ECCENTRIC LOADING

In developing the bending formula M E = = , I y R (1)

we assumed that the beam was transmitting a bending moment M , but that the axial force F was zero. In fact, the axial force transmitted by the cross-section can be written as an integral (sum) of the contribution of the stress distribution over each element of area A as dA . (2) F=
A

Taken in combination with the results

y R

and Hookes law, the condition F = 0 leads to F = Ey E dA = R A R ydA = 0 .

A

(3)

This is the reason that in the bending theory, we must measure y from centroid of the section, since the centroid is dened by the conditions xdA = 0 ;
A A

ydA = 0

in centroidal coordinates. In many practical problems, the axial force will not be zero. However, instead of reworking the bending theory from the beginning, we treat problems involving bending and axial forces by superposing the stress elds due to the bending moment and the axial force considered separately. Pure axial loading If there is only an axial force F , the normal stress on the cross-section is uniform and given by F (4) = . A This uniform distribution adds up to (has as resultant) as force F whose line of action passes through the centroid. Thus, equation (4) applies only if the line of 1

action of the axial force passes through the centroid. For all other cases, the same equation will dene the average stress, but the stress will actually vary through the cross-section, implying that the maximum is greater than the average given by (4). Furthermore, we shall nd that this effect can be extremely large, so we cannot afford to neglect it. Eccentricl loading Figure 1 shows a bar of square cross-section loaded by a force that does not pass through the centroid of the section.
F a C C F

M F C C d

Figure 1 To determine the stress eld, we cut the bar at some intermediate section, generating the free-body diagram in the lower gure 1 In the free-body diagram we put an axial force F acting through the centroid of the section and a bending moment M , exactly as in the Problems in Chapter 7 (Internal Loadings). From the equilibrium of this FBD it is then clear that the bending moment M Fd = 0 and hence M = Fd , (5)

where d is the distance along the y-axis between the line of action of the external force F and the centroid C.
is a topic in which the drawing of this free-body diagram is critical. Your chances of making an error in eccentric loading problems is greatly increased if you dont do this!
1 This

We can now superpose the stress elds due to F and M (since F on the cut cross-section now does act through the centroid), obtaining

F My . A I

(6)

For the special case where the cross section is a square of side a, we have I= and hence a a3 a4 = ; A = a2 12 12 (7)

F 12Fdy + , a2 a4

(8)

using (5). Suppose the force acts half way between C and the top of the section, giving d = a/4. We would then have

F 3Fy + 3 . a2 a

The maximum stress will occur at ymax which is here a/2, giving

max =

F 3F . a2 2a2

Clearly the biggest magnitude of the stress occurs at the top (positive sign) and is

max =

5F . 2a2

Notice that this is 2.5 times larger than the value F /A, so a relatively small amount of ecentricity of the load has a big effect on the maximum stress. Notice also that the stress at y = a/2 (the bottom) is negative (compressive) even though the only applied force F is tensile. The moral is that bending dominates over axial loading and a small amount of eccentricity causes enough of a bending moment to have a major effect. The C-clamp Figure 2(a) shows the typical design of a C-clamp, for pressing two piece of wood together (for example) whilst they are being glued. Taking out the pieces of wood, the loads exerted on the clamp are shown in Figure 2(b). 3

F F

(a) Figure 2

(b)

To nd the stresses in the clamp, we cut through the right-hand section and draw the free-body diagram of Figure 3. Notice again that the balancing axial force F at the cut must be placed through the centroid of the section which we label as C. In the lower gure, we show this cross-section. Typically C-clamps will have a T-shaped section as shown and the centroid will therefore be nearer to the left of the section than to the right.

F h d C F M

.C
Figure 3 As before, we conclude that M = Fd where the distance d is measured from the line of action of the external force F (on the left) to the parallel axial force acting through C. It is important to note that d exceeds the distance h from the line of action F to the edge of the section. This distance h denes the largest block of wood that can be inserted into the clamp and hence is a design specication (we cant change it if the clamp is to perform its function). However, we would like to make the bending stress as small as possible. This is why the T-shaped cross-section is used. This shape causes the centroid C to be close to the left-hand side of the section and minimizes the amount that d exceeds h and hence reduces M . Notice also that with the given direction of the bending moment, we shall have tension on the left and compressive stress on the right, but because the centroid is near to the left, the maximum compressive stress is signicantly larger than the maximum tensile stress. This is important because these clamps are often made from cast iron which is somewhat brittle and hence is stronger in compression than it is in tension. 5