHf'G
1':l;ib'Licr's!. 'lIst. tf'el it w,as fucec t-;
un two cPI,os)tc )root:; t,) (;1<: f,).' fri lr:tlCl-:-i aT:,; t:!
hi:r. the: 1>{-C;H'5'3 r.t'. ib
'[};r; H;dcr C-}lafl}1Jlc .. ) ii: i:
_'-,,,--------'"' - ... -.-.. -" __ __ ,, __:;"'_,_- .
tG T(!tcjq
.. _---'--- - -" - -'-, ,,_.- ,-'''<<<------ - - .",
,..,.,. t" .. U""'''{ t" 'i<IT I'" ") ,LeI' or:e "1'/,, '1'\ 1
"-"o __ __ .. __ __ ..J, n_:,.: .,' ,':_ " " _", -,,'1, " c- \u .
H 111C s;loati,., Cr;'t;C t:>0\:e I]\e
LL "' .......
IIiJe; sahtc--t!ol;': i;, 10 iiFrt d:.m aad 3dy <'ul kuG. 'B.':']
l,is ,:0 ar,(: a0I,llrat:.on (If }<Yhler, a
:he ;CU'lfCb:lf;Y ftc;\::l. IJ:I:Of tc [1!')3t d\crhlwd
TIe ';'1;:;' .,'?]I eLi.\as Ie t.) h'r;)y!HJ.,1 :]11: .;;;.ll1t-: (:15
f'ct (Ct'!:.!, that i,l '.'!,::kh cr,l. fc.]f'1.).)eSeH It M,S ;.ll1
Tight ((I j'f"f'C:fr f:J:: W'.j:; t;H- CPt)' til b:
c"li'a:-L:.Jt 4,!I'J 'J; GIL. gCJtT;')0. Ge..FfI1Lf' vB if1
.1:COi: (:;.nCf V.'it:l J::tc'" h:ckfs. Sc Cor.e conlj,tcta:ll o::e' s in k;:;:<:t iO:1
O;l!Y 10, ChT,)t:;ns ,)ne'!, -J),!;j,!:" ('11: 'b:.o
tH,; V:<'.5 b::']'cr "(,jed lin beenl! tJi,
IT: ;;;'1')-, t\lI'':S Qav. pot to "'!: as
h,!rCOjr "1,)lJt (,\er I)-ill C1ne.
1
:':,
f'ienc's. OIl'; tb,\I&b, d h:tJ.d f.;;t :,we. 'vay
one c:ij :):):!:;c1f- -::f V:bC':l ((Illid r'l:c1y b:: q:de s:::e- cth::::
$;;'," that0I,(. die:')'):: gi"F. he l-'lirk: s'll,ntt rLpOrT f'li<, :;r1
cf(en fh(JUE.;lt C'i:L a GhCe ;u .' witHe Ll CFt:,I'Y
1)11::;'5 J:O:1vic-tC:lc,. '''']".1';0 faced to do :;0 11:; I:tees.,i'ty, ar:c! :!!Il )flab
te.l'1 c r ti0P thrnugh, '-,ien!,,!: g tCl't .
cciag it. '3ut lh, bU'l'hl':;S f.xtr\ome(;' Jihii'u!t d.(,p.it hE
1)<-: 21; tin:e. ::r:. ',(:Clt.('I:I, cf '.]; 'n
3
4
r .. a1.e 11g ,:uss-whlch rerusmg to Five the Hitler salute c 'n
orten-repeaten situatio ; w .:10 n t \I'sl I r b rr ss
fh rouf'-1 U d v' n'- rer v'o 5 .TI } r 0 V. ..le t"J} d. nce, Refus-
i g to s \\ S IT. G .n re trouulesome uecause one not only
f.a ec. one s own lIfe in out also that of th r ?e s n,
since he was reouirecl to a y (a'1u e 0 gi e Itt Cle
autro 'ti<>s, 'fh.u na y tile c' j tIe n.i-: 1a i il:le Lat. to ue-
c IT [ a '_y a d il_m:ta e u Iy test Lhe courage ana convictions of
Lc t:.er person, or lose !lis self-resDect.
l). young German psyeholoaist ree \l -:l. -'/0 k d 'n
Der life, db n a h'ld:l ri g 'h e r'l } as f :fde 's e
6
ilue.
Pe f tl r ,h IT 10 e':: n':: ,II. se values slle sllared, was a
S.ro g, 0rP n nl m hie I-Jazi movement. !jut she had to ":0 to scl-tool
and Hlere sne had to swear alleriance to th Fiihr, 0-' (v "le
Hitler salute many ti"le e c
h
C y - n m e' 'n; ler cl sS.n
r g'n 'n3 f a h cl ss in g eej 6.h t a .1ers, For so,ne hme soe
LJC ta:J} IT eL t e oss I.er fingers, Slie maintamed to herself that
oatu ana salUre GiG not count because she dirJ n:ot f"e n 'h IT Put a
she din. what I]er ty r lu'r 1, r 1 a'h ::1'1 s 'f, a d 't ".J-;;-;'-.1
n.al tn h r Clanc. SllIT feep up-me
I- e, F nIl,. ral.Jer blan-act a fie any Tonger she
IJlenhlJ reservation and swore al1efianc a (I s 1 'e.l 1'k 11;')( I)
else
C:o 1 o'd __ tl.at b.ne were ,,(eenl)' aware tnat tne
5Jst n. ihcir
in tne battle hetWeen lnor:i1 co v'do a (' s '-::-'f ev 'j n 'h s'
of tl]e'1l tv nt d to Ii e v u11 ve t a::y.vi UL 0 e pnnciples
ne' , .r r s k, d hit ule systeIT .. l'or example, before he
1 fl. G r .. lan) in 1'}3'1, tne theolOplan bu! ','illleh tliougljt 'n bi c n
scious mmd that he woulrl never '11 k J--'s e e vtJ ITit'er' n 1 11,
as he reno f"1a y ye rILe "tv' J nos '0 s ::n VI b nL.
i v h; h I ft C r .. 1a } in g 0 .... time \.0 prevent nis unconsciolls
{0 1 V nt auy overpowermg IllS conscIOus convictions,2
our conscIOus mmn is u.-c n i us
nothing reRects tP"s th,a tt e nt n' o( u d ea_n_?,p
xa-n:-Ie i 0 e IT a 's :If 3..1 Ju i 6' J&jS' in
.!h'cJ. I '::e d d to prolesl openly tne actions ot the .Nazi
9
7
Remarks on the Psychological Appeal of TotalitdTianism" 321
regime. Obeying what his conscious mind viewed as his moral obliga-
tion, in the dream the man carefully went about writing a letter with
his protests. But when it came to mailing'the letter, he dreamed that'
he put a perfectly blank piece of paper in the envelope, which he then
sealed carefully. Not only did this man dream that he made a typical
slip, as his justified anxiety made him act contrary to his
conscious intentions, but his dream also revealed that in the end his
anxiety-or se1f-preservation-would win out over his convictions,
exactly as Tillich had known it would in his case. This dreamer re-
alized even in his sleep how destructive such inner conflicts and the
way reality foices one to resolve them are to one's self-respect. He
had first felt very proud in his dream that he dared to lodge the
complaint, and later deeply ashamed that he did not. In the end, the
dream left'him feeling defeated and discouraged with himself.
Inner conflict about giving the Hitler salute was experienced by
many Germans, and this conflict found unconscious expression in'
many of their dreams, one of which may serve to illustrate. Shortly,
after Hitler came to power, a man who owned a factory dreamed that
Goebbe1s was paying a visit there. "Standing in front of all the work-
ers, I had to raise my arm in the Nazi salute. It took me half an hour
to get my arm up, inch by inch .... There I stood in my own factory,
arm raised, pilloried right in the midst of my own workers. And so I
stood until I woke Up."3
In his dream this man, deeply opposed to Naziism, was dealing
with a problem that also occupied his conscious mind: should he, or
, would he, compromise his convictions in order to retain his factory?
(At that very early time in the Hitler regime refusing to give the
salute did not yet endanger a person's life, only his livelihood.) The
dream foreshadowed what his decision would be, although it" was
made only with the greatest reluctance. The man's inner mental
struggle about what to do was given visual and temporal expression
by the long and difficult physical struggle to raise his arm. He could
do this in his dream only very slowly, and it took him half an hour to
complete the gesture. But once the fateful decision was made, he
could no longer undo it; this was why he stood in his dream with his
arm raised until he awoke.
3 These two dreams and many similar ones, including those discussed at the end
of this essay, are reported in Berndt, op. cit.
j.(J )ii! If:e Gf
m::Jke J h:S5- the Hit!t.r c.J-:f:le::]--!:1
cv!'"ryby we do 'lot V'r'i.,l\ i"G
t},r0tJgh IJ['[ rj"'!j,Elt tl":iJ,PI;('f f0I'lc PCIS)J1 '.h'! IHfe.[ oJ tlerus
1(1 w:::s n::::dc melt": <'ntr )l;)!: '):11y
pl;:Jr":!rJ ')Vlfl llfe j:'1 l:lllt t 0f
i.e V/:-<!- u:{1Ioi.e3 rep(.:1 1.1'; [0 iJu:: ,,;',(ik h.
r;me3 c. (!c.r ;}1}S-1\;ni h:{c 0 be
.1'1.1'f' '1 <It'C: teet C0IH'lgf' ",.(1 C(,Lyj,:l:iGPS
!;.C Oi,;IO pr:) son o. 3.-:11 I::::'lle.t.
A "(1);'P1f: ':..:,e:n:;::Tj p3ychc!(1;;H rcr:alJd l)(lvJ f"i:i'; bad ymrlcU1 ir.
1'1":1 SIll'! tmllJ'::'.!h .a rhild dt11ri'1g the year::; of
lIe. 1'''!!'r".:J whorl !:hc WJIIIS'::; she: sllarej 1-\,]"
nf N.1zi !Jl't .'h,o gil :"dwoi,
:rnd he! ;'C' C'r>'f'nl alkgi:d'lt:1': tc 'he '1.d g:'vf" tht
l-ir':ler S:l;ute: .l.a"y tJiIH:5 c1aY---(II; !tcr::ilf.:SiTHi:es. '11 !.i,e
Gcginr.;ng Gj: da';: iJl grtet:r,g: the J'Gr SOIT'C r;me
I::lej ;0 '..'LSS he! f;oSerc" Sh ... tr. hcrs-,lf tLat
,m': '''.:Iok :,;d 110; l:OU[.l: !)(;j',:u::t: ;;lJc 'Iid Dot Inea,\ '1,1,:"111. flo.! ;..i:
did her r::'1illrfG, :'h" I()Jll.c'i! r.tTy:lf, it
"v:::;;-f,J"::i'(;': r.13:ii :(f,spe5r I !-lCee;i;'
r -;:' .. ",,';
.. ,S.", .,f'al,y, ......... fl'lr.fL ... L ,I.} w
n
" "H' e1V. Iil ..
. 'I ". '1 1 '1 1 l'
iT:tr:.ia <l:!![ SWI.re "I{egl;..rJ<re :lIlU sa utter: :."1 )Cl,y

::J:cccr tL;::t tiUl": k:::c-rr:Jv aW,l:t H:at
'1 .. "_""O"""'="----""--...-.c;;-=--"",.-""':-= ... .......,' ,.
C"t.!",::rs 'nro;p
" 1 1 _. -1 . '-" - -:-__ - -:c- .. ,,-,,- ",. - ,_ _. '\I
.1: be Dad. t! ,(!lj:JI .:nr:.\rl.:LWH ,1:1.1
,) th;\t Vn:lkD bTI'.(J.uld J.!-/C) Ir,rir- ,);Jr pdnclpks
im .. :) i;:C( \,,,it;l Fer eA:lm?:e,
l::ft ';ur,,;.r;f ;J' '9;1,' :hcn/r'lJF':] P;'lll 'fiil:!"b t:v)ughi if' <)Ii
'iciaus If'IJ1<1 dlc:d h(. 'AGPlc' h;s v-6i:h
ai I,e (ejJorte.c: li):::IIY ye;,lfs l:nc',"" bet!c':,"
I-I:;:i is why h.-: Gr-:rrll;]'lY if: i;m.-: l\r::v:: .. ;I:S
fft);n
\-V-heH IIUJ.h-t
, ' {t - ]... - , " .. y !,- -,t
.. Lil); ,,(,t.;!) til].l er IIU. C:r'.'U::H. A''iyp.C;J,
..:r?ITlj.'lr: i3 r;'I(" ;hc;Jl1l i:-x
b:: te ,,:::Lior,s Hl(
.2 NI'\,I Yo';,: T:IfIC8, fJece!J:i..e( 23 1'/1),
P_C1!'cr't:- (':1 U:e .t_tf:d ct p 1
regiTr. '''''P2 t 9l:11g2-
:b.fl, i.,] 1J:r". ,,,;,IJ Ulf:;;;,J;.y 1 ltLel 'Nidi
h,s ]F(r,tr,:'t, ;.ll't ",bet:' ;J ';.'I!PC- PYlili'13 t}.c- ;er::rer h t:1Ir:
;h! f'l,1 ;! p.:if.-.,.:Jy !?;t.;(..t.; 0{ fJapt,r in alL ef!I!IJope, w::l;cLhe. ,JILII
co1y d:c lO:W dre:;:nrl tlu;: b: al:lde t?p:cal
"ji"'f:lllh,1 r\" p1'J', r',,' lJi .. i".oti.::i.-;rl <'n.'-:l-ct:: PTa.Je ;)inl Nt (:n'Flayrc' H;
1:('H;.cio(,:, ;J()trdi,))l-l, :)1]( his )ht::Jf.l rtJs.) )t..';c31ed HI.I; irl;lll; tlrC:. }.i;
:m:::ttl' -or - - w:n :);)! ever :lir
3': \"V/J'J1d 1P C"}.i';e:. 'Il\jl) :tf-
(:,''':.l ir. S;ttp hc.w "loCt. if:)11:1 ,))ofi.:,s a
one I.e. :hcrr. ,):le's I k
':erv lw;:d in tb::t !I': :b::t:cl 'C bdee
-< I'.: ",1
3roe; (;..lec {;:<-ply ;";'},:H<1cd d,:.! ;,." :lillIlIP, :;1\ foe ':nr!
1>;'11 fee:ing dcka rod \/,j t:.1 bi [,lidf
Lrler :.1:1:1:1 ;::\'b;:; )'(
& J .,'
]1(111:' (-:;':11 OJ os, \bh ,:It));i;d f'l.]m) i,l'
"f t],fjr of '?'YVCP t') :)rt0,:rly
ai;u L;'ll'c ;,. !Ji,wLl,,, .. ,,, .. "':11) ,.wll<:d a ;:.ct0cf n'dt
Vi;:::; ;::;::-,;q:: a -,';s;t "::;t;;r;cir;;s: ;n font of a!l YIO:1:-
I t9 'Jr'Tl iT) tl:-e ''''2zi bDk 'TIe hI- af'
t) tt:t ]!l1 rip, iq(;lL , , , J irl o\Vn (acb)'I)',
Jlir. !);l:(,liLJ i.l n,L .,; iIl,v OWl! Wd.l:US, j.llJ I
s!:ood 1.:::1!::11 -.vcke u;::.',a
In cFpo:ec. 'INas
H .. (II
_ ill hi.,
( 11. ,."'.,... :r: t ... '-""er t" "'\'" .Le ,L.. ........ , ....... _, ....... .I. .. l".; .1.. ...I;':" ............... ,. ........ h ..... _H.... .... 6 oJ,.," \,... Ul:
sq;l're ';irj Yf't f'f'rj'l'13f''' his liw,:li-;1')01, ;, The
r " 1' I' 1'. ' .. ' '.. .'. "1' t . t 1"
(!leJl,lt ft}lt"!fdJfg.(I(.WCl !H:"It W('tL(1 1(-:, rldl,(ll,t ,It
J:1!y \-::th t!1.: 'l'ne. r:l..l.n
i
!: ir:.r:.cr
2POl1t wh"t ro do Vi"!; ."TId r.emp(,[g1 eypressiop
1') JOCl;; ,'nd C'iilicult tc h; nUl I',le
do hi! io h;s ,/.','1 w:;y i; t'lCrl;liHrhaL -In ';1O'llf \0
CC'l'].j,,(,
!int '.\aST1:.dc, r.e
V'r'.: 'II})' he .. teed i [' '1 ir .Jr:t:T' V'; t;l
,rIOl fJL-ieJ ontil lie: ;1 <,\I"k:1o,

3 J.!lan), t:j'),;iC at t:1\! {,oJ
(-f tl1 l 5 Qt'. u[
3
5
rks on the Psycho Totalitirrianism
The dream was even more explicit about what went on as far as
this man's moral existence was concerned. The man said that in his
dream the struggle to lift his arm "broke my ,backbone" (brach mir
das Ruck rat). In German as in En !ish to have a stron backbone is
expression for
s the dream re
uld break his
hat to him. It
ions, and actin
dreamer knew
kbone, and th
Is who forced
u e w a forced himsel to sa ute III order 'not to give open expres-
sion to his conflict with the regime. The fact that the regime was able
to force people to do this to themselves shows how devastatingly
effective the system was.
Since our dreams give form to what goes on in our minds, one
culate what h' t have been .
eep down not k unconscious de
force him to a convictions. Ha
ould live up to convictions, h
hat he, with th evoted workers,
bels out of the factory. Or he might have dreamed that he refused to
give the salute, and proudly walked out, to the admiration of his
workers.
The dreams of those who actively fought the system and who were
not beset by inner cOIiflicts about doing so were very different. They
ree of anxiety, s med about bein
y the gestapo, ar which had
other dreams, were successfu
None dreame rced themselves
suppressing the) ns.
What was true for the Hitler salute was of course true for an other
features of the Nazi regime. The inescapable power of
into ,ev!:fl the
and private life activities of the
th .. -meaia and otn 'T()(1ern 'fechno] . 1 .

before: one d er class were a
the population. self would agai
ewell-being 0 her family, an
seemed mnocuolls enough. But whIle taking the census, the gul sud-
denly found herself confronted with the task of asking for the details
9
8
Re ks he sycho gical ppeal To a Itarianlsm 323
the eo Jew fa y, re ed t t e J ha h s
a representative of the regime and she resented this, and them, Then
e r zed at s r ntm t 0 he ws s w t t e regIme
wanted her to feel and thus she also reali ed th p r th reg' e
doh 0 e fe wha she I no want to eel. IS
realization made her des ise h rself Th irl I 0 h d h self
ding th progr m agamst e Jews through t e census, CertaInly,
she h t d th reg' e th for d h 'nto is dic ent but e
cnde up a' ng erse even more, And whIle her hatred of the
gim as' pot ,th ad' g to er f ng t s was po t
-a fee ing destructIve to one s mtegration-her hatred of herself for
hat e w do' w pot ,a ad on duct' to
self-respect.
Th s th tota' aria egi fin al t d Y t s w h h
subjEct ts. of
t! m, .!.I1 Ifill' -1h UW rt 0 Wi d
themselves, They soon find themselves insevere inner conflicts about
h;t to t i ine th eir nvic ns d r isE nj
vo1Ved, playrt saTe" andled like .
eri d v es, hil he im an sily oun de te i .
h:i'hed of it, they suffer'seriously from this conflict between their overt
eha r an the ecr alu thu he 1m de ucti to If
inner integration and-since they act against their convictions-their
If-r ect If-r ect db g 1 in rat I it st b tre d,
are the only psyChological buttresses which can prop us up and give
th ren h to ep ng a w d w h t ate us 11 h es
with destruction,
I mas nst es, e oppone of e sy em oul not nd
respite even within the womb of his Q.nl ery rei d'd
n e re ily nsi of ildreg"ln
susce tible to the indoct 'Ila.t' .in hon' "'"'he. H'tle ui;
ODS, k. d th X
t th uth itie No an hild n d' Bu ho chil n
paren s-;ereanh-Nazi were projected into a dIfficult conflict
bou he r to tr to t 'f P nts to eir iga' n t e
state, which had mdoctnnated them with the Idea that it was their
uty de unc dis] 1 pIe. ch nfl of yal' te a
child apart, and he hates those who project him into such a psycho-
gic mp e.
)ll ct: :hz P.,)'cnni'og:c.1.' At.P,z,d of
di'c.a:-r: iI"/2,S r"yt:,1 r:-,:):c ot':::d \VIeI,I' or:: :1'i hI( :'5
thi: \Vi'S r:n;).ecrr;c6 .. The fiJI> f:l!,: b
(:relTl Ile tc f,i" ;')[.10: "lxcke iHV n:r
(;'C5 Cp rm'ln;2':;;n Lngli.<h, b.ckcCHS
:l sym;),):k i." cCJ,vj,:::icf's, af'C J"tiil[i in 'ine
them. nil' d.czo :nea:l.d that Ih th3t
t.inlcf+ brca"1( G.wn :;r;cra( and Tj.;:t l:C
cc,:ld to hin . It 'vas not 'C:ud.llJds l+n t')
'1
lll'!ui
t"JI !IC V'!Hl t.) 1:-, q,.lt".,.,; te gh'e
,;iC,L ths ;Cf.:iiliC. 1
r
tie f6Ct th;.;t t-()F. lva,:j
to' f,-li"CL to ..],} t'J S!l0'o"l'S 1h),\> tL
cf.cct;VIe ;:;l:! '",'''''.
t:iLce r)J[ Qf":;}!;)" f:.i-I''= ;Nfn rG goes 0'1 ;n .)J( If.i'l:h, Cr.C
\(\lh:'l/' T.1gbt have "bef,t) ;ilc
::!:::::.j.r! dec? dr,l::J III) kncv!:1 tbt n,te J:I"y il
;;,'.:lJ:G fprce H.TI 1.0 !l;s
that'!'! 'YuU;(: li;s ..:.,),1
nf"
l"'L
drcno)",j h:, ihc cf \'/,),ke,':" (....;,),,:) ..
,)011: Gf far;rGry. 0" he might 1-.<1.'.1'" dr-:iUT'I'"G ti.a t to
tiv<! the ;]"d Fi:), .. ;l;> 'V;..li:e::! o'.!.t, to t:l=: :![Ll;Hlt:(,h lit hi5
W')'."':l":fS
(;,e tllfa:1:s of tr.c.se ::::ti':dy r.nd v'tI') W':i.{.
nor by
yotrie d ;.In!i'::Y, S,)Ole cre3;LU: ahc,d <-aught
"'1-1 fhe a 1.,\11 Hie!,
b (it:1'::. J':r.<'ms, L(,\/,!'.lt:r, tl-'ey ,.,{.r.:: in
!,h.,;s. ctr<!ol'N'C: that :JII) forced tr.cr.He:vr;'. \0 a,t;
F;W;;r.y .. lheir)wp :n;l/,ct;om
'V:I:I; w,Jd .... '; tcr nlnte 'vas d L0<lfS
A

:'cc;t!Jf'::' d t!1c :'.):::,; !<:";m,e:. f\'lA1er .,:' the
..:; ___ ___ ",_. ___ - ........ - ...
rFm fe.i --IT5 J
rri:Jott d ... 1 ;ii.t.
ot}er
J?P l)til ::!,;<' __

cnc i:2'yrlW: gi:;l; i::l :'1<:" w:!rc c!,l!.ed ;:n t",i:'! :::
GlL Popul?tion Tce.{,:\;('C' v/ou;u 'lg?b r.ltc;;mr
rl,J: .be ofher:eE ;,iii'.} ai," tl'e
j.Plflll'rHlS CIlOU;;;1 l;"l wbJc la;':;,.!;: ';1<: ,},( gil 1
(:u,ly ICI'nu w:r} t ....jF; Gf b' t!1e
J{e';lJ:ks Pro E<yti.dngi,:d ."1p,:)ot';; J: T()toiitlrri,;roilTl P3
;j. a Ttw:S!1 t!:td iUdr:,J hr., c,;
a oi' d.l"lD ':;!j.2 T}lcm
cb icd;Zf[' t:11': !},i:; lese,j,)[,er:i of ;be Je'.v5 was r.'1e
\,I?ntpn t,) ie.:::, 'lr;;l s11E a!so (f';f.lliz::d !:he pOlA1rr I'hr:
},er make :l'::i ted {t;c ,)'Jt ".,aM 'TI feel. This
.i!;..de j'r:f J:::sFise 'Ile "he
"id:ne in ,:hc ;:lop-am ;>!;:?i;13t (h;cu:gh (CpSl)
;,1.(': ha;<![: thdt fcr..::.::C h.:. ia::u
P.p h-lktg ltfr::r!t r:V!":D )i. (.r:::. '.d:i;r-: her bd .] f
\\,'S l+,l'S i>n w;>:; jTT'PO .. ('r;!
-:;. ftt):r'5 cec', - le r .:1IJI:O Qr 1.e Ise;(:01
1.f,f" "',:5 "V;H potu!, [:wl tc he.

.lnc's ':!,];Ij' ':'fKs
L' C t, c f
t .. Il .. put ;, 'l
t'h':,ilsdves. T1.ey b ,l))ut
'-1.- ... ; ......... j ..... - - -.'"L -L--' - - _ ........ ..... ... - -... I' J
V/ ... ... ... .. D ii'. ...!"I_'. .. ..t.
.. it :m.n;cd .. ceNig
h
r.' ,.l ::-;:J.' .. :: ... ---: 0;;" 11"'01,' .. :' "':j -'; ,
C . ISde:.r .. }, JeJ ... L ._ 1'-: rej..,I[OL .c.3n L.I. \It.SPHt t
..... '>it> ""
.. '-Pl(j cnn,l;ct.
heb'i::U &wl t;ler :H.re:: V3jUt:!,; Hn:s n.t ':eg;'iJe :5 tc ::I:e;,
they 'let JgJiv:t ccnl:i-:+cn;--Ir.ei;
.. r::pect vrdi it Le
ar2 -;)I"or t:F. Hnd
'.15 t},(' h hCfT g')'Iq: In 2,H,'r'c tiU.!CI ','p. I.L '1 t ,,1! h
w:tIJ (jts;:n,et:ll!t
If. r;;wsr ins::?nr:cs, OJ' the- ;nt f:;'ld
V:Ulot ver ..' e:'J
;..c '':::hik;;cd)\. V"e(c:
_" __ . . _
d hk t') Lr. . J'a <lJ...u.u. l.'l-!,.(. ..l.C,("J ".".::'1 .. d ,tJ ":.1__ . ..Jl)!,'d.r.l7,'l -
CO 'x.:c.J.o pn" j'J w;) f "r.mt' em! 1 encc
- J ,'!oi r_t..rJ, .Ie- =, __ 1-,' ,",. _d., .<-'
TJ 6,c !'Jct 'I.r:r;,y cbi;(;ro, (b:!.rjuI IhO'r eJU!(;,1:11
.J
tJ ;)t! t::uc to j tt:il (ll t) il,e!: :::t!;I).tioll 1 e
vh;cL rh.em Il.;.! It \'I;;S t;j:;:1
Juty to FeGpj: St'ct cml:h't< luy,.'U.!" ted; ;;
clile: ;oed lor ",;n 'l'ilr.':T':O such :1 );yc[.(,

3
6
in fnos! cd:iLS t:h! ';!lilc ::r:cd l'p 1>atJng 1J!lla;Cal \i.;\,'s dec
rnl'pt-ir 1].11 the - 'STC'! thl'sp. t:re'lletl such pC0U..:;.lJ
b !1'P1 fllp. palelh, ur, J.e t;l<! ,-x
CD }+ r:fti'(1, G;jli, tu (1 y tu h:Ge b:: 0[lho'1< {fI)ln ltia!,
b yc'e 'l0r '0 he betIJ.v't;d 0Ut i.l crcer to kf'ep H,,: troT])
rli4c1l.t 0' dlL d.i:d. Thu:; e'!(T '1(11'11': a'1" fal111ly
c..re.l,1i ::10 r'+ef r(,P1 c.,n.'! L:d -:nr.h'l''': it eVr.!I
W:t1.i.l :cu": W1*, '!vel1 i'l hlv:,t f:-ndy ]Y;PE.
Th..: d:f5cdtirs 2D C'FP0'1P[lt of t;lt In
Iii; '::;I;;t:r":l. e.:t'::::ldcC' 'c'm T'!hrirlilS witil hh prt'1p.r '1<)n
lho,( ",,;t:l all c6:::r !I[le. rneod: . C\ea "l.tn 1<)(1.
WIfe w,::.( Lc..t:1 i.l O??Of1PCP '0 rbeNazl SlalL, g:,":;1
life eJ(utr;ed-:U anJ s:t:J:tC'I? 1':1 s'Jr:i'!ry t:l
{calu,. uf tn.! whi'e )n<!Jt; ;1;5 Gt h.'!: ;JC:::::::
'v'tn wany J.el weu'i' ...,jrb <:;.61 ,').1
cFP,),ce <me; ;lIlW wl.;,t tJ ad. '11'1>1' Tich if i.edw.ldLk:
to r(lbb<!ll d.{.fi, d rhev cuuld 1.:-",.;
bi'/cn t"'l,:h O'lrl .hey o,:w ;,b!. l.)
Th:: CO'1"J'1r:l'd '\'a'I;)$ Wtf..: iii <..::..:cd cr: '1:'1 j"S'l'!S' bm WaS "
a:i-:Et'c'l'll'1(\PO Wf}IC;l I.id fa.T.i!ics d 0': t;lc
Djre f':rt'rd:, tneeTPer eJ"l'i:'T'J 'V"!f'! flor
ud:, 'JIlT :.tl$(J fi,GCL 0:t":l. thr: :wt "{pr": in ois-
aflctn.tnt YJi:1: e11'P ')t1>er -if 11m ;h pli.l..:i?!e, ')'1 hC"\" tn
jJlo':l.eJ. ':'IKr.:: -.ne d'Y'l:'s t'l" "fIxIng I'fuUI.:: l c.,f h.:>.v en:: c')nH
'JI"tilllht WJ,ll'be.i:1t; ::1Jt blh J.e cf 'C'mily
?PO The (;ec}JI y' peL tJ.l:.ing-p_es'if'I' ')r 'V'ld ;lel uta. t()
[ll',t rb'! freeduli1 !i\e!i!l.Jcc, t'v" 'If':T'.' ('X)Sle'ld; oJ( JIlI..'$
?:'r'per 1'1(1 Ollr.' S d.i:Gc..:r. ;r. of (Inc s ;};)d
Io:d
S:l+ 1I't,,:rf?f'1lh::1i 0}Jyc31ti::l:l l.o:rt 'Vrl, I(J die ..:1.-
"1'(1 ol a!l CO'lri.crS
h-l w)'pi'le TO (;0 WitIl n:t '15 th0fe illaci-
p.bcc, '''l't ;--1<(' ;Jdwe':h rpji dr t'[1 and sa,-
Fa: cX1mp
l
e t'1'! 0;: a tilJ. 'Jtfit:'3" was
Pet a VU) err, cir' por hke
.r,a,}>, FC3t:')'1 if' 'pe {ur,::cG l.i.n t.'J dJ H1Jt h pad tn
do d.Cll., tu b: ?0S',t'C'I' iiis 'Vltf': dllG JiJ l::rre I'1"5,
f)T dlc ,i.T.e .. r.e .::cdd, tor In ci,ia "<II ::'Vji::I
f)n[lOXIOUS cr i.1 :.r.y (,f lh.'! i::J:::1I,T1Ff1
h
k
9
9
offici
whic
ence
Remarks on the Psychological Appeal of Totalitarianism 32 5
" ,
functions-the
had to a ttend, a
ecome identic
d to pretend a
N mily really wan d to relinquish
posit family sink into Then there wa
real possibility that if he made his reservations known-such as ,by
resigning his position-the entire family would be ostracized, a'nd
some members might suffer persecution, So while enjoying, or at least
making use of, the comforts of living which her husband's overt com-
plianc 'th th Nazis secured for he d th rest of the famil -
inclu g to go out and , which enable
to c in line with h wife was still
criti
tal d
nd for not livi
d into the conA
and Wife aVOIded each other studiously,
nvictions, Old
ed it, until hus
Resentment at being criticized and shunne"d by his wife set this
man against her anti-Nazi position. Fear that her position might be-
come known and endanger them all provided additional reason for
objecting to her attitude and behavior, which isolated the family,
mak official life gues very diffi
Loa home for a m wi th official p
in 0 in his position ng considerabl
prov world for what acceptance a
syste , this man slow ave up many a
inner reservations about the system, since these created such hard-
ships at home and at work, By finally making his peace with the
regime, uneasy as it remained, he at last could be as loyal to his values
as his wife was to hers, something she had urged him to be all along.
He then could stop feeling inferior to his wife who acted" in ac-
cord values; he co morally superi
her ted so long to h lthough she rej
his he nevertheless hat he did.
oak sides with er parent. TIle
had g vinced NaZIS, nversion the f
who had been rejected by wife and daughter, began to enjoy the full
support of his sons; then he was no longer isolated in his family. The
sons did not like their mother's attitude but had come to pay no
attention to her, whom they viewed as odd, uninformed, and old-
fash' d A hild, the daught h d tr gly sided with her
r::'j: Ii.e(1;r.;ks on the Pej';haiosic!J( ,1ppe,-J oj' T
in !}:c ddJd klti,Jg tilr:
r:;G( C;'Cfltcd
lei 'The prJred, on the Dtbcr hand. hwwicg lX-
crt-::::i nn hi" (bk:. h:.d t) :ry rOIl;I!'; hi,; lwe ;rom him, n:->r
i'iSI: ii', 01'.:1(;[ Hot [(, l.,c "Jut if, I:Wi"i io keep
ir:S :!X:dJ!t1.nfij' Jii5:::,11t tor (he udd. Tbus c'/t'rI :lllt1
offt';-Id no rdi'lf hom G"1e l-;::;d to;:;o .... tirm;> it (Ve!1
'Y}ithin in fi.l1)St f21'!111t
'l'hf: an at h1F1'i(';;r in whh
in 1,\!' -.. ,ith his part:ner,
"'),! eaje( .. es C!I;O EVI,;:'j\1;hcI, hU2Dand
wift: woe l_r: iO; l'beNn! state, then diffci{;\1\:
ano cr.ch ro
fea(oJfe or tile iiyste.:., ,'tbilt;, h:!viHg n,ade hi!. cor .(Iet pea,,!,;
- .
'''''ith maul-' othee. Tom th;::y ViOI.Jd EJCG Gibe.: on ,,"h.ar
to anG tG nnd '.'lj;!"Jut !sh.s it
10 b;"kt; Iobb:ll Ot nmch ;!f ti:r. r.lu,:y cOH!d i!3Vr.
ha1! bC':'f. ah!s:. to i1i:iee.
'rle Nazis ",ere in m;c;sd Cl: ;111 tbis ViZS 2
:;tr,mg 3d']'l i,)n::lJ hnnd "hicf; thl" bmili,bJ of .)f tr:e
"i!H': \A:'er..:' Dot
ei!:y the nho rc(:rc:Jttcn ttall ::lot ',v:;re i')
wirh (1!lrn ,:.ther---if r:;Cf i:1 prindple. tit!::::} en 1mw tc
}lfOC'f.d. ;'II'Je al-t.'ayf ";1e V{,Xi:lg of how 0!11': cl.uid
' ....:rho\;..: p.D<:1angi;rbg not Ol'lty but :i!SC f?3l nfthe inm!!)"
and or nl?,j th(: rhzht v)
l}llt the ;n:cdoni, tht Vf':ry !;X);;if':C('; of mi/s I.Ilui1fil
. . ,
agj Oi)e (,Lildrl:H ir. of (,nlit1c
r
ll J;:.j
:nond rof!.
SHch pct111cal ]P;Dt to ex
iu.,d oF: all co'jf!iS!5
had to do 'J\'ith ..), :dS those
::al p;lrtncr;;, also tho;c bctV'r.:'u :md ,:i:ililren, :!nd fiib-
ft'", examph:, the lif J hil5:' gf;vcwFI';nt 'J[;r:i;;l vias
anti :l Very :-nnnJ d rUYl:
m:E',/ jYK-i;rkH'l ::'he fon:ed bill' dp. Hnt 11<::; h;\r1 io
do Ih;::1n, 1.0 keelJ positioH. Hi., l'Iif(! (.,:dd nod c:id stay nW3t
lime ,1;'1d could, for i:'! el!:: ,'i::'Y gll.'ing
,';);'\Jte Of In 'diU_y f)( khe
Cr" ,I, N,e ,1,' 0: Tci1iita-f1TS'T', ;'25
nffieia.l:t:d p:rty tAC havi;J,l, ;(It"w1<::a!- -,
Wil;ch,l'!' ht'SI)l'ld :ldJ to .. ;1e,1G, an,l 'I','here ;'J ad:er
b ttc :'Ft:::::r..
n; ;?Lni:} ,r'!l'l.ll" l,/J,ltp.n rl>e :'1'1S;''lrJ;\ ;.\.1 IL1:I.QU:sh
I.ll kl ;:l!l! b:ri'i',' s:nl: .i::l'O I)t(t!l ,),,'Vut.J. ;1,,;
r "' ......
ii 11(' fl1qde "OS -t.y
r,,!!.id,jng u.tiu_ h'TPly \'If)'1;0 ':h!,) ;lra.::;'fc:, ';1'1'1
STll";: If'eld:)';;,,> Ihi!:id ;'tl whilt er.jT/:q:, 0:' '1': led!>1
TI11];'i:l.;;:: (If livir.;;:: -,r:hich l:cr !1'j,,-;)llil,j\ l)v.;d :::::l:TI.
\"Itp tpe ;-:;,I,-:::s.tCt,wJ fin rh ... C
:l:cit:(lirot 111)( Ie ,p :l:Jd ;1<:1
-In ::;ct;r;f; inliPt' .. "it:l :1<:: , .. duc::; tr.c wife \'1';"5 ;m 1,T.-:-,'
.. itir:;,.l o. l>er hn<hf'11i1 (or \10:_ Ii;yhci 11pb r;5 0:,]
ft'c: .:nte t'J! ccrJ:ic( 3r,(; il, .
'ri:rc Lacl"l

..e:;e:1t:Ler:t ::nd d::mr.cc l.ybii w;{eil:1
ma'l .r.gaim[ her fl1[J1 ioN E: r-r-S:l ;')'1. Fe.<.:r that ner Fsif j')'l '1
L('I ... o. 'iTJ ';llJ,WgC.i .d IJdili011a: Ie-aS0', ':01
ob;::d ;" Ji";! :J ::r.d tck,vi'j", whkh tl:c tam.]!
[,1.1.1'5 011icif'J He 1,,,;tJ,
L.:,o:cl dO.H:)::l :1: he'i'le ;('1 >l IOEr:! f,cinf:;
in crb- to >'}l'\/ive ;r; his r-;':r:ivin,cs
rrqVf,! "hI i L t:.1e wC'rkt \,'h:ih HI
he J(,arl bet ;:;:m::ly \it lip H .JfIY \if h:s
ir.r::::, t!1:: ;ystC'I'. lhse har..!
r,.t
l-tt;Cl:. llI:eaS'( as i\
1:<j' ina:,:lIg h's Fc-a<::": wih
IJ::t could be <li ell l,is HIe;
'vife 'NfJS te b:1d Linl tG 'ue in
t!e 61r:'1 :-.!o;: i::!i::;!; \e. h:.s \",f:! v.'ho if.
C0rc1:..JICt wJt. 1.el he c')u.kl fe.eJ rpf'f:,l.;y tG
1''''''--:1:: h::d ach-;,l SI) ie,r't (I) :1:tiH,\I!:l,,:i<:
l(is ;JJ!itcal view:;, prcf:tei! ",d,;,! he c:id
Tilt' rl>i;i\reT' t,.).)"( !.d::.l w:tt ope or rpe
h3d l)t.:cH cclhl.incdl.'la::.ls, s.) d.acr
been re;e(:kd '\Nik c;:t:j::;ht:::, S::g:m 10 eojny fhe
0' i,i< n.C!. r.f. .. a.s rAt) i,l Ilis
Ji,] l;kL bLt 'had p;-:;y uu
t:: whnm they v;"y:ed o:U, un;, :H,(: 01:1
fa.5:1i0Der1. ns ;J chilJ, cia ng;'T'O!r Ji.kd \"i::;1 neT'
3
7
Jl - -,Cl aT' 0 t' e ,n'Y '0 gi -[ A Pf: al f 'T' ot 'it rianifm'
n th f-a Sf I te n t so nmch in opnosition to her fa-
'h ,'uf ve y IU h of a orp >if n her lxothers' anel also
')e au e . ,e n tl r' v lu s la -Ie g p"'e 1, nel her consis-
_e cy d el in .lr s' n n 'h :l gLte
A 51. b-e' i to ,Ju',e 'y, 'h d U['lt 1- g n'o al'ze th t
rOo ti al 0 fll ts be w n h L ar nt t d h 'r 0 c t a Ia ge
Jebre i n. ri I Jis or' o I ng sl:: nd'n. 1'" ,is co fl' t Ler"e n her
pa n s .. a v _ y r>a f = . er, a j h ,,' h d 'or a '1a 11 ni us
.1O.l1e, I. sud he 11 ;>o"ti 5, i e \o'di g .)O"tj al vi 'liS
see,n J l Je 0 :li 6 ul a 1 re n e ' r tg' ti ne an tl- r
anu l c s P .it S .Ia,_ r Jl d 'le of tl l'fl(' of fa li'. l"e h so
,nucr. d if J, .Ju. VI th h s:_e: s h a ti i on ic '0 s, r' e
ti 0 s, si e 11 J!o: ti ar 1 0 . er s q all. 1: d
All tile uaugtner de ir J .. a n. t.h f _ni:; "10 !C' bOle e
umteu, and lha( her parents s:,ou,d , ve pe c .u!:; \, tL e h tl!f <\.
she entered adolescence, tI,e l:,lrl rea,IZ J l..al th f.n" you::l. 01 be
umtea on me basis of the iuoliler S convic,io S, .Je au e.h :.e
lather woula lose nis Job, and then neitHer she nor JI IS ,vo Id
be able to go to the univefSlty, erC, nt ll1al hule she slIll ad."ir d .. e
mother for actmg on her convIctIons, but sne also hateu her lor clreak
in,o un family cohesion, 'nus proJected ner imo a aeep inner conflict,
crMtetllw that existing he tween her parents,
As t}>e ,aid older and better able to assess situauons reahsti-
cally, h s 'v ber had hroken all contacts wIth the out
icl "'or
1
i, "'Je oP'in" C IT''11et el'' isolated even within the home, in
or 'er to reL i h r on ic'o s, 1'Pe rir1 ljerseH founci. it ever more
:iiic 1t 0' to 10 1 g I"-er "'le 5, nr! so spe finally turned Nazi,
R je "inv an t r 10L'le h i '0 -.It r re -1 .11e <laugl>ter of the inner
co fI' t . et Ie n ',e a(' ni at' n:o h ourare-t;onsirier-
aLyve k e' 'nc 'Ie n 1 ng r h er the "J1 th ['S political,
01- m n - nc h r es nt Ie t ''la' t1. e "TI 'hr- 1-ad c s <1 such a
se er b ea- i f m"y el 'io S, A! tl IT r-:n t1-'s freec1
h tLe on-ic b hi e h r I s nl" tl- S 0' so iehf,
h n.oLer 1- ILcs 'le au e : l' Ie ai j' h .:I, cud a 1 th,e est
of fa.ni./ Jd d: IrQ' er c p' n e f Pie;ri 11 F the hrst
tiide.h g j p ri c d f el' g of 'n ,er v '1-1 in:.;," re ul' ot
havin5 freeu h rs.f f 1.er n r on li s, -h d'1 t sc 'b tt 's
aLllily to enioy Ii. Le S.U 0 of an 01' i e c p'ct 'lve er
btl( saw It as ule cons "'IU n . Le r'0 'ti e ut' 0' 0 N}-'Cl-
1
0
0
s on the Psychol Totalitarianism
embra had brought he ommended it
dition
On ternalleve1, the f totalitarianis
that in accepting it, orie can attain conformity with one's peers and
the rest of one's world, and stop being an outcast. On an inner, higher
level the appeal is that of reestablishing one's inner integrity, which 'is
endangered if one must act differently from the way one feels. In
some people the pressure to solve these conflicts became so great
under they committe rs gave themse
away through chance ior, unconscio
motiv sh to end it a eant going to
conee because they r bear their in
confli
The vast majority of former anti-Nazis gave up the fight and made
their peace with the system. Without joining the party, without ac-
cepting all of its values, they came to see much good in it, although
they remained critical of a few aspects of the system. But they became
convinced that the had to live with and in it In order not to feel
cowar that they had values, and to
able e with their fa ghbors, and-
impo they might not to themse1ve
order atened by the s t to be able to
advantage of what the system offered to Its followers, most . Q 1 1 e
,-
accepted most of the system. _
'The Hitler salute, sHcha relatively insignificant feature of the
system but one which nevertheless could exercise such powerful influ-
ence, was a very external thing; so was the Hitler picture on the wall,
4 As 0 the resol ution on al level of so dee
inner ught about by co s to the conlradi
values can be but a temp Id be maintained
as Ion pressures and in continued. At the
of the n it became"obv the regime had
the girl, now a young adult, reverted to her original values and experienced
severe guilt for having relinquished them. She devoted much of her later life
to compensating for her participation in the evils of the Nazi state, insignificant
though it had been. It was her guilt which motivated her to tell me her story,
in the unspoken and probably unconscious hope that due to my experience I
might be able to hel her with it. Thinkin that she was much too critical of
hersel y ability I tried t his and to be less
on he
OH fs)'..:I.:cIJ/:i.::ul ,,)'!J;1.t{J Ji ..i;;'Yn
sh<: thi)ilg1L ncr SI) ;TIncb hi' tJ
b.lt vcry (,t ;il \,,,ith he br::dl:!I,Si 2H:: ahc,
h.er maJe q -aprc?i, ?J."A her
ieHc;' d. l'11fro!"fi.):1 (,n t
1
1<!
As pwin!n nbl,rty Ibllghter o:!';J:" t,) rc;;:!;'Ze fkl" thf
!)oiit'c?J pqnI'ts "-1,11 t'-l'::,,- '1
deg:n_e ;n mr'lital c1i:icIJlc 01 bog slar.(;wg. ';ll:S ,nI:l"h:::t ttiwtel. lIt!
UV3'i \'elT !x:inf'Jl to ber, rnr J.
It }v'!. Ul.l a;j Fcl:t,cf,iir,ce h'lrlillg Fcl;h('?/
:0 be. 'lub;ng h .. t .t pld';ll'ie tJ':
be:: ..l.,se ;uJ ;Clb':>,:d hel be :Jf t::l.nHy I;:n 3D
w:.lh ::h:.s -ant;-;\Tr:;i 0r r.er
prH:!';:,.nc;,1t;c 011f':5, pnH;cs :IPJ?";<lifG h, fJ5 NjU"U;, bG.
An \'/a!, H:{ f>w:ily t(-(C['1::: ':::
IlTl;re.J, -arv! i.h:JC ",,:tl-. 1"S
d.e ':'lb.;reJ the nali:,;!:d tJJ\t the 1:,).,)(l,:(,\: hc.
; ::;.: ttH- '3 her
s!"le r..ur 'y'vc[,ld
br: able b gIl i;l il:t- :mbt-rsiiy, d::: !.f she stijl ar]n:irui
l[.ethe{ f'Jl s! ..:: h'eJ( f]i ..
ing 'l? {;:n,ily :::n;l:!l-i:lO. ';'0:" t'kf ;::to a i:r:r.tf mofhi:,
by tllJJ per r:;rp;li-<.
H.c '5fe...;' :1:)!e b "i:seS:l Si
1
l.:iio.l'; rel'j';:l-
c:a!lYI Sll<;SJ'N t!lJt l.<;r ;1wther bJ.<.1 brcker;. u!! ';.Jf'ta<::s CN'
s:ce 'tvitllin :It
tG -r'ht girl ;t D'l:r:
el3:cuh IOl: t) 5') ;'lUngwiH' her ele.n, ,/'Poi $u sni'. iinaUy ;:1'11I.(C: :i'Ia;l,i.
R:::jc-at;I.!; hCI :r'ClttteI h:lcl sttlo(i t:lr thtt Ot h::1e::
CG'lelr::: h.!nv.;(>r" her h.I
<'-t,ll !>iT:': "(.):16':::' I-l:;.re::i tt.e p.);i!";cal
(.pioic"e-zr,d rhe b.il .;:;:u:-;c(l :;111:h J
sev.",;(" bn.dr jp h1l1Hy re;?tiU'1i .. ::hr: s-amf!
hu f): '::')n(l,;ct ill;tW(;('li rt[ V .. hI.':' :>n1 tll,,)'h': of
,r:(.lb:l':; US,! d ttf ;>'I)r. ;t (R);:C,J :J::o t!1c nst
(.f' f.!;U1n), feC/oI" til trf "ccept;).'1'::'! d Hit!crb .. " i'e! fir,t
" , ' 1 . .J r I' f . ", i
tiI:h! g'll fXi}e .. eT'Ceu:1 I'et (, :'hU(;l 1'1i('\J-L'eliig. tie i';)'loi. 0
hW:I"C; f, c:::il (1t !l:!:ifl'l'!: She d:d t'(lt -l::cr;br:
1}J:i,ti t( .. ('Hi!''' Ii;:\: t,l the ),(S.J:itltirJ;1 nl 1'1 nlG tcr.r.i.r:t ,
hJt !>2W II" !r.e of l::1<! )utlov\ un hfL
L'OI t,''!.' . Aptl('C'/ ef r7

ci t:O:I<) :11.
1
?wl t\'Jj,' re<::')llt,l,u!tJ..:d It 1d
C'in t!1;; ttc iG
t, (,'He (ar .. ,l,t:;,j,l -v-d. (Jl.c.i"
uS( {of ..... ,).]d, .acc:;!cF ;:oro I}O,(";,osi 01: ,0: :nn:::,
;crd JII': 'apFeal j.; t11h d .. i'HlCI{ Al.i.:::} I is
;r OLe zct ':btf::reI,IIl HM. the one 1..1
It:.e t.) 'in\ve 1.(-:);,0\'1<': :ill
u'1.:kr :+1' tlnl t t!-;cy COiliili;ttCtJ .<l1icifle, Orh
r\V1Y the. <:)l::':1,a
th \"1:5;) 1.1 <;.j.] ;1 all ev::.:\ if:t :nlr!.lIi t(.ing t.)
cooc:;:)b,tinn .:;..jf.p, .;{),-;;,1 rw bC[;'I their irlne(

TI,e 'l:l!t lT2j:l:-it;r (.f )('IOIr!) <I'lb-:";zi:; g::':c :tF ;l,..; fot1d <).,,1
P':;Cf' \"it'l'l," \\'it!lJUt ;'f'i'ling ... ! ,vd.tv, \o.. ;U,(,I..L 'j';-
ce;:-ti:lg ,ill (,f ,Is v;,Joes, czr:e;c, IlOl.:;! /::uod n:
(); a r(>y.J ,J:: h.:. 'i3pt t]-.!:'v
L J
{,(" .. ;n('( ha t j'1, ;ud (u JiVL w;th'l:1cl in it (,(0(.1 .h); i(,
r.e,t i:(I ttey :bt'jt ane! to .;),:
Ii','\,; in 'vi'h :litl,:) 'l'1tJ-HU
lard" J:n.(,!.t:!, :l:li ft1wftl's ad.11;t it tJ
t;lC foh::c b:1 i(l< be (1'):( (I)
(If wh?t 5 (.ft.:reC' t'J .to hil C \41.'1 S, ...
t:(;'1'( (.f I ht': .
--- ...
"rill.: !{tler ;liJ:.,.iS;:"Plt JiG
cut '.vhicll I'tHrdl(!:;esi ced::l CJ:c:cbe sveh
CDce. 1 Vf'ry . !.c. \I'?S P;Ct.l;C cr. 'V'!'],
4 /'.5 n.e "'0)'11<1 r:)pe(>', the ,eJob:iD:l. on ;! SIJ?<!If;cid of :,0 .. 0
i'.luU c')'),ij'd ,",nus::\. by I.:fJr'f'io:tn;; 'c}'"il'ties;c fh! irt'J'1'
v'l'iw.> ;;,nc'; ?.l.::nL (;oJ' I)f; bvt J rempuj.}.).,e. :..lJld '",t', D:1\
a'; Inu.; .. s .",c"t cXichld; :nd ;:01 it ('on'lTce:l t Lr.c:.
cf H-,f; ,\In' periryrj wf,,.,, it hnw vlcinlls :lc ,:cE.i"r:c ::1:::(:. beell
E,i-I, V()V!' a .a,.L.I:t. L!v([;cd tn hl"[ ,,,1.,1.:, and
<,"V"P: Eor btY;r.& t(j'f'C'l,j"hd,bt'r.l. S!1.'! d::":d:;;l )[106: d hc .. laIC: Hor:
toc r;O,lllptfiSC.liuf: ill! IJLI" i'l lhe L\i:s u; J.: .....
'''''!JEt it :1.1.1 ce.!.\. .:1 ".'q< o(!r g.];Jr ",hi.::b 111: r t .. le;j ,0<': ;.,,) ,\:1:)",
::: i.t.:i t'J r'1_y ..'t..' I
I.light be '11.1: b hell' I,t.[ W:t:l it. ThhJJ-:i'll Ihat wa.; t:J :r:t:l:Dl Df
hec,df, tc my <l0a;t" 1 tlied to on',,,: 1,,,1' ree Ihi, ,.Idl1 tv Lt. ;0, 'hl'C
en }-",.s,,;f.
3
8
328 Remarks on the Psychological Appeal of Totalitarianism
and so, for that matter, was the Stalin picture. These became tremen-
dously important only because they reminded the non-conformist
every minute of his conscious life that he could not afford to live in
accordance with his inner convictions. While these mechanisms were
rather crude psychologically, this should not blind us to the fact that
they were extremely effective.
There are also more subtle appeals. I discussed gave exam-
pIes of how a freedom-loving person who lives in a totalitarian state
feels daily, hourly, a conflict between his values and what he must do
in order to survive. To .this I would like to add that the power which
can create such a deep inner conflict in him,thatcan force him to act
against his convictions and his desires, much as he hates it; exercises a
tremendous hold over him. Being subject to such a strong
force c?ildish and feelings. Only in
... mfancy do other persons-the parents-have such power to throw us
into desperate inner conflicts if our desires are contrary to theirs.
It is not so much the actual power of the parent that makes him
appear omnipotent to the child. In the beginning the infant feels quite
free to take candy out of the candy jar or money out of mother's
pocketbook, or to embark on sex activities. The parent may inhibit all
this, but the child will still do it surreptitiously. But one day, the child
will suddenly realize that the parent, without being present, has cre-
ated through his past interdictions a nearly unbearable conflict in the
child's mind: a conflict between his own desires and the parent's
prohibition. At this point, the parent begins to appear all-powerful,
godlike, to be feared as potentially destroying. The child has become
Ji5I'W;sd .. "",
Imilariy, the power of the totalitarian system can create un-
manageable conflicts in the minds of the persons living in it. The
child, like the non-conformist, originally resisted the power that thus
controls him. But the power is so strong that it also exercises enor-
mous appeal-after all, nothing succeeds like success-and success-
ful power over the child has such a great appeal that it becomes
internalized as a superego.
If may oe argued that this is valid only for the child, as a result of
his biological helplessness. Once the child" is grown up with his super-
ego well established and his ego functioning, no external power can
ever again exercise such fascination over him.
But this argument overlooks the very essence of totalitarianism,
1
0
1
s on the Psycholo otalitarianJsm
which is that it sets out to destroy the independent ego, as well as the
independent superego. The parent seems omnipotent because he has
the power to withhold the substance of
samepuwer;-wiferFiFvillg in such a
ofon JLt.ha t
life,.,.. As the child's movement ('an
inhibit t, the totalitaria imilarly inhibit
recalci
On fference betwee umstances is t
certain mental abilities are needed for making decisions when work-
ing, for instance, in a factory. Workers therefore cannot be as much
controlled externally as the child. But workers who still had an inde-
pendent ego or superego were sent to perform strictly menial labor in
the camps. They returned to factory work only after they had inter-
nalize lLSuperego. \"'m
If for a momen re-Hitler Germ
system g, where the ch ed to be seen
not h understand the I the totalitar
regime an youth. In al es, children su
from the restrictive influence of adults. The totalitarian system turns
these youngsters loose, asks them to speak up, to check on their par-
ents and report them if they do not obey the laws of the system. As
the examples have shown, this develops another intense conflict in the
child who comes from a home that is not in a eement with the state
or for on his own has cal attitudes. N
two d 0 systems of v lash with one
other. e child obey: t stem derived fr
the pa rived from the s
We must not forget that totalitanan systems have so far arisen 10
societies characterized by a strongly hierarchical organization, If they
were not outright feudal, they were paternalistic. The ruler of the
country, the executive powers such as the police, the military, the
teacher, etc., were powerful patep1al, or perhaps we should say super-
ego,s
autho
erego surrogate
ychologically id
es are persons
arents and wh
comm ore accepted Ii zed commands
the pa superego) .
Fr in the concentr elief in the po
and justice of the police was so strong that prisoners were not willing
;J1). ihc /\./'It'1::(1t 7"r;Trtlitfir1r!11"S"t1'l
;1r,d m; iI)( Ih,d: 'Ji"s!:lC p;:tme, !(em:-Cl1-
irnporta:r.t D:i11y becau:.:c th.::y reiDh1dcd the flGn ..e:O!1!oiln,ist
c,f his COnsclcuS not :Ifford to li'.'e in
VJ\d: his
c.fc;de :his not bHri r1 -_',s to fJ_ct
they
There subtle 2ppea1s a'l'd gave exam-
D( h(.iW a flt.:t:::k,;,lovillg IJtISOa who ;ht.,s ia :. i.:,tJlit.!fj.:m ;;t;:;k
daily, ilom!YJ a c':m!1ict between '1ali.:c.'i nnci y;nat he "m:;t do
m t ..) q;rvive To this I would Hke to ."dd tbt the POV/'=f
(;3!1 a ill Ih? l'
... - _, ' .. .... "! "'C't"
Ill) 00 ..... ( till" . an ... \ .. ..,, 1 . ,.l,Ln ,;\;, ... :l
3 ,"'Jb!wl
; -;:;;c;:!tactfvaIes-chih!ish :md ir.t:linp-s. Onl;, ill
'_#1>:'.. /,/ ._ ,.--:;-... 1 :,!,
.. ancy d.J , ... 'd. r-er.;;oD._-- IP"r"'.,v--! . .\t. ".! .... l t'o\V;.. to J:,ro\. ,,$
,In!o Gp.,<pf:r2k im;f':r ii O,H ,it', c;('[]t:;'::lty t.:
II not so m!ld: ii.e ;';':031 of illt: pal j(lJ'!<:eS h:;m
l'lppl'hr nmaipotcut ['0 tl,'i.! chill!. In the bf.:gi'l'r.,:.'g ibe idant {cds q,.\J('"
{TPC' out trw ('::iTd" h- oe r,lpneV ou" of rr::rthc';s A .... ' -;.. .. c.. ....i:.... J' 'L..., -' .... }' V..... l.. ,,& ; . 'J - (.'.... ... ,-" ... -" Ii.
" . , 1" '.' "" .
fa ! tie ;n'iy
bi!( child still d:D a ::3_':'[: the
will 'mdd(;nly fI';aibz, g\<lt the p:lrent, 'Nithaut br.lr;:, prev;r.t, h'fls:rc-
his pa_'j! It)
dlll(1s Glind; <i bdween ]Ii:; own ii;(:
,,:\t th;!J the p,Heni
;::cdlike. to be destrcyillg, '{'he
.sillci.p::.,inf'iL,
"\'
;:,w!,:;\dy, th(; pe',I,ex ':he sfsten1 en:, crud.e.
m;llwge::;blc cClHiii!:l:; ill Ihr:: )';;inds Df the lh'ing lL ThlO
ell!id, iih, the nOI 1-C0!.frnnist, o!ieina1iy rower that thm
CO)lln,']s But the pII:'Vcr !5 S0 H also e;.:elcises ';:,Wf-
iT1QU5 - -1Utt:t: ,:F, ':l:,):e:::ds hke
ovef rb ..'" h:l.!';i d i t
, [)lif) :laEzed as if St'pt:;c'go,
l ' "d 1 l ... )" - I'
It nl'ay GE; Hfgueu t.lHS ti "\/;1H \ on y I'OJ: as a reSUlt ot
hi!: biutogico1 ()nce ;;5 up ,vi:th_
ego vv,::H ego )!O l'lL6VOfr::1 Ca!1
f.Vr::r JgairJ ,such fa:lrio8ti;lJ) :!vcr hiGC
?:.1:1cncc of
I-(,eJ""Virk.l (,h ;.l,i:;. I"oldlaa,.ja,l,;sI1L 329
,.li:::!1 is I bEt it seb,. out tc j:!:;tr.T{ tr.1 ;rllJtFtP6epr Z;;;,:;. do "..::l oS hF.
lh :Jd-i
t11t-: D:;":.-=1i;J
f;;;'S"""r;;:;:;c:TF;'rfl d l y p
, ... _ ... _==_="_ ... _ _ _ c,
fcd,:, 'cot of
; i ; 'U -rT: if r: e -


!'jt;1ens
em :it1l;ld,Jy ir,l,ibi; Js
Cr.e l1T'FNh'1r tv'o i; tht
;r.nda! ;I::e r:edd 1,:.))
l
. ,
.: C:I::I;HO:IJ '",'C'! k-
,:1);- in::tar.ce. iJ a h'>:111 y. 'p,),:::-:crs t!'l:crdGrz :ccm'll)t hI": ;:>5 TPilCb
:Lt: d,i':<:.::3u.t 'vnrVffS ';'!'1':' .;U:! :1J...1 ;'\1 in(,f'
<!t;tI Cor '.VC::C tJ !)c!li;i'IO "I,:,I1? ;"
C;;r.1fS. T!1.:!? tC[;\f:IN:{ (".1,1 d:ter tlll'\' ba(;
tile lct31 ,
, ..--.
!t "Ie-: 1"'''1 b: :: n:crllE.nl ,,: 1(Jl I' tl't-
SYStr-!1P cr,ild- child 1Vr.S be ,1;;Cf'P t6t
v:e H,t :l';);:>eJ: 1;J,t ,(\aHt.}ian
. ._-
b al1T''1<t ?,ll cJd.l;.:1.I H.Fn
t:lc Ics;)i,;;iv ioh:.er.ce :)f 7.,<,: 'i:U';-II:\
,'le;t: !cost:; as:(; thTl 'e' s;Je;:k :1[-, tc :C;1e,:".;: IPl p::::
crJ.i l.nn r-::p,:,r': h-::ry) if ttcy,];) ,I,);: obey tl-e !?.''is (il
:lJvc! s:)ov.'n, :bis c;cnb,)-; :,,,],,;],<,:, n: ;1,,:
:r.i!d v"lin fl'(lJ[l J }-;cme not if' y;:th !:b:c s!:;:)e
or f':': the. dl;lcl \,':10 ');rJ. ')l'l/:rl C:tl"JoreG 2tt'tl!c1f'S N.);\
t""l, f value .lcern h das:) wi';;l :1:1
shijH cti!J 01,(.)'. G(.r:VLl! .:-1,);'[1
Frc,lb .), t:l,l;: de:','eto. the
rr.Lst [jot :.:orget rp2t )-(.h1;ih.i.la SjTJtCr.l;; r.;:;vt, far ;..ri't-11 ];,
;,c,c.idi':'; rbarl':rer'l"fG by d 5t"ullgly 'l'C[;'fChr;,'1i ')'-Sdd;l.ot;Uil. I;
[;(;I( orb:ight ;ft:ud3:, p;1;:-,:na1;st;c. 'lhc mle: ct t:,e
':lIl1nrry, lIt (Xe,:.l:t!:ve pO\"tTS pok:c, t;\t. ,n;l;fl-J'Y.
.. y: ;y;rh:1p, V'I' s:hJulJ Jay
c6:], ;,f)
v/hc 8.nd \\/},O::'t:
'Ire h':;Tet0lc :"Cc.cptcJ :iv; int':'TI'li'i.lCU U;'I,1flld.Jj.; (lj
p:re'1b (o( (of the ct:pcrq:;}.
Freqi,,"iEDt:Yl rver, iil tGC i:l pc'\Vcr
Fl1 pGke was )lrcr.f: p.iJo .. .:::.s wcr": P;'f wi;];,,;:;
3
9
n .:-le Ia :5 n h P; ,e: I ..lie I' PI al of To'aPar' n' '71
LO b .ie e tt t n. y h d b n u jl tl, e e t i, P thr
searcl.ec. their .mnLS t f. c. sO.n g 'It 'n .h m el es Tie 'n er 1e ir
to be lovea by tne superego is extremely st on
6
, .:Ie w at r .h
ego becomes, the stronger IS tnis desire, uince In .-he tota.itarian ys
most powerful superego surrogates are me rUlers anti tueir
el e - 'n h the can gam apDroval or
'h S .le eL s r; g te 0 ly '.ly g 'nra) w' v'it}> t}-.e svstem
A eg la r q if e 0 a1 rf-p ns''JP'ty a d >r e choice
can Lec IT. ell (. sc nJo ti g, e n tl e 'e in.:;. '1e-a e 0 a
never be quite sure tl.at one 1...9i g r ciL Li 6' 11 er fo e 'h
deSIre to be tOld what [Q do anses, Gbefing orG r a1. \. ne to a lL
inner inrlecision create conflict and lhen eit .. er inLer a.
:;U'lt, or i ao.ali.arian state the real dan!!'er ot bemg aestroyed, It
ve h e 0 'y LO '0"0'" C rran1s t :ire ilI'1)osen on us, we can teel
:re f or._ g it 0 rs Iv s, n ' s fe
It is ve.y cia f I .0 :la b if i 0 elf a :l 'iv r l.la e tl:'
wim a personal superego tHat I.n n c it. a: 0: Le c '0 s f 'h
socletvin which one must live, 1n /Senera,. h is y s b: nli aLer
nate surerego imap'es are avallaDle, '1 hiS lS SODletllnes uifucu.t ,:0
\rer'ca S '0 u -ie stanrl since they have been brought up lD a lIee
o 'ef
J
, ur 0 m' d v Ii us f rere<';o images from which to
h 0 ,--.:1 r a ,:or ex n .)1 "Ie co t d'd ry SU"le g of
lhe puri,an and Lh 1 Je ta a. f .;1 n n in tJ vIa;' it a -j 'h
cowboy, and so on, in tile 1.fi.encan c v)' [ul in E'tl r ';e m
all SU'1ereg-o Images were to one anouler, so It .Je al .. e ex
'Tell 'y -lillic h rleve!op or to maintain a personal sUlJerego
t a 'a e Ni'h xi ti g oc'et-',
lL w s e Ii r 'h '. r'le m d rn t ia society in con
irast LO Lh t} a ni 5 faCe d jS, d :n nl's ,>0 t ne u a e t nil
tora] conforrflliy in all hIe ct vi. e , e e Le.il t ,It' a' . 't' la
tively simple to Keep one S 1l10Ut .. SUUL, Lul it s .. m h :n re dUo If,
wren one is in opnositlOn to the socIety In which one .iv 5, to g
'h 0 'ih th of as though one were lII1 acconi wah It.
F fl ci' nr. b d f ['"'orn.e t the dreams ot NaZI oDponents
.n nt 0 C ea Ii r, '0 'r n t' at 0 . 1- e lei g ne's own hacl<bone
anu torclD!> 0 e et t c: oLeCli J '0 .... 'Ii '1 n }-- t n e
H
-
such as stanotn/S al aLl:enti n 6i nb t .. e 3 .Ie s e- .j 0 e f 'h
most namtul dreams Imagmaule. LreaIT,lDt:, s d. d a._1S is no' nl,
It IS alSO a most convincing uei.lOnsl at 0 tl.at.h
1
0
2
Rema the P logica ealof litarici
331
. e ha th pow invad d do te ev ne's inti-
life, ich d s are ifican t.
Thus the opponent of Jhe system, even in the earliest days of
Naziism, could not find respite even in his sleep from the ever- resent
er th e reg migh troy nor the flicts
wlthm himself over whether to act m accordance With his convlctlOQS,
or to play it safe. This conflict pursued him into the safety of his
, tore apar is be ight. unco us, w g on
n his ms, c ced h hat true safety cou be foun only
by doing what the regime demanded.
orne ed t ne m ot thi rbidd ough s did
1an w ream wro ettef otest maile lank
piece of paper. Other dreams went even further by telling the dreamer
ust n en da drea at he forbi to th' This
be ill ted booth earns in fr he ea itler
days. In one a lady was watching The Magic Flute. Since she knew a
fi me taken for the devil appears in this 'ra, in I dream h had
houg t Hit as jus this For ing t st to
herself, she dreamed she was immediately arrested.
In another man's dream, an atlas was seized and confiscated by
police ause e 100 at it is dr the had
thought of emigrating to a free country. Such dreams illustrate the
conflict which rends the inner life of the opponent of the system: his
nal m supp by hi erego him Hit! ike a
,tha n shou p an for escape in 0 the free world; his uncon-
scious told him: you must not even think-or dream-such thoughts,
use t so Je 0 you struct Even ream ego
torn betw its de to ob e sup 0 by g the
right thing-that is, oppose the system-and the opposite wish to
the 'me ev one' ost p tho , so ot to
nger life.
As these dreams show, in totalitarian societies opponents live in
the conti s anx that Hi- may ke a r that th may
al th ner f gs an k tot estruc of t elves
and maybe their families. Therefore, opponents have to become per-
fect actors. But in order to be a perfect actor one not only has to act,
to fee ive th e.
Only by becomillg the obedIent subject of the totalitanan state
can one feel sure that one will be observed obeying all its orders.
:un H,,:rurfos ':),1 ihe ?yrl'lufugi-l,-i' ,A;PI',nc.l or Tutc'itcr;(j,,;.m
lel;e.ve th,'1t d.c; !wl (Ny
tilt,,!. 11l1.1(:1S ",om.: gpEI: h: ibt"h},Sr;:n:';, Th(- (;(s:ire
be !(lveG [:.]' tP(. is '1\.lcl d,L. wnke" the
tile 5lIfilGU l:n;s ICt i::1 iN: \..)l:;.i:ho i:ir, 51:-
l!.',. lIte pC'NCIld S'l;:(lf;Bb, I t:krs tPcl r
5;10\r, the. C'Ll !:! .... lr, 'l,JlJrul-al cf
TL(,;H?,ng<' n,:l,: hj rid. be SY'itU;l,
Ani)'!a:g,) fr:.::
C>l;1 bCCOIIlE 3i:;'::<1;1!h:rtif18, ,";'.Cl" nue U'l,
Pf-Ve.r bp '"!l1HI' 'hl.:! is Tl.erdc,re
,lccirc.; 10 'ot del tc. ciJ one t,) l"vcid
ir:llcr ir:lb:isil}" l!!;lt :1112ht '::'C3t2 J'1::i ::hl,!u cirr.'!::
\
gl'ih, C'L \,\ ? t01<",lira,'ian rlarger (.f c1es(c:Jyed. 11
WI'! k:ve "c bljc''''' !h;:} ne;r0i"'J';cJ CI', i'S. ';;JI! f!"!"!
f:cc' :rcm gllilt apd
.It very pain;1'1 t" *.1:11 live p:nnar,er.t!y
:l pr.lsonai ti',Jt n:ll'.J.:I'S (;;.t;c;'J of t!lC o.t :P(
s,Jr:;cty it' wl.irn ('1.(. fJ'l'St j,i"t, ill ge.r.en" it l) 0P-Iy if ah.r
:iupere.go -,r'!1;!,- i"; diH;:o1t fo;'
.'\\:If::Tk:.t:H to !\'I.e!; t?I't; j;.E.'!'.1 !vol.lg,ht I"tJ iT' .1.
'1,1:10;:5 d :xpe(cgo i:r,Zl;tS fom '!vb,;:). Ie
chocse. 'Tlw:re ;fPf or
:Ud:l hJ:icrtari.:H1, ot in g'J4y arlC
cw.v).cy) :(1 (Ir;, h tilc AilJer;c-an scdc\.y, ;r;
a;l 5'JPClcgO W,,!,(, gea{<!d :c OHIO dIlurl:er. !,c bee;..me eA'
ci:llicult Ie 1.0 :TJ::int!;r. J h;gH)' pcrs,)'1a':
1: ,,:ll ,('ciI'J)',
lJ tarl;c! !:I,ct tk: oH.(!r.r:, !,ccicly, in \(11]-
to the i1r;;iln',;-1;_t"S Qf r.fid
, L
in life tt!t.. ifli.):tt it IS ..
ti 5:1'I].k: :0 i((;,,? Sill': l Ih:J ::1' j, r;liC;1 !ncr.: :ii:F(l.I):
"/l.ep 0[.\0 ('PPCS;JVLl ::0 the if. \,,:h;(+ eN i:vcs, La EJ
tilr:ngll, n,e makh.;; tl; iiv'llg as b,)'Ji'1IIO',: v,'(Te j,) dLC0d It.
fk'k,::i:1g i',,(K fer J ff:O,T,:':T,t f<; If;,(' (,!ljVHl'::;\lS
.T;t-nti'hlcd l':ai1i"!: .. to (lle'liTl that CI.l. 1;r''';"kint!' '),11":: ('\,''1
JD;:! t;)Tclog to 30 for wlw::h (':1':: ('i'ICeit--,
S,l'::h "'':; 5JJ11di,1g qt givi;!g (hf. fJ;t!er .. is. tJf.L 0f
LlJ.eraf:b pet .)q1.y
j" 2.Lo a mcst cor:\'i:1:;r:e
r .. .. Appc;,jl oJ: 331
te;',,:rre I:il(; p:J',ve.: h: ;nv,,:lc al:d eyeD Dn.::s ;T;O:t ;lIli
'11;Je Ii;c, d w:lir.h ,,;.:; g :'i;:':'l;U.:;"nt .)c1i',
;he oppvr.ert of :'.'en;r. It:!: earl:cst ,1.-1:-:6
(('l.ld :-lct ti,].} n-spi,t- ,;:','(n i'l h,s trr)'1'i
P(,f t:u-rp
hi'i.self dyer V,h'!;her 'K,. b wiH:.bi:;
:1;' tc ph",' it "n,i,; C(I!pl;ct :TJf:-;l\cd lU'l H:,{ of
horN', tJrf: ti;T:, i;1 h;.:; !;.::rl gt night n;s jr,
. h j 'L"", l' . 1 '
f rf-aCd.:1, .1:h1. ,:1 'lIe \':.')11 (I
do;,.!: -,vk.t 1 tc (;rlOagc:(6.
rht 0;1':: T.'IW, U.lJ1k diJ
t-'1 D ",} d , .. ,.". ,. 1 1. . ta n II . r. '" '1' .. '] -::1 n L1 . "
. _ man .\ .(, r.,,11d<:.U i.e \"'10 ___ (II 1'11- _MJ. "". bLtl ,_ ... L ,ill',
!);(,:C(,: 0.1: !lJ;JC:, On,t'f drt'arli by td:i'l,; b!" (;reamcr
b: ,I.m! unr t,) l...fTf."'li1J ',vas .. to thi.l:-: .. J 1'/5
D:l"/ lH: ;wt} .);J(cr :!:'>OI'$; ":dy
b (1;1':: ;; \/.1'; v'Ltd.i'1g The she "
u5ltl'c t2k:,p- f01 the. -:le'/;! i" dreal .-;:,.-:
:t:e t;H!: Hi:].:. v;;.,. !i's: l:l:c .his 1;,"1'1; (;l;"Sn:
s
ju,,.1 'f
;h.:: s!1e w,t: JILt-st"!')
Tn W:II!'S d"ten:l, ;'1. 3ci:zled 3nl
b('ca w;';J( ;(,0kiTI2; a': it ;n ;'is "l,e ;1-1;<11 lli'l
cf e1higmfhg bJ o,),u.t::y, :).1::1 'j't!;..rns
" ... ,a:cl: Viti:::!'! bner Jift-:J:: o",)",)")oeot ot
lal:;c,N,l ui'1<i, .iUppOf!:,J 1'), f.lfH ttat EH'i..I is 1-11:1' 3-
ccri!, j k t .H.s :ibcr:;( ).): j iF') t:Tt' \"01 ;,J;h;s :lflC')<]-
'0:(; y':ltllTh5t not ,!h!lI thi'l:(--Cr JH_ar'}__s,-,cl' t;10ughts,
h d,) :c !c,"ds tt, Ylll'!' !!:VCfl \)1
1"<'5 pr:'\"CCI1 GC)'rc c,t-C} tv ('(Ijng
11$:)( tr.i'16--t:1dt t:le to
obey tJIe: :-;';1) ;n PI1f-:':i rr.(lst ;:;TIVgtF! .5.) 3S J:1n. Ie
life
rh,::.tr.I:i shc,Y.', in 1;"0 : ..
a;uidy rl>'1t f:icy T'1'1-, Tfl,":,c ;; s1ir, rh:lT tl:!? )P8Y
revea: lrtii j,mer "l.d tc.ta; vf ... (.s
rtwl '-'!a"{:':": tb-,i .. 'fher,::,'(,re. ;nv;
fu:t ?ct'), .. , if. ,:vrl':J to J-.f' ,] .)r;c.'l'Jt b;s 8.:t,
ht tv . .:
bjl b.-:.orllirg tlC SII'Y;Cct n:e t.Jt:::J:t2iiar. S'?fe
c\:r.: one feci. that Ofit'vi;l h ;.\;l ,q,leJ:
4
0
1
0
3
.Vl.. l...aL 1(-: ".ht fill? rorah-
t"rhrpsTI} IS t.he nTOsnect t:.e.h"lvc i1u(..! JLt r:,.:rref vit'!
h .. ,,;n
5
:d_e. e.e 'Inc a ... (1 the O'1tPf iJeare of fee'nnl!;
SI'CJ1ff> I Jnfnfmnare1v, iOi Lhc ye,sc..n \\:u, "au CL)F .h
tl.e3}JLn.L1L 1 x if a-h:e"e(l rt ot I05Jn? autonomy,
and human .n.H.:l 't -ellr-rJ-
tte p.a.e.v'1i-h ir r ht"lit a"ia'1 is bought <it Hie p.k..:
or tnedealh 01 file SLut
1
0
3
?:1:>. .!lJ! l'j;1. \";:,,/::!wl,,>, ANUj.lof ToldYai'1tfllJ5111
"Ft... r. - '1- t" '''' t } l'
;. H,lS we car: JJr:;;J::f flCt: nsr. to" ilLr[I>CuOn ,)l g,c::::r:pur;g .Dl.a f-
taria!ltsm h the P'.fOs'le:::t ef g.aininfP lhe.inn..';r that comes
r ....:;; s:
L l' ' -J' t d f
uavmg fI'2SGli{::;G f;CVr.:rC B1l1ef (;0nr J:G .5, an til;'; 0UiJ:I ;:L
!;tcllrc. for foe persnn wh!) W;.l,S migirlally opposed to.
t},', n :''''''f'l .... ,,,H:
L1t. ,-)S."'ll d"p,.a8e 15 aCl _" .. !()'>U!rl h!L'
l't:;pecl,a1ul human dignity, Thetl;! i:; much tmth in remm} that
ilK pe;;(;E which rdgns in it tnt[ditarian I::; bmlght at tht:'
cd the: death oj: the 'wl..!L
4
1