TAMIL NADU ELECTRICITY BOARD

RESEARCH SCHEME ON POWER

STUDY ON CAUSE OF FAILURE OF SUB-STATION BATTERIES
AND EVOLVING CONDITION MONITORING TECHNIQUES




COMPLETION REPORT




RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
TAMIL NADU ELECTRICITY BOARD
CHENNAI 600 002




MARCH - 2010


ABSTRACT OF THE COMPLETION REPORT

1. Name of the Research Station

Research & Development
Tamil Nadu Electricity Board
Chennai 600 002

2. (i) Project Title

STUDY ON CAUSE OF FAILURE OF SUB-STATION BATTERIES
AND EVOLVING CONDITION MONITORING TECHNIQUES

(ii) Subject Area
Substation
3. (i) Name of Investigators

Chief Engineers in succession
S. Amalorphanathen
C. Santhanagopala Krishnan
T. J eyaseelan
K. Viswanathan
S. Phebe Beryl
Superintending Engineer
N. Sekar
Executive Engineers
K. Gopinathan
M. Xavier Prince
Assistant Executive Engineer in charge of the study
R. Kathiresan
Assistant Engineer who participated in the study
R. Sundar
(ii) Names of the I nstitution with whom collaborated if any
Nil
4. Project sanction detail

i) CPRI /Bangalore Ref.No. : No.3/2/R&D/RSOP/06 dt.09-11-2006.
ii) Sanctioned duration : 3 years & 3 Months
iii) Sanctioned cost : Rs.6 lakhs.
Recurring : Nil
Non-recurring : Rs.6 lakhs.
Total : Rs.6 lakhs.

5.
i) Actual date of commencement of the study : J anuary 2007
ii) Actual date of completion of the study : March 2010
iii) Actual Expenditure incurred on the project : Rs.6 lakhs
Recurring : Nil
Non-recurring : Rs.6 lakhs.
Total : Rs.6 lakhs.

6. Objective as per sanctioned project

1. To study the failure rate of Batteries in sub-stations.
2. To study the cause of failure of Batteries in sub-stations.
3. To conduct impedance measurement tests on sub-station batteries and
establish trend values and evolve proper maintenance and replacement
strategies.
1
CONTENTS


Chapter
No.

Topic Page No.
1 Introduction 3
2 Evolution of Batteries 5
3 Lead Acid Batteries
Classification
Description, Properties and Manufacturing
Plates
Separators
Electrolyte
Containers
8
4 Theory of Chemical reactions in Batteries
Elementary cell
Lead Acid cell - The Double Sulphate theory
27
5 Capacity of Batteries
Factors determining capacity
35
6 Resistance in Lead Acid Batteries
Factors affecting Resistance
43
7 Charge / Discharge of Batteries
Constant Current
Constant Potential
Equalizing, Boost and Trickle charge
Charge Characteristics
Discharge Characteristics
47
8 Efficiency of Batteries
Ampere Hour efficiency
Voltage efficiency
Watt-Hour efficiency
58
9 Testing of Batteries
Capacity tests
Test for retention of charge
Test for purity of electrolyte
Life tests
61


2


10 Common sources of trouble
Overcharging, Undercharging, Corroded terminals, Cracked
or Broken Jars, Short Circuits, Worn out plates, Electrolyte
below the top of plates, Freezing, Impurities in electrolyte,
Chipping of active material, Sulphation, Corrosion of Grid,
Reversal, Hydration, Stratification, Impure water,
Discoloration of electrolyte
65
11 Factors against which Battery to be guarded 75
12 Battery Test Equipment Interrogator 4210
Procedure to use Interrogator
Testing of Batteries by
Rapid Test Method
Quick Test Method
Full Test Method
State of Health parameter
Impedance, Voltage, Dryout, Sulphation
Grid Degradation
77
Companion Software for Interrogator WELSoft
Major functions of WELSoft
Configuring Interrogator
Configuring sites and strings
Data handling by WELSoft
Loading, Saving, Viewing, Editing and Export Data
WELSoft Built-in-Reports
96
13 Single Cell Charge/Discharge test equipment 107
14 Test Results of measurements undertaken in sub-stations of TNEB 110
Rapid Test Method
Full Test Method
Impedance signature in new batteries
Discharge/ Charge characteristics of New and Sulphated cells
15 Conclusions 206
References 213

CHAPTER- 1

I NTRODUCTI ON

In Sub-stations and Power stations, Batteries play vital role in the field of Protection &
Communication. For Power utilities Batteries provide back up power in the following
way. In Transmission sector they are associated with the operation of various Relays
and the entire Protection system, thereby helping to maintain the Reliability of the
system.

In Generation sector, in addition to protection they also provide the necessary backup
power for the Emergency Oil Pump.

Also communication from remote Generating Stations via Power Line Carrier
Communication, intra communication within the existing sub-stations and Supervisory
Control & Data Acquisition System are established through Battery systems.

Even though Batteries have not undergone any sea change in their construction,
manufacture and theory since its invention especially the Storage Battery type, the
level of understanding has not always been kept at par with other equipments.
Though it is a static and a stationary piece of equipment, lot of vibrant
electrochemical reactions happen in the Battery at any point of time, which has to be
well understood for appreciating the beauty with which this piece of equipment
operates.

When properly understood, batteries would assume its due importance and proper
maintenance and care could be given thereby the batteries could perform its duty
when called for. In fact this lack of understanding or failure to make efforts to
understand has led to even healthy batteries being replaced after a given period of
time in many utilities.
4
Major incidents have been reported where negligence/ improper maintenance of this
vital equipment has led to catastrophic failure of costly equipments which the
batteries are required to protect.

Therefore in order have a proper understanding of the batteries, the basics of the
batteries, its functionality and the care to be taken have been dealt with in this Project
Report.

The information putforth had been the result of deliberations with the Battery
manufacturers by visiting the factories, undertaking lot of field measurements from
various sub-stations of TNEB and from various other literatures and manuals.
5
CHAPTER- 2

EVOLUTI ON OF BATTERI ES

Historical Development of Battery
The events/breakthroughs in electrochemical energy storage systems that happened
during its development process is listed below in a chronological order.

1748 : Benjamin Franklin coined the word Battery to describe an array of
charged glass plates

1780-1786 : An Italian anatomist and Physiologist Luigi Galvani demonstrated
the electrical basis of nerve impulses by connecting pieces of iron and brass to
a frogs leg which caused a twitch. This formed the basis for further research
by inventors like Volta

1800 : Alessandro Cont di Volta invented the voltaic pile and discovered the
first practical method of generating electricity. Constructed of alternating discs
of Zinc and Copper with pieces of cardboard soaked in brine between the
metals, the voltic pile produced electrical current. Alessandro Voltas voltaic
pile was the first wet cell battery that produced a reliable, steady current of
electricity

1834 : Michael Fraday explained the phenomenon by showing that the cations
(positively charged ions) were attracted to the cathode and anions (negatively
charged ions) were attracted towards the anode

1836 : An Englishman John F. Daniel invented the Daniel Cell that used two
electrolytes,Copper sulfate and Zinc sulfate. This was used to operate
telegraphs and door bells
6

1859 : French inventor, Raymond Gaston Plant developed the first practical
storage lead-acid battery that could be recharged. He immersed two thin solid
lead plates separated by rubber sheets in a dilute sulphuric acid solution. He
studied the charge/discharge process of this cell and found it possible to
increase materially the capacity of the cell by a process which is now known as
Formation. The Plant plate was invented by him which consisted a sheet of
lead on which the active material was formed electrochemically from the lead
of the plate itself

1866 : French Engineer, Georges Leclanche patented the Carbon-Zinc wet cell
battery called the Leclanche cell. The original cell was assembled in a porous
pot. The positive electrode consisted of crushed manganese-di-oxide with a
little carbon mixed in. The negative pole was zinc rod. The cathode was
packed into the pot, and a carbon rod was inserted to act as a current
collector. The anode and zinc rod and the pot were then immersed in an
ammonium chloride solution. The liquid acted as the electrolyte, readily
seeping through the porous cup and making contact with the cathode material

1880 : Emile Alphonse Faure developed a process for covering both sides of a
lead plate with a paste of lead powder and sulphuric acid which could be
formed more easily into the active materials of the finished battery. This type
of cell possesed superior capacity. This had been a significant breakthrough
which led to the industrial manufacture of lead acid batteries

1881 : Volckmar developed a procedure in which he used lead plates with
numerous holes which were filled with a paste made of pulverised lead mixed
with sulphuric acid

1882 : Sellon developed a grid which was able to hold and lock the active
7
materials better. He made use of the alloy of lead and antimony instead of
pure lead for grid

1888 : Correns devised a grid which consisted of a double lattice of which the
bars were triangular in cross section with the apexes pointing inward so that
the active material was held securely in place

1960 : The first type of spill proof battery was developed in Germany. They
were called Gel Cells because of their very unique gelled electrolyte. The
acid electrolyte had the consistency of Petroleum Jelly and was made by
mixing the sulfuric acid with silica powder. These batteries also featured a
pressurized venting system that nearly eliminated water loss through a process
called oxygen recombination

1970 : Another type of spillproof battery was developed. Instead of using
gelled electrolyte, this type of battery used a unique highly absorbent
separator to hold the acid like a sponge. These batteries utilised a non-woven
separator made from spun-glass microfibers that absorb and hold the acid.
These batteries were appropriately named Absorbed Glass Mat Batteries or
AGM for short. Like Gel batteries, they also operate on the principle of oxygen
recombination

8
CHAPTER- 3

LEAD ACID BATTERIES

An electric battery in its simplest form consists of two or more connected cells which
convert chemical energy to electrical energy. Each cell is a combination of two
dissimilar electrodes immersed in an electrolyte in a suitable jar or container.

The cells are further classified into two major groups as Primary and Secondary cells.
Primary cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy and in so doing they
become exhausted. Most dry cells fall in this group.

Secondary cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy by reactions that are
reversible i.e. they may be charged by an electrical current passing through them in
the opposite direction to that of their discharge. Storage cells also called as
Accumulators fall in this group.
In the storage cells the most common are the Lead Acid and Alkaline type Batteries .

Classification of Lead-Acid Batteries
The Lead Acid Batteries shall be classified into the following types.
Flooded Lead Acid
Valve Regulated Lead Acid (VRLA)

In Flooded type Batteries the electrolyte is in the liquid state.
In VRLA type Batteries the electrolyte is in the absorbed state.

VRLA Batteries are classified according to the absorbents used and named as follows.
GEL type
AGM type
9

In Gel type the electrolyte is absorbed in Silica Gel.
In AGM type separators made of Absorbent Glass Mat absorbs the electrolyte.
Since Sub-station Batteries in TNEB and other Indian utilities are mostly of Flooded
Lead Acid type, the focus and further discussions would be predominantly on Flooded
Lead Acid type Batteries.

Flooded Lead Acid Batteries
The major components of the Flooded Lead-Acid battery are :
Plates
Separators
Electrolyte
Container
Pictures of the various ingredients/components of a Lead Acid Battery (tubular
positive) are given below.










10

Litharge

Red Lead

Lead Suboxide


Powder Ingredients of paste
Expanders-Barium Sulphate,
Lignin & Lampblack


Positive Grid



Negative Grid


Tubular Bag & Stopper

Formed Negative Plate


Formed Positive Plate


PVC & PE Separators

Assembled Group (2V, 60 AH)
3 P + 4 N


Terminal Poles



Terminals

Float & Vent Plug
11


Top Cover

Packing Shims



Separator Guard


Bitumen




Connector


Connector Bolts & Nuts


Insulators

Container

Assembled Cell

Pictures of the various components of a Lead Acid Battery

PLATES
The plates form an important part in the Battery and the principle and operation of
Batteries could be well understood and appreciated if the materials used in the
manufacture of plates, their properties and the process of manufacture are known.
Brief description of the above are detailed below.
The plates of a Battery comprise of Grid and Active materials. The Grid is made in
combination with Lead and certain other materials like Antimony, Calcium etc. The
properties of the constituents of the Grid are given below.
12
Lead Physical and Chemical properties

Lead is the main constituent of Lead Acid Battery. Lead is mainly obtained from ore
Galena which is a sulphide of lead, PbS. Other ores being Cerussite Pb CO
3
and
Anglesite PbSO
4
.
Lead is a metal, bluish grey in colour with metallic luster
It oxidizes in moist air and becomes dull grey
Lead in pure state is soft, malleable but tensile strength is low
Density of cast lead is 11.34
Melting point of pure lead is 327.4 C (621 F)
Linear co-efficient of expansion is 0.0000292 per degree centigrade
Resistivity of lead is 0.0000212 Ohm-cm at 20C (68 F), 12 times the
resistivity of copper
Lead is attacked by nitric acid, but not by hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid
below 1.700 specific gravity
Small amount of impurities exert a marked influence on the mechanical and
electrolytic properties of lead. Traces of Arsenic, Copper, Zinc and Antimony
makes it to harden

Antimony Physical and Chemical properties
Antimony is mainly obtained from the ore Stibnite which is Antimony Sulphide
Sb
2
S
It is silver white in colour with a high metallic luster and hard and brittle
Density is 6.684
The melting point for Antimony is 631C (1168F)
The co-efficient of expansion is 0.0000114 per degree centigrade
Resistivity of antimony is 0.000039 Ohm-cm about twice that of lead
It is not readily oxidized in air but combines directly with chlorine forming SbCl
5

13
Alloys of Lead for Grid Formation
Alloys of Lead for the Grid are made in combination of Lead with Antimony, Copper,
Silver, Cadmium, Calcium, Mercury, Tin, Bismuth, Tellurium and Nickel.
Of the above, Grids made of Lead with Antimony and Calcium had been widely used.
5 12% of Antimony is added in preparation of Lead Antimony grids which helps in

Easy flow in the mould
Increases the stiffness of lead and also its ductility and tensile strength
Helps to reduce the electrochemical corrosion and doesnt get formed as the
battery plates are manufactured

However Antimony leads to spontaneous loss of charge and liberation of hydrogen at
negative plates during operation.

Calcium not exceeding 0.1% is used in Lead-Calcium grid. Excess charging,
particularly at high rates is very harmful to Lead-Calcium grids.

The Grids
Serve as supports for the active material of the plates
Play a major role in conducting the electric current since the resistivity of lead
peroxide is more than 10,000 times the resistivity of lead
Maintain uniform current distribution through out the mass of active material

Process of Manufacture of Plates
The active materials for the plates are prepared as a paste and then applied to the
grids and subsequently converted electrochemically into the active material of the
finished plates. Various oxides of lead are used for preparation of the paste. The
oxides of Lead chiefly deployed are
14

Sl.
No.
Description Chemical
formula
Colour
1 Lead Oxide (Litharge) PbO Yellow
2 Lead Sub Oxide Pb
2
O Greenish Grey
3 Lead Sesquioxide Pb
2
O
3
Reddish Yellow
4 Red Lead Pb
3
O
4
Red
5 Lead Peroxide PbO
2
Dark brown or black

The paste is prepared by mixing Litharge PbO or Red Lead Pb
3
O
4
or a combination of
both with dilute sulphuric acid. The following variables encountered while preparing
the paste of active material could affect the performance of the battery.
Variation in physical and chemical characteristics of oxide
Percentage of true red lead
Temperature and strength of acid solution
Time of mixing
Treatment of plate during and after the pasting process.
Humidity

The reactions that occur during the preparation of paste are given below.
When Sulphuric acid is added to Litharge it results in the formation of Lead
sulphate & Water
PbO

+ H
2
SO
4
= PbSO
4
+ H
2
O

When Sulphuric acid is added to Red Lead a chemical reaction occurs which
results in the formation of Lead Sulphate, Lead peroxide and Water.
Pb
3
O
4
+2H
2
SO
4
= 2PbSO
4
+ PbO
2
+ 2H
2
O
The Lead sulphate helps in binding the material together as a paste and the
cementing action happens due to hydration of the Lead oxide.
15

Quantity of Lead Oxides used in plates

Negative plates are made purely from litharge or a combination of litharge with small
amounts of Red lead ranging from 0-25% . Plates with small amount of Red Lead can
be formed more quickly than those made with pure litharge.

Positive plates are made with more of red lead than the negatives ; as such could be
formed very quickly. Even the Red lead too contains liberal amounts of Litharge and
positive are made from material containing 60-80% Red lead.

Expanders

The expanders are added in small amounts to the paste for negative plates which
prevents contraction and solidification of the spongy lead of the finished negative
plate. Common expanders used are Lamp black, Barium sulphate, powdered
charcoal, wood flour, colloidal extracts of organic matter usually wood.

Mixing of Ingredients
A considerable portion of water is added to the thoroughly blended dry mixture of
oxides and expanders after which a solution of Sulphuric acid at 1.200 1.400 sp. gr.
is added to it slowly while mixing.

The amount of H
2
SO
4
added determines the amount of basic Lead sulphate formed
which determines the expansion or buckling of plates. The capacity of finished plate
will increase as expansion increases. Too great expansion will lead to premature
failure by shedding of active material and too little expansion would result in hard,
dense plates of low capacity which could fail by buckling. Proper consistency of plate
is achieved by adding the right proportion of water and mixing.
16

Pasting and treatment after pasting

The paste is applied to grid manually or by machines. The grids shall be free from
grease and dirt before pasting. After pasting, it shall be dried before formation by
adopting either Dipping or Pickling process.

Dipping process

Plates to be dried are dipped for few seconds in solution of sulphuric aid (1.100 to
1.125 sp.gr.)after which the plates are drained, racked and allowed to dry at elevated
temperature (40 60
o
C) for 12-15 hours. This process increases slightly the amount
of sulphation and lessens the tendency for the paste to crack. Thorough drying is
necessary to avoid popping of active material when plates are formed.

Pickling process

The plates are immersed in sulphuric acid solution for a longer time from a few hours
to a day or more depending on the strength of solution. Specific gravity varies
between (1.050 1.250) and time varies accordingly. The specific gravity of the
pickling solution falls rapidly at the beginning but the rate decreases as time passes.
The decrease in specific gravity shows the amount of Lead Sulphate formed in the
plates.

The character of a plate could well be affected by the paste and its pasting process.
Soft and porous plates are made from soft paste and hard plates are made from stiff
pastes. However the porosity of plates made from soft paste had been greater than
for others.

Improper manufacturing process in pasting process could lead to the following
problems.

17
Imperfect contact between the grid and the paste. This could lead to the
formation of Lead sulphate at surface of grid and being a non-conductor, will
insulate the active material and the battery therefore could not be fully charged
Cracking of the active material
Loosening of material from grid
Blisters or scaling of active material because of rapid drying of wet paste at
surface
Inequalities in amount of active materials in grid leading to buckling of plates

Formation

The word Formation was originally meant for Plant type plate intended to increase
the capacity of the cell wherein a layer of Sponge lead and Lead peroxide were
created in the negative and positive plates respectively from the lead of the plate
itself by series of charge and discharge.

Formation of pasted plates mean the oxidation and reduction of the lead oxides
pasted to the grid electrolytically in dilute sulphuric acid usually in the range of 1.050
to 1.150 sp.gr.

The positive plates are made the anode and the negative plates the cathode and
immersed in the forming tank. Plates created by either dipping process or pickling
process will sulphate when they are immersed in the solution and the specific gravity
will decrease rapidly. Dried plates shall be allowed to remain in the solution long
enough for the acid to penetrate the pores of the plate before beginning the forming
charge. The charging current depends on the thickness, type of plates and
temperature. The completion of charging is indicated by the
Colour of the active materials which is uniform in colour
Plates gassing normally
Constant voltage values for the plates with respect to the electrolyte
18

The plates after forming are drained, rinsed and dried. Negative plates will become
hot during drying because of oxidation of spongy lead in air. Even though these
plates contain little lead sulphate, they shall be regarded to be in a discharged state
and hence when assembled in batteries require a prolonged initial charge.

The changes that happen in the composition of the material of negative and positive
plates during the forming process are as follows:
Negative Plates
Initial Composition Final Composition
PbO 90% 1% or less
PbSO
4
10% 1%
Pb -- 98%

Positive Plates
Initial Composition Final Composition
PbO 55% 7%
PbSO
4
25% 3% or less
PbO
2
20% 90%



The positive plate with Red lead is considered to be a mixture of Lead oxide and Lead
peroxide, since two parts of Lead oxide and one part of Lead peroxide are equivalent
to one part of Red lead.

The lead sulphate that remain back acts as a binder for the active material and this is
not easily removed by excess charging.
19
Another important phenomenon happens during the forming process. The plate
acquires porosity during this period. The Lead sulphate is less dense than the Lead
peroxide or Sponge lead of the finished material. Also the Litharge is less dense than
the lead of the formed material. Hence during formation process pores of the plates
open which permits the electrolyte to come in contact with the material in the inner
area of the plate. The densities of the various materials in the plates is given below.

Material Formula Density
Lead Pb 11.3
Litharge PbO 9.5
Red Lead Pb
3
O
4
9.1
Lead peroxide PbO
2
9.0
Lead Sulphate PbSO
4
6.3
Lead Chloride PbCl
2
5.8

SEPARATORS

The objective of using separators is to prevent metallic conduction between plates of
opposite polarity while freely permitting electrolytic conductions.

In the initial days of battery manufacture, wood separators were used. Then Rubber
separators were used where the number of pores per square centimeter was
50,00,00,000. Of late the Battery manufacturers use PVC and Polyethylene separators.
While placing the separators it is seen that the grooved side is always placed next to
the positive plate and the flat surface towards the negative plate. This is done to
ensure that during discharge the positive plate should have an ample supply of acid
since the maximum capacity of the positive plate is attained only for moderately high
concentration of acid while the negative plates reaches the maximum capacity at
relatively low concentration. The porosity of the separators plays vital role in
equalisation of acid concentration during charge and discharge.
20

ELECTROLYTE

The electrolyte used in Lead acid batteries is sulphuric acid. The combustion of
sulphur in air produces sulphur-di-oxide (SO
2
) which is a colourless gas. On further
oxidation in presence of catalysts it yields trioxide SO
3
also called Sulphuric anhydride
which is a transparent crystalline solid. This combines violently with water yielding
Sulphuric acid releasing large amount of heat.
SO
2
+ O + H
2
O = H
2
SO
4

Properties of Sulphuric acid

Concentrated sulphuric acid is clear, colourless and odourless liquid having
consistency of light oil
Specific Gravity is 1.835 at 15
o
C
Concentrated acid boils at 338
o
C and liberates gas of the same composition
which appear as dense white vapour because of absorption of water vapour
from air
Contraction of solution
When one volume sulphuric acid is diluted with one volume of water, the
volume of solution is not two volumes but slightly less after the solution has
cooled to the initial temperature. This contraction is greatest on solution with
Specific Gravity of 1.600
Resistivity
The resistance to passage of electric current through the electrolyte varies with
the concentration and temperature. Solution of 30 %( 1.223 Specific Gravity at
15
o
C) have the minimum resistivity. The resistivity increases rapidly as the
temperature is decreased particularly when temperature is below 0
o
C.
Freezing Points
The freezing point of the electrolyte varies with its concentration as shown in
the following table:
21
Specific Gravity
15
o
C
Freezing Points
in Centigrade
Specific Gravity
15
o
C
Freezing Points
in Centigrade
1.000 0 1.450 -29
1.050 -3.3 1.500 -29
1.100 -7.7 1.550 -38
1.150 -15 1.600 *
1.200 -27 1.650 *
1.250 -52 1.700 -14
1.300 -70 1.750 +5
1.350 -49 1.800 +6
1.400 -36 1.835 -34

* Freezing points indeterminate.
The several maximum and minimum in the reading is due to hydrates of sulphuric-
tri-oxide that are formed at different concentration. The lowest freezing point is
for solution having Specific Gravity of 1.300. Under normal operating conditions of
1.200 to 1.300 the solution doesn't freeze.

Hygroscopic
Sulphuric acid is a powerful drying agent. Concentrated sulphuric acid readily
absorbs water vapour from air in such quantities that a carboy nearly filled with
acid will soon overflow. As it is highly hygroscopic in nature if spilled it will
remain for longer periods of time and will not dry up.
Viscosity
Viscosity plays a vital role upon the capacity as the rate of diffusion of the acid
through the pores of the plate is dependent upon it. In the electrolyte range of
20 to 40% the viscosity doubles between 25
o
C & 0
o
C. Below zero the viscosity
increases more rapidly and this explains the rapid reduction of the capacity of
storage cells at low temperature.

22
Specific Gravity and Density
The Specific Gravity of a solution is the ratio of the weight of the solution to the
weight of an equal volume of pure water at some fixed temperature.

Density is the ratio of the mass of the liquid to its own volume at a definite
temperature.

Density measures a property of the substance itself but Specific Gravity depends upon
the properties of two substances.

Specific Gravity of storage battery electrolyte are expressed to third decimal place and
the last place being called a point. Then solution of 1.285 and 1.270 Specific Gravity
are said to differ by 15 points.

The Specific Gravity of electrolyte decreases with increasing temperature. Hence
temperature correction has to be incorporated in the way such that when temperature
of solution is above the standard temperature, the correction is to be added and when
below subtracted from the observed specific gravity to get the reading at the standard
temperature.

Preparation of electrolyte
The electrolyte for Lead acid batteries are prepared by diluting pure sulphuric acid
with pure water. When concentrated acid is diluted the solution become very hot.
The acid should always be poured into water and not vice-versa. Water
flowing into the concentrated acid causes the liberation of a great amount
of heat which because of the low specific heat of acid causes a large local
rise in temperature causing great danger to the person mixing the mixture.
Acid flowing into water cannot cause great rise in temperature because water has
high specific heat. The solution also should be stirred continuously while acid is
poured into water to prevent heavier acid flowing to the bottom of the vessel without
23
mixing with water. The vessels used in mixing and storing are made of china clay or
glass. As they are prone for cracking, lead-lined tankers are preferred for large
quantities.

Choice of Specific Gravity for Battery services

The important parameters that determine the choice of Specific Gravity are chemical
reactions, temperature and type of service.

The first requirement is that the concentration be sufficient to provide enough acid to
give the required output. It is not possible to use all acid in the cell because the
resistance of cell would increase to a high value and voltage would fall rapidly if the
electrolyte become impoverished.

Chemical reactions occurring at the time when cell is at rest limit the concentration of
acid. Local action increases rapidly when concentration of acid is increased and more
will be felt in the negative plates. Stationary batteries which are less frequently
charged must be free from local action as far as possible. The chemical reactions
limit the higher concentration to 1.300 Specific Gravity.

Temperature too plays a major role in the choice of Specific Gravity. Batteries
exposed to low temperature / cold climates require a high density of acid to permit
their capacity to be utilised without depletion of electrolyte to so low a Specific
Gravity that freezing would happen. Batteries in hot climates require a low Specific
Gravity because of increased chemical activity at the higher temperature.
Purity of Electrolyte
The most satisfactory service of batteries can only be obtained when electrolyte is of
high degree of purity. It implies that both sulphuric acid and water should be pure.

The impurities that natural water contains are nitrates, other compounds of nitrogen,
chloride, sulphates, bi-carbonates, iron, aluminium, silicon, cadmium, potassium,
24
magnesium and calcium.

Impurities found in electrolytes are also derived from plates if the materials used in
their manufacture are not pure.

Local Action

The discharge of either positive or negative plates in sulphuric acid solution results in
the formation of Lead sulphate. Lead sulphate is also formed to a certain amount as a
result of local action whenever the plates are immersed in any acid solution. Due to
the above, the weight of the plate undergoes change and this change of weight of
plates is used to compute the Amp Hour lost.

Impurities affecting negative plates only

These include metals which are deposited quickly in the metallic state and produce
considerable gassing and those chemical compounds which are reduced more slowly
at the negative plates and result in little, if any perceptible liberation of hydrogen.

Platinum

This is one of the most deleterious impurities and when negative plates are immersed
in electrolyte containing even a very minute quantity of platinum gassing begins at
once and plates are rapidly discharged. Negative plates contaminated with platinum
are useless as even 0.00001% of platinum produces stable gassing and surface of
the plate would be blasted off.
Copper & Silver

These metals do not produce such marked effects as platinum .Other materials being
Bismuth, Arsenic, Antimony, Nitrate etc.

25
Impurities affecting Positive plates only
They are chiefly organic compounds such as starch, dextrose, sucrose, wood extracts.

Impurities affecting both Positive & Negative plates
They include several metals which may be present in the electrolyte in two states of
oxidation and chlorine.

Iron
This is the most common impurity which is oxidised at the positive plate and reduced
at the negative plate resulting in discharge of both.

CONTAINERS FOR LEAD-ACI D CELL
The various types of containers that had been in use are described below.

Rubber Containers
Crude rubber is ground, washed, dried and mixed with fillers and sulphur and heated.
When combination of rubber with sulphur takes place it forms a new substance which
has markedly different mechanical properties and the process is known as
vulcanization. This rubber is then used for manufacture of containers.

Composition containers
They are moulded parts of thermoplastic bituminous materials containing asphalts,
asphaltites, inert fillers, fibrous materials, lampblack, mineral waxes and rubber.
Glass J ars
Glass Jars had been widely employed for stationary batteries except for large sizes.
They are transparent, not attacked by acid, absence of blow holes and ability to with
stand temperature variations.
26
Lead Lined tank
They are used in large stationary batteries.

Of late Hard Rubber containers are replaced by Acrylo Nitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
and Styrene Acrylo Nitrile (SAN) containers. As SAN containers are transparent it
would be better to adopt such containers.

27
CHAPTER- 4

THEORY OF CHEMI CAL REACTI ONS I N BATTERI ES

The basic theory of a Battery could be explained by a single cell devised in 1836 called
the Daniel cell.

This cell consists of a strip of copper immersed in a solution of copper sulphate and a
zinc strip in a solution of zinc sulphate, the two liquids being separated by a porous
diaphragm to prevent mixing. As the action of this cell progresses the zinc electrode
dissolves forming more zinc sulphate and the copper electrode is increased by
deposition of copper from the electrolyte.

This phenomenon and the potential difference seen between the electrode and the
electrolyte has been explained below by Nernst's conception of Solution pressures.
By this theory, it is assumed that all metals have a tendency to send their ions into
solution, but it is observed that the metals which are easily oxidised, such as zinc or
lead, have this tendency to a greater degree than gold or platinum which cannot be
easily oxidised. Zinc and lead are therefore said to have greater solution pressures
than gold or platinum. When a strip of zinc is immersed in a solution of zinc sulphate,
as in the Daniell cell, zinc ions carrying positive charges are thrown into the solution.
The strip of zinc becomes negatively charged because of an excess of electrons that
remain after the departure of the positively charged ions from its surface. This
reaction cannot continue indefinitely, since the positive charges of the ions in solution
repel the positively charged ions leaving the surface of the zinc.

The latter are also held back by the attraction of the negatively charged zinc strip.
The magnitude of the charges on the strip of zinc and of the surrounding electrolyte
increases as more and more zinc ions are formed, until a state of equilibrium is
eventually reached when the solution pressure of the metal is balanced by the
electrostatic forces. This prevents the further formation of zinc ions.
28
The following figure illustrates the double layer of charges.



The ions which pass into the solution from the strip of zinc increase the osmotic
pressure of the zinc ions which were formed from the zinc sulphate when it was
dissolved in the water. As the tendency of the osmotic pressure is to deposit ions
upon the strip of zinc as atoms of zinc, it is evident that the solution pressure of the
zinc is opposed by the osmotic pressure of the zinc ions in the solution. When the
solution pressure of the metal is equal to the osmotic pressure of the ions in solution,
equilibrium is reached.

The copper electrode of the Daniell cell is immersed in a solution of copper sulphate.
At this electrode the reaction produces a different result from that observed at the
zinc electrode. The solution pressure of the copper is very small as compared with
the osmotic pressure of the copper ions in the electrolyte. The result is a deposition
of copper ions upon the surface of the strip of copper.







+
+
+
+
Cu
CuSO
4

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
Zn
ZnSO
4

+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
29
When these ions are deposited their deficiency in electrons is imparted to the copper
electrode. The electrode thereby acquires a positive charge, and the solution
becomes negatively charged because of the excess of negative ions that remain.
These negative ions are the sulphate ions that were formed by the dissociation of the
copper sulphate. A double layer is again formed, as shown above in the figure. The
equilibrium condition is reached when the electrostatic forces prevent the further
deposition of copper ions on the electrode.

The important practical outcome that arises from the formation of zinc ions at the zinc
electrode and the deposition of copper ions in the copper electrode is the potential
difference between the electrodes and the electrolytes. For zinc it is -0.76V and
copper it is +0.34 and hence the combined voltage for Daniel cell would be 0.34 - (-
0.76) = 1.10V.
The flow of current
The Migration of Ions. When the terminals of a cell are connected through an
external circuit by a wire the flow of current is continuous through out the entire
circuit. The current in the wire is believed to consist of a stream of electrons flowing
from the anode, negatively charged with respect to the solution, to the cathode. In
the solution the current is carried by ions both positively and negatively charged,
traveling in opposite directions toward their respective electrodes. The positively
charged ions, called cations, move to the cathode which the Daniell cell is the
copper. The negatively charged ions, called the anions, migrate to the anode. It is
obvious that at the surface of the electrodes where one form of conduction meets the
other, exchanges of electrons between the electrodes and the ions in the solution
must take place, if the electric current is to flow continuously. The reactions which
involve both the current carrying ions and electrons on the one hand and
the chemical composition of the electrodes and electrolyte on the other are
called electrochemical reactions.

30
It may be supposed that the solution pressure of the zinc driving the positively
charged zinc ions into the solution leaves free negatively charged electrons which give
to the zinc its negative charge. When a connection is made by a wire to the copper
electrode, a path is provided for the electrons to flow to the positively charged copper.
The motion of the electrons is opposite to the direction in which the current is said to
flow. The departure of the electrons from the zinc disturbs the state of equilibrium
between it and the electrolyte, and more zinc ions are thrown into the solution.
Coincident with this, additional electrons are liberated in the zinc and they follow on
through the wire after the other as long as the circuit remains closed. Two electrons,
each with one negative charge, are freed, with the formation of each zinc ion. This
process is represented by the ionic equation :
Z
n

2
=
Z
n

++
The electrons, reaching the copper terminal after their passage through the wire,
neutralise the equivalent number of positive charges, thereby disturbing the
equilibrium of the electrode and permitting the further discharge of copper ions. Two
electrons neutralise two positive charges and permit the deposit of one ion of copper,
which gives up its charges. This fact is represented by the equation :
C
u
++
+ 2 = C
u
The zinc cations move toward the cathode, carrying their share of the current through
the electrolyte. Probably most of them combine with the sulphate anions moving in
the opposite direction to form zinc sulphate according to the equation.
Z
n

++
+ SO
4
--
= Z
n
SO
4







31
The relative motion of the electrons, anions and cations is shown in figure.

In the solution around the cathode there are several different kinds of ions carrying
positive charges and, therefore, several different reactions are possible. The transfer
of positive charge is accomplished under ordinary circumstances, however, by the
discharge of only one kind of ion. The factors which determine the preferential
reaction are the relative electrolyte potentials and the relative concentrations of the
ions. When each electron of the stream of electrons moving from the anode to the
cathode through the wire reaches the cathode, it reduces the positive potential of the
cathode by a small amount, and ions having the highest equilibrium potential deposit.
In the case of the Daniell cell these are the copper ions, C
u

++
.

The unequal speeds of the ions produce concentration differences in the region of the
electrodes, which have an important effect upon the performance of a battery.

THEORY OF LEAD ACID CELL
Even though various theories have been putforth to explain the reactions taking place
in Lead Acid batteries the Double-Sulphate theory first proposed by Gladstone and
Tribe in 1882 has been widely accepted.

32
The double-sulphate theory is most conveniently stated by the equation for the
reaction.
PbO
2
+ Pb + 2H
2
SO
4
2PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O

The significance of the term double sulphate lies in the fact that lead sulphate is
formed at both the positive and negative plates during the process of discharge.

The following diagram shows in detail the probable processes that result in final
products of discharge, according to the double-sulphate theory. At the negative plate
the process is relatively simple ; the solution pressure of lead causes it to throw lead
ions into solution. These are in the divalent state, carrying two positive charges.
Coincident with the departure of each of the positive lead ions from the surface of the
electrode, the electrode itself acquires two negative charges. The lead ions react
with sulphate ions, which have charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign, forming
lead sulphate.


This is so nearly insoluble in the electrolyte that it immediately precipitates out of the
solution and is deposited on the electrode.
Reactions occurring at the positive plate is explained, as follows. The tetravalent- ion
33
theory, which seems the most probable, was proposed by Le Blanc many years ago.
Lead peroxide, although insoluble in appreciable amounts in sulphuric acid under
ordinary conditions, may pass into solution to a limited extent when the current
flows. Small amounts of it, in combination with water, ionize into tetravalent lead
ions and monovalent hydroxyl ions, according to the equation :
PbO
2
+ 2H
2
O Pb(OH)
4
Pb
++++
+ 4OH


The current producing process is associated with potential differences at the
electrodes that depend, first, on the equilibrium potentials for the ionic reactions
and, second, on the ionic concentrations. At the positive electrode the ionic reaction
is
Pb
++++
+ 2 Pb
++
and for this the potential difference is about + 1.75 volts. Ionisation of the electrolyte
occurs substantially as follows :
H
2
SO
4
H
+
+ HSO
4

and H
2
SO
4
2H
+
+ SO
4


As a last step in the process of discharge, the combination of lead and sulphate ions
takes place, with the formation of lead sulphate which, being practically insoluble in
the electrolyte, deposits as a solid substance on the plates. This reaction is
represented by
Pb
++
+

SO
4

PbSO
4


These reactions are shown diagrammatically in the above figure.
It should be noted that four molecules of water are formed for each two molecules of
sulphuric acid consumed, but as two molecules of water are used up at the same
time, the net change is the production of two molecules of water, which is in
accordance with the equation for the double-sulphate theory shown initially.

The charging process is shown diagrammatically in the following figure.
34


Starting with the products of discharge, the lead sulphate at both electrodes passes
into solution and ionises. The water also is ionised as rapidly as equilibrium
conditions permit. The divalent lead ions at the negative plate, which is now the
cathode, take up two electrons, neutralising their charges, and then are deposited as
lead in the solid state. The divalent lead ions at the positive plate or anode are forced
by the charging current to give up two electrons, which changes them to the
tetravalent state. Each of these ions may then unite with two oxygen ions, through
an intermediate step, to form lead peroxide, which is deposited upon the pate. The
sulphate ions formed at each plate unite with two hydrogen ions, with an intermediate
step, forming sulphuric acid at each plate.
35
CHAPTER- 5

CAPACI TY OF BATTERI ES

The principal factors which affect the capacity of storage cells are as follows : the
amount of active materials within the cell, the thickness of the plates, the rate of the
discharge, the temperature, the concentration of the electrolyte, the porosity of the
plates, the design of the plates, and the previous history of the plates.

Amount of Material
The amount of active materials required are considerably higher than the calculated
value. There are several reasons for the limited use of the materials in actual service.
First the lead sulphate which is formed during the process of discharge is a non-
conductor and increases the resistance of the active material of the plates. When the
active material contains 50 per cent of sulphate, the resistance has risen to a very
high value. Second reason is the stoppage of the pores of the plates by the lead
sulphate, which hinders the diffusion of the electrolyte itself. A third reason is the
increasing resistance of the electrolyte itself. The minimum resistivity of the
electrolyte occurs at a specific gravity of approximately 1.225. As the specific gravity
decreases below this point the resistivity increases, slowly at first, and then more
rapidly as the concentration falls below 1.100. A fourth reason, which involves the
design of the plate itself, is the limited contact between the active material of the
plate and its support.

The co-efficient of use which is defined as the ratio of the active material taking part
in reactions to the total amount of active material present in the plate is around 0.25
for a cell of good quality.

36
Thickness of the active material
The capacity of a storage cell increases with the thickness of the active material of the
plates at moderate rates of discharge, assuming that the plates have sufficient
porosity for the electrolyte to reach the inner recesses. At excessively high rates of
discharge, the output of the cell becomes practically a surface phenomenon. This is
because there is insufficient time for the electrolyte to diffuse into the pores of the
plates, and the sulphate forming at the surface clogs the pores. At low rates of
discharge, on the other hand, almost any depth of the active material may become
effective.

The negative plates are more sensitive to changes in thickness than the positive
plates. This means that, if the capacities of the positive and negative plates are equal
at any high rate of discharge, the negative will exceed the capacity of the positive at
any lower rate of discharge.

Area of the Plates
The area of pasted plates is calculated from the width and height and doubled to
allow for both sides of the plates.

Halving the thickness of plates, and thereby doubling the area has increased the
capacities to 20% in low rate of discharge and the capacity has increased by 68% at
high rate of discharge. Hence thickness of plate plays an important role particularly in
the case of batteries that are designed for discharge at high rates.

Rate of Discharge
Storage cells will not give great capacities when discharging at high rates as when
discharging at low rates. The causes of the decreased capacity at the high rates are
the following : the sulphation on the surface of the plates, which closes the pores ;
the limited time available for diffusion of the electrolyte ; and the loss of voltage
because of internal resistance of the cells.
37
Temperature
The temperature plays an important part in determining the capacity which can be
delivered by a storage cell under any specified conditions of rate and final voltage.

Low temperature causes a decrease in the capacity of storage batteries because
resistance and viscosity of the electrolyte are increased. Low temperature increase
the viscosity of the electrolyte, impairing its circulation in the pores of the plates. The
increase in viscosity becomes very rapid at temperature below 0
o
C. Since temperature
affects the rate of diffusion and the resistivity of the electrolyte the temperature co-
efficient of capacity will vary with the rate of discharge. At lower temperatures, the
percentage of available capacity decreases as rate of discharge increases.

Concentration of Electrolyte
The concentration of the acid in the pores of the plates is a vital factor in determining
the voltage and capacity of a cell. Unless a sufficient amount of sulphuric acid can be
maintained in the pores during discharge, the voltage at the terminals of the cell will
decrease rapidly and the cell will become exhausted. The concentration affects the
capacity, first, because it determines the potential of the plates ; second, because it
affects the resistance of the electrolyte to the passage of the electric current ; third,
because it affects the viscosity of the electrolyte and thereby the rate of diffusion ;
fourth, because differences in the concentration of the electrolyte in the pores of the
plates and outside also affect the rate of diffusion.

If the concentration of the electrolyte in the pores of the plate can be maintained
during the discharge period, the cell will have a much greater capacity. I n other
words, the capacity of the cell in the ordinary case is limited by the supply
of electrolyte. Only in extreme cases, when the discharge takes place at
very low rates and the coefficient of utilisation of the active material is
very high, can the capacity be said to the limited by the amount of active
material available.
38
Comparison of Effects of Concentration and Temperature on Positive &
Negative plates

Although a high concentrate of the electrolyte is favourable for the positive plates, it
may be detrimental to the negative plates. The capacity of the negative plates in an
electrolyte of 1.315 sp. gr. is less than in an electrolyte of 1.140 sp. gr., particularly at
high rates of discharge and low temperature. The negative plates may thus become
the limiting factor. The reduced concentration may reduce slightly the capacity at
normal rates and temperatures when the positives limit the capacity, but this is more
than offset by the gain in capacity under more severe conditions that result in
limitations imposed by the negatives.

Porosity of the Plates
The porosity equals the ratio of the pore space to the total space available for the
active material. The porosity of the finished plate varies with the material from which
it was made and with its state of charge. The aggregate porosity of the plate shall be
50% of the entire volume of the plate.

Variation of Porosity with state of charge

The porosity of the plate varies with the state of charge. Lead sulphate, which is
formed as a product of the discharge of the cells is less dense than either lead or
peroxide of lead. It therefore occupies more space than the active materials, yet the
apparent volume of the plate does not change. The reason for this is that the
expansion is taken care of by the pores of the plates. If the discharge is greatly
prolonged, however, beyond the customary end points, the amount of sulphate
formed may become so great that the pores of the plate are no longer adequate to
supply room for it. Then the active material bulges or is pushed out altogether from
the plate.


39
When a storage battery discharges, the lead sulphate tends to form at the mouth of
the pores. If the discharge is made at a very high rate, the formation of sulphate
becomes almost entirely a surface phenomenon and the plate is incrusted with the
sulphate, which hinders the free access of electrolyte to the active material. This
clogging of the pores naturally limits the available capacity of the cell. When
discharges are made at low rates there is less tendency for the sulphate to form on
the surface exclusively, and there is opportunity, therefore, for the electrolyte to
diffuse into the pores during the discharge. Very porous plates are less sensitive to
changes in the current strength.

Previous History of Plates
Variation of capacity during Life
When the plates in a storage battery are new, there is an increase in the capacity
during the first few cycles of charge and discharge, up to a maximum value beyond
which the capacity becomes relatively constant and then gradually falls off. Thin
plates reach their maximum capacity after a smaller number of cycles than thick
plates, but beyond this point their decrease in capacity is more rapid. During the later
cycles in the life history of the plates, the decrease in capacity of the negative
plates is caused primarily by a decrease in the porosity of the material or
shrinkage of the plate itself. The loss of capacity of the positive plates is
caused by loosening of the active material.

Effect of Previous Discharges

The capacity delivered at any given rate also depends on the previous discharge. The
capacity is lower if the discharge has been preceded by a discharge at a higher rate,
and it is higher if preceded by a discharge at a lower rate.
Effect of Purity of the Materials

A third effect influencing the capacity is the purity of the materials of which the plates
40
are made. If small traces of copper and iron are present in the paste, they will
gradually pass into solution and affect the capacity as a result of local action. The
amount of impurities found in solution of a new cell may be considerably less than if
the test for purity is deferred for a longer time.

Plate Capacities
The capacity of the cells is normally limited by the capacity of the positive plates.
When the capacity of one or more cells in a battery is found to be below normal, and
the cause cannot be attributed to internal short circuits, the cause of the trouble may
often be found in the condition of the active materials. One or the other of the plate
groups may be only partially charged, although the battery as a whole is supposed to
be fully charged. Inequalities may occur as a result of change in the size of the
plates, the loss of active material, or the action of certain impurities. In some lead
batteries of poor manufacture, the active material may separate from the grid with the
inevitable result that a layer of sulphate forms between the grid and the active
material. This layer of sulphate is non-conducting and the active material is prevented
from receiving the charing current.

The capacity of the positive and negative plates may be determined separately by the
use of a constant auxiliary electrode immersed in the electrolyte of the cell. It is
necessary that this electrode should maintain a constant potential with respect to the
solution, so that the changes taking place in the positive and negative plates may be
measured by the potential difference against this electrode. Cadmium Electrodes are
used for this purpose which is described below.

Cadmium is a metal resembling zinc. The electrode are prepared by keeping
cadmium sticks immersed in sulphuric acid solution of about the strength used in the
batteries. It is necessary that new electrodes should be in the acid for several days
before being used to measure plate potentials. The sulphuric acid corrodes the
41
surface of the electrode, and an equilibrium state is eventually reached.

The cadmium must be insulated so that it cannot come in contact with the plates of
the cell, but at the same time the electrolyte of the cell must have free access to the
cadmium. A perforated rubber separator from a storage cell is suitable for making the
necessary cover for the electrode. A flexible wire for connection is attached to the
cadmium. Readings are taken when the current in the battery is flowing, usually on
discharge, but sometimes on charge also. The readings shall be meaningless if the
cell is on open circuit.

Plate potentials during Discharge & Charge
The voltage of the cell is dependent on the potentials of the positive & negative plates
with respect to the solution. Since these potentials may vary independently, there are
a number of possible combination of plate potentials that will give any particular cell
voltage. For example, if a group of three cells is measured with a cadmium electrode
when each cell has reached its cut-off voltage of 1.8 volts, the following values may
be found.

Cell 1 : Positive plate : 2.10

Negative plate : 0.30 Cell voltage :1.80


Cell 2 : Positive plate : 2.00

Negative plate : 0.20 Cell voltage :1.80

Cell 3 : Positive plate : 1.95

Negative plate : 0.15 Cell voltage :1.80

These results require interpretation in the light of the cell's rated capacity and normal
performance. The values of the potentials vary with the rate of the discharge, the
42
concentration of the electrolyte, and to a less extent with other factors also. The
plate potentials of Cell 1 show that the negative plate has reached the limit of its
capacity before the positive plate is fully discharged, or in other words, the discharge
has been terminated by the negative plate, which is not normal. The positive plate
ordinarily limits the capacity of the cell ; therefore, in considering the values for Cell
3, it is necessary to know whether the cell gave its rated capacity before reaching the
final voltage 1.80. If it did not, the potential readings indicate the positive plates to
be deficient in capacity. Although the plate potentials near the end of the discharge
are the most important, it is desirable to take the readings throughout the discharge
at frequent intervals and from them to plot curves. The value for cell 2 are about
normal for a cell in good condition.

When lead cells are charged, the relations of the plate potentials are somewhat
different. In particular, the potential of the negative plate should reverse toward the
end of charge, the lead sponge becoming negative with respect to the cadmium by
about 0.15 volt. When this occurs the voltage of the cell becomes greater than the
potential of the positive plate. At the end of charge, the plate potentials are about as
follows :
Positive plate : 2.45

Negative plate : -0.15 Cell voltage : 2.60

In old cells it is sometimes difficult to make the potential of the negative plate
reverse, because of antimony, which accounts for the lower charging voltages of old
cells.
43
CHAPTER- 6

RESISTANCE IN LEAD ACID BATTERIES

Resistance of the Battery and its relation to the external circuit

The internal resistance of a storage cell is very small and for many purposes may be
neglected entirely. When large currents are required, however, the resistance of
the battery and its intercell connections becomes more important.

The current flow in a cell/ battery does not begin with one plate and end with another
but flows through the cell as well to the external load. The resistance of the circuit is
therefore not only the resistance of the external circuit but includes the so-called
internal resistance of the cell or battery.

This is represented as
I = E__
R' + b
Where R
'
is the resistance of the external circuit, b the resistance of the cell, E is the
total electromotive force of the cell or as it is sometimes called, the open-circuit
voltage. The value of b varies somewhat with the state of the charge of the cell and
other factors. It is highest when the cell is completely discharged.

Factors which affect the Resistance

The first and perhaps the most obvious source of resistance in the battery is
the electrolyte. Accurate data on the resistance of sulphuric acid solution are
available, and a table of values covering the range of concentrations in
storage-battery is given below




44
Temperature Resistivity in Ohm-Cm For Minimum
Resistivity
O
C 15% 25% 35% 45% Percent Ohm-Cm
30 1.596 1.180 1.140 1.312 31.5 1.129
25 1.689 1.261 1.231 1.422 31.1 1.213
20 1.800 1.357 1.334 1.549 30.6 1.310
10 2.090 1.606 1.602 1.885 29.8 1.562
0 2.51 1.961 1.998 2.371 28.8 1.928
-10 . . . . . 2.50 2.60 3.10 27.9 2.48
-20 . . . . . 3.35 3.57 4.31 26.9 3.34
-30 . . . . . . . . . . 5.29 6.35 . . . . . . . . . .
-40 . . . . . . . . . . 8.39 9.89 . . . . . . . . . .

Since the resistance of the electrolyte varies with temperature as well as with
the concentration, it is not surprising to find that the resistance of a storage
cell varies with the temperature. Experiments on the resistance of storage
cells have shown the variation with temperature to be in almost perfect
agreement with the temperature-resistance curves for the acid solution of
corresponding specific gravity. As the temperature rises the resistance falls.

Second the presence of the separators adds a small amount to the internal
resistance of the cells, particularly if perforated or slotted rubber separators are
employed

A third factor contributing to the resistance of the cell is the resistance of the
active material and grids. The lead peroxide of the positive plates is not a
good conductor, and therefore a carefully designed grid is essential. It has
been observed that the resistivity of the positive active material, is probably
10,000 times or more the resistivity of the grid and measured to be 0.25 ohm-
cm. The resistivity of the sponge lead of the negative plate is measured as
1.83 x 10
-4
ohm-cm, increasing when in the discharged state by about 20
45
percent. Comparing these figures with the resistivity of the grid metal for the
7 percent Lead-Antimony alloy, 2.59 x 10-5, it is apparent that the sponge lead
of the negative plate is almost as good a conductor as a grid itself, but the lead
peroxide is much inferior

The temperature coefficient of metallic resistance, unlike that of the
electrolyte, is positive; that is, a rise in temperature is accompanied by a rise in
resistance. The resistance due to the electrolyte of the battery is so much
larger than the resistance of the metallically conducting material that the
positive temperature coefficient of the latter has little effect in neutralising the
negative coefficient of the former

Another factor affecting the resistance of the storage battery is the State of
Charge. Lead sulphate, which forms on both positive and negative plates
during discharge, is a non-conductor, and its presence materially increase the
resistance to the passage of the electric current. The sulphate closes the pores
of the plates when they are in a discharged condition and thereby hinders the
free access of the electrolyte to the active material. It is evident, therefore,
that when the cell is charged the resistance should be less than in the
discharged state. This is found to be the case. The resistance of the lead-acid
cell begins to increase slowly as soon as the discharge begins, and towards the
end of the discharge the increase is much more rapid, reaching values from
two to three times as great as the initial resistance

During the first part of the charge the internal resistance is high, but it falls
gradually until gassing begins, when there may be a temporary rise in values
because of polarisation phenomena. The resistance may continue to fall for a
time after the battery is disconnected from the charging line, because of the
gradual equalisation of the acid concentration, and the dissipation of the gas
layer on the active material
46

There is another factor opposing the current that is not so constant or easily
defined. It appears as a resistance at the surface of contact between the
electrolyte and the material of the electrode. It has been called the transfer
resistance and it has the peculiar property that it decreases as the current
increases
47
CHAPTER- 7

CHARGE/ DISCHARGE OF BATTERIES

Two systems of charging are used in general.
Constant Current
Constant Voltage

Constant Current System
In the constant-current system, as the name implies, the current is held constant by
means of a rheostat in series with the battery or by controlling the voltage of the
source. The value of the current flowing through the battery is dependent upon the
difference between its voltage and that impressed on it. When the voltage of the
battery and the charging system are the same, no current will flow. When the voltage
of the battery is lower than that of the charging system, current will flow into the
battery and charge it. As the voltage of the battery increases gradually with the
progress of the charge, it is apparent that the voltage impressed across its terminals
must be increased in order to maintain a constant value for the charging current. For
batteries of the lead-acid type, the specified current is maintained until all cells are
gassing freely and then reduced to a much lower value designated as the finishing
rate, at which the charge is continued to the end. The ampere-hours required to
produce free gassing of a lead-acid battery at the normal starting rate of charge will
be approximately 90% of the ampere-hours previously discharged. This applies to
batteries which have been fully discharged. Gassing may be expected earlier if the
previous discharge was incomplete. When free gassing occurs the current should be
cut down to the finishing rate and the charge continued until the battery begins to
gas freely again.

Also the lead-acid storage battery in a normal discharged state can absorb electrical
energy very rapidly without overheating or excessive gassing, it is possible to begin
48
charging at a high rate of current, usually much in excess of the so-called normal or
starting rate of charge. The practical limitations to the rate at which a battery can be
charged are temperature rise to excessive values and excessive gassing.

Final Charging Voltage
The voltage of a storage battery rises during the charging period, reaching a
maximum value when charge is complete. This value will depend on
the charging current
the temperature
the internal resistance of the cell and
the presence or absence of certain impurities in the electrolyte
Maintaining voltage at the constant maximum value is the criteria that determines
that charging is complete. There are other means of telling when charge is
complete, such as
the specific gravity of the acid electrolyte
the extent and uniformity of the gassing
plate potentials and
measured input in ampere-hours

Constant Potential method
In the constant-potential or constant- voltage method, the voltage is maintained at a
constant, fixed value per cell. The value of the initial, or starting, current of a
completely discharged battery when first put on charge is much in excess of the so-
called normal rate. During the charge, as the voltage of the battery gradually rises the
current falls off to a value much below that of the normal rate, and at the end of the
charge is below that of the finishing rate of the constant-current system. The average
value of the current is about equal to that of the normal rate.

For batteries of the lead-acid type, the maximum voltage for constant-potential
49
charging should not exceed 2.35 volts per cell, and the minimum should not be less
than 2.25 volts per cell. The average should be approximately 2.3 volts per cell at the
terminals of the battery.

With the average voltage thus established at approximately 2.3 volts per cell, a
battery in any state of discharge may be put on charge and it will automatically
receive the proper charge without reaching the free gassing point or excessive
temperature.

Equalising charge
Lead acid Battery in daily use especially which are used in heavy duties should be
given an overcharge known as an equalising charge once a week. For this purpose
the charge is to be continued at a rate not higher than the finishing rate, and lower if
practicable, until all cells are gassing freely and uniformly, and until three consecutive
readings of the specific gravity and voltage taken at half-hour intervals show no
increase. If the battery shows a temperature exceeding 43
o
C (110
o
F) it should be cut
off immediately and allowed to cool. Batteries not in daily use require an equalising
charge less frequently.

The specific gravity of the individual cells should be adjusted to the proper value when
the battery is first put in service or when it has been necessary to add electrolyte to
any cell to replace electrolyte which has been spilled or otherwise lost. This should be
done at the end of the equalising charge. If the gravity of the cell is too high, a
portion of the electrolyte may be withdrawn with the hydrometer syringe and replaced
by distilled water. Similarly, the gravity may be increased by replacing the portion
drawn off by electrolyte of not over 1.400 sp. gr. Before the adjustment is considered
complete, the equalising charge should be continued to mix the electrolyte of the cell.

50
Boost charge
Under certain conditions, the ampere-hour capacity of the battery may be insufficient
for the day's work. In such a case, charging at a high rate of current of a short time
may be resorted to. Such a charge is known as Boosting.

Trickle charge
A trickle charge, as the name implies, is a continuous charge at a low rate
approximately equal to the internal losses of the battery and suitable to maintain the
battery in a fully charged condition. Low-rate charges are satisfactory for lead
batteries provided the total amount of charge received by the battery is sufficient to
cover the local action.

The term trickle charge is also applied to very low rates of charge which are sufficient
not only to compensate for the internal losses of the battery but to restore
intermittent discharges of small amount.

Discharge characteristics of Lead-Acid Batteries
Voltage characteristics
When a storage battery of the lead acid type begins to discharge, there is an initial
drop in voltage, which may be attributed in part to the ohmic resistance of the battery
and in part to the sudden decrease in concentration of the acid in the pores of the
plates, which reduces the potential of the plates. This abrupt drop in voltage is often
followed by an almost equally abrupt rise in voltage. Such an effect may be seen at
the beginning of the discharge. After the sudden decrease in concentration of the
acid when discharge begins, the diffusion process is started and the stronger acid
from outside the plates, diffusing into the pores of the plates, tends to restore the
voltage.

During the greater part of the discharge, the voltage falls slowly from a value
51
approximately equal to the open-circuit voltage to about 1.8 volts. The decrease in
voltage is caused by a decrease in the plate potentials, as the rate of diffusion of the
electrolyte fails to keep pace with the consumption of acid within the pores of the
plates ; to a less extent it may be attributed also to the increasing resistivity of the
electrolyte as the concentration falls below a specific gravity of 1.225. When near the
end of the discharge, the curve shows a more abrupt drop ; this point is known as the
knee of the curve. It signifies that the complete exhaustion of the cell is approaching.

The average voltage during the period of the discharge is the factor which is of
importance in determining the amount of energy delivered by the battery. The
average voltage is determined from the time integral of the voltage curve from the
beginning to the end of discharge.

Temperature
The temperature of batteries of the lead-acid type rises slowly during discharge, but
the effect is less than is observed when the same batteries are on charge at the same
current. This is due to the two heat effects, one caused by the ohmic resistance and
varying as the square of the current, and the other a reversible heat effect varying
directly as the current which is explained as follows.

Accurate measurements of heat evolved or absorbed during charge or discharge has
shown that the cell absorbs a small amount of heat from its surroundings during
discharge and gives out a similar amount during charge. This means that on
discharge the cell delivers more useful work than is represented by the heat of the
chemical reactions taking place in it, and that correspondingly more energy is required
to charge it. It means that the cell on discharge draws heat energy from its
surroundings and converts it into useful work. The heat that is absorbed/liberated
during the discharge /charge of the cell, is termed as the reversible heat, which
distinguishes it from the irreversible heat which is generated in the cell during its
operation owing to the ohmic resistance. The latter is proportional to the square of
52
the current. The reversible heat effect is directly proportional to the current and time,
because it is dependent on the extent of the electrochemical action. Another name
which has been proposed is the latent heat of the cell, suggested by the analogy of
the heat energy liberated or absorbed when water freezes or ice melts.

These two heat effects are opposed during discharge. The one resulting from the
ohmic resistance of the cell generally overbalances the second heat effect, so that the
temperature of the battery rises. Since the irreversible heat effect varies as the
square of the current, the temperature rise will be greater when the rate of discharge
is increased.

Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of the electrolyte falls almost linearly during discharge, provided
the discharge current is constant. If readings are taken for a time after the discharge
has been stopped, it will be observed that there is a continued fall in specific gravity
until the concentration of the dilute electrolyte in the pores of the plates has been
equalised with the more concentrated acid outside.

Variations in Capacity
When emptying a tank filled with water, the volume of water in gallons is the same if
the tank is emptied by a pipe or by upsetting it. This is not so with a battery, to the
rate at which it is discharged. A very simple rule to remember is that the capacity or
output of a cell, when discharged at a rate which would empty or exhaust it in one
hour, is half that which it would yield at a rate which would exhaust it in ten hours.

Recharging a Battery
Using the analogy of the water tank again, it would always take the same amount of
water to refill the tank whether it had been emptied quickly or slowly. This is not the
case with a battery. It is a definite rule that to recharge a healthy battery fully the
53
number of ampere hours required is from 10-15 percent more than the number of
ampere hours taken out on the previous discharge, irrespective of the rate of
discharge. This ratio is called its ampere hour efficiency. If a battery has a rated
capacity of say 120 ampere hours in ten hours, i.e., that it would give on discharge a
current of 12 amperes for ten hours, such a battery, according to the above
mentioned rule, would have a capacity of 60 amperes for one hour = 60 ampere
hours at the one-hour rate of discharge. If the battery were discharged at 12
amperes for ten hours, it would be necessary on recharging to charge until the
amount put back was 120 ampere hours plus 10 to 15 per cent , according to the
efficiency of the battery. If, however, the battery were discharged at 60 amperes for
one hour, it would be fully discharged or exhausted, but on recharging it would only
be necessary to put back 10 to 15 per cent more than 60, not 120 ampere hours.
This amount would be sufficient to charge the battery fully, and on the next discharge
the battery would give 120 ampere hours at a rate of 12 amperes, although only 66 to
70 ampere hours had been put back to restore it from a fully discharged to a fully
charged.

Charge characteristics of Lead-Acid Batteries
Voltage Characteristics
When a storage battery is first put on charge, a sharp rise in the terminal voltage of
the cell is noticed. This is probably due to the sudden increase in concentration of the
electrolyte as sulphuric acid is liberated in the pores of both the positive and negative
plates. The diffusion processes begin and check the rise in voltage. Equilibrium is
reached when the rate of diffusion of the concentrated acid from within the pores
keeps pace with its formation. There is also sometimes a slight drop in voltage after
the first few minutes which has been ascribed to the breaking down of a continuous
film of sulphate with consequent decrease in the internal resistance of the cell.
Following this point, the terminal voltage of the cell continues to rise gradually to the
point which is designated as 100% charge. By 100% charge is meant a charge equal
54
in ampere-hours to the preceding discharge. The increase in the potential at the cell
terminals during this period is ascribed to the increasing concentration of the acid
within the cell. It cannot be accounted for on the ground of internal resistance, since
it is well known that the internal resistance of a cell decrease during the charging
period.

At the time the 100% charging point is reached, or slightly before, a more abrupt rise
in the voltage is noted. This is due only in part to the increasing concentration of the
acid within the pores. At this time, most of the sulphate which is readily available for
the action of the current has been broken down and the concentration of lead ions in
the electrolyte has diminished . As the potentials of the plates relates to the ionic
concentrations in the electrolyte, as the number of divalent lead ions is diminished the
voltage of the battery is increased. Therefore, when the lead sulphate on the plates
becomes exhausted and the lead sulphate ions in the electrolyte are diminished, the
plate potential will rise to a point at which decomposition of water will take place.
This is made evident by the formation of gas, including both oxygen and hydrogen,
which escapes freely from the cell during the latter part of the charge. The gassing
becomes free. If the charging rate is reduced at this time, the voltage of the battery
is lowered and the gassing is decreased.

It is common practice in charging a storage battery by the constant-current method,
to decrease the charging current to what is called the finishing rate near the end of
the charge. The object of this is to avoid the hard gassing which would otherwise
take place. The best rule is to reduce the starting rate to the finishing rate when the
battery begins to gas freely. At this time the battery lacks about 20% of being fully
charged, depending on the temperature, rate of charge and other conditions.

The voltage at the terminals of the cell begins to rise again after dropping with the
reduction in charging rate. It finally reaches about 2.5 to 2.6 volts per cell, at which
time the battery is again gassing freely.
55

Gassing
The point at which gassing of a storage battery begins while on charge is determined
by the voltage, but the quantity of gas depends on the portion of current
which is not absorbed by the battery. The gases liberated are oxygen,
evolved at the positive plates during charge, and hydrogen, evolved at the
negative plates. The gassing begins when the voltage at the terminals of the
battery has reached about 2.3 volts per cell. During the early stages the gas is almost
equal parts of oxygen and hydrogen ; but as the charge approaches the end, when
the voltage has risen to 2.5 per cell, the gas has a composition of two parts hydrogen
to one of oxygen. Since oxygen and hydrogen unite with explosive violence to form
water, it is necessary that certain precautions be taken to avoid accident. Open
flames of any kind in a storage-battery room are not permissible, and suitable
ventilation should be provided to prevent an accumulation of hydrogen. 4% of
hydrogen in the atmosphere is dangerous, and the concentration should be
kept much below this figure.

Storage cells of the lead-acid type do not gas during discharge or when standing idle
under ordinary conditions. There is, however, often a slight liberation of hydrogen
from the negative plates because of local action which takes place when the cell is
idle. It should always be presumed, therefore, that hydrogen is present within the
space over the electrolyte, and precautions, necessary to avoid explosions as when
the cell is on charge, should be observed at all time.

Polarisation
The combination of plates or electrodes, when dipped in the electrolyte of a cell,
offers a resistance to the passage of an electric current. Towards the end of a charge
the plates become coated with a layer of gas bubbles on their surfaces. This layer
of gas bubbles increases the resistance to the passage of the current, and
56
this effect is termed Polarisation. When electrodes are coated with a layer of
gas bubbles, or gas is being freely evolved from the electrodes on charge, they are
said to be Polarised.

Specific Gravity
The most noticeable fact during charging is the very slow rise in Specific Gravity
during the first two hours. After this time the Specific Gravity rises more rapidly.
Toward the end of the charging period, the specific gravity rises much more slowly,
practically following the decrease in charging rate. The reason why the specific
gravity shows such a slow rise during the first few hours, although the fall in specific
gravity when the same cell is on discharge is well marked during that period is that
the concentrated acid, as it is liberated from the pores of the plates, falls to the
bottom of the cell. The rapid rise when the cell begins to gas freely is caused by the
bubbles of gas stirring up the electrolyte.

The temperature of the battery is seen to rise continuously throughout the period of
charging, and it should be noted that the increase in temperature during the charging
period is considerably greater than during the discharge of the same cell at the same
rate of current. This is explained by the fact that heat generated because of the
internal resistance of the cell and the reversible heat effect, are both in the same
direction. The reversible heat effect in this case is exothermic, whereas on discharge
it is endothermic.

The Proper Condition of a New Battery
When the battery has received its first or initial charge on site, the plates are in a fully
charged condition, and ready to be put into active service. The plates should all have
a thoroughly health colour positives, rich chocolate ; negatives, a light slate hue
but they will feel more or less harsh and metallic. The smooth feel of a healthy plate
will not mature until the battery has been at work some little time. The plates should
57
all hang vertically and equidistantly from one another ; the acid should be colourless,
and free from smell. The level of the acid should be identical in each cell, and the
specific gravity of the acid in no cell should vary more than two points plus or minus
from the average of the whole battery. The connections should be re-made
thoroughly tight after charge, and be covered with a coating of Vaseline.

Action during Unduly Extended Charge
The effect of unduly extending the charge should be noted here. So long as the plates
can absorb the current, useful work is done. The plates would be desulphated, and
any lead sulphate in contact with the negative plates will be reduced to pure metallic
spongy lead. Positive and negative plates are not necessarily completely charged in
the same time, with the result the supplied electrical energy must be dissipated in
some other manner than charging those plates. Remember now what happens if
current is passed across two wires through a glass of water. This is exactly what
happens in a cell at the end of a charge and during unduly extended charges the
water in the electrolyte is split up into its constituent parts hydrogen and oxygen
visible as an evolution of countless gas bubbles which give the electrolyte an
appearance of boiling or being milky. If carried to excess, this is so much waste of
current, and under certain conditions it is detrimental to the plates.
58

CHAPTER- 8

EFFI CI ENCY OF BATTERI ES
The efficiency of storage batteries is defined as follows:
Efficiency
The ratio of the output of a cell / battery to the input required to restore the initial
state of charge under specified conditions of temperature, current rate and final
voltage.
Ampere-Hour Efficiency (Electrochemical Efficiency) - The ratio of the ampere-
hours output to the ampere-hours of the recharge.
Volt Efficiency - The ratio of the average voltage during the discharge to the
average voltage during the recharge.
Watt-Hour Efficiency (Energy Efficiency) - The ratio of the watt-hour output to the
watt-hours of the recharge.

THE AMPERE-HOUR EFFICIENCY
The ampere-hour efficiency is of importance from the standpoint of the operation of
storage batteries and is a step in the determination of the energy or watt-hour
efficiency. The chemical reactions which occur during charging and discharging are
reversible, and it is naturally to be expected, therefore, that under favourable
conditions the ampere-hour efficiency should be only slightly less than 100 percent.

The ampere-hour efficiency depends very largely upon the completeness of the
recharge. A portion of the charging current is ordinarily wasted in producing gas and
this reduces the efficiency. There are also factors which may lower the efficiency,
such as (i) the self-discharge of the plates, commonly called local action, (ii) leakage
of current because of faulty insulation either inside or outside the battery.
59
The completion of the charge is determined usually by continuing the charge at
constant current until the voltage at the terminals of the battery reaches a maximum.
Since this point can be determined only by carrying the charge beyond the point
where the maximum is first reached, the efficiency will be low if calculated from the
total amount of the charge. The ampere-hours put into the battery after the
maximum is reached can be neglected, but in any case the error of an efficiency
determination based on a single cycle of charge and discharge is likely to be large. It
is common practice, therefore, to base efficiency determinations on a series of many
cycles of charge and discharge in accordance with the normal operating conditions.

The following method has been adopted for determining the maximum ampere-hour
efficiency :
A fully charged battery is discharged at some chosen current to a fixed cutoff voltage,
careful measurement being made of the exact number of ampere-hours delivered.
On the recharge the same number of ampere-hours is put back at the same current.
A second discharge is then made to the same cutoff voltage as before. The efficiency
of the battery is then calculated as the ratio of the ampere-hours delivered during the
second discharge to the ampere-hours put in on the charge. After correcting for the
slight increase in temperature as a result of the charge, the ampere-hour efficiency
by this method has been found to be within the range 98 to 100 percent. Such a
measurement does not, however, represent the ordinary service conditions.

THE WATT-HOUR EFFICIENCY
The watt-hour, or energy, efficiency is important because it shows the ability of the
battery to return the energy which it has received. In this respect it is an important
factor in determining the cost of operation. The watt-hour efficiency is affected by
the same factors as the ampere-hour efficiency, and in addition to these it is affected
by the voltage relations on charge and discharge.

60
By far the greater part of the difference between the voltage of the battery while
charging and while discharging is due to polarisation. There is some gas polarisation,
but primarily it is the concentration polarisation in the case of the lead-acid battery.
The battery behaves as if it contained a very dilute electrolyte when it discharges and
a concentrated electrolyte while charging. This is because the electrolyte in the pores
of the plates becomes impoverished during the discharge and enriched during the
charge.

For example, if the average voltage during discharge was 1.95 volts per cell and
during charge it was 2.28 volts per cell. The ratio of these voltages, which is
sometimes called the voltage-efficiency, is 1.95/2.28 = 85 percent. If the ampere-
hour efficiency under such operating conditions could be 100 percent, the energy
efficiency could not exceed 85 percent. If the ampere-hour efficiency was 91 percent
the energy efficiency would be 0.91 x 0.85 = 0.77 or 77 percent. A fair average for
the energy efficiency of the lead battery under ordinary operating conditions is about
75 percent.

It is apparent that the better the equalisation of acid within the lead cell, the less
difference there will be between the average voltage of charge and discharge. High
porosity of the plates and low viscosity of the electrolyte will help to accomplish this.


61
CHAPTER- 9

TESTI NG OF BATTERI ES

The tests which are of primary importance are those to determine
the capacity of a battery at certain rates of discharge
the ability of the battery to retain its charge over a period of time
the purity of the electrolyte
its period of useful service, or life

Capacity Tests
The fundamental points to be observed in making capacity tests of any particular
battery are :
rate of the discharge
cutoff or final voltage
temperature

Rate of Discharge
As the rate of the discharge is increased, the duration of the discharge is more than
proportionally decreased. It is important, therefore, that the current should have a
definite and constant value maintained throughout the test. Storage batteries are
commonly rated on the continuous discharge, time basis. For example a stationary
battery rated at 400 ampere-hours for10 hours is to be tested at 40 amperes. A
vehicle battery having a rated capacity of 100 ampere-hours at the 20 hour rate
would be tested at 5 amperes. So it is for any other time rating.

Final Voltage
The final or cutoff voltage, as it is sometimes called, is the terminal close-circuit
voltage at which it is desirable to stop discharge. Large stationary batteries
discharging at normal temperature and the 10 hour rates have a cutoff voltage of
62
1.75 volts per cell The cutoff voltages vary somewhat and have not been
standardised except by general usage and in some cases by recognised specifications.
In the absence of definite specifications, the cutoff voltages are generally determined
by the shape of the discharge curve, stopping at about the knee of the curve. The
capacity which may be obtained beyond this point is small and it is not economical to
discharge the battery further.

Temperature
The temperature of a battery under test is ordinarily specified as the initial
temperature of the electrolyte. The standard temperature for stationary batteries is
usually 21.1
o
C. Permissible limits of the ambient temperature should be stated. A
battery should always be near the standard temperature when a test is made, to
avoid large corrections.

Test for retention of charge
Besides determining the capacity of a battery, it is desirable to determine its ability to
retain the charge over a considerable period of time.

The test is made as follows : After a careful determination of the capacity at a
specified rate, the battery is fully charged and allowed to stand on open circuit at
room temperature for a period of four weeks, following which it is discharged under
the same conditions as before and the percentage loss in capacity computed as the
ratio of the decrease in ampere-hours delivered to the original capacity in ampere-
hours. The battery shall not loose more than 25 percent of its capacity during the
standing period of four weeks which would be an average loss of about 1 percent per
day.

Tests of purity of the electrolyte
Tests for the purity of the electrolyte form an important part of the complete test of a
63
storage battery but cannot be made satisfactorily when suitable chemical laboratory
facilities are lacking.

The presence of some of the impurities can be readily detected by inspection of the
cells. Antimony and some of the more noble metals cause excessive gassing of the
negative plates. This may be observed when the cell are on open circuit, if the cells
are contained in glass jars, or a sample of the negative plates may be removed and
placed in a beaker containing a solution of pure sulphuric acid.

Negative plates which are contaminated will continue to gas until they are completely
discharged. When manganese salts are present in the electrolyte they may ordinarily
be detected by the characteristic permanganate colour which appears at the positive
plates when the cells are on charge. Hydrochloric acid and acetic acid, if present in
any considerable amount, may be detected when the cells are on charge by the
characteristic odors of chlorine and acetic acid, respectively.

It is also possible to determine the presence of impurities of the noble metals by
spectroanalysis of material removed from the surface of negative plates. This method
has been applied particularly for the detection of small amounts of platinum, since it
is possible to effect a concentration of the impurity, even when present in very small
amounts, by scraping the surface of the negative plates. A quantitative estimate of
the amount of impurities can in some cases be made from the relative intensities of
the spectrum lines.

Life Tests
A life test made in a laboratory may lead to incorrect results unless details of the
charge and discharge are carefully worked out to simulate the working conditions.

The details of a life test will depend upon the kind of battery to be tested, but in any
64
case it will consist of cycles of charge and discharge under conditions that
approximate service conditions. Not all the discharges need be made at the same
rate, a group of discharges at a low rate may be followed by a group at a high rate.
As such a test involves a large amount of routine work, it is helpful to plan the
schedule of charges and discharges for the week. The length of time that the life test
will last will normally depend upon the type of battery tested and might vary from
certain months to years.

At the conclusion of a life test the positive plates are examined for loss of active
material, corrosion of the grid, color, buckling, texture of the active material and
breaks in the grids. The negative plates are examined for color, expansion or
contraction, and texture of the active material whether firm, spongy or sandy. The
amount of sediment in the bottom of the jars is estimated or weighed, and its color
noted. The separators are examined for strength, degree of action of acid. From such
an examination it should be possible to form an opinion as to the worth of the various
parts and the probable cause of failure.














65
CHAPTER- 10

COMMON SOURCES OF TROUBLE

Overcharging
Overcharging produces corrosion of positive grids and excessive gassing which
loosens active material in the plates, particularly the positives. This material, sifting
down between the separators and the plates, is deposited in the bottom of the jar as
a fine brown sediment. Overcharging also increase the temperature of the battery
and in some cases may carry it to excessive temperatures which are destructive both
to the plates and to the separators. Overcharging could also lead to the buckling of
the plates. Overcharging, which is accompanied by excessive gassing, results in a
needles loss of water, requiring constant attention to keep the cells filled to the proper
level with electrolyte. Occasional overcharging is beneficial, but frequent
overcharging decrease the period of useful service which the battery can give.

Undercharging
Consistent undercharging results in progressively lower values of the specific gravity
readings and a tendency of the plates to become somewhat lighter in colour. Also
sediment is deposited in the bottom of the jar when undercharging has been
prolonged as a fine white powder, consisting principally of lead sulphate. Consistent
undercharging generally results in one or more of the cells becoming exhausted
before the others, and in some cases these may become reversed by the other cells of
the battery. When this occurs the remedy is to charge the battery until all the cells
are again in normal condition. Insufficient charging is one of the most common
causes of buckling of the plates. The lead sulphate occupies more space than the
original material and an excessive amount of it strains the plates. Equalizing charge
would help to balance the ill effects of under charging.
66
Corroded Terminals
Corroded terminals often prevent the battery from delivering sufficient current. This
is because the products of the corrosion are non-conducting substances which form a
layer between the terminal of the battery and the clamp connector which may be
connected to it. This film will not ordinarily interfere with the charging of the
batteries or the use of the batteries for normal flow of current but will
make the resistance too great for the passage of the large currents. The
products of corrosion should be removed and the parts cleaned with a dilute solution
of ammonia to neutralise the acid and then covered with vaseline.

Cracked or Broken J ars
Cracked or broken jars in closed batteries can be detected by leakage of electrolyte
through the tray, or, if the crack is slight, by the necessity of periodically adding more
water to the cell having a cracked jar than to the others. In such a case, the
electrolyte of the cell will gradually become diluted by the additions of water, and this
will result in diminishing the capacity of the cell. The remedy is to replace the broken
jar as soon as it is discovered, and to adjust the specific gravity of the electrolyte in
the battery to the proper value after the conclusion of full charge.

Short Circuits
Short circuits within the cells may be caused by a breakdown of one or more of the
separators between the positive & negative plates ; by the accumulation of sediment
in the bottom of the jars ; or, in rare instances, by the formation of a tree-like
structure of lead from the negative to the positive plates. Treeing may result from
two causes ;
Sediment, brought to the top of the electrolyte by gas, settles on the top of
the plates and bridges over the tops of the separators. This is sometimes
called Mossing

67
The presence of certain materials in the grids, such as cadmium, which cause
the growth of trees at the side or bottom

The sediment in the bottom of the jars conducts metallically, and, if enough of it
accumulates to touch the bottoms of the plates, a short circuit inevitably develops.

The evidences of short circuits within the battery are :
continued low readings of the specific gravity even though the battery is
receiving a normal amount of charge
rapid loss of capacity after a full charge
low open-circuit voltage
The remedy for this condition is to disassemble the cells, wash out the accumulated
sediment, and replace the old separators with new ones.

Worn-out Plates
Worn-out plates are ordinarily detected by a marked decrease in the capacity of the
battery when it is receiving an adequate amount of charge. If the solution in the cells
quickly rises to its proper value when the cells are on charge, but only a small capacity
can be obtained on discharge, the battery is worn out. This may be due either to age
or to poor material used in the construction of the plates. There is no remedy except
to replace the plates.

Electrolyte below the Top of the Plates
If the electrolyte is allowed to remain consistently below the top of the plates, an
abnormal sulphation takes place and the plates crumble. This is generally the result
of negligence to add the necessary water to replace evaporation. Unless the
injurious effects have gone too far, it is sufficient to fill the cells with water to the
proper level and allow the battery to continue its normal operation.
Electrolyte should not be added under any circumstances unless it is known that
68
electrolyte has been lost from the cell. Whenever it is necessary to add acid to the
cells, the acid should be in diluted form. The cells should be placed on charge and
the concentration of the electrolyte within the cells adjusted to the proper value
before the conclusion of the charge.

Freezing
When freezing occurs, water crystals separate from the electrolyte. These water
crystals cause some expansion of the active materials of the plates. During
discharged condition of the battery, when the pores of the plates are clogged with
lead sulphate the plates may become buckled and the active material may be pushed
out of the grids. However plates in a fully charged condition when subjected to
temperatures below the freezing point, so that the entire mass of the electrolyte was
solid, shows no destructive action on the plates. Under ordinary circumstances,
however, freezing will only occur in the case of batteries which are in a discharged
condition, and the result of freezing in such a case may destroy the plates.

Impurities in the electrolyte
Impurities in the solution may come from impurities initially present in the sulphuric
acid, or in the plates, or from the container, or they may be added accidentally as, for
example, by the use of impure water to replace losses caused by charging and
evaporation.

Chipping of the Active Material
When blocks of the active material break out of the plate, the effect is referred to as
chipping. There are a number of possible causes for this effect, which is observed
most often with positive plates, but may occur with negative also. Among these
causes are the following : the active material may not have made good contact with
the grid ; the plate may not have been thoroughly dried ; the plate may have been
over pasted and the surface blown off by the formation of gas during charge ; the
69
active material may have been too hard and have cracked when the plate was dried or
after formation ; excessive sulphation may have cracked the active material. The
obvious remedy is to replace the defective plates with those of better quality.

Sulphation
It means the formation of lead sulphate on the surface and in the pores of the active
material of the plates. Sulphate forms as a natural part of the process of discharge.
This sulphate is finely crystalline and reduced by the charging current. Sulphation in
this sense is necessary part of the operation of the battery.

Lead sulphate is also formed as a result of local action or self-discharge of the plates.
This is brought about by action of the acid solution on the materials of the plates.
The rate of such sulphation, depends on the concentration and temperature of the
electrolyte. It is a mistake to add acid to cell unless it has been definitely determined
that the cell when fully charged is deficient in this respect, otherwise the specific
gravity will rise to an abnormally high value when the charge is completed and the
sulphation may be expected to increase. The lead sulphate formed as result of local
action is easily reduced by the charging current, unless this is neglected, although the
crystals are probably coarser than those formed as a result of discharging the battery.
Certain impurities in the electrolyte increase the rate of sulphation of the plates.

The third and perhaps most common use of the word sulphation applies to the large
crystals or crusts of lead sulphate which may form on the plates as a result of neglect
or misuse. Excessive sulphation of this kind is difficult to reduce and may injure the
plates. As the pores of the plates become clogged with the sulphate the active
material may be pushed out of the grids and the plates may buckle. The active
material of the positive plates which are sulphated is frequently light in color and
white spots of sulphate appear, but the color is not always a safe criterion. It may be
quite dark and the presence of excessive sulphate is revealed by a hard, rough
70
surface and the gritty feeling of the material when rubbed between the fingers.
Sulphated negatives likewise are hard, expanded and gritty. They do not show a good
metallic streak when stroked with a knife. Sulphation in this sense is the result of
some form of abuse, as
allowing the battery to stand in a discharged condition for a considerable time
neglecting to make repairs when evidence of trouble within the cells becomes
apparent
filling the cells with electrolyte when water should have been used
operating the battery at excessive temperature
persistent undercharging

When a battery stands in a discharged state, the sulphate seems to harden and
become more dense. Lead sulphate is sparingly soluble in the sulphuric acid
electrolyte. The solubility increases at higher temperatures. The temperature
fluctuations to which a battery may be subjected as it stands idle play an important
part, in forming this hard sulphate. When the temperature of the battery is increased
even slightly the smaller crystals of lead sulphate dissolve and when the temperature
falls again this lead sulphate crystallises out slowly. Some of it increases the size of
crystals already present, and this slow crystallisation results in large crystals. As a
result of such temperature cycles the large crystals grow at the expense of the smaller
ones.

A simple and effective way to cure the sulphated batteries is to pour out the
electrolyte and fill the cells with water. After being allowed to stand for about an
hour, the battery may be put on charge at a low rate of current, provided that the
voltage at the terminals of the cells is less than 2.3 volts per cell. The resistance of
the battery will be high at the start and the current initially small, but the current will
increase as the sulphate is broken down if the voltage at the terminals is maintained.
The cell will take the current as fast as they are capable of being charged, and the
process becomes more or less automatic, but the temperature must be watched and
71
the batteries cut off or the current decreased if the temperature reaches 43
o
C. The
charging may also be done by the constant-current method at a low rate. The water
which was put in the cells becomes a solution of sulphuric acid as the charge
proceeds, and readings of the rising specific gravity can be made. If the final specific
gravity obtained after prolonged charging becomes constant at too low a value, more
electrolyte should be added. If not the specific gravity of the electrolyte, initially
water, will rise above the normal figure, say 1.300, and this is clear evidence that acid
has at some time been added to the cells improperly.

Corrosion of the Grid
This is an effect noticed with the positive plates. The trouble starts along the lines of
the grid, and lines of sulphation appear. The active material becomes insulated from
the grid and cannot be charged. This effect may be caused by the active material
shrinking when the paste is dried, if the formula for the paste is not right, or it may be
caused by the attack of organic matter and certain acids present as impurities in the
electrolyte. These include nitric, hydrochloric, and acetic acids. Plates in this
condition will not give satisfactory service and must be replaced. Corroded, brittle
grids with soft positives and rough gritty negatives are attributed to electrolyte of
excessive strength or above a safe operating temperature.

In aggravated cases, formation of the grid ensues. The grid is converted to lead
peroxide in part and becomes very brittle, the active material is completely
discharged, and the plate falls to pieces.

Reversal
Reversal may be caused by the over discharge of a cell deficient in capacity when in
series with others that have greater capacity or are more fully charged ; generally,
however, it is the result of charging a battery in the wrong direction, in which case all
cells are reversed.
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Indications of Reversal
A reversed cell possesses many features as noted below :
Colour The positive plates instead of being chocolate colour will first turn
white and ultimately blue grey. The negatives, which normally are light
blue-grey, will turn white or mottled white and brown, and ultimately brown or
chocolate coloured
Deposit There will usually be a heavy layer of grey deposit on the top of the
ordinary layer of chocolate or light brown deposit. This will be found to be
shed by the negatives
Condition of Negatives The active material will be swollen or will have fallen
away from the plates. Any type of negative will disentegrate on reversal
Specific Gravity The specific gravity during the process of reversal will first
fall extremely low, but eventually although the plates are reversed in polarity
the sulphate is reduced by charging, and the specific gravity recovers except
for that amount of acid consumed and deposited as sulphate
Voltage During reversal the volts fall to zero, and then mount in the reverse
direction. If a centre zero cell testing voltmeter is used, and the voltmeter
readings of each cell are carefully noted, the reversed cells will at first give
readings on the opposite side of zero compared with the remainder

Hydration
Hydration is simply the action of water on the lead plates. Consequently, if a battery
be exhausted to a point where the electrolyte is practically water and charging is not
at once given, or if the plates are not entirely immersed continuously in the
electrolyte, hydration will be set up as a white creamy substance spread irregularly
over the plates and reaching into the pores of the active material. As soon as
charging is given, acid liberated from the plates attacks the lead hydrate, forming lead
sulphate in a condition difficult to recover even by very prolonged charging.

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Stratification
In this case a layer of strong acid lies at the bottom of the cell for lack of circulation.
Strong acid is liberated from the plates under the action of the charging current, and
being heavier than the weak electrolyte it falls by gravity to the bottom of the cell,
where eventually a layer of acid with a specific gravity as high as 1.400 may gradually
build up Stratification causes the hydrometer readings to be misleading, and it tends
to very irregular working of the plates. It can be overcome by artificial circulation
either through stirring up with a paddle, or blowing up with an air pump. This doesnt
happen with a normally worked battery, one which is charged and discharged to two-
thirds of its capacity atleast once a week.

I mpure Water
Contamination of the electrolyte by adding impure water is a very common battery
trouble. If the water contains lime, this will neutralise some of the acid and reduce
the specific gravity with the characteristic formation of lime crystals. If the water
contains chlorine, this has a forming effect on the positives, with abnormal
depreciation. If the water contains iron, this causes local action which is the self-
discharge of the plates when not even doing useful work. Rain water collected in the
vicinity of a coast, or collected through rusty pipes or gutters, or stored in iron
vessels, must all be condemned. Just because water is distilled, it does not mean
that such water must be suitable. Plenty of so-called distilled water is too impure to
use in batteries, as even as small percentage of chlorine will have a cumulative effect
in the cells. The presence of chloride and chlorine in water can be detected by
adopting the following procedure. 5gm of Silver Nitrate (AgNO
3
) is mixed in
100cc of distilled water to obtain 5% solution and the same is stored in
brown bottle. Formation of white precipitate when this solution is mixed in
a test tube with the water intended for Battery indicates the presence of
chlorine.

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Discoloration of Electrolyte
Whereas ordinarily the electrolyte should be clear and colourless, cases are met
where the electrolyte may be brown, black, yellow or magenta in colour. A brown
discoloration is usually a sure sign of overcharging at too high a rate. Black
discoloration is usually traced to expander forced out from the negative material of a
new battery by high charging rates. Yellow colour may be experienced immediately
after the acid is filled into a battery for the first time, indicating that the acid has not
been properly cleared during process of manufacture, but this settles very quickly.
The magenta colour is sometimes found towards the end of a complete discharge and
at the commencement of a recharge. It is due to the presence of manganese which
would be injurious in large quantities, but manganese is such a powerful colouring
agent, that a mere trace will give a deep magenta colour.

Short -Circuits
Internal short-circuits occur in a cell if plates of opposite polarity, viz., the positive and
negative, make contact either directly or indirectly through some current conducting
medium other than the electrolyte. Internal short circuits indicate their presence in a
cell by the following factors compared with the rest of the cells in the battery: The
voltage of the cell will be lower; the temperature of the acid will be rather higher,
depending upon the nature of the short-circuit ; The colour of the plates will be
unhealthy, gradually turning lighter until eventually all the plates will be almost white;
the surface of the plates will be different, feeling harsher and more metallic; the cell
will not gas so freely on charge. If the short-circuit is a serious one, the level of the
acid will fall lower owing to the evaporation caused by the heat generated.
75
CHAPTER- 11

FACTORS AGAI NST WHI CH A BATTERY TO BE GAURDED

Failing to give the battery a proper initial charge
Failing to give a new battery plenty of work and liberal charging
Charging the battery too little
Charging the battery too much
Working the battery too little
Running the battery too low in voltage and specific gravity between charges
Running the battery too long between charges irrespective of the amount of
work done
Charging the battery at too high rates, especially towards completion of charge
Charging the battery at too low rates especially at less than half normal
Allowing the sediment to reach the bottom edges of the plates before having it
removed
Having the battery room too hot or letting too strong a breeze blow through
the room, both of which cause an increase in the rate of evaporation
Using unsuitable water to compensate for evaporation
Not adding water sufficiently often to keep the plates covered always with
electrolyte
Adding any acid unwarranted by the condition of the plates or working
conditions
Using acid unsuitable in strength or purity
Neglecting to attend the weak cells promptly
Failing to clear internal short-circuits
Allowing individual cells to be thoroughly exhausted (volts run down to zero)
Allowing individual exhausted cells to receive charge in the wrong direction, by
leaving them jointed up in series with the rest of the cells on discharge
In bolted-up batteries, allowing the connections to become dirty, corroded, or
76
slack (which sets up heating and melting of the lead lugs)
Omitting to keep the vent plug holes clear in sealed-in cells
Bringing a naked light near the cells especially sealed-in cells and in particular
during charge




















77
CHAPTER- 12
BATTERY TEST EQUI PMENT - INTERROGATOR 4210

Battery Condition Monitoring had always been a challenge to the field Engineers.
Specific Gravity and Float voltage have been the only two parameters relied upon to
know the condition of the Batteries. Little information could be inferred from these
tests. Only to a lesser extent battery strings are subjected to a load test and
voltage during discharge measured. As a result Battery banks as a whole are
replaced without even knowing the condition of the battery after certain years of
service.

If there is a real way to trend the condition of Batteries, replacement of Batteries in
specific time intervals may not arise. It was with this background that measurement
of impedance of Battery and its trending over a period of time had gained ground
and used as a condition monitoring parameter. One of the objective of the study was
hence to use impedance as a condition monitoring parameter.

Literature and Manuals were studied to identify equipments to measure impedance .
During the course of such investigation and literature study it was found that
M/s.World Energy Labs, U.S.A. had brought out an equipment which could measure
Sulphation in Flooded cells and Dryout in VRLA Batteries apart from measuring
Impedance and Voltage. As this equipment had extremely useful condition
monitoring parameters with several new features the instrument Interrogator 4210
was procured from the manufacturer.




78
A picture depicting the Interrogator with Battery under test is shown below.


The Interrogator 4210 is an advanced Battery test instrument for accurately
measuring chemical and electrical battery health in terms of Sulphation, Dryout,
Voltage and Impedance. All the four parameters are measured simultaneously in a
single measurement using CEL Scan Technology (Chemical Electrical Layer-Scan
Technology) which is a proprietory measurement technique that uses broadband,
swept frequency response analysis in conjunction with proprietory algorithms and
traceable calibration standards to accurately measure the Chemical and Electrical
Layer condition of Batteries. WELSoft is the companion software that helps in
configuring Battery string and analyzing the measured data.

Procedure to use Interrogator
The following are the procedures for taking measurements with the Interrogator
4210.
Pre-programming the Interrogator
There are two basic methods for initialising and pre-programming the Interrogator.

79
Method-1 Using WEL Soft
The user has the option to configure a particular Battery string in a particular SS
and could have a library of such configuration files that can be stored, ready for use
at any time. As the entire history of a particular set of Battery string can now be
configured and stored, using the Interrogator becomes simple now.

Connect the Interrogator to a PC running WEL Soft. Load in the appropriate
configuration file or files and download them to the Interrogator. This method of
configuration have the following benefits.

Once a site has been defined and stored it can simply be reused, saving
large amount of time

It ensures the continuity and integrity of the test data collected by the
Interrogator as each subsequent maintenance visit to each site will be
based on exactly the same site, name, string I.D., etc

Method-2 Manual Entry
The Interrogator can also be fully programmed using the built-in keypad. This
flexibility allows the user to configure the Interrogator anywhere by following the on-
screen menus.

As soon as the Interrogator is switched on it undergoes an automatic calibration
process and each time it is switched on it goes through the same process.

Once the calibration process is over it displays the Main Menu comprising the
following features.

Full test
Quick test
Rapid test
80
Utilities
Connect to WEL Soft
View String Information
View Test Results

The Full test and Quick test methods are employed for measurement of Sulphation,
Dryout, Voltage and Impedance.
The Rapid test function can be used by the user to test Impedance and Voltage on
any cell immediately, without any prior set up.
The Utilities menu have the following options.
Alarms
Quick Test Setup
Algorithm Calibration Factor Generator
High Noise Detection
High Noise Setup
Additional Test Option
Delete Data
Power Management
Time & Date
Display
Sound
Auto Calibration
Language
Master Reset
Profile

A brief description of the above options are given below.

Alarms
This option allows the user to set the warning and fail alarm levels for each individual
State-of-Health (SOH) parameter measured by the Interrogator. The alarm levels are
set for Impedance, Voltage, State of Health parameters (Sulphation, Dryout and
Connection Integrity), String Health, Cell Health Setup, Pass/Warning/Fail setup.
81
Quick Test Setup
This option allows the user to choose the settings for Quick- test. This shall be
described in detail in testing of Batteries.
Algorithm Calibration Factor Generator
The Interrogator is supplied as standard with Class-I algorithms. These are general
analysis algorithms that have been developed over a wide range of same class of
batteries in Lead Acid Stationary batteries. These algorithms identifies and measures
the underlying failure modes that causes batteries to fail. In order to increase the
accuracy to the level where algorithms are capable of accurately detecting the
presence and severity of the degradation process Sulphation and Dryout it is very
important to calibrate the algorithm and the method of calibration is as follows:
Obtain several batteries of the type that is to be tested with the Interrogator
that are in excellent condition i.e. newly delivered batteries that are in float
voltage for atleast 48 hrs so that they are under equilibrium state
The noise rejection level is to be set high so that the highest possible accuracy
is achieved for the calibration process
Connect the Interrogator to Battery and select the Algorithm Calibration Factor.
The Interrogator will perform several tests on the battery and iterate a baseline
calibration factor after which the calibration factor shall be displayed on screen
Repeat the test for as many new batteries of the same type minimum being
twelve from which the average calibration factor shall be calculated
Always be sure to obtain a new calibration factor to a new type of battery. If
new batteries are not available the healthiest batteries in a battery string could
be used
For very critical application batteries the firm develops battery make and model
specific algorithms that are called as Class-2 algorithm which offer the highest
possible testing accuracy.
82
High Noise Detection
This option allows the user to assess the noise level of the system thereby allowing
the user to choose either the High or Low noise setting.

High Noise Setup
This option allows the user to enable testing in sites where high rectifier or switching
noise would otherwise prevent measurement.
Additional Test Options
This option allows the user to set certain options regarding the results display screen
when testing cells. They are
Display SOHP during tests
Battery manufacture Data Logging
Specific Gravity Logging
Connection Integrity
Automatic Test start

Delete Data
This option allows the user to delete both test results and site/string setup data from
the Interrogator. Deletion of data could also be accomplished using the WEL Soft
application run by PC.
Power Management
This feature automatically switch off the Interrogator after a period of prolonged
inactivity to prevent the internal batteries discharging. The range of possible values
for these settings are minimum 5 minutes and maximum 30 minutes.

Time and Date
As the software WEL Soft allows the user to view trended data based on time and
83
date of measurement it is essential that correct time and date settings are established
for accurate data trending results.
Display
Brightness and contrast setting could be set using this option.

Sound
This option allows the user to set the volume for the available alarms.

Auto Calibration
In certain abnormal conditions such as a heavy knock to the Interrogator casing or
large change on environmental conditions this option could be invoked to perform the
initial calibration process.
Language
The language of choice could be selected using this option.

Master Reset
This option resets all the alarms and internal settings on the Interrogator to the
default factory setting.
Interrogator Profile
This option helps to know the hardware and software versions that are used in the
Interrogator.

Testing of Cells & Batteries
The Interrogator can be used in three ways to test cells and Batteries.
The Rapid Test method
The Quick Test method
The Full Test method

84
Rapid Test Method
This test requires no setup information and provides the user with Voltage &
Impedance results for any cell tested. This option could be initiated directly from
main menu or by simply pressing the TEST keys.

Quick Test Method
Unlike the Rapid test the Quick test method can measure the State of Health
Parameters i.e. Sulphation & Dryout apart from measuring Impedance and Voltage.
However the results of tests on cells/batteries tested using the Quick test method are
not stored in Interrogator memory and are lost as soon as the user exits the results
screen.

Full Test Method
This method requires the user to configure the Interrogator before testing large
number of batteries. The test data is stored in the Interrogator FLASH memory and
can be uploaded to PC for later analysis. The Interrogator is equipped with 8MB of
FLASH RAM that can hold test data upto 3072 tests and data could be retained even
if batteries become completely exhausted.
Detailed procedure of various test methods
Full Test Method
The Full Test Method used by the Interrogator assumes that all cells that are to be
tested are arranged in strings of multiple cells or batteries. The following diagram
shows the relationship between cells, batteries & strings.

85


Prior to testing, the Interrogator has to be configured for a particular site. This could
be accomplished by the Interrogator menu driven interface. However when there are
large number of sites, configuration using the WELSoft software could be an easy
method. The minimum configuration data required for testing a string are as follows.

Site name
String ID
Number of Batteries in string
Number of cells per Battery
Number of cells per post pair
Amp Hour rating
Battery type
Impedance Reference value
Voltage per cell
Algorithm Calibration Factor

The user also has the option to record the following additional configuration
information.

86
Battery manufacturer
Battery model
Battery manufacture date
Battery run time
String installation date
String run time
String load current
String float current
String voltage
Charger manufacturer
Charger type
Supervisor
Technician
Extra 1 (User definable)
Extra 2 (User definable)
Extra 3 (User definable)
Extra 4 (User definable)

On completion of configuration the Interrogator and its companion software
WELSOFT have a unique identification process of any particular cell in a battery or a
string of batteries. The Interrogator automatically numbers each cell as a function of
its position in the string. The individual cell numbers take the following format as
shown below.

Numbering convention
Let us assume that the No. of Batteries in String is 8 and the No. of Cells per Battery
is 3. Therefore the total No. of cells = 8 x 3 = 24.

While testing the cells would be numbered and identified as follows.


87
Test 001 : 001 : 001 : 024
Test 002 : 002 : 001 : 024
Test 003 : 003 : 001 : 024
Test 004 : 001 : 002 : 024
Test 005 : 002 : 002 : 024
Test 006 : 003 : 002 : 024
Test 007 : 001 : 003 : 024
. .
. .
. .
Test 024 : 003 : 008 : 024
The cell identification number depicts the following. For example,
003 : 008 : 024 means : 003 - Cell No.
: 008 - Battery No.
: 024 - Total No. of Cells

The following aspects shall be taken into account prior to beginning the test.

The option Amp Hour Rating shall be used to enter the Amp Hour of the Cells /
Batteries under test
The option Battery type shall be used to choose from VRLA, AGM, FLOODED
and GEL types. If there are different battery types in a particular string then
the user has to subdivide that string into separate sub-strings
The Impedance reference value shall be set with the manufacturer test value.
If the value is not given by the manufacturer the next best practice is to obtain
reference values by testing each cell at the time of initial installation and
commissioning. The next option is to take average of 5 or more cells that are
in healthy condition in a battery string
If the said option could not be exercised, the user has the option of entering a
value of ZERO. This would disable the impedance alarm and enable the user
to test an existing string of cells/batteries without using reference value. The
above information is not used in the actual test in anyway but is used
in conjunction with the impedance alarm levels. However the
measured impedance values is used as a parameter and compared to historic
data to assess the State of Health of cell/ battery
88
The float voltage per cell as recommended by the manufacturer shall be
entered. If the cell / battery is tested off-line then the open circuit voltage of
the single cell shall be set
The Algorithm Calibration Factor as derived previously shall be entered

Beginning the Test
The testing begins with user connecting the testing leads (Kelvin clips) to the poles of
the first cell to be tested. Even though the Interrogator operates polarity
independent, it is highly recommended to connect the leads with the right polarity.
Now pressing the TEST key begins the testing process and a status bar showing the
progress of test is displayed in the Interrogator. Once the test is complete, the test
results are displayed and would be tittled either PASS, WARNING or FAIL depending
on the alarm levels of Impedance, Voltage & State of Health parameters ; Sulphation
and Dry out.

The displayed results would be
Impedance value of cell and its percentage value with respect to
reference value
Voltage across cell terminal
Cell health in percentage
String health in percentage

Also, by enabling the State of Health parameters screen the results of SOH
parameters are displayed.

Sulphation
Dryout
Connection Integrity

In addition the Specific Gravity and Battery manufacture data could be entered by
additional screen that prompts the user to enter the values.
89

After completion of the full test the user is prompted with the Connection Integrity
screen. This option allows the user to test the integrity of a post strap connection by
connecting the Kelvin clips across the cell last tested and the strap. The Interrogator
then compares the impedance of the cell and strap and compares this to the
impedance of the cell alone. The test results are however not stored in the
Interrogator memory.

Quick -Test Method
This method allows the user to quickly carryout a test on a cell where a quick result
is required and need not be stored in memory. Unlike the Rapid-Test method, the
Quick-Test method provides the full SOHP results for each cell tested.

The minimum configuration data that is required for testing is as follows:
Amp. Hour Rating
Battery type
Impedance Reference value
Voltage per cell
Algorithm Calibration Factor
Temperature

On completion of configuration the user shall connect the testing leads (Kelvin clips)
to the poles of cell/battery and testing is initiated by pressing the TEST Key. On
completion the same settings could be deployed for testing multiple cells of the same
type.

None of the Quick-test result data is stored in the Interrogator memory and hence all
test data either from a single or series of Quick-Tests are lost as soon as the user
returns to the Main Menu. Hence Quick-Test method is deployed only for
demonstration purposes or where data recording is not critical.

90
Connect to WELSoft

This option allows the user to upload test results to the PC based software
application WELSoft and to download site and string configurations to the
Interrogator to pre-program it for field use. It also allows the user to update the
software held within the Interrogator.


View String information

From the Main Menu it is possible to review all data and settings for chosen string
that has been entered or stored in the Interrogator. The data that could be reviewed
here are

Site name
String ID
Number of Batteries in string
Number of cells per Battery
Cells per post pair
Battery type
Impedance Reference values
String temperature
Test type
Voltage per cell
Specific Gravity logging
Battery manufacture date logging
Battery manufacturer
Battery model
Algorithm Calibration Factor
Battery manufacture date
91
Amp. Hour rating
Battery run time
String installation date
String run time
String load current
String float current
String voltage
Charger manufacturer
Charger type
Supervisor
Technician
Extra 1 (User definable)
Extra 2 (User definable)
Extra 3 (User definable)
Extra 4 (User definable)

View Test Results

The results of tests can be reviewed individually, as a summary or downloaded to PC
for storage and /or analysis.

Selecting individual test results would enable the user to view individual results of the
selected string beginning with cell No:1.

Selecting summary option would show the number of cells tested, number of cells
that passed, the number of warning alarms and number of cells that failed. It also
shows the overall State-of-Health of string.

92

Description on the State-off Health Parameters

The details of individual State of Health parameters are discussed below.

I mpedance
It is widely accepted that impedance varies over the lifetime of a cell battery. As the
mechanical parts of the cell degrade over time, current flow through the cell is
impeded as the internal impedance of the cell increases. Using impedance alone, as
a measure of the SOH of a cell is imprecise as it is a single value measurement that
does not change equally with the progress of all potential failure mechanisms.
Consequently, although internal cell impedance often reflects problems with the
mechanical parts of the cell, it very commonly misses the progression of chemical
changes in the cell. The impedance value in a cell is at its lowest when the cell is
new and 100% healthy. This baseline or reference value is measured and recorded
when the cell is first installed. If this value is not available, then a manufacturer
value for internal impedance may be used. The impedance data for each separate
cell must be trended and compared against the true original reference value for this
parameter to be useful in the SOH monitoring of batteries and cells.

Start Value
The baseline / reference impedance value.

End of life Value
Normally when the impedance value has increased to 125% of its baseline / reference
value, it will be investigated through load testing to determine if the cell has indeed
reached its End of Life.
The Interrogator is capable of testing batteries accurately up to an impedance level of
0.1m Ohms on-line ; Batteries with impedance values lower than this should be
tested off-line (on open circuit) to obtain more accurate results.
93
Voltage
The float voltage is the voltage that is required to counteract the slow self-discharge
process that all batteries are prone to. Keeping the batteries on float ensures that
they are charged at their full available capacity when they are called on to supply
power. The voltage drop across a complete string of cells (complete with the charger
leads and the inter-cell connectors) will always equal the charger voltage. In an ideal
condition for a string of perfectly healthy cells the cell float voltage will be identical for
each and every cell. However in practice these will vary very slightly from cell to cell
but should always lie within the tolerances specified by the battery manufacturer for
the float voltage.

It is important to note that a normal float voltage does not reflect the State-of-Health
(SOH) of a cell but its State-of-Charge (SOC). Thus a normal voltage level reading for
a cell indicates that the cell is fully charged. Abnormal cell voltages do hold additional
information. A very low voltage level on a cell may indicate an internal short circuit in
the cell or even a short between the terminals due to conductive dust or other
material. A voltage that is slightly less than normal, say 5mV lower than normal may
indicate a cell that is beginning to degrade. It is also important to note that if the
voltage on one cell drops this will cause the voltages on the remaining cells to
increase to compensate (to bring the overall voltage level back up to the level held
constant by the charger). The result of this is increased grid corrosion and water
loss due to increased temperature in one or more of the remaining cells. Voltage is
not a reliable SOH indicator for a cell and may only begin to indicate that there is an
SOH problem with a cell at a very late stage in the battery's life which might be too
late. So although a cell with a normal float voltage may be fully charged this should
not be confused with the available capacity of the cell.
Start Value
Normal float voltage depending on battery type and manufacturers recommendations.
Typically this will be in the range 2.15V to 2.30V per cell, with most lead acid cells.
94
End Value
Although a typical value to indicate End-to-Life is 0.1Vless than the float voltage
setting. This is also very much battery type and model dependant.

Cell-Dryout

VRLA, GEL and AGM types of cells and batteries are effectively sealed systems.
Unlike regular flooded cells, they cannot be topped up with distilled water and water
loss is not reversible. Although VRLA batteries are designed to minimise water loss,
they nevertheless undergo some degree of cell dry-out. In batteries equipped with
AGM or GEL separators, cell dry-out can create gaps between the separators and the
grids. This loss of contact reduces the ability of the cell to deliver charge and thus
lowers the effective capacity of the cell. The Interrogator used in this study is
probably the first ever device that can measure the level of cell dry-out directly. The
result supplied by the Interrogator shows the level of dry-out for a given cell in
relation to this ability to supply its nameplate capacity. The level of cell dry-out is
reported as a percentage loss in the cell's ability to deliver charge. Initially a healthy
cell will have zero percentage cell dry-out. As the cell ages and cell dry-out within the
cell progresses, the level of cell dry-out will increase. Normally a cell will be retired
when its ability to deliver charge has dropped to 80% of the nameplate capacity.
This corresponds to a value of Dryout of 20%.
Start Value

0% indicating that no cell dry-out has occurred.

End Value
20% indicating that cell dry-out has progressed to such as state that due to dry-out
alone the cell can no longer deliver more than 80% of its nameplate capacity.

Sulfation
Storage without float voltage, deep cycling (on stationary batteries), undercharging,
95
temperatures above 38
o
C, low electrolyte level (battery plates exposed to air will
immediately sulfate), incorrect charging levels and settings, very low temperatures
and leakage current will all lead to sulfation.

The Interrogator is a device that can measure the level of sulfation in a cell directly.
The results obtained from the Interrogator shows the level of sulfation for that cell in
relation to the cells ability to supply its rated capacity. The level of sulfation is
reported as a percentage loss in the cells ability to deliver charge. Initially, a healthy
cell will have zero percentage sulfation. As the cell ages and sulfation within the cell
begins, the level of cell sulfation will increase. A value of 20% indicates that with
respect to sulfation the cell can no longer deliver more than 80% of its nameplate
capacity.

Start Value
0% indicating that the cell is sulfation free.
End Value
20% indicating that sulfation has progressed to such a state that due to sulfation
alone the cell can no longer deliver more than 80% of its nameplate capacity.

Grid Degradation (Grid Corrosion & Grid Growth)
The grids of the positive plate of a lead acid battery are subject to a corrosion process
in which lead (Pb) is transformed into lead dioxide (PbO2). The corrosion rate
increases with temperature, (doubling approximately every 10
0
C), float voltage, and
acid concentration. The corrosion attack may be an area type attack or a grain
boundary attack or a combination of both. The corrosion product, lead dioxide,
requires a 37% higher volume than the lead source material. This volume expansion
induces mechanical forces in the grid, which will become deformed and stretched.
This deformation is called growth and reduces the contact of the current collector
(grid) with the active material. As a result of this loss of contact, loss in capacity
occurs. The growth is not linear in time, but accelerates rapidly towards the
96
end of the design life of the cell. At a growth level of 4-7% (volume), grid
fractures and capacity losses of the battery occur. In extreme cases internal shorting
and cell case rupture may ensure.

If a cell or block is showing increased impedance, which cannot be accredited to
either high sulfation or cell dryout, then it is highly likely that the cause of increased
cell impedance is due to the progression of corrosion and grid growth (grid
degradation).

WELSoft
The WELSoft is the companion software for the Interrogator hand-held Battery
analyser. It is an easy to use data management tool developed by World Energy Labs
for the personnel working in the Battery maintenance field.

Major function of WELSoft
WELSoft has four main functions :

Test Data Collection and Storage : The ability to collect test data from
the Interrogator. WELSoft's main function is to allow users to upload data
from an Interrogator and to archive this data for future analysis
Data Reporting & Analysis : The ability to present the test data in a
meaningful way to the end user for analysis of the State of Health of the
tested batteries
Interrogator Configuration : The ability to pre-program the
Interrogator with site and string configuration data for direct use in the
field
Software Installation Interface for the Interrogator : The ability to
install new software into the Interrogator to expand its testing capabilities.
WELSoft is the interface for downloading new battery test algorithms and
firmware updates to the Interrogator down
97
Starting WELSoft :
The WELSoft application could be started by double clicking the WELSoft desktop icon
which would display the menubar in the main WELSoft window.
The Main Menu Bar have the following options.

File : Provides access to file and data handling options
Interrogator : Option to connect to the Interrogator for data transfer to and
from the Interrogator and for creation of configuration file in
the Interrogator
Reports : It is a built-in data review system for analylsing and reporting
on Interrogator generated data
Language : Selection of desired interface language.
Help : It is a software version information and help system

WELSoft - Interrogator Communication
Communication is established between the WELSoft and the Interrogator by selecting
Interrogator > Port Setting of Main Menu.

This would list all the available serial communication ports (COM) on the host
computer from which an unused COM port could be selected. If the host PC does not
have any free serial posts, then USB port may be used.

Communication with the Interrogator can be initiated as soon as the Interrogator is
connected to PC and user has selected the correct serial port.

Further the convention used to describe data transfer between WELSoft and
Interrogator is that WELSoft is the server and Interrogator is the client. Any data
movement from client to server (Interrogator to WELSoft) is an Upload and from
server to client (WELSoft to Interrogator) is a Download.

Uploading Test Site Data from Interrogator to WELSoft
Once WELSoft has been set up with the correct serial port, test data captured and
98
stored in the Interrogator can be uploaded to WELSoft for central storage, analysis
and export.

To initiate the data upload process, select Interrogator > Upload Test Data within
WELSoft.

After data has been uploaded, WELSoft will give the user the option to clear parts of
the Interrogator's memory.

The options available are :

Clear all configuration data and test results. This wipes the Interrogator
memory of all data. This option is recommended for Interrogator units
that are ued for different groups of battery sites on a cyclical basis
Clear test results only. This leaves the site and string information intact.
This option is recommended for Interrogator units that are used on the
same sites repeatedly. Retaining the same site and string configuration
ensures data compatibility at the analysis stage
Leave all data on the handheld. This option does not clear any data from
the Interrogator. All configuration and test data remain within the
handheld unit

When the data upload is complete, WELSoft displays a confirmation message that the
data has been loaded to memory

It is very important that the uploaded data are saved immediately and
ensured that the data are not inadvertently lost.

Using WELSoft to configure Interrogator Battery Analyser
WELSoft allows the user to set the following settings in the Interrogator.

Test measurement warning and fail alarms
Power management settings
99
Cell Health setup
Language settings
Display of State of Health parameter during testing
Battery manufacture date logging
Specific Gravity logging
Setting the time and date
The user can alter these settings except the alarm settings which require a password.
The Interrogator configuration settings are passed to the Interrogator at the time a
site configuration file is installed.

The Interrogator is supplied with the above settings set to factory settings. WELSoft
also has the same factory settings within its default Interrogator settings file.
However WELSoft allows the user to create a user specified settings file that is then
subsequently used during all data download to the Interrogator.

Creating User defined Interrogator settings

Selecting Interrogator > Default settings from the Main Menu bar will open the
Device Default Setting Dialog box. Here all the alarm configuration, and other
configuration listed above could be defined after which the user defined settings are
saved. Using the Reset button would set the settings to the default factory settings.

In addition to the above the user can define additional data for the following using
the LIST configuration for the Default settings.

Battery manufacturer name
Battery model name
Charger manufacturer name
Charger type
Supervisor names
Technician names
100
Configuring sites and strings
Creating configuration files for download to the Interrogator is one of the key
function of the WELSoft. WELSoft allows the user to create complicated
configuration files that can hold multiple sites, each site with different number of
strings, each string of different size and containing different types of cells.

The following step shall be followed in creating site configuration files.

Step 1 : Creation of Individual Configuration file for each individual site
This allows the user to create a single site configuration file for each site. While
creating the file it should be ensured that all site names are unique. Also string ID
within each site shall be unique. In this way the user can create a library of string
configuration files.

Step 2 : Creation of Consolidated Configuration file for field
Out of the library of individual configuration files the user can create custom
configuration file by creating a new configuration file and importing the sites that are
to be tested into this new file. This file is then saved and then downloaded to the
Interrogator for testing.

The following details could be configured in an individual configuration file.

Configuration name
Site configuration with site name with number of string
String configuration
String ID
Test type
Number of Batteries in string
Number of cells per Battery
Cells per post pair
Amp. hour rating
101
Battery type
Impedance reference value
Cell Voltage
Algorithm Calibration Factor
Battery manufacturer
Battery model
Battery manufacture date
Battery run time
String installation date
String run time
String load current
String float current
String voltage
Charger manufacturer
Charger type
Supervisor (name)
Technician (name)
Extra 1
Extra 2
Extra 3
Extra 4

Loading, Saving, Viewing, Editing and Exporting Data
The following distinction on memory and disk has to be clearly understood for proper
handling of the data/files using WELSOFT.

Data uploaded to WELSoft from the Interrogator is held in the PC's system memory
until it is saved to disk. Data saved from a previous session must be loaded to
memory from the hard disk before WELSoft can use it. It is important to make this
distinction, since data on the hard disk is not accessible to WELSoft until it is loaded
102
into memory ; and data is not saved until the user has explicitly saved it to disk.

Select File > Save from Main Menu to save test data to the local hard drive. If the
uploaded data is not saved before terminating the WELSoft application then any
unsaved data will be irretrievably lost.

Loading Data
Once WELSoft has saved test data to disk, it can be recalled at any time for
inspection, analysis, or export by selecting File > Open. The Open command allows
the user to quickly open site data stored in the default WEL Sites directory structure.

The Open Site Files window allows the user to open individual tests, with the option
of selecting and opening all tests.

Closing Data Files
When site data is opened it is held within WELSoft in memory until the application is
closed or the user forces WELSoft to close the site data. To close data and remove it
from memory select File > Close. Closing data frees up memory used by WELSoft.

Delete Date
The File > Delete function has been provided to user to carefully select which files
to delete.

A window is opened for the user to select the files to be deleted. Deletion occurs at
the disk level and not within WELSoft itself so data that is held in memory at the time
of deletion will remain within WELSoft. To completely erase a site data it must be
closed using the close command and then deleted from the hard drive. Deleting
data from the hard drive will erase test data irrevocably.

Viewing Data
By selecting File > View Sites, the user can display and review site data that has
103
been loaded to memory.

The Site View window displays all the information for a single test of a single
string.

The following details could be known through this option.

Average Impedance
This option allows the user to calculate the average impedance for the selected string.
The user can also specify the range of values that should be taken into account when
calculating the average impedance value.

String Configuration
Displays the string's vital information, including installation date and load information.

Test Statistics
Lists maximum and minimum values and statistical information for the selected test
date.

Alarm Settings
Displays the alarm settings that were used at the time of the test.

Test Summary
Displays the time, date and summary results, including the total number of cells with
a pass warning and fail result.

Individual Test Results
Allows the user to see complete test results for each individual cell.

Hardware Settings
Displays the device settings of the Interrogator as it was configured at the time of the
104
string test.

Exporting Data
WELSoft allows users to export loaded site data to three common file formats. File
> Export Site allows test results to be exported to PDF, Excel, or Text files.

Clicking File > Export Site > To Excel

(Or To PDF or To Text) opens a dialog allowing the user to select which site to
export.

WELSoft Built-in-Reports

WELSoft features built-in reports to enhance user ability to analyse and to track
battery test data.

The following reports are generated by WELSoft.
Inventory Overview Report
The string SOH Overview Report
The cell SOH Overview Report
Results Analysis Report

Inventory Overview Report
The inventory overview report provides a visual representation of the state of health
of all the cells / batteries for each of the sites that have have been loaded into
memory. This report gives the user a single-glance overview of the state of health of
battery inventory. Additionally, this report acts as a gateway to more detailed
reports at the string level and to historically trended reports at the individual battery
or cell level. To open the inventory overview report select Reports > Inventory
Overview.

This report allows the user to see the extent of degradation of the state of health of
105
the cells in the chosen site.

The String SOH Overview Report
The string state of health overview report presents the user with a complete report on
the string selected. This report allows the user to review the SOH of each string in
the inventory as a snapshot in time on the cell-by-cell, and SOH parameter-by-SOH
parameter basis. The report is fully user configurable allowing the user to view only
that information that is required. The finalised report can then be exported to a PDF
document for printing and internal reporting purposes.
The string SOH report is opened by either selecting Report > String SOH
Overview, or by using the click through feature of the inventory overview report.

The Cell SOH Overview Report
The cell state of health overview report presents the user with a complete trended
report showing the changes in the health of the selected cell over time. This report
allows the user to review the development of the underlying SOH parameters in the
chosen cell to see which failure mechanism is driving the cell to failure. As with the
string level report, this report is fully user configurable, allowing the user to view only
that information that is required. The finalised report can then be exported to a PDF
document for printing and internal reporting purposes.

The string SOH report is opened by either selecting Reports > Cell SOH Overview,
or by using the click through feature of the inventory overview report or string SOH
overview report.

Results Analysis Report

Before a report can be generated, all site data for the report must be loaded to
106
memory. When opening a report WELSoft provides a list of loaded sites that can be
selected. If the desired site is not listed, it must first be loaded to memory. If there
are no sites loaded to memory, WELSoft will prompt the user to load new data from
the Interrogator or saved data from disk. If the desired site is present in memory,
select the site and click OK. The report is displayed in a window with two scrollable
panels, one with a bar chart and the other with tabular data.


107
CHAPTER - 13
SINGLE CELL CHARGE / DI SCHARGE TEST EQUIPMENT

A significant development during the course of the study has been the development
of a cost effective single cell capacity tester.

One of the most difficult activity experienced by the Field Engineer is to conduct
discharge test in a Battery string under service. But it is also an essential and
important test as the capacity of a Battery and its healthiness could be truly
ascertained only by subjecting the Battery to such a discharge test.

If there is a way to discharge / charge a single cell in addition to checking the
capacity of the cell, weak cells could not only be identified but also rejuvenated. The
practical difficulty is that the existing chargers are designed for 30V & 110 V
systems.

Hence it was decided to develop a charger for a single cell and discussions were held
with M/s.R-Man System and Design who are based at Chennai and currently
manufacture Battery chargers of various capacities.
The specification of the charger were finalised as follows.
Single Cell Capacity Tester
Technical Specifications

Input Voltage : 240 V AC + 10%
Output Voltage : 1.7 V DC to 2.7 V DC
Output Current : 0 15 A
Mode of Operations : Charging Mode
Discharging Mode
The Modes can be selected by a Selector Switch.

108

Charging Mode

Mode of Charging : Constant Current.
Current Adjustment : By Loadable Coarse and Fine Potentiometers.
Maximum Charging Volt : 2.75V, Audio and Visual with alarm
alarm at 2.70V, cut off at 2.75V
Meters : 4 Digital Ammeter, and 4 Digital Voltmeter

Discharge Mode

Mode of Discharging : Constant Current.
Current Adjustment : By Loadable Coarse and Fine Potentiometers.
Minimum Discharge Volt : 1.7V, Audio and Visual alarm with reset and cut off

AC Input Circuit
: 2 pole MCB
Start / Stop control for charging mode
Start / Stop control for discharging mode.
Battery Protection
: Battery provided with a HRC fuse.
Battery Reverse polarity protection provided.
General
: Proper heat sink for better heat dissipation for both
charging and discharging mode.

However through innovation the charger was designed and delivered in such a way
that both discharging and charging of batteries could be handled by the same
equipment upto 120 AH.








109
A picture depicting the Single cell charge / discharge test equipment with Battery
under charge is shown below.


This had been a major milestone in the course of the study. All initial problems with
the equipment were overcome with interaction with the manufacturer. The
equipment had been extremely useful in the study as exact capacities of the battery
could be accurately identified. Following chapter would show the usefulness of this
piece of equipment.

AJ J CO Chemsolar Electra Exide Power Aids Power Build Premier Shrarana Southern Standard
60 1 11 12
120 2 6 8
300 1 12 13
Total 1 1 13 18 33
60 2 40 1 3 1 21 5 3 76
64 1 1
120 1 3 1 31 36
250 2 2 1 3 8
300 1 3 1 1 16 23
400 3 3 6
Total 6 3 46 1 9 2 74 5 3 150
60 4 2 1 1 10 1 20
64 1
120 6 3 9
200 7 1 8
300 1 1 1 6 3 12
400 1 1 1 3
Total 5 10 2 3 23 8 53
60 2 1 1 4
200 1 1
Total 3 1 1 5
Total No of Sub Stations =136
Total No of strings = 241
110
Service Age 6 - 10 Yrs
Service Age >10 Yrs
Total
Details of Batteries taken for analysis
Make
Servic age <2 Yrs
Service Age 2 - 5 Yrs
AH Capacity
Defects observed - Nature and Numbers
1 120 AH
2 300 AH
3 Set 1 60 AH
Set 2 60 AH
Remarks: Defects has been reported only in four strings against 241 strings which account for 1.6% of
the total strings.
111
,,
Irumparai 110/11 KV SS
Sriperumpudur 400 KV SS
Madhukkarai 110/22 KV SS
Low Sp.Gr
Low Sp.Gr. and voltage
Sp.Gr. goes down
Details of Battery strings / Cells tested
Strings Nos Strings Nos Strings Nos Strings Nos Strings Nos Strings Nos Strings Nos Strings Nos Strings Nos
1 300 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. 2 110 .. .. 2
110
2 120 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 55 .. .. 13 715 .. .. 14
770
3 64 .. .. .. .. 1 15 .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 15 .. .. 2
30
4 60 .. .. 1 15 15 225 .. .. 2 30 .. .. 13 195 2 30 33
495
.. .. 1 15 16 240 .. .. 3 85 .. .. 29 1035 2 30 51
1405
1
1400 1 102 . .. 1 102
2
300 1 102 .. . . 3 165 .. 4 267
3
200 . .. .. 1 15 .. . .. 1 15
4
120 .. .. - - 2 110 4 220 - - 6 330
5
64 .. 1 15 .. - - 1 15 2 30
6
60 .. 1 15 13 195 1 15 - - 14 210 - - 29 435
2 204 1 15 15 225 1 15 - - 2 110 21 595 1 15 43 1179
1
2
3
4
5
6
112
Sharana Standard
Total
6
1
94
377
102
2584
RAPID TEST
Exide Kirloskar Power Build Premier Sl No.
AH
AmaraRaja Chemsolar
Sl no Total Cells
Total
FULL TEST
Total
Abstract
AH
4
20
1
60
64
120
200 15
Total
No. of
Strings
Measurements under taken
930
60
1100
300
1400
62
AH Capacity Total
Amara raja Chemsolar Exide Kirloskar Power Build Premier Shrarana Standard
60 6 17 23
120 4 4
300 1 1
1400 1 1
Total 1 6 22 29
60 15 4 1 20
64 1 1
120 1 6 7
300 2 2
Total 17 12 1 30
60 2 7 2 7 18
64 1 1 2
120 1 2 6 1 10
300 1 1 1 3
Total 1 2 8 1 3 2 15 1 33
64 1 1
300 1 1
Total 1 1 2
Total No of Sub Stations : 79 Total No of strings : 94
113
More than 5 years : 37.23%
Service Age >10 Yrs
Service age details of various Battery strings tested
Less than 5years : 62.77%
Make
Service Age <2 Yrs
Service Age 2-5 Yrs
Service Age 5-10 Yrs






Equipments procured/ developed/ utilised for study

Interrogator 4210 of M/s.World Energy Labs, U.S.A. along with companion software WELSoft

Digital camera of Nikon make

Digital Micro Ohmmeter of Motwane make

Hydrometer of Thimson make

Infrared temperature indicator of Delta Trak make

Digital Multimeter of Rish make

An indigenously developed single Cell Charge / Discharge test equipment manufactured by M/s.R-Man Systems,
Chennai






114








Various tests carried out with Interrogator 4210


Three types of tests were conducted with Interrogator Rapid test, Quick test & Full test

Rapid test can quickly measure Voltage and Impedance of a Cell


Quick test can test all State of Health parameters, such as Voltage, Impedance, Sulphation & Dry out. However
data's are not stored in the memory of the Interrogator

Full test can measure all the state of Health parameters of Battery and datas of the test could be integrated to the
companion software WELSoft for further analysis








115















FAILURE ANALYSIS











RAPID TEST IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTICS






: Kambarasampettai 110/ KV SS, Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Chemsolar
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.128 2.01 1175
2 1.787 2.05 1200
3 2.556 2.00 1170
4 1.978 2.04 1200
5 2.905 2.01 1170
6 1.973 2.02 1185
7 2.008 2.02 1185
8 1.682 2.05 1185
9 1.57 2.03 1205
10 1.542 2.05 1200
11 1.793 2.03 1195
12 1.903 2.04 1190
13 1.957 2.04 1200
14 1.671 2.04 1195
15 1.691 2.04 1200
Cell No. 3 & 5 exceeds the limit
: Court 33/11 KV SS, Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.601 2.06 1165
2 2.704 2.07 1170
3 2.66 2.08 1180
4 2.743 2.08 1180
5 2.967 2.08 1160
6 3.012 2.07 1190
7 2.943 2.07 1185
8 2.997 2.06 1175
9 3.022 2.08 1180
10 3.812 1.91 1180
11 2.921 2.06 1175
12 2.656 2.07 1180
13 3.895 2.08 1200
14 2.681 2.06 1180
15 3.022 2.08 1125
Cell Nos. 10 & 13 exceeds the limit
116
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Chemsolar 60 AH
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.943
20% Above Avg. : 2.332
20% Below Avg. 1.554
Chemsolar 60 AH
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.943
20% Above Avg. : 2.332
20% Below Avg. 1.554
: Srirangam 33/11 KV SS, Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.144 2.04 1180
2 2.599 2.00 1180
3 1.990 2.04 1180
4 2.185 2.04 1180
5 2.016 2.01 1180
6 1.901 1.99 1180
7 1.940 2.04 1180
8 2.211 1.98 1180
9 1.942 2.01 1200
10 1.889 2.02 1180
11 1.986 2.00 1180
12 1.915 2.03 1180
13 1.960 2.02 1180
14 2.045 2.02 1180
15 2.020 2.03 1180
Cell No. 2 exceeds the limit
: E.B. Road 33/11 KV SS, Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.243 2.04 1170
2 2.312 2.00 1170
3 2.329 2.04 1180
4 2.165 2.04 1170
5 2.005 2.01 1190
6 2.442 1.99 1170
7 2.992 2.04 1180
8 2.226 1.98 1170
9 2.221 2.01 1170
10 2.277 2.02 1170
11 2.343 2.00 1160
12 2.213 2.03 1160
13 2.248 2.02 1170
14 1.873 2.02 1170
15 2.092 2.03 1180
Cell No.7 exceeds the limit value
117
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Exide 60 AH
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.05
20% Above Avg. : 2.459
20% Below Avg. : 1.64
Exide 60 AH
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.265
20% Above Avg. : 2.718
20% Below Avg. : 1.812
: Thennur 33/11 KV SS (GC & LV), Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
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o
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I
m
p
.

m

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o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.063 2.19 1200
2 2.156 2.19 1200
3 1.981 2.20 1210
4 2.039 2.19 1200
5 2.093 2.20 1200
6 2.139 2.19 1200
7 2.374 2.19 1200
8 1.938 2.19 1200
9 1.952 2.18 1210
10 2.131 2.20 1200
11 2.063 2.18 1200
12 2.070 2.14 1200
13 2.116 2.21 1210
14 2.049 2.14 1200
15 2.223 2.20 1210
: Thennur 33/11 KV SS (Feeders), Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.820 2.03 1140
2 1.680 2.08 1200
3 1.894 2.08 1210
4 1.689 2.09 1200
5 1.919 2.09 1200
6 1.842 2.09 1200
7 1.887 2.09 1200
8 1.787 2.09 1200
9 1.597 2.09 1200
10 1.854 2.09 1200
11 2.044 2.09 1200
12 1.848 2.08 1200
13 1.778 2.09 1200
14 1.696 2.10 1200
15 1.690 2.10 1200
118
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Exide 60 AH
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.092
20% Above Avg. : 2.511
20% Below Avg. : 1.674
Exide 60AH
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.802
20% Above Avg. : 2.162
20% Below Avg. : 1.441
: T. Ranganathapuram 33/11 KV SS, Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 5.649 1.97 1170
2 3.110 1.97 1170
3 3.938 1.97 1190
4 6.835 1.96 1190
5 14.749 1.98 1180
6 4.891 1.97 1170
7 2.030 1.97 1190
8 3.924 2.00 1190
9 4.203 1.98 1190
10 2.394 1.97 1150
11 4.060 2.01 1200
12 4.636 1.96 1150
13 3.726 1.98 1190
14 5.037 1.99 1170
15 3.298 1.97 1150
Cell No. 4 & 6 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 2,7,10,13 & 15 below 20% o Avg. Imp.
: Thuraiyur 110/22-11 KV SS (GC & LV), Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.874 2.01 1200
2 2.133 2.01 1200
3 2.533 2.02 1200
4 2.738 2.02 1200
5 2.187 2.01 1210
6 2.102 2.01 1200
7 2.175 2.01 1200
8 2.583 2.00 1190
9 2.270 2.01 1200
10 1.979 2.02 1200
11 2.164 2.03 1215
12 1.935 2.01 1200
13 1.926 2.01 1200
14 2.096 2.02 1200
15 1.981 2.01 1200
Cell No. 4 exceeds the limit.
119
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Exide 60AH
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.178
20% Above Avg. :2.614
20% Below Avg. :1.743
1.8
3.8
5.8
7.8
9.8
11.8
13.8
15.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 4.832
20% Above Avg. : 5.798
20% Below Avg. : 3.866
: Thuraiyur 110/22-11 KV SS (Feeder), Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 3.098 2.02 1200
2 2.809 2.05 1220
3 2.702 2.03 1210
4 2.818 2.04 1210
5 3.077 2.03 1220
6 2.882 2.02 1200
7 3.163 2.02 1200
8 2.800 2.02 1180
9 2.961 2.02 1205
10 2.773 2.02 1200
11 2.871 1.99 1175
12 2.782 2.02 1200
13 2.746 2.02 1200
14 3.099 2.03 1200
15 2.886 2.03 1210
: Thiruvarambur 110/11 KV SS (GC & LV), Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Standard
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.330 2.13 1220
2 1.996 2.13 1230
3 2.205 2.12 1220
4 2.036 2.11 1220
5 2.321 2.11 1230
6 2.075 2.10 1230
7 2.140 2.11 1220
8 2.145 2.10 1220
9 2.168 2.10 1230
10 2.617 2.09 1220
11 2.085 2.09 1230
12 2.008 2.09 1220
13 1.405 2.05 1200
14 1.522 2.04 1200
15 1.450 2.04 1200
Cell Nos. 13,14 & 15 are below 20% of the avg. Imp.
120
Cell No. 10 exceeds the limit
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Sharana 60AH
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.898
20% Above Avg. : 3.477
20% Below Avg. : 2.318
Standard 60AH
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.034
20% Above Avg. : 2.44
20% Below Avg. : 1.627
: Thiruvarambur 110/11 KV SS (Feeders), Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Standard
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.520 2.08 1210
2 2.313 2.08 1210
3 2.215 2.08 1220
4 2.421 2.08 1220
5 2.103 2.08 1220
6 3.271 2.07 1210
7 2.453 2.07 1230
8 1.937 2.08 1220
9 3.323 2.06 1210
10 2.279 2.07 1210
11 2.049 2.08 1210
12 2.106 2.08 1210
13 1.919 2.08 1220
14 3.037 2.07 1200
15 1.905 2.08 1220
Cell Nos.6,9 &14 exceeds the limit.
: Pudur 33/11 KV SS (11 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.849 2.11 1200
2 1.947 2.10 1190
3 1.825 2.11 1190
4 1.936 2.10 1200
5 1.988 2.10 1190
6 1.869 2.12 1210
7 1.927 2.10 1200
8 1.792 2.11 1200
9 1.822 2.11 1200
10 1.907 2.11 1190
11 1.875 2.12 1200
12 1.894 2.12 1200
13 1.749 2.11 1190
14 1.807 2.12 1205
15 1.864 2.11 1200
121
Name of the SS
Capacity
Capacity
Name of the SS
Standard 60AH
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.39
20% Above Avg. : 2.868
20% Below Avg. : 1.912
Exide 60AH
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.87
20% Above Avg. : 2.244
20% Below Avg. : 1.496
: Pudur 33/11 KV SS (33 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Exide
:60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.818 2.18 1210
2 1.829 2.19 1220
3 1.936 2.17 1220
4 1.784 2.10 1230
5 1.891 2.11 1200
6 1.936 2.19 1200
7 1.660 2.19 1220
8 2.127 2.19 1220
9 1.824 2.19 1210
10 1.831 2.12 1210
11 1.739 2.20 1220
12 1.666 2.12 1200
13 1.811 2.21 1210
14 1.693 2.21 1220
15 1.734 2.20 1210
: Mahalipatti 33/11 KV SS (33 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.194 2.04 1190
2 2.342 2.02 1200
3 1.938 2.04 1190
4 2.189 2.04 1190
5 1.753 2.03 1180
6 2.053 2.03 1190
7 1.805 2.03 1200
8 2.299 2.05 1200
9 1.887 2.05 1200
10 1.990 2.04 1190
11 1.864 2.05 1190
12 2.027 2.05 1200
13 2.031 2.03 1190
14 1.950 2.04 1190
15 2.486 2.04 1200
Cell No.15 exceeds the limit.
122
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Exide 60AH
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.20
2.40
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.819
20% Above Avg. : 2.182
20% Below Avg. : 1.455
Exide 60AH
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.054
20% Above Avg. : 2.465
20% Below Avg. : 1.643
: Mahalipatti 33/11 KV SS (11 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.610 2.10 1200
2 2.116 2.08 1200
3 2.556 2.07 1200
4 2.482 2.07 1195
5 2.177 2.09 1200
6 2.149 2.07 1200
7 2.361 2.09 1200
8 2.390 2.09 1200
9 2.282 2.08 1200
10 2.382 2.08 1190
11 2.270 2.09 1200
12 2.315 2.08 1210
13 2.351 2.08 1200
14 2.093 2.09 1200
15 2.101 2.09 1200
: Theppam 33/11 KV SS (33 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.992 2.42 1240
2 2.778 2.46 1260
3 3.877 2.48 1250
4 3.800 2.47 1260
5 2.395 2.46 1260
6 3.144 2.47 1260
7 2.752 2.43 1260
8 2.791 2.42 1200
9 2.545 2.44 1240
10 2.891 2.45 1240
11 3.088 2.44 1240
12 2.891 2.45 1250
13 3.096 2.47 1230
14 2.929 2.47 1240
15 3.010 2.41 1240
Cell Nos. 3& 4 exceeds the limit
123
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Sharana 60AH
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.309
20% Above Avg. : 2.771
20% Below Avg. : 1.847
Sharana 60AH
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.999
20% Above Avg. :3.598
20% Below Avg. :2.399
: Theppam 33/11 KV SS (11 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.969 2.22 1200
2 1.791 2.26 1190
3 2.013 2.26 1200
4 1.808 2.26 1200
5 2.148 2.28 1210
6 1.824 2.23 1200
7 3.491 2.28 1200
8 2.086 2.28 1200
9 2.076 2.27 1210
10 2.278 2.26 1190
11 2.018 2.26 1200
12 1.997 2.23 1190
13 2.095 2.24 1190
14 2.188 2.27 1190
15 1.908 2.14 1190
Cell No. 7 exceeds the limit
: Anna Bus Stand 33/11 KV SS (33 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.709 2.03 1200
2 2.967 2.04 1200
3 3.113 2.04 1200
4 2.971 2.04 1190
5 3.235 2.04 1200
6 3.093 2.03 1180
7 2.929 2.03 1190
8 3.326 2.06 1200
9 3.015 2.05 1200
10 2.953 2.06 1210
11 4.147 2.05 1190
12 2.849 2.03 1200
13 3.096 2.04 1200
14 3.284 2.04 1190
15 2.975 2.04 1190
Cell No. 11 exceeds the limit
124
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Exide 60AH
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.113
20% Above Avg. :2.535
20% Below Avg. :1.69
2.20
2.70
3.20
3.70
4.20
4.70
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 3.111
20% Above Avg. : 3.733
20% Below Avg. : 2.489
: Anna Bus Stand 33/11 KV SS (11 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.499 2.03 1200
2 2.740 2.04 1200
3 2.544 2.04 1200
4 2.661 2.06 1210
5 2.965 2.05 1200
6 2.850 2.05 1200
7 2.807 2.05 1200
8 2.465 2.07 1210
9 2.768 2.08 1220
10 2.600 2.08 1210
11 2.852 2.08 1190
12 2.688 2.07 1210
13 2.478 2.08 1210
14 2.540 2.07 1190
15 2.694 2.07 1200
: Valayankulam 33/11 KV SS, Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 3.309 2.31 1190
2 3.341 2.30 1190
3 3.576 2.29 1200
4 3.628 2.01 1180
5 3.270 2.33 1200
6 3.964 2.32 1190
7 3.884 2.32 1140
8 3.194 2.30 1180
9 3.596 2.31 1200
10 3.459 2.33 1180
11 4.451 2.30 1180
12 3.343 2.31 1180
13 3.494 2.31 1190
14 3.420 2.21 1180
15 3.405 2.26 1190
125
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
2.80
3.00
3.20
3.40
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.677
20% Above Avg. : 3.212
20% Below Avg. : 2.141
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 3.556
20% Above Avg. : 4.267
20% Below Avg. : 2.844
: Arappalayam 33/11 KV SS, Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 3.091 2.23 1200
2 2.732 2.23 1210
3 3.074 2.15 1230
4 2.741 2.25 1230
5 3.171 2.14 1220
6 2.615 2.23 1240
7 2.625 2.26 1230
8 3.166 2.18 1230
9 2.732 2.36 1220
10 2.658 2.24 1230
11 2.761 2.25 1240
12 2.813 2.25 1240
13 2.614 2.25 1230
14 2.423 2.25 1240
15 2.563 2.20 1240
: Subramaniapuram 33/11 KV SS (33 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.345 2.04 1180
2 1.941 2.03 1170
3 1.883 2.03 1180
4 1.669 2.02 1170
5 1.898 2.03 1180
6 1.826 2.04 1180
7 1.742 2.03 1170
8 1.863 2.01 1170
9 1.963 2.01 1170
10 1.955 2.02 1180
11 1.923 2.04 1180
12 1.825 2.04 1180
13 2.584 2.03 1180
14 1.795 2.04 1200
15 1.818 2.01 1170
Cell No.13 exceeds the limit.
126
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Exide 60AH
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
CELL No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.935
20% Above Avg. : 2.322
20% Below Avg. :1.548
Sharana 60AH
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.1
3.3
3.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.785
20% Above Avg. :3.342
20% Below Avg. :2.228
: Subramaniapuram 33/11 KV SS (11 KV Side), Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.583 2.24 1190
2 2.182 2.24 1190
3 1.327 2.23 1190
4 2.086 2.19 1190
5 2.717 2.25 1180
6 2.740 2.24 1180
7 2.782 2.24 1190
8 2.276 2.20 1180
9 1.999 2.24 1190
10 2.595 2.24 1190
11 1.875 2.23 1190
12 1.865 2.24 1190
13 2.289 2.25 1190
14 2.252 2.25 1190
15 1.924 2.22 1180
Cell Nos.5,6 & 7 exceeds the limit
Cell No.3 below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
: J.J.Nagar 33/11 KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.616 2.05 1210
2 2.041 2.04 1220
3 2.030 2.06 1230
4 1.648 2.06 1240
5 3.005 2.06 1230
6 1.903 1.65 1220
7 2.176 2.03 1210
8 2.596 2.03 1210
9 3.087 2.04 1220
10 3.971 2.03 1220
11 3.967 2.03 1200
12 1.900 2.06 1230
13 2.346 2.02 1190
14 2.486 2.02 1190
15 2.406 2.02 1190
Cell Nos.9,10 & 11 exceeds the limit
Cell No.4,6&12 below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
127
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Exide 60AH
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.233
20% Above Avg. :2.679
20% Below Avg. :1.786
Sharana 60AH
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.545
20% Above Avg.:3.054
20% Below Avg.:2.036
: Menambedu 33/11 KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
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o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.586 2.11 1190
2 1.710 2.10 1180
3 1.599 2.11 1200
4 1.375 2.11 1200
5 1.698 2.10 1180
6 1.726 2.11 1190
7 1.839 2.10 1200
8 1.415 2.09 1200
9 1.856 2.09 1170
10 1.532 2.10 1180
11 1.852 2.09 1180
12 1.609 2.10 1170
13 1.482 2.09 1190
14 1.817 2.10 1190
15 1.572 2.10 1200
: Puzhal 33/11 KV SS (GC&LV), Chennai West Circle
Make : Power Build
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

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o
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I
m
p
.

m

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o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
2 4.102 2.03 1140
3 4.234 2.27 1170
4 2.698 2.28 1180
5 3.333 2.09 1160
6 5.336 2.36 1190
7 6.826 2.16 1150
8 1200
9 3.986 2.09 1190
10 3.686 2.14 1200
11 2.605 2.34 1200
12 2.274 2.25 1210
13 3.520 2.37 1180
14 3.790 2.22 1190
15 2.441 2.36 1210
Cell Nos. 3,6,7 & 8 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 4,11,12 & 15 below 20% of Avg. Imp.
128
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Exide 60AH
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.20
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.645
20% Above Avg.:1.973
20% Below Avg.:1.316
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
mImpedance m
Avg. Imp. : 3.510
20% Above Avg. : 4.212
20% Below Avg. : 2.808
: Puzhal 33/11 KV SS (FEEDERS), Chennai West Circle
Make : Power Build
: 60 AH
C
e
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l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 9.315 2.00 1170
2 5.127 2.32 1220
3 4.477 2.30 1190
4 4.333 2.07 1170
5 3.599 2.10 1200
6 3.838 2.05 1170
7 6.902 2.14 1190
8 4.310 2.06 1180
9 4.830 2.01 1180
10 4.733 2.21 1170
11 5.980 2.28 1240
12 5.017 2.05 1180
13 3.657 2.15 1240
14 3.602 2.16 1180
15 4.145 2.01 1170
Cell Nos. 1,7 & 11 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 5,6,13 & 14 below 20% 0f Avg. Imp.
: T.I. Cycles 33/11 KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : SHARANA
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.546 2.17 1180
2 3.081 2.12 1200
3 2.692 2.28 1210
4 2.595 2.15 1200
5 2.475 2.33 1200
6 2.268 2.27 1200
7 2.203 2.28 1210
8 2.564 2.27 1200
9 4.794 2.15 1200
10 2.081 2.33 1200
11 2.769 2.33 1210
12 2.986 2.08 1210
13 2.476 2.14 1200
14 2.544 2.27 1200
15 2.340 2.14 1190
Cell No. 9 exceeds the limit value
129
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Sharana 60AH
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
5.00
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.694
20% Above Avg. :
3.233
20% Below Avg. :
2.155
3.40
4.40
5.40
6.40
7.40
8.40
9.40
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 4.924
20% Above Avg. : 5.909
20% Below Avg. : 3.939
: Kamaraj nagar , Avadi 33/11 KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Sharana
: 64 AH
C
e
l
l

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o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.283 2.06 1190
2 2.627 2.03 1190
3 2.584 2.07 1200
4 2.557 2.06 1200
5 2.365 2.07 1200
6 2.251 2.07 1200
7 2.548 2.07 1200
8 2.784 2.04 1200
9 2.309 2.06 1190
10 2.527 2.05 1190
11 3.118 2.07 1200
12 2.674 2.06 1210
13 2.752 2.07 1200
14 2.868 2.05 1190
15 2.893 2.06 1190
: Chetpet 33/11 KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
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N
o
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I
m
p
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m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.028 2.17 1200
2 3.203 2.21 1210
3 2.161 2.18 1200
4 1.994 2.09 1200
5 2.397 2.07 1200
6 2.025 2.17 1180
7 2.894 2.19 1200
8 2.078 2.03 1200
9 2.703 2.18 1180
10 2.361 2.17 1190
11 2.288 2.12 1200
12 2.151 2.01 1180
13 2.162 2.16 1210
14 2.204 2.15 1210
15 2.076 2.15 1210
Cell Nos. 2 & 7 exceeds the limit.
130
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.609
20% Above Avg. : 3.131
20% Below Avg. : 2.087
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No
I
m
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.315
20% Above Avg. : 2.778
20% Below Avg. :1.852
: Arumbakkam 33/11 KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Exide
: 64 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 3.004 2.13 1170
2 2.790 2.04 1170
3 2.869 2.09 1200
4 3.840 2.12 1200
5 2.478 2.12 1200
6 2.389 2.08 1220
7 7.587 2.11 1180
8 5.219 2.07 1180
9 3.666 2.15 1200
10 5.054 2.16 1200
11 2.568 2.09 1210
12 6.281 2.12 1200
13 3.652 2.14 1180
14 3.840 2.18 1180
15 4.978 2.11 1200
Cell Nos. 7,8,10,12& 15 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos.2,3,5,6&11 below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
: SAF Games Village (Koyampedu) 33/11 KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Exide
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.135 2.20 1210
2 1.845 2.21 1190
3 1.962 2.20 1200
4 2.025 2.18 1180
5 1.964 2.18 1190
6 1.996 2.17 1200
7 2.031 2.19 1210
8 2.651 2.20 1220
9 1.880 2.19 1200
10 1.927 2.18 1200
11 2.056 2.20 1190
12 2.148 2.21 1200
13 2.063 2.18 1210
14 2.697 2.20 1210
15 2.174 2.21 1200
Cell Nos. 8&14 exceeds the limit
131
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 4.014
20% Above Avg. : 4.817
20% Below Avg. : 3.211
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :2.104
20% Above Avg. : 2.524
20% Below Avg. : 1.683
: Koyampedu Market 33/11 KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 3.966 1.95 1120
2 3.415 1.96 1190
3 3.291 1.98 1140
4 3.465 1.98 1140
5 3.669 1.96 1140
6 1.794 1.98 1160
7 3.404 1.97 1170
8 3.364 1.98 1160
9 3.522 1.97 1140
10 3.450 1.99 1150
11 3.409 1.98 1150
12 3.312 1.97 1150
13 3.421 1.95 1140
14 3.632 1.95 1150
15 2.993 1.97 1150
Cell No.6 below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
: Maduravoyal 33/11 KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.582 2.17 1200
2 2.663 2.17 1200
3 2.464 2.19 1200
4 1.726 2.18 1190
5 3.621 2.18 1200
6 3.327 2.19 1200
7 2.795 2.18 1200
8 2.797 2.17 1200
9 2.549 2.17 1200
10 2.707 2.18 1190
11 3.329 2.18 1220
12 2.498 2.18 1180
13 4.296 2.18 1190
14 3.446 2.18 1200
15 3.282 2.18 1200
Cell Nos. 5 & 13 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos.1& 4 below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
132
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 3.340
20% Above Avg. : 4.009
20% Below Avg. : 2.672
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
mImpedance m
Av. Imp. (2.872)
20% Above Av.
(3.447)
20% Below Av.
(2.298)
: OCF 33/11 KV SS
Make : Sharana
: 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 2.327 2.10 1210
2 2.024 2.11 1215
3 1.950 2.10 1210
4 2.028 2.11 1220
5 1.996 2.10 1215
6 2.077 2.11 1210
7 2.027 2.10 1210
8 2.014 2.10 1215
9 2.103 2.12 1215
10 2.296 2.11 1215
11 2.066 2.11 1215
12 2.020 2.10 1210
13 2.172 2.11 1210
14 2.118 2.11 1215
15 2.045 2.12 1215
Cell Nos. 5 & 13 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos.1& 4 below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
133
Name of the SS
Capacity
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.872
20% Above Avg. :
3.447
20% Below Avg. :
2.298
: Mannarpuram 33/11 KV SS, Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
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m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.379 2.140 1195 20 1.626 2.16 1205 39 1.336 2.12 1200
2 1.371 2.140 1200 21 1.353 2.16 1190 40 1.342 2.12 1200
3 1.378 2.140 1195 22 1.318 2.16 1195 41 1.287 2.13 1200
4 1.353 2.140 1200 23 1.376 2.15 1200 42 1.291 2.12 1200
5 1.336 2.140 1200 24 1.358 2.15 1200 43 1.334 2.13 1205
6 1.342 2.150 1200 25 1.411 2.14 1200 44 1.350 2.11 1200
7 1.392 2.150 1200 26 1.233 2.15 1205 45 1.346 2.12 1200
8 2.140 2.130 1200 27 1.344 2.15 1200 46 1.300 2.12 1190
9 1.378 2.160 1200 28 1.400 2.13 1195 47 1.376 2.10 1190
10 1.336 2.160 1200 29 1.336 2.14 1200 48 1.358 2.12 1200
11 1.393 2.160 1205 30 1.342 2.13 1195 49 1.320 2.11 1200
12 1.360 2.150 1195 31 1.349 2.13 1195 50 1.306 2.11 1205
13 1.341 2.130 1205 32 1.343 2.13 1200 51 1.330 2.10 1195
14 1.321 2.110 1200 33 1.341 2.13 1205 52 1.329 2.11 1200
15 1.405 2.170 1195 34 1.378 2.13 1200 53 1.338 2.10 1205
16 1.328 2.160 1200 35 1.339 2.13 1200 54 1.332 2.11 1200
17 1.373 2.170 1200 36 1.312 2.12 1205 55 1.319 2.10 1200
18 1.371 2.170 1200 37 1.345 2.13 1200
19 1.401 2.160 1205 38 1.363 2.12 1200
Cell No. 8 exceeds the limit.
: K.Sathanoor 110/11KV SS, Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.869 2.02 1200 20 1.665 2.01 1190 39 1.886 2.02 1195
2 1.824 2.02 1200 21 1.193 2.03 1195 40 1.595 2.03 1195
3 1.857 2.02 1190 22 1.484 2.02 1190 41 1.432 2.02 1190
4 1.770 2.02 1190 23 1.706 2.04 1190 42 1.119 2.02 1190
5 1.927 2.01 1185 24 2.187 2.03 1195 43 1.775 2.01 1200
6 1.952 2.03 1195 25 1.762 2.08 1190 44 1.824 2.01 1190
7 1.905 2.01 1190 26 2.205 2.03 1190 45 2.801 2.01 1180
8 1.776 2.01 1210 27 1.414 2.04 1190 46 2.113 2.03 1190
9 1.442 2.03 1200 28 1.798 2.02 1190 47 1.514 2.01 1195
10 1.818 2.02 1190 29 2.064 2.04 1195 48 2.184 2.03 1190
11 1.996 2.02 1195 30 2.313 2.02 1190 49 1.784 2.03 1190
12 2.097 2.03 1195 31 1.962 2.03 1195 50 2.051 2.02 1190
13 1.354 2.02 1190 32 1.719 2.02 1190 51 1.781 2.01 1190
14 1.743 2.02 1190 33 1.716 2.04 1190 52 2.124 2.02 1190
15 1.614 2.03 1190 34 1.463 2.04 1190 53 1.591 2.02 1195
16 1.591 2.02 1190 35 1.901 2.04 1195 54 1.544 2.02 1190
17 1.800 2.02 1200 36 2.219 2.03 1190 55 1.929 2.01 1190
18 2.055 2.03 1190 37 1.903 2.02 1190
19 1.883 2.02 1190 38 1.706 2.03 1195
Cell Nos.24,26,30,36,45 & 48 - exceeds the limit.
Cell Nos. 9,13,21,27, 41 & 42- bellow 20% of the Avg.Imp.
134
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Sharana 120AH
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
O
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.367
20% Above Avg. :1.64
20% Below Avg. :1.093
Sharana 120AH
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.813
20% Above Avg. :2.175
20% Below Avg. :1.45
: Trichy 110 KV SS (33 & 11 KV side), Trichy Metro EDC
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
1 1.279 2.13 1200 20 1.352 2.08 1195 39 1.36 2.08 1190
2 1.327 2.11 1195 21 1.463 2.08 1195 40 1.353 2.08 1190
3 1.348 2.13 1200 22 1.367 2.06 1190 41 1.352 2.08 1185
4 1.319 2.11 1190 23 1.309 2.10 1210 42 1.372 2.08 1190
5 1.357 2.12 1190 24 1.386 2.08 1195 43 1.446 2.07 1200
6 1.325 2.13 1200 25 1.363 2.07 1185 44 1.340 2.08 1195
7 1.334 2.11 1190 26 1.327 2.09 1200 45 1.294 2.08 1190
8 1.291 2.11 1195 27 1.293 2.08 1190 46 1.395 2.08 1195
9 1.380 2.11 1190 28 1.364 2.09 1200 47 1.377 2.08 1195
10 1.311 2.11 1180 29 1.424 2.07 1190 48 1.369 2.09 1200
11 1.361 2.11 1190 30 1.401 2.07 1190 49 1.372 2.08 1195
12 1.335 2.10 1190 31 1.355 2.07 1190 50 1.302 2.09 1200
13 1.340 2.11 1200 32 1.376 2.08 1200 51 1.321 2.02 1190
14 1.321 2.12 1200 33 1.334 2.08 1195 52 1.301 2.08 1200
15 1.313 2.10 1195 34 1.399 2.08 1190 53 1.367 2.08 1200
16 1.313 2.10 1190 35 1.337 2.08 1200 54 1.368 2.10 1205
17 1.335 2.09 1190 36 1.359 2.08 1220 55 1.382 2.08 1190
18 1.327 2.09 1190 37 1.381 2.08 1190
19 1.350 2.10 1200 38 1.386 2.07 1185
: Arasaradi 110/33-11KV SS, Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
C
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1 2.003 2.13 1200 20 1.993 2.15 1210 39 2.364 2.16 1200
2 1.837 2.13 1210 21 2.288 2.16 1200 40 1.89 2.17 1210
3 1.853 2.15 1210 22 1.838 2.16 1210 41 1.816 2.17 1200
4 1.368 2.15 1210 23 2.338 2.15 1210 42 1.815 2.16 1200
5 1.207 2.12 1200 24 1.664 2.16 1200 43 1.914 2.15 1190
6 1.893 2.15 1210 25 1.888 2.14 1200 44 1.806 2.16 1200
7 1.821 2.15 1210 26 2.486 2.16 1210 45 2.035 2.15 1210
8 1.989 2.15 1210 27 2.028 2.15 1200 46 1.773 2.16 1200
9 1.842 2.15 1210 28 1.806 2.14 1200 47 2.236 2.12 1210
10 2.264 2.14 1210 29 2.551 2.15 1200 48 1.838 2.15 1200
11 2.12 2.15 1210 30 2.082 2.15 1200 49 1.913 2.15 1210
12 2.063 2.15 1210 31 1.894 2.12 1200 50 1.688 2.15 1210
13 1.926 2.14 1200 32 1.800 2.16 1200 51 1.866 2.15 1200
14 1.506 2.16 1210 33 1.922 2.14 1200 52 1.812 2.14 1200
15 2.231 2.14 1200 34 1.908 2.15 1200 53 1.817 2.16 1210
16 2.372 2.16 1210 35 2.352 2.14 1200 54 2.158 2.14 1200
17 1.703 2.14 1210 36 1.513 2.16 1210 55 1.892 2.16 1210
18 1.581 2.15 1210 37 1.985 2.16 1200
19 2.063 2.15 1200 38 2.081 2.17 1200
Cell Nos. 16,23,26,29,35 & 39 exceeds the limit.
Cell Nos. 4,5,14 & 36 - below 20% of Avg. Imp.
135
: Anuppanadi 110/33-11KV SS, Madurai Metro Circle
Capacity
Name of the SS
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Sharana 120AH
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
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a
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i
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m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.351
20% Above Avg. :1.621
20% Below Avg. :1.081
Sharana 120AH
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
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o
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Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.94
20% Above Avg.: 2.328
20% Below Avg. :1.552
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
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1 1.874 2.20 1180 20 1.709 2.21 1200 39 2.185 2.22 1195
2 1.863 2.22 1190 21 2.068 2.23 1200 40 1.732 2.22 1190
3 1.735 2.25 1180 22 1.737 2.22 1190 41 2.080 2.21 1190
4 2.174 2.23 1185 23 1.668 2.23 1190 42 1.814 2.21 1190
5 1.820 2.25 1190 24 1.793 2.21 1180 43 1.693 2.17 1180
6 1.470 2.23 1180 25 1.908 2.20 1180 44 1.900 2.22 1190
7 1.674 2.24 1200 26 2.134 2.25 1190 45 1.892 2.19 1180
8 1.699 2.24 1185 27 1.564 2.22 1190 46 1.898 2.22 1190
9 1.778 2.21 1190 28 1.682 2.24 1195 47 2.134 2.23 1190
10 1.939 2.24 1190 29 1.941 2.25 1195 48 1.645 2.23 1200
11 1.969 2.22 1190 30 1.852 2.23 1190 49 1.735 2.22 1190
12 1.865 2.22 1180 31 1.888 2.21 1200 50 2.432 2.20 1190
13 1.896 2.24 1195 32 1.854 2.21 1200 51 1.989 2.21 1190
14 2.262 2.24 1190 33 1.547 2.20 1190 52 1.856 2.20 1190
15 2.450 2.23 1195 34 2.167 2.16 1185 53 1.961 2.24 1195
16 1.674 2.22 1180 35 2.042 2.23 1190 54 2.013 2.23 1190
17 1.980 2.22 1200 36 1.722 2.19 1185 55 1.842 2.21 1195
18 1.975 2.23 1210 37 1.929 2.20 1180
19 1.974 2.23 1200 38 1.828 2.25 1210
Cell Nos.15 & 50 exceeds the limit.
: Villapuram 110/33-11KV SS, Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Power Build
: 120 AH
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1 1.843 2.15 1210 20 1.989 2.12 1190 39 1.884 2.15 1210
2 1.758 2.15 1200 21 1.702 2.14 1200 40 1.806 2.16 1200
3 1.884 2.13 1200 22 1.803 2.14 1190 41 1.775 2.15 1205
4 1.799 2.16 1210 23 1.759 2.15 1210 42 3.158 2.15 1210
5 8.246 2.01 1150 24 1.827 2.16 1200 43 1.775 2.14 1205
6 1.814 2.15 1200 25 1.756 2.15 1210 44 1.888 2.14 1200
7 1.872 2.16 1200 26 1.721 2.15 1200 45 1.782 2.14 1200
8 1.901 2.15 1200 27 1.773 2.15 1190 46 1.904 2.14 1205
9 1.951 2.35 1200 28 2.272 2.14 1200 47 1.708 2.15 1210
10 1.766 2.64 1210 29 1.920 2.14 1200 48 1.869 2.16 1210
11 1.715 2.15 1210 30 4.288 2.07 1185 49 1.876 2.15 1200
12 1.791 2.15 1200 31 1.877 2.14 1200 50 1.706 2.15 1205
13 1.824 2.14 1200 32 1.740 2.15 1205 51 1.761 2.14 1200
14 1.840 2.15 1220 33 1.763 2.16 1180 52 2.060 2.13 1190
15 2.149 2.15 1200 34 1.862 2.15 1200 53 1.729 2.15 1200
16 2.905 2.15 1200 35 2.110 2.18 1190 54 2.343 2.16 1190
17 2.464 2.14 1195 36 1.873 2.16 1200 55 1.849 2.15 1210
18 1.728 2.14 1200 37 1.827 2.16 1200
19 1.715 2.15 1210 38 1.802 2.16 1200
Cell Nos. 5,16,30 & 44 exceeds the limit.
136
: Achampathu 110/11KV SS, Madurai Metro Circle
Name of the SS
Name of the SS
Capacity
Capacity
Power Build 120AH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
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c
e

i
n

m
.
O
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :2.064
20% Above Avg. :2.476
20% Below Avg. :1.651
Sharana 120AH
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
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m
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e
d
a
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c
e

i
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m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.889
20% Above Avg. :2.267
20% Below Avg. :1.511
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
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1 1.505 2.17 1200 20 1.68 2.22 1200 39 1.733 2.15 1200
2 1.570 2.22 1200 21 1.871 2.17 1200 40 1.414 2.16 1200
3 1.447 2.21 1200 22 1.525 2.22 1210 41 1.470 2.15 1200
4 1.584 2.18 1210 23 1.611 2.21 1200 42 1.648 2.20 1200
5 1.485 2.23 1200 24 1.530 2.21 1200 43 1.988 2.16 1190
6 1.456 2.17 1190 25 1.595 2.16 1200 44 1.611 2.14 1190
7 1.777 2.21 1200 26 1.621 2.18 1200 45 1.847 2.16 1200
8 1.587 2.21 1200 27 1.586 2.20 1190 46 1.746 2.16 1200
9 1.599 2.17 1200 28 1.857 2.15 1190 47 1.675 2.15 1200
10 1.215 2.17 1205 29 1.458 2.16 1190 48 1.836 2.16 1200
11 1.214 2.16 1200 30 1.506 2.15 1190 49 1.532 2.20 1190
12 1.717 2.20 1200 31 1.675 2.16 1190 50 1.711 2.20 1200
13 1.395 2.20 1200 32 1.394 2.16 1190 51 1.709 2.15 1190
14 1.844 2.16 1200 33 1.843 2.15 1190 52 1.876 2.16 1200
15 1.652 2.16 1200 34 1.603 2.18 1200 53 1.726 2.15 1200
16 1.861 2.17 1200 35 1.743 2.16 1190 54 1.752 2.15 1190
17 1.845 2.17 1210 36 1.869 2.15 1190 55 1.180 2.20 1200
18 1.508 2.21 1200 37 1.696 2.15 1190
19 1.741 2.16 1200 38 1.757 2.19 1190
Cell No. 43 exceeds the limit.
Cell Nos. 10,11 & 55 below 20% of Avg. Imp.
: Anaiyur 110/11KV SS, Madurai Metro Circle
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
C
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1 1.538 2.08 1190 20 1.513 2.12 1215 39 1.628 2.17 1205
2 1.451 2.09 1195 21 1.416 2.11 1200 40 1.428 2.16 1200
3 1.673 2.08 1190 22 1.533 2.11 1210 41 1.498 2.17 1190
4 1.489 2.09 1200 23 1.522 2.10 1200 42 1.432 2.16 1210
5 1.457 2.09 1200 24 1.556 2.10 1200 43 1.521 2.15 1205
6 1.475 2.11 1210 25 1.475 2.12 1210 44 1.455 2.17 1210
7 1.517 2.10 1200 26 1.451 2.11 1210 45 1.438 2.17 1210
8 1.589 2.10 1210 27 1.438 2.11 1200 46 1.492 2.10 1190
9 1.495 2.10 1210 28 1.464 2.14 1200 47 1.448 2.17 1200
10 1.481 2.11 1200 29 1.524 2.16 1195 48 1.49 2.16 1190
11 1.433 2.11 1215 30 1.429 2.13 1200 49 1.437 2.18 1190
12 1.498 2.11 1210 31 1.373 2.11 1200 50 1.466 2.17 1190
13 1.494 2.11 1200 32 1.409 2.16 1195 51 1.488 2.15 1200
14 1.484 2.11 1210 33 1.443 2.16 1210 52 1.410 2.17 1210
15 1.492 2.10 1210 34 1.501 2.15 1195 53 1.512 2.16 1210
16 1.496 2.10 1200 35 1.54 2.15 1200 54 1.433 2.16 1200
17 1.516 2.11 1210 36 1.532 2.12 1200 55 1.553 2.15 1200
18 1.559 2.12 1200 37 1.401 2.15 1200
19 1.373 2.11 1200 38 1.541 2.16 1210
137
: Padi 110/ 33-11KV SS, Chennai West Circle Name of the SS
Capacity
Capacity
Name of the SS
Sharana 120AH
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.485
20% Above Avg. :1.783
20% Below Avg. :1.188
Sharana 120AH
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
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c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.634
20% Above Avg. :1.961
20% Below Avg. :1.307
Make : Sharana
: 300 AH
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1 0.838 2.07 1205 20 0.691 2.11 1205 39 0.83 2.09 1180
2 0.749 2.10 1190 21 0.711 2.10 1190 40 0.763 2.12 1190
3 0.738 2.05 1190 22 0.802 2.11 1185 41 0.901 2.09 1190
4 0.867 2.09 1190 23 0.843 2.11 1190 42 0.799 2.11 1185
5 0.899 2.11 1190 24 0.818 2.11 1195 43 0.792 2.10 1190
6 0.831 2.14 1180 25 0.833 2.11 1190 44 0.855 2.11 1200
7 0.867 2.13 1190 26 0.803 2.12 1190 45 0.826 2.11 1190
8 0.926 2.11 1200 27 0.775 2.08 1190 46 0.745 2.11 1190
9 0.867 2.12 1200 28 0.829 2.12 1195 47 0.843 2.11 1190
10 0.867 2.10 1190 29 0.848 2.12 1200 48 0.757 2.11 1185
11 0.741 2.11 1190 30 0.828 2.11 1200 49 0.775 2.10 1200
12 0.869 2.09 1190 31 0.903 2.11 1200 50 0.852 2.10 1190
13 0.793 2.11 1190 32 0.708 2.11 1200 51 0.869 2.10 1180
14 0.852 2.11 1200 33 0.847 2.07 1185 52 0.839 2.10 1190
15 0.881 2.12 1190 34 0.763 2.11 1205 53 0.84 2.09 1190
16 0.831 2.11 1200 35 0.869 2.12 1200 54 0.866 2.10 1180
17 0.786 2.12 1195 36 0.784 2.12 1200 55 0.8 2.10 1200
18 0.865 2.10 1180 37 0.77 2.11 1195
19 0.707 2.12 1200 38 0.795 2.11 1190
: Industrial Estate 110/ 11KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
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1 1.389 2.05 1200 20 1.383 2.04 1180 39 1.302 2.06 1200
2 1.589 2.05 1200 21 1.362 2.04 1190 40 1.34 2.05 1200
3 1.232 2.05 1200 22 1.276 2.05 1200 41 1.296 2.06 1200
4 1.340 2.05 1200 23 1.29 2.06 1200 42 1.358 2.05 1200
5 1.357 2.05 1200 24 1.457 2.05 1200 43 1.335 2.05 1200
6 1.403 2.04 1200 25 1.384 2.06 1200 44 1.309 2.06 1200
7 1.254 2.06 1200 26 1.441 2.05 1200 45 1.305 2.06 1200
8 1.359 2.05 1200 27 1.321 2.06 1200 46 1.459 2.05 1200
9 1.386 2.06 1200 28 1.248 2.05 1200 47 1.338 2.05 1200
10 1.306 2.05 1200 29 1.412 2.05 1200 48 1.387 2.06 1200
11 1.379 2.05 1200 30 1.317 2.07 1200 49 1.399 2.06 1200
12 1.31 2.05 1200 31 1.351 2.05 1200 50 1.293 2.05 1190
13 1.336 2.05 1200 32 1.284 2.05 1200 51 1.252 2.06 1200
14 1.332 2.06 1200 33 1.32 2.05 1200 52 1.606 2.05 1190
15 1.262 2.05 1200 34 1.397 2.05 1200 53 1.36 2.05 1200
16 1.436 2.05 1190 35 1.392 2.05 1200 54 1.351 2.05 1200
17 1.325 2.05 1200 36 1.418 2.05 1200 55 1.349 2.06 1200
18 1.382 2.05 1200 37 1.375 2.05 1200
19 1.385 2.05 1200 38 1.322 2.05 1200
138
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Sharana 120AH
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell no.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.355
20% Above Avg. :1.627
20% Below Avg. :1.084
Sharana 300AH
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :0.817
20% Above Avg. :0.981
20% Below Avg. :0.654
: Nolambur 110/ 11KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
C
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1 0.165 2.33 1180 20 0.528 2.33 1180 39 0.837 2.33 1190
2 0.890 2.30 1190 21 0.205 2.31 1185 40 0.196 2.31 1190
3 0.197 2.33 1180 22 2.091 2.35 1190 41 0.245 2.29 1180
4 0.254 2.28 1190 23 1.067 2.32 1190 42 0.019 2.32 1200
5 0.027 2.34 1190 24 1.414 2.33 1190 43 0.021 2.30 1180
6 0.971 2.33 1185 25 0.128 2.30 1200 44 0.010 2.32 1185
7 3.117 2.30 1180 26 1.802 2.35 1180 45 3.105 2.32 1180
8 16.685 2.32 1195 27 2.244 2.33 1190 46 1.563 2.29 1190
9 9.845 2.31 1185 28 0.207 2.30 1195 47 1.051 2.28 1175
10 2.973 2.31 1180 29 2.055 2.34 1190 48 3.480 2.31 1195
11 0.111 2.33 1190 30 0.319 2.31 1190 49 3.724 2.29 1180
12 1.298 2.29 1190 31 1.365 2.31 1190 50 0.772 2.33 1190
13 2.156 29.00 1200 32 1.538 2.31 1185 51 2.30 1180
14 4.454 2.33 1190 33 3.814 2.32 1190 52 0.041 2.31 1180
15 1.594 2.33 1200 34 0.272 2.30 1190 53 0.074 2.31 1190
16 1.057 2.00 1190 35 0.118 2.32 1190 54 0.411 2.28 1190
17 2.33 1200 36 0.068 2.30 1180 55 2.903 2.29 1200
18 1.514 2.31 1180 37 0.094 2.32 1200
19 0.193 1.00 1180 38 0.239 2.30 1200
: III Main Road 110/ 11KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
C
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r
1 1.434 2.08 1210 20 1.027 2.08 1220 39 0.178 2.08 1210
2 2.123 2.09 1210 21 1.422 2.08 1220 40 4.430 2.08 1210
3 1.656 2.09 1210 22 1.006 2.07 1220 41 1.923 2.05 1190
4 1.196 2.09 1210 23 2.342 2.08 1210 42 1.476 2.08 1210
5 1.645 2.09 1220 24 2.192 2.07 1210 43 1.809 2.08 1210
6 0.530 2.07 1210 25 0.688 2.08 1210 44 4.769 2.07 1200
7 1.667 2.09 1220 26 2.557 2.07 1220 45 1.790 2.07 1190
8 3.060 2.08 1220 27 3.129 2.06 1190 46 1.630 2.08 1210
9 0.726 2.08 1205 28 1.558 2.08 1220 47 1.463 2.08 1200
10 2.375 2.08 1220 29 1.718 2.08 1220 48 3.104 2.07 1200
11 1.431 2.08 1220 30 1.428 2.08 1210 49 0.521 2.07 1210
12 1.994 2.08 1220 31 1.296 2.09 1230 50 2.322 2.08 1210
13 1.832 2.08 1230 32 0.187 2.09 1220 51 0.668 2.07 1200
14 1.097 2.08 1210 33 1.413 2.09 1220 52 0.203 2.08 1200
15 3.30 2.09 1220 34 1.048 2.07 1230 53 0.603 2.08 1210
16 5.91 2.08 1220 35 1.758 2.09 1220 54 1.713 2.07 1220
17 1.60 2.08 1210 36 0.016 2.09 1220 55 2.361 2.06 1190
18 6.71 2.09 1220 37 1.126 2.08 1230
19 2.03 2.08 1230 38 0.314 2.09 1220
Cell Nos. 8,10,1516,18,23,24,26,27,40,44,48,50 & 55 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos.1,4,6,9,11,14,20,21,22,25,30,31,32,33,34,36,37,38,39,4951,52&53
below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
139
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Sharana 120AH
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.809
20% Above Avg. :2.171
20% Below Avg. :1.447
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell in No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

.
O
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.555
20% Above Avg. :1.627
20% Below Avg. :1.084
: SIDCO Ambattur 110/ 11KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
C
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m

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o
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a
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S
p
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G
r
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
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p
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m

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o
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t
a
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S
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.

G
r
C
e
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o
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r
1 1.360 2.14 1200 20 1.318 2.11 1170 39 0.865 2.16 1200
2 1.458 2.13 1210 21 1.210 2.11 1210 40 1.393 2.17 1190
3 1.379 2.10 1220 22 1.278 2.14 1200 41 1.422 2.16 1200
4 1.452 2.13 1210 23 1.234 2.14 1190 42 1.440 2.16 1180
5 1.515 1.93 1200 24 1.481 2.14 1190 43 1.425 2.17 1200
6 1.429 2.11 1200 25 1.099 2.14 1200 44 1.398 2.16 1220
7 1.472 2.11 1190 26 1.440 2.15 1190 45 1.410 2.16 1220
8 1.294 2.11 1190 27 1.559 2.17 1180 46 1.379 2.17 1200
9 1.312 2.11 1190 28 1.343 2.17 1200 47 1.469 2.18 1200
10 1.313 2.10 1190 29 1.511 2.15 1200 48 1.461 2.16 1190
11 1.296 2.11 1190 30 1.408 2.15 1180 49 1.642 2.17 1190
12 1.464 2.11 1190 31 1.225 2.15 1200 50 1.235 2.17 1220
13 1.305 2.12 1210 32 1.483 2.16 1220 51 1.546 2.17 1220
14 1.320 2.12 1190 33 1.342 2.16 1200 52 1.579 2.16 1220
15 1.363 2.12 1200 34 1.563 2.17 1190 53 1.331 2.17 1190
16 1.364 2.12 1210 35 1.436 2.15 1180 54 1.368 2.17 1200
17 1.243 2.11 1210 36 1.608 2.16 1190 55 1.752 2.16 1200
18 1.355 2.11 1170 37 1.363 2.16 1190
19 1.485 2.11 1190 38 1.428 2.19 1200
Cell No. 55 exceeds the limit
Cell No. 39 below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
: Ayyapakkam 110/ 11KV SS, Chennai West Circle
Make : Sharana
: 120 AH
C
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I
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m

V
o
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t
a
g
e
S
p
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G
r
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
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t
a
g
e
S
p
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G
r
C
e
l
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N
o
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I
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m

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o
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t
a
g
e
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p
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G
r
1 1.361 2.10 1200 20 1.248 2.10 1200 39 1.236 2.09 1200
2 1.268 2.09 1200 21 1.311 2.10 1210 40 1.243 2.09 1200
3 1.287 2.09 1200 22 1.340 2.09 1200 41 1.246 2.10 1210
4 1.209 2.08 1190 23 1.252 2.09 1200 42 1.259 2.08 1200
5 1.339 2.09 1210 24 1.346 2.09 1200 43 1.426 2.10 1220
6 1.247 2.09 1200 25 1.285 2.08 1200 44 1.391 2.10 1220
7 1.251 2.08 1200 26 1.272 2.09 1210 45 1.270 2.10 1200
8 1.295 2.08 1200 27 1.280 1.91 1200 46 1.273 2.10 1220
9 1.248 2.07 1200 28 1.310 2.11 1210 47 1.290 2.09 1220
10 1.388 2.09 1220 29 1.252 2.09 1210 48 1.274 2.09 1200
11 1.274 2.07 1200 30 1.269 2.09 1200 49 1.239 2.10 1200
12 1.318 2.11 1220 31 1.383 2.09 1200 50 1.170 2.09 1200
13 1.271 2.08 1200 32 1.319 2.09 1200 51 1.286 2.12 1200
14 1.396 2.09 1200 33 1.253 2.09 1200 52 1.263 2.09 1200
15 1.542 2.07 1200 34 1.311 2.10 1200 53 1.289 2.10 1210
16 1.264 2.07 1190 35 1.285 2.09 1200 54 1.244 2.10 1200
17 1.281 2.08 1200 36 1.197 2.09 1190 55 1.238 2.09 1200
18 1.255 2.09 1200 37 1.265 2.09 1200
19 1.252 2.08 1190 38 1.226 2.09 1200
140
Capacity
Name of the SS
Capacity
Name of the SS
Sharana 120AH
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.287
20% Above Avg. :1.544
20% Below Avg. :1.030
Sharana 120AH
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.393
20% Above Avg. :1.672
20% Below Avg. :1.115






FULL TEST IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTICS

St.MOUNT 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
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o
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I
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m

V
o
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t
a
g
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G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 9.597 2.07 1160 100
2 4.906 2.08 1160 95
3 4.981 2.03 1150 88
4 29.613 2.08 1160 100
5 3.933 2.03 1150 52
6 6.115 2.05 1150 100
7 3.366 2.04 1160 40
8 9.501 2.04 1160 100
9 5.996 2.04 1160 99
10 4.736 2.07 1160 55
11 5.842 2.04 1160 100
12 5.385 2.05 1150 94
13 5.155 2.03 1150 94
14 4.244 2.05 1150 64
15 5.087 2.04 1150 84
Cell Nos. 1,4 & 8 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 2,3,5,7,1012, 13,14 & 15 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
SAIDAPET 33-11 KV SS
Make : Sharana
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
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N
o
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I
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p
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m

V
o
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t
a
g
e
S
p
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G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.674 2.36 1180 30
2 3.52 2.35 1170 26
3 3.789 2.36 1150 33
4 3.111 2.35 1180 22
5 2.586 2.35 1150 28
6 2.581 2.36 1150 24
7 3.002 2.36 1150 25
8 3.726 2.36 1150 29
9 2.729 2.37 1150 24
10 2.504 2.36 1150 31
11 4.362 2.37 1150 31
12 2.285 2.36 1150 29
13 3.861 2.33 1150 16
14 2.915 2.31 1150 25
15 3.329 2.35 1150 32
Cell Nos. 3, 11 & 13 exceeds the limit
Cell No. 12 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
141
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 7.23
20% Above Avg. :
8.677
20% Below Avg. :
5.784
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 3.132
20% Above Avg. :
3.758
20% Below Avg. :
2.505
GUINDY 33-11 KV S
Make : Sharana
Capacity : 60 AH
C
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o
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I
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m

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a
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G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.591 2.25 1240 2
2 2.957 2.24 1210 14
3 3.048 2.25 1230 10
4 2.729 2.24 1220 3
5 2.751 2.24 1220 9
6 2.829 2.24 1220 6
7 2.713 2.24 1220 4
8 2.710 2.24 1210 3
9 2.803 2.25 1220 9
10 2.759 2.25 1220 4
11 2.716 2.25 1230 4
12 2.497 2.25 1215 0
13 2.613 2.06 1230 2
14 2.670 2.26 1230 3
DMS 33-11 KV SS
Make : Sharana
Capacity : 60 AH
C
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N
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I
m
p
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m

V
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t
a
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S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
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n
1 2.660 2.25 1210 1
2 2.643 2.27 1215 1
3 2.738 2.26 1220 5
4 2.694 2.25 1220 4
5 2.560 2.24 1220 0
6 2.641 2.25 1220 0
7 2.596 2.26 1220 0
8 2.406 2.27 1220 0
9 2.507 2.25 1220 0
10 2.410 2.27 1200 0
11 2.553 2.27 1220 0
12 2.524 2.28 1220 0
13 2.556 2.25 1210 0
14 2.478 2.22 1200 0
15 2.610 2.24 1200 2
142
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.559
20% Above Avg. :
3.071
20% Below Avg. :
2.047
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.398
20% Above Avg. :
2.877
20% Below Avg. :
1.918
RAMASAMY SALAI 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
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N
o
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I
m
p
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m

V
o
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G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.171 2.05 1200 0
2 2.144 2.05 1200 3
3 2.065 2.05 1200 0
4 2.089 2.04 1215 0
5 2.012 2.05 1200 0
6 2.117 2.04 1200 0
7 1.891 2.05 1200 0
8 2.110 2.04 1190 0
9 2.225 2.04 1200 0
10 2.246 2.05 1200 4
11 2.086 2.05 1200 0
12 2.157 2.05 1200 0
13 2.215 2.03 1190 1
14 2.330 2.02 1180 3
15 2.226 2.03 1190 5
MAMBALAM 33-11 KV SS
Make : Sharana
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
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m

V
o
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t
a
g
e
S
p
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G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.452 2.12 1180 1
2 2.645 2.14 1180 8
3 2.566 2.13 1190 7
4 2.594 2.14 1215 5
5 2.349 2.13 1190 0
6 2.687 2.16 1190 13
7 2.417 2.15 1190 1
8 2.374 2.15 1200 1
9 2.451 2.15 1190 3
10 2.448 2.18 1175 11
11 2.465 2.17 1175 2
12 2.724 2.19 1175 15
13 2.446 2.16 1180 0
14 2.473 2.18 1180 4
15 2.656 2.16 1180 7
143
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.139
20% Above Avg. : 2.567
20% Below Avg. : 1.711
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.1
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.516
20% Above Avg. :
3.020
20% Below Avg. :
2.013
USMAN ROAD 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
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I
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m

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S
u
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p
h
a
t
i
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n
1 2.059 2.18 1200 0
2 0.247 2.18 1180 8
3 1.786 2.19 1190 0
4 2.189 2.19 1190 0
5 0.821 2.19 1200 0
6 1.933 2.19 1190 0
7 2.023 2.2 1190 0
8 2.674 2.19 1215 0
9 1.427 2.19 1200 0
10 3.244 2.19 1190 0
11 2.043 2.19 1215 0
12 2.030 2.19 1190 0
13 2.864 2.17 1190 0
14 2.108 2.19 1190 0
15 2.111 2.19 1190 0
Cell Nos. 8, 10 7 13 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 2,5 & 9 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
WEST MAMBALAM 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
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N
o
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I
m
p
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m

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p
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G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 1.867 2.15 1195 100
2 1.717 2.16 1195 95
3 0.509 2.17 1190 5
4 2.009 2.15 1190 100
5 1.972 2.14 1200 100
6 1.911 2.14 1200 100
7 1.801 2.15 1190 100
8 1.783 2.16 1190 100
9 1.862 2.16 1190 100
10 1.821 2.18 1215 97
11 1.770 2.16 1195 100
12 1.825 2.16 1195 100
13 2.063 2.16 1195 100
14 1.212 2.16 1195 61
15 1.864 2.14 1190 100
Cell Nos. 4,5 & 13 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 3 &14 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
144
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.971
20% Above Avg. :
2.365
20% Below Avg. :
1.576
0.2
0.7
1.2
1.7
2.2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.608
20% Above Avg. :
1.930
20% Below Avg. :
1.287
TINDIVANAM 110-33-11 KV SS
Make : Sharana
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
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t
a
g
e
S
p
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G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.447 2.09 1220 4
2 2.403 2.07 1200 4
3 2.553 2.09 1220 7
4 2.498 2.09 1220 6
5 2.559 2.09 1220 8
6 2.436 2.09 1220 4
7 2.505 2.09 1220 6
8 2.340 2.07 1210 1
9 2.391 2.09 1220 3
10 2.414 2.09 1220 5
11 2.400 2.09 1210 3
12 2.434 2.09 1220 4
13 2.430 2.08 1220 3
14 2.414 2.07 1200 4
15 2.439 2.07 1200 2
EDC 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
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G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.721 2.02 1160 22
2 3.601 2.02 1160 62
3 5.697 2.02 1160 100
4 5.088 2.01 1160 100
5 4.459 2.01 1150 100
6 3.97 2.02 1160 90
7 4.419 2.01 1160 100
8 3.057 2.02 1160 40
9 3.342 2.02 1160 51
10 2.603 2.03 1215 25
11 5.398 2.02 1160 100
12 3.214 2.03 1160 42
13 4.874 2.02 1160 100
14 3.281 2.02 1160 53
15 2.585 2.03 1160 28
Cell Nos. 3,4,11 & 13 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 1,8,10 & 15 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
145
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.1
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.444
20% Above Avg. :
2.933
20% Below Avg. :
1.955
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.9
4.4
4.9
5.4
5.9
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 3.887
20% Above Avg. :
4.665
20% Below Avg. :
3.110
THIRUVANMIYUR 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
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I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 3.609 2.29 1190 19
2 1.883 2.26 1180 0
3 2.29 1190 0
4 2.448 2.3 1200 8
5 2.044 2.29 1180 0
6 1.747 2.28 1180 0
7 1.440 2.29 1170 0
8 2.677 2.29 1180 9
9 1.957 2.29 1170 0
10 2.411 2.28 1190 0
11 2.422 2.29 1180 3
12 2.029 2.29 1215 0
13 2.29 1160 0
14 3.254 2.29 1170 17
15 2.306 2.28 1180 0
Cell Nos. 1,4,8,11,13 & 14 exceeds the limit
Cell No. 7 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
BESANTNAGAR 33-11 KV SS
Make : Sharana
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.343 2.23 1190 1
2 2.438 2.23 1180 7
3 2.373 2.22 1190 3
4 2.317 2.22 1180 0
5 2.242 2.23 1190 0
6 2.317 2.22 1180 0
7 2.361 2.22 1180 2
8 2.414 2.22 1180 5
9 2.365 2.22 1190 3
10 2.462 2.23 1180 8
11 2.236 2.22 1190 0
12 2.364 2.22 1180 1
13 2.433 2.23 1200 5
14 2.355 2.22 1200 1
15 2.208 2.21 1180 0
146
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.349
20% Above Avg. :
2.818
20% Below Avg. :
1.879
1.3
1.8
2.3
2.8
3.3
3.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.015
20% Above Avg. :
2.418
20% Below Avg. :
1.612
MRC NAGAR 33-11 KV SS
Make : Sharana
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 3.342 2.01 1180 57
2 4.420 1.99 1150 100
3 5.521 1.99 1215 100
4 4.976 1.95 1160 100
5 3.998 2.00 1160 91
6 5.207 2.00 1160 100
7 3.126 2.02 1180 40
8 6.212 2.00 1160 100
9 3.701 2.02 1180 80
10 6.359 2.00 1160 100
11 4.282 2.00 1170 92
12 4.450 2.00 1170 100
13 3.934 2.01 1170 91
14 4.803 2.00 1160 100
15 3.280 2.02 1180 54
Cell Nos. 3,8 & 10 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 7 & 15 below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
TOLLGATE 33 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.197 2.13 1180 29
2 2.008 2.13 1200 22
3 2.103 2.14 1220 25
4 2.221 2.14 1200 24
5 2.480 2.12 1210 20
6 2.094 2.13 1200 25
7 2.098 2.12 1200 24
8 2.227 2.14 1200 28
9 2.303 2.15 1210 28
10 1.262 2.14 1200 23
11 2.228 2.14 1190 31
12 1.19 1195 0
13 2.164 2.14 1195 30
14 1.912 2.16 1220 20
15 2.145 2.16 1200 33
Cell No. 13 exceeds the limit
Cell No. 12 below 20% of Avg. Imp.
147
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 4.507
20% Above Avg. :
5.409
20% Below Avg. :
3.606
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.103
20% Above Avg. :
2.524
20% Below Avg. :
1.682
TH ROAD 33 KV SS
Make : Sharana
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.659 2.12 1210 5
2 2.569 2.13 1220 3
3 2.592 2.12 1220 3
4 2.643 2.13 1200 5
5 2.467 2.13 1230 3
6 2.506 2.12 1230 1
7 2.504 2.12 1220 3
8 2.703 2.11 1220 5
9 2.731 2.13 1220 6
10 2.553 2.13 1220 2
11 2.559 2.12 1230 4
12 2.516 2.14 1220 1
13 2.510 2.12 1220 4
14 2.410 2.13 1220 0
15 2.569 2.12 1220 4
FORESHORE ESTATE 33-11 KV SS
Make : Sharana
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.360 2.03 1200 0
2 2.356 2.04 1200 0
3 2.360 2.04 1200 0
4 2.400 2.04 1200 0
5 2.393 2.03 1200 0
6 0.719 2.02 1180 0
7 2.267 2.03 1190 0
8 2.319 2.02 1190 0
9 2.403 2.03 1190 0
10 2.249 2.03 1190 0
11 2.366 2.03 1200 0
12 2.367 2.04 1200 0
13 2.332 2.03 1200 0
14 2.148 2.04 1200 0
15 2.442 2.04 1210 0
Cell No. 6 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
148
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.566
20% Above Avg. :
3.079
20% Below Avg. :
2.053
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.232
20% Above Avg. :
2.678
20% Below Avg. :
1.786
LUZ 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.268 2.16 1210 1
2 2.286 2.15 1210 1
3 2.631 2.14 1200 9
4 2.013 2.14 1210 0
5 2.193 2.15 1200 0
6 2.116 2.18 1200 0
7 2.098 2.15 1210 0
8 2.337 2.13 1180 4
9 2.074 2.13 1180 0
10 2.005 2.15 1210 0
11 2.281 2.16 1190 3
12 2.124 2.20 1180 0
13 2.248 2.19 1190 2
14 2.113 2.16 1200 0
15 2.061 2.15 1210 0
Cell No. 3 exceeds the limit
SARDAR JUNG 33-11 KV SS
Make : Kirloskar
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 25.657 2.21 1210 100
2 3.551 2.09 1200 40
3 9.895 2.28 1210 100
4 0.000 0.00 0
5 9.089 2.22 1215 100
6 5.408 2.25 1210 100
7 26.745 2.32 1180 100
8 4.733 2.11 1190 77
9 78.846 2.42 1130 100
10 6.344 2.20 1230 100
11 52.566 2.23 1100 100
12 5.291 2.22 1240 100
13 23.645 2.19 1220 100 Very high impedance values observed in most of the cells.
14 35.813 2.28 1190 100
15 43.704 2.28 1130 100
149
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.190
20% Above Avg. :
2.628
20% Below Avg. :
1.752
ROYAPETTAH 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 1.972 2.16 1200 0
2 1.612 2.18 1190 0
3 1.949 2.18 1200 0
4 2.17 1220 0
5 1.470 2.17 1220 0
6 2.368 2.17 1200 0
7 4.478 2.19 1220 0
8 2.475 2.18 1200 0
9 2.802 2.18 1210 0
10 1.388 2.18 1215 0
11 0.884 2.18 1210 0
12 1.362 2.15 1200 0
13 1.792 2.14 1200 0
14 0.678 2.18 1200 0
15 1.780 2.17 1200 0
Cell Nos. 6,7,8 & 9 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 5,11,12 & 14 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
KILPAUK 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.552 2.32 1200 0
2 2.574 2.31 1210 0
3 2.582 2.30 1200 0
4 2.682 2.31 1200 3
5 2.505 2.31 1200 0
6 2.572 2.32 1210 0
7 2.500 2.30 1200 0
8 2.555 2.31 1200 0
9 2.514 2.31 1210 0
10 2.583 2.32 1200 0
11 2.523 2.33 1210 0
12 2.584 2.32 1220 1
13 2.596 2.31 1200 1
14 2.556 2.32 1200 0
15 2.674 2.30 1200 3
150
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 1.929
20% Above Avg. :
2.315
20% Below Avg. :
1.543
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.570
20% Above Avg. :
3.084
20% Below Avg. :
2.056
SPURTANK ROAD 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 7.333 2.08 1160 100
2 2.845 2.11 15
3 3.497 2.11 1190 37
4 4.686 2.11 71
5 3.304 2.11 1180 30
6 4.388 2.12 1200 59
7 5.115 2.11 1190 84
8 5.198 2.11 1180 90
9 3.954 2.11 1190 51
10 3.222 2.10 1180 28
11 3.892 2.11 51
12 3.697 2.11 1180 42
13 3.649 2.10 1180 37
14 6.713 2.08 1170 100
15 8.127 2.11 1200 100
Cell Nos. 1,14 & 15 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 2,3,5,10, 12 & 13 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
B AND C MILL
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.185 2.13 1180 100
2 1.990 2.13 1190 100
3 3.318 2.14 1190 100
4 1.953 2.13 1200 100
5 1.924 2.12 1180 100
6 2.197 2.10 1190 100
7 1.608 2.13 1190 100
8 2.070 2.12 1170 100
9 1.721 2.11 1200 100
10 1.948 2.13 1180 100
11 2.004 2.15 1180 100
12 2.192 2.10 1180 100
13 1.718 2.13 1170 100
14 2.081 2.13 1180 100
15 2.046 2.15 1160 100
Cell No. 3 exceeds the limit
Cell No. 7 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
151
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 4.641
20% Above Avg. :
5.570
20% Below Avg. :
3.713
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.064
20% Above Avg. :
2.476
20% Below Avg. :
1.651
PULIANTHOPE 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.828 2.13 1170 100
2 2.794 2.13 1195 100
3 2.997 2.14 1180 100
4 3.579 2.13 1190 100
5 3.226 2.12 1170 100
6 2.908 2.10 1180 100
7 4.070 2.13 1180 100
8 3.500 2.12 1180 100
9 3.368 2.11 1190 100
10 2.292 2.13 1170 100
11 2.988 2.15 1170 100
12 2.721 2.10 1170 100
13 2.758 2.13 1170 100
14 2.577 2.13 1185 100
15 2.989 2.15 1170 100
Cell No. 7 exceeds the limit
Cell No. 10 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
NEHRU INDOOR STADIUM 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.035 2.19 1200 2
2 2.045 2.10 1210 0
3 2.091 2.18 1200 2
4 1.372 2.16 1200 0
5 1.981 2.20 1200 0
6 1.488 2.20 1210 0
7 1.924 2.21 1210 0
8 2.625 2.19 1200 4
9 1.970 2.20 1210 0
10 2.607 2.18 1200 1
11 2.450 2.18 1200 0
12 1.921 2.20 1210 3
13 1.918 2.19 1200 0
14 1.957 2.20 1210 0
15 1.858 2.21 1210 0
Cell Nos. 8, 10 & 11 exceeds the limit
Cell Nos. 4 & 6 below 20% of the Avg.Imp.
152
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
4
4.2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 3.040
20% Above Avg. :
3.648
20% Below Avg. :
2.432
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.016
20% Above Avg. :
2.419
20% Below Avg. :
1.613
FLOWER BAZAR 33-11-KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.150 2.02 1180 0
2 2.260 2.03 1190 1
3 2.193 2.03 1190 0
4 2.252 2.05 1200 2
5 2.270 2.02 1180 2
6 2.424 2.03 1190 8
7 2.102 2.05 1190 0
8 2.308 2.00 1170 2
9 2.359 2.01 1200 6
10 2.375 2.03 1180 4
11 2.272 2.03 1180 2
12 2.213 2.04 1180 0
13 2.485 2.02 1170 8
14 2.485 2.03 1180 15
15 2.554 2.02 1160 11
PORT TRUST 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.474 2.07 1180 3
2 2.580 2.08 1190 7
3 2.585 2.08 1190 7
4 2.446 2.06 1180 4
5 2.412 2.09 1210 2
6 2.557 2.07 1180 6
7 2.511 2.08 1180 4
8 2.683 2.07 1190 9
9 2.484 2.07 1190 4
10 2.523 2.07 1180 5
11 2.549 2.08 1190 5
12 2.568 2.08 1190 6
13 2.603 2.07 1180 7
14 2.556 2.07 1190 5
15 2.601 2.07 1180 7
153
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.313
20% Above Avg. :
2.776
20% Below Avg. :
1.851
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.1
3.3
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.064
20% Above Avg. :
2.476
20% Below Avg. :
1.651
EGMORE 33-11 KV SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 2.282 2.12 11
2 2.016 2.12 0
3 2.680 2.12 21
4 2.210 2.13 1220 2
5 2.000 2.13 1210 0
6 2.280 2.11 1220 7
7 3.766 2.12 65
8 2.315 2.12 14
9 2.592 2.12 1170 31
10 2.766 2.12 1190 26
11 2.181 2.12 1190 9
12 3.629 2.12 54
13 2.193 2.11 1200 1
14 2.083 2.11 0
15 3.294 2.08 1210 58
Cell Nos. 8,12 & 15 exceeds the limit
Cell No. 5 below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
ANNASALAI 33-11 KV SS
Make : Powerbuild
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 4.362 2.00 1130 58
2 3.943 2.00 1130 41
3 4.460 1.99 1120 61
4 5.282 1.97 1100 66
5 4.488 2.00 1130 57
6 4.006 1.99 1120 85
7 4.255 2.00 1130 62
8 5.009 1.99 1110 85
9 3.978 1.99 1130 67
10 4.707 2.00 1130 68
11 4.412 1.98 1110 57
12 4.604 2.00 1120 56
13 3.547 1.99 1120 62
14 4.564 1.99 1120 54
15 5.056 2.00 1120 62
154
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.552
20% Above Avg. :
3.063
20% Below Avg. :
2.042
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 4.445
20% Above Avg. :
5.334
20% Below Avg. :
3.556
ANNASALAI 33-11 KV SS
Make : Powerbuild
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 5.061 1.99 1130 60
2 3.608 2.00 1130 43
3 3.746 1.98 1120 64
4 4.540 1.97 1100 69
5 3.815 2.00 1130 59
6 3.851 1.98 1120 88
7 3.884 2.00 1130 67
8 4.637 1.98 1110 88
9 5.260 1.99 1130 69
10 4.818 1.99 1130 70
11 3.926 1.98 1110 59
12 4.178 1.99 1120 58
13 4.914 1.99 1120 64
14 4.663 1.98 1120 56
15 5.313 1.99 1120 65
CHEPAUK 33 SS
Make : Exide
Capacity : 60 AH
C
e
l
l

N
o
.
I
m
p
.

m

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
S
p
.

G
r
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
1 1.983 2.12 1220 0
2 2.038 2.11 1220 0
3 2.017 2.12 1220 0
4 2.000 2.11 1230 0
5 2.086 2.13 1210 0
6 2.163 2.13 1210 0
7 2.078 2.13 1220 0
8 2.170 2.12 1220 0
9 1.910 2.13 1220 0
10 2.021 2.13 1220 0
11 2.299 2.12 1210 0
12 2.031 2.12 1220 0
13 1.982 2.13 1230 0
14 2.118 2.13 1220 0
15 2.601 2.07 1230 7
Cell No. 15 exceeds the limit
155
Name of the SS :
Name of the SS :
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.100
20% Above Avg. :
2.520
20% Below Avg. :
1.680
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 4.414
20% Above Avg. :
5.297
20% Below Avg. :
3.531
GOVT ESTATE
Make : SHARANA
Capacity : 60 AH
C
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m

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a
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i
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1 2.502 2.30 1210 4
2 2.411 2.31 1180 0
3 2.645 2.31 1200 9
4 2.568 0.37 1200 7
5 2.729 2.30 1180 16
6 2.662 2.30 1190 11
7 2.910 2.31 1180 34
8 2.918 2.31 1190 18
9 2.924 2.31 1190 26
10 2.604 2.31 1200 26
11 2.518 2.30 1200 6
12 2.554 2.31 1190 6
13 2.699 2.30 1200 3
14 2.376 2.30 1200 1
15 2.971 2.34 1190 33
156
Name of the SS :
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.1
3.3
3.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Cells No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. : 2.666
20% Above Avg. :
3.199
20% Below Avg. :
2.133
:VALLUVARKOTTAM 110-33-11 KV SS
Make
:300 AH
C
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o
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I
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m

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o
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a
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a
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1 0.750 2.06 1190 8 20 0.740 2.20 1200 5 39 0.848 2.20 1200 19
2 0.819 2.20 1200 12 21 0.865 2.21 1200 18 40 0.858 2.19 1190 21
3 0.837 2.21 1200 16 22 0.798 2.20 1200 11 41 0.878 2.20 1210 22
4 0.864 2.20 1210 19 23 0.850 2.20 1200 22 42 0.863 2.21 1210 19
5 0.793 2.19 1200 8 24 0.771 2.21 1210 9 43 0.851 2.21 1200 15
6 0.814 2.20 1210 14 25 0.810 2.20 1215 15 44 0.775 2.20 1200 7
7 0.871 2.21 1210 22 26 0.789 2.20 1210 10 45 0.798 2.20 1200 11
8 0.800 2.20 1210 10 27 0.770 2.21 1200 7 46 0.844 2.20 1200 20
9 0.821 2.20 1200 15 28 0.814 2.20 1200 12 47 0.809 2.20 1200 14
10 0.771 2.21 1200 10 29 0.816 2.20 1210 15 48 0.793 2.20 1200 9
11 0.804 2.20 1200 14 30 0.833 2.20 1210 15 49 0.779 2.20 1200 8
12 0.766 2.20 1200 7 31 0.886 2.20 1210 24 50 0.895 2.21 1200 25
13 0.909 2.21 1210 25 32 0.881 2.20 1200 22 51 0.843 2.20 1190 17
14 0.857 2.20 1210 20 33 0.835 2.21 1200 13 52 0.835 2.20 1210 14
15 0.818 2.20 1200 14 34 0.850 2.19 1210 19 53 0.827 2.20 1200 14
16 0.845 2.21 1200 17 35 0.790 2.19 1200 9 54 0.768 2.20 1200 9
17 0.837 2.21 1200 14 36 0.812 2.20 1200 14 55 0.790 2.21 1200 12
18 0.809 2.20 1200 13 37 0.831 2.21 1200 12
19 0.781 2.17 1200 15 38 0.797 2.21 1200 11
157
Name of the SS
:Sharana
Capacity
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :0.821
20% Above Avg.
:0.985
20% Below Avg.
:0.657
:THIRUMULLAIVOIL 110 KV SS
Make
:120 AH
C
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o
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I
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m

V
o
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a
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e
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S
u
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p
h
a
t
i
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C
e
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o
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I
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m

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o
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e
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p
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u
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a
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i
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C
e
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o
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m

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a
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o
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1 1.639 2.30 1200 0 20 1.473 2.30 1200 0 39 1.522 2.33 1200 0
2 1.568 2.31 1200 0 21 1.544 2.32 1200 0 40 1.534 2.33 1200 0
3 1.534 2.33 1205 0 22 1.483 2.31 1200 0 41 1.470 2.34 1200 0
4 1.516 2.31 1200 0 23 1.756 2.31 1205 0 42 1.504 2.34 1200 0
5 1.431 2.31 1200 0 24 1.517 2.31 1200 0 43 1.548 2.33 1200 0
6 1.537 2.32 1195 0 25 1.648 2.31 1200 0 44 1.591 2.34 1200 0
7 1.466 2.32 1200 0 26 1.458 2.32 1200 0 45 1.533 2.32 1200 0
8 1.485 2.31 1200 0 27 1.472 2.31 1200 0 46 1.489 2.33 1200 0
9 1.597 2.31 1200 0 28 1.501 2.31 1195 0 47 1.503 2.32 1200 0
10 1.796 2.31 1200 0 29 1.761 2.31 1200 0 48 1.463 2.34 1200 0
11 1.484 2.31 1195 0 30 1.637 2.31 1200 0 49 1.492 2.33 1195 0
12 1.605 2.32 1200 0 31 1.557 2.32 1200 0 50 1.585 2.33 1200 0
13 1.560 2.32 1200 0 32 1.511 2.32 1200 0 51 1.472 2.33 1200 0
14 1.555 2.31 1200 0 33 1.523 2.31 1200 0 52 1.386 2.33 1195 0
15 1.543 2.32 1200 0 34 1.597 2.32 1195 0 53 1.506 2.33 1200 0
16 1.541 2.32 1200 0 35 1.498 2.33 1200 0 54 1.492 2.33 1200 0
17 1.598 2.32 1205 0 36 1.559 2.33 1200 0 55 1.430 2.33 1200 0
18 1.564 2.31 1200 0 37 1.474 2.32 1200 0
19 1.549 2.30 1195 0 38 1.515 2.33 1200 0
158
:Sharana
Name of the SS
Capacity
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1 10 19 28 37 46 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.538
20% Above Avg.
:1.845
20% Below Avg.
:1.230
:IRUNGATTU KOTTAI 110-33-11 KV SS
Make
:120 AH
C
e
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o
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I
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p
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m

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o
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a
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S
u
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a
t
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C
e
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o
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m

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o
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p
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r
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u
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a
t
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C
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1 1.591 2.20 1200 0 20 1.370 2.18 1210 0 39 1.379 2.16 1210 0
2 1.324 2.18 1200 0 21 1.348 2.17 1210 0 40 1.342 2.17 1200 0
3 1.443 2.19 1210 0 22 6.946 2.01 1200 100 41 1.521 2.16 1210 0
4 1.438 2.19 1210 0 23 1.624 2.17 1210 0 42 1.290 2.17 1200 0
5 3.093 2.05 1200 49 24 1.384 2.17 1190 0 43 1.398 2.16 1210 0
6 1.341 2.18 1190 0 25 1.386 2.06 1210 0 44 1.496 2.17 1210 0
7 1.389 2.18 1210 0 26 1.232 2.17 1210 0 45 1.355 2.17 1210 0
8 1.504 2.19 1200 0 27 9.529 2.17 1190 100 46 1.382 2.17 1200 0
9 1.354 2.18 1200 0 28 1.511 2.18 1220 0 47 1.355 2.17 1210 0
10 1.622 2.18 1190 0 29 1.372 2.16 1200 0 48 1.468 2.16 1210 0
11 1.759 2.17 1210 0 30 1.329 2.17 1220 0 49 1.444 2.18 1210 0
12 1.439 2.20 1220 0 31 1.379 2.17 1175 0 50 1.323 2.16 1200 0
13 1.313 2.18 1200 0 32 1.325 2.16 1190 0 51 1.402 2.17 1160 0
14 1.346 2.18 1200 0 33 1.391 2.18 1210 0 52 1.356 2.17 1200 0
15 1.602 2.19 1200 0 34 1.350 2.17 1200 0 53 1.471 2.17 1210 0
16 1.334 2.19 1200 0 35 1.416 2.18 1190 0 54 1.394 2.16 1190 0
17 1.557 2.18 1190 0 36 1.445 2.17 1180 0 55 1.377 2.16 1220 0
18 1.361 2.18 1200 0 37 1.408 2.16 1190 0 Cell Nos. 5,22 & 27 exceeds the limit
19 1.340 2.14 1200 0 38 1.333 2.17 1190 0
159
Cell Nos. 2,6,13,14,16,19,21,26,30,32,34,38,40,42 & 50
below 20% of the Avg. Imp.
Name of the SS
:Sharana
Capacity
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.691
20% Above Avg.
:2.029
20% Below Avg.
:1.352
:HIGH COURT 110-33-11 KV SS
Make :Premier
:120 AH
C
e
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o
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I
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m

V
o
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a
t
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C
e
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o
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I
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m

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o
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a
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p
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G
r
S
u
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a
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C
e
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o
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m

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a
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e
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a
t
i
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n
1 2.109 2.02 1200 27 20 1.757 2.02 1200 13 39 2.155 1.63 1210 0
2 2.996 2.02 1200 68 21 1.808 2.02 1200 17 40 1.804 2.02 1200 15
3 1.972 2.03 1220 27 22 1.820 2.02 1190 18 41 1.843 2 1200 17
4 1.879 2.03 1220 20 23 1.928 2.02 1190 20 42 1.787 2.01 1210 10
5 1.988 2.00 1200 20 24 1.809 2.02 1190 15 43 1.900 2.02 1190 19
6 2.000 2.01 1210 26 25 1.797 2.01 1185 14 44 1.737 2.03 1180 13
7 1.889 2.02 1140 18 26 1.764 2.03 1190 17 45 2.005 2.02 1185 27
8 1.808 2.02 1185 13 27 1.775 2.03 1180 15 46 1.829 2.03 1205 18
9 1.856 2.03 1100 17 28 1.821 2.04 1190 23 47 1.744 2.03 1215 14
10 1.955 2.02 1200 23 29 1.767 2.02 1140 14 48 1.714 2.03 1200 10
11 2.446 2.02 1190 48 30 1.849 2.02 1190 17 49 1.832 2.03 18
12 1.886 2.02 1210 18 31 1.908 2.02 1200 20 50 1.799 2.03 1185 16
13 1.963 2.03 1185 18 32 2.274 2.02 1200 43 51 1.767 2.02 1200 13
14 2.035 2.02 1200 28 33 1.889 2.02 1190 19 52 2.448 2.02 1175 47
15 3.046 2.01 1210 100 34 1.788 2.03 1205 18 53 1.742 2.03 1210 14
16 1.766 2.03 1180 14 35 1.758 2.02 1180 9 54 1.854 2.02 1210 17
17 1.853 2.02 1210 18 36 2.583 2.02 1200 55 55 1.793 2.02 1200 16
18 1.806 2.02 1190 15 37 1.851 2.01 1200 19 Cell Nos. 2,11,15,36 & 52 exceeds the limit
19 1.788 2.02 1190 16 38 1.967 2.02 1210 26
160
Name of the SS
Capacity
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.940
20% Above Avg.
:2.328
20% Below Avg.
:1.552
:HIGH COURT 110-33-11 KV SS
Make :Sharana
:120 AH
C
e
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o
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I
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m

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o
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a
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a
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o
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I
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m

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o
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a
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p
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G
r
S
u
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a
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a
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1 1.995 2.08 1210 6 20 1.516 2.04 1190 0 39 0.754 2.04 1195 0
2 1.387 2.05 1205 0 21 1.424 2.04 1200 0 40 2.075 1.91 1190 100
3 1.363 2.09 1210 0 22 1.314 2.03 1190 0 41 1.448 2.03 1190 0
4 1.448 2.09 1205 0 23 1.758 2.03 1195 0 42 1.490 2.04 1190 0
5 1.433 2.07 1185 0 24 1.791 2.01 1200 0 43 1.533 2.01 1200 0
6 1.561 2.08 1195 0 25 1.467 2.02 1195 0 44 1.424 2.02 1205 0
7 1.644 2.06 1200 0 26 1.665 2.02 1205 0 45 1.624 2.02 1205 0
8 1.354 2.05 1200 0 27 1.495 2.01 1200 0 46 1.519 2.04 1205 0
9 3.055 1.95 1200 64 28 1.701 1.85 1210 0 47 0.990 2.05 1190 0
10 1.637 2.06 1190 0 29 1.938 1.98 1190 8 48 2.385 1.94 1200 18
11 1.594 2.05 1190 0 30 1.317 2.01 1195 0 49 2.335 1.98 1200 38
12 1.321 2.06 1190 0 31 1.475 2.02 1190 0 50 1.623 2.02 1190 0
13 1.488 2.03 1210 0 32 1.99 1190 100 51 1.76 1190 100
14 1.330 2.05 1205 0 33 1.423 2.01 1200 0 52 1.679 2.01 1190 2
15 1.450 2.06 1190 0 34 1.758 1.76 1200 0 53 0.287 2.03 1200 0
16 1.914 1.94 1200 0 35 1.8 1200 0 54 1.303 2.03 1190 0
17 2.850 2.05 1200 27 36 1.613 2.04 1185 0 55 0.974 2.02 1195 0 Cell Nos. 1,9,16,17,29,32,35,40,48,49 & 51 exceeds the limit
18 1.551 2.03 1200 0 37 0.848 2.03 1180 0
19 1.407 2.03 1200 0 38 1.720 2.02 1190 0 Cell Nos. 37,39,47,53 & 55 below 20% 0f the Avg. Imp.
161
Name of the SS
Capacity
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.566
20% Above Avg.
:1.880
20% Below Avg.
:1.253
:HIGH COURT 110-33-11 KV SS
Make :Premier
:120 AH
C
e
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o
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I
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m

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o
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a
t
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C
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o
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I
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m

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o
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a
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p
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r
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u
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a
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p
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u
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p
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a
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i
o
n
1 2.076 2.02 1200 24 20 1.864 2.02 1200 14 39 2.017 2.02 1210 23
2 2.140 2.03 1195 35 21 1.915 2.03 1200 16 40 1.908 2.02 1190 15
3 1.941 2.03 1210 23 22 1.951 2.02 1190 17 41 1.908 2.00 1200 16
4 1.858 2.04 1210 17 23 2.007 2.02 1190 20 42 1.826 2.01 1210 10
5 1.942 2.00 1200 17 24 1.875 2.03 1190 16 43 1.970 2.03 1190 20
6 1.978 2.02 1210 22 25 1.875 2.01 1185 13 44 1.798 2.03 1180 14
7 1.838 2.02 1140 15 26 1.865 2.03 1190 17 45 2.082 2.03 1185 26
8 1.804 2.03 1185 11 27 1.904 2.03 1190 16 46 1.890 2.03 1205 17
9 15.115 1.99 1100 100 28 1.923 2.04 1190 22 47 1.840 2.04 1215 14
10 1.964 2.02 1200 19 29 2.213 2.02 1140 26 48 1.795 2.02 1200 10
11 2.432 2.02 1190 43 30 1.997 2.03 1210 18 49 1.986 2.03 19
12 1.854 2.02 1210 15 31 1.901 2.01 1200 19 50 1.918 2.03 1185 16
13 1.877 2.03 1190 16 32 2.344 2.02 1200 41 51 1.839 2.02 1205 14
14 2.031 2.02 1200 25 33 1.955 2.02 1190 20 52 2.503 2.02 1175 45
15 2.975 2.01 1200 100 34 1.836 2.03 1210 17 53 1.834 2.04 1210 14
16 1.824 2.03 1180 14 35 1.786 2.02 1180 9 54 1.919 2.02 1210 17
17 1.993 2.02 1210 19 36 2.643 2.02 1190 52 55 1.930 2.02 1200 17
18 1.879 2.03 1190 16 37 1.948 2.01 1200 18 Cell Nos.9 & 15 exceeds the limit
19 1.871 2.02 1190 15 38 2.055 2.02 1200 25
162
Name of the SS
Capacity
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :2.222
20% Above Avg.
:2.666
20% Below Avg.
:1.778
:HIGH COURT 110-33-11 KV SS
Make :Sharana
:120 AH
C
e
l
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N
o
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I
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p
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m

V
o
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a
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p
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p
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a
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C
e
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o
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I
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m

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o
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a
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p
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G
r
S
u
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a
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C
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o
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I
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m

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u
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a
t
i
o
n
1 1.868 2.03 1200 0 20 6.507 2.01 1195 100 39 1.496 2.03 1195 0
2 1.440 2.02 1200 0 21 1.449 2.02 1200 0 40 1.517 2.02 1190 0
3 1.398 2.04 1220 0 22 1.413 2.01 1195 0 41 1.504 2.01 1190 0
4 1.453 2.05 1205 0 23 1.777 2.01 1195 0 42 1.559 2.00 1190 0
5 1.417 2.03 1185 0 24 1.716 1.99 1200 0 43 1.708 2.01 1210 0
6 1.597 2.04 1200 0 25 1.491 2.00 1195 0 44 1.668 2.01 1205 0
7 1.638 2.03 1200 0 26 1.698 2.01 1205 0 45 1.563 2.02 1205 0
8 1.447 2.02 1200 0 27 2.960 1.98 1200 34 46 1.557 2.03 1205 0
9 2.835 1.95 1195 58 28 1.870 2.00 1220 0 47 1.593 2.02 1190 0
10 1.652 2.03 1190 0 29 1.934 1.98 1190 8 48 2.461 1.98 1210 39
11 1.606 2.02 1190 0 30 1.425 2.00 1195 0 49 1.694 2.01 1200 0
12 1.390 2.03 1190 0 31 1.503 2.01 120 0 50 1.390 2.02 1195 0
13 1.536 2.01 1200 0 32 1.391 2.02 1190 0 51 1.721 2.00 1190 3
14 1.448 2.02 1205 0 33 1.402 1.98 1200 0 52 1.594 2.02 1190 0
15 1.510 2.03 1190 0 34 1.588 2.03 1210 0 53 1.360 2.02 1210 0
16 1.564 1.99 1210 0 35 1.611 2.01 1200 0 54 1.366 2.01 1195 0
17 1.521 2.03 1200 0 36 1.696 2.03 1185 0
18 1.618 2.02 1210 0 37 1.504 2.01 1185 0 Cell Nos. 9,20,27 & 48 exceeds the limit
19 1.451 2.00 1200 0 38 1.569 2.03 1190 0
163
Capacity
Name of the SS
1
2
3
4
5
6
1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49
Cell No.
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

m
.
o
h
m
Impedance m
Avg. Imp. :1.716
20% Above Avg.
:2.059
20% Below Avg.
:1.373
Details of cells exceeding 20% of Average Impedance
AH capacity Make No of Cells tested
Cells exceeding
>20% Avg Imp.
Percentage
Sharana 405 9 2.2
Chemsolar 30 2 6.7
Exide 420 14 3.3
Power Build 30 0 0.0
Standard 30 4 13.3
Exide 30 5 16.7
Kirloskar 15 0 0.0
Standard 15 0 0.0
Sharana 15 0 0.0
Sharana 935 31 3.3
Power Build 55 4 7.3
Premier 110 0 0.0
200 Exide 15 0 0.0
Sharana 275 1 0.36
Amara Raja 102 0 0.00
1400 Amara Raja 102 0 0.00
2584 70 2.7
AH Make <2Yrs 2-5 Yrs 5-10 Yrs Total
Sharana 2 4 3 9
Chemsolar 2 2
Standard 3 1 4
Exide 1 10 3 14
3 17 9 29
64 Exide 5 5
Sharana 14 2 15 31
PowerBuild 4 4
14 7 19 40
300 Sharana 1 1
17 25 28 70
164
120
60
64
120
300
Total
Total
Total
Service age wise details of cells exceeding 20% Avg. Imp.
60
Total
Impedance Trend Pattern of various AH Capacities
Capacity
Service
age years
Make
No.of
strings
Avg.value
20%
above
Remaining
strings
4 3 2.919 3
5 1 3.111 1
6 5 2.446 1 4
7 1 3.556 1
1 2 2.158 2
2 4 2.364 1 3
3 1 1.971 1
4 2 2.152 2
6 5 2.132 5
7 1 4.641 1
10 1 2.137 1
1 1 1.809 1
2 3 1.399 3
3 2 1.542 2
4 1 1.438 1
5 3 1.552 3
6 4 1.536 4
7 3 1.992 3
4 1 0.705 1
6 1 0.817 1
14 1 0.821 1
165
14
13
Exide
1.971
4.641
2.102,1.823,3.887,1.645
2.05,2.265
Avg.Imp.Value
60 AH
Sharana
2.054,2.999,2.677,2.785,2.084,2.666,2.570,2.566,2
.349,2.444,2.516,2.542,4.445, 4.414
2.545,3.340,2.872
3.111
2.970,2.178,1.940,2.694,4.507
3.556
1 Yr
5
2.113,2.19
2.265,2.092,1.802,4.832,1.87,1.819,1.935,1.233,2.
104,2.016,2.064,2.214,2.315
2.178,2.315,2.313,2.124,1.732
2.137
120AH Sharana
1.809
1.813,2.222,1.94
1.355,1.555,1.287
1.94,1.367,1.351,1.889
1.634,1.485,1.535
1.393,1.691
1.438
300 AH Sharana
0.705
0.817
0.821
12
2.678 1 12
2 2.794
60 AH Sharana
Year Avg.Imp
1 2.794
2 2.158
4 2.919
5 3.111
6 2.446
7 3.556
60 AH Exide
Year Avg.Imp
1 2.158
2 2.364
3 1.971
4 2.152
5 2.678
6 2.132
7 4.641
10 2.137
166
Impedance trend pattern of various AH capacities
60 AH Sharana
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
0 2 4 6 8
Year
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
Avg.Imp
60 AH Exide
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Year
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
Avg.Imp
120 AH Sharana
Year Avg.Imp
1 1.809
2 1.399
3 1.542
4 1.438
5 1.552
6 1.536
7 1.992
300 AH Sharana
Year Avg.Imp
4 0.705
6 0.817
14 0.821
167
300 AH Sharana
0.68
0.7
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.78
0.8
0.82
0.84
0 5 10 15 Year
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
Avg.Imp
120 AH Sharana
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 2 4 6 8 Year
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
Avg.Imp





Sulphation A vital parameter for condition monitoring

Sulphation means the formation of Lead sulphate on the surface and in the pores of the plates

Sulphation is an important State of Health parameter of Battery which tells on the condition of the plates

A value of 20% indicates that Battery could not deliver more than 80% of its capacity and has reached its end of
life

Sulphation are of two types Reversible & Irreversible sulphation

Reversible sulphation form a natural part of the process of discharge. It is finely crystalline and reduced by
charging current

Irreversible sulphation is the most common use of the word sulphation. It applies to the large crystals of Lead
sulphate

This may form on the plates as a result of neglect or misuse such as allowing battery to stand on discharge
condition for considerable time, filling cells with electrolyte, persistent undercharging





168
Impedance - Sulphation Correlation in various makes and AH capacity Batteries.
Govt.Estate - 7 Nos., Mambalam - 1 No., Annasalai -15 Nos.
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
2.568 7
2.604 26
2.724 15
2.729 16
2.910 34
2.918 18
2.924 26
2.971 33
3.547 62
3.943 41
3.978 67
4.006 85
4.255 62
4.362 58
4.412 57
4.460 61
4.488 57
4.564 54
4.604 56 Remarks:-
4.707 68
5.009 85
5.056 62
5.282 66
4.00 =85%
5.01 =85%
169
Sharana make - 60 AH with age of 1 Year
3.97 =67%
5.28 =66%
increase of Sulphation as noted below.
3.547 =62%
5.05 =62%
As Impedance increases, it is observed that there are cells with
decreased sulphation, even though the overall trend is increase
in sulphation. Also increase of Impedance may not truly reflect in
Impedance - Sulphation Correlation
5
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
85
95
2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5
Impedance in m.Ohm
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

%
Irungattukkottai 110/33-11 KV SS - 3Nos.
Impedance
mOhm
Sulphation
%
3.093 49
6.946 100
9.529 100
High Court 110/33-11 KV SS - 8 Nos.
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
1.7770 0
1.8680 0
1.8700 0
1.9340 8
2.4610 39
2.8350 58
2.9600 34
6.5070 100
170
Sharana make - 120AH with age of 3 Years
Sharana make - 120 AH with age of 7 Years.
Impedance - Sulphation Correlation
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Impedance in m.Ohm
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

%
Impedance - Sulphation Correlation
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Impedance in m.Ohm
s
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

%
Sharana make - 300AH with age of 14 Years.
Valluvarkottam 110/33-11 KV SS - 53 Nos.
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation %
0.750 8 0.821 15
0.766 7 0.827 14
0.768 9 0.831 12
0.770 7 0.833 15
0.771 10 0.835 13
0.771 9 0.835 14
0.775 7 0.837 16
0.779 8 0.837 14
0.781 15 0.843 17
0.789 10 0.844 20
0.790 9 0.845 17
0.790 12 0.848 19
0.793 8 0.850 22
0.793 9 0.850 19
0.797 11 0.851 15
0.798 11 0.857 20
0.798 11 0.858 21
0.800 10 0.863 19
0.804 14 0.864 19
0.809 13 0.865 18
0.809 14 0.871 22
0.810 15 0.878 22
0.814 14 0.881 22
0.814 12 0.886 24
0.816 15 0.895 25
0.818 14 0.909 25
0.819 12
171
Impedance - Sulphation Correlation
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.0
Impedance in m.Ohm
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

%
EXIDE make - 60AH with age of 1Year.
Thiruvanmiyur 33/11 KV SS - 2 Nos, Ramasamy Salai - 15 Nos.
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
1.891 0
2.012 0
2.065 0
2.086 0
2.089 0
2.110 0
2.117 0
2.144 3
2.157 0
2.171 0
2.215 1
2.225 0
2.226 5
2.246 4
2.330 3
3.254 17
3.609 19
172
Impedance - Sulphation Correlation
0
5
10
15
20
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Impedance in m.Ohm
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

%
Exide make - 60 AH with age of 2 Years.
Tollgate 33/11 KV SS -14 Nos, EDC 33/11 KV SS - 15 Nos.
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation %
1.262 23 2.603 25
1.912 20 2.721 22
2.008 22 3.057 40
2.094 25 3.214 42
2.098 24 3.281 53
2.103 25 3.342 51
2.145 33 3.601 62
2.164 30 3.970 90
2.197 29 4.419 100
2.221 24 4.459 100
2.227 28 4.874 100
2.228 31 5.088 100
2.303 28 5.398 100
2.480 20 5.697 100
2.585 28
173
Impedance - Sulphation Correlation
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Impedance in m.Ohm
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

%
Exide make - 60 AH with age of 5 Years.
B and C mill 33/11KV SS - 15 Nos.
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
1.608 100
1.718 100
1.721 100
1.924 100
1.948 100
1.953 100
1.990 100
2.004 100
2.046 100
2.070 100
2.081 100
2.185 100
2.192 100
2.197 100
3.318 100
174
Impedance - Sulphation Correlation
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Impedance in m.Ohm
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

%
Exide make - 60 AH with age of 7 Years.
Spurtank Road 33/11 KV SS - 15 Nos.
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
2.845 15
3.222 28
3.304 30
3.497 37
3.649 37
3.697 42
3.892 51
3.954 51
4.388 59
4.686 71
5.115 84
5.198 90
6.713 100
7.333 100
8.127 100
175
Impedance - Sulphation Correlation
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5
Impedance in m.Ohm
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

%
Exide make - 60 AH with age of 10 Years.
Secretariat 33/11 KV SS 15 Nos.
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
1.994 0
2.000 0
2.011 0
2.051 0
2.071 0
2.105 0
2.143 0
2.166 0
2.175 0
2.179 0
2.182 0
2.186 0
2.195 0
2.217 0
2.378 5
176
Impedance - Sulphation correlation
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Impedance in m.Ohm
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

%
Impedance Specific Gravity Correlation in various make and AH capacity Batteries
Sharana make - 60 AH with age of 6 Years.
MRC Nagar 33-11 KV SS - 15 Nos.
Specific Gravity Voltage
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
1.15 1.99 4.420 100
1.16 1.95 4.976 100
1.16 2 3.998 91
1.16 2 5.207 100
1.16 2 6.212 100
1.16 2 6.359 100
1.16 2 4.803 100
1.17 2 4.282 92
1.17 2 4.450 100
1.17 2.01 3.934 91
1.18 2.01 3.342 57
1.18 2.02 3.126 40
1.18 2.02 3.701 80
1.18 2.02 3.280 54
1.215 1.99 5.521 100
Remarks:-
177
First 14 Cells have shown reduction in Specific Gravity for increased Impedance & Sulphation.
The 15th Cell has not reflected that.
Exide make 60 AH with age of 7 Years.
Spurtank Road 33-11 KV SS - 15 Nos.
Specific Gravity
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
1.17 6.713 100
1.18 3.222 28
1.18 3.697 42
1.18 3.649 37
1.2 3.954 51
1.2 8.127 100
1.215 7.333 100
1.215 2.845 15
1.215 3.497 37
1.215 4.686 71
1.215 3.304 30
1.215 4.388 59
1.215 5.115 84
1.215 5.198 90
1.215 3.892 51
Remarks:-
178
The increase of Impedance & Sulphation in Cells 5
th
to 15
th
has not reflected in
any reduction of Specific gravity.
Kirloskar make - 60 AH with age of 8 Years.
Sardar J ung 33/11 KV SS - 14 Nos.
Specific Gravity
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
1.1 52.566 100
1.13 78.846 100
1.13 43.704 100
1.18 26.745 100
1.19 4.733 77
1.19 35.813 100
1.2 3.551 40
1.21 25.657 100
1.21 9.895 100
1.21 5.408 100
1.215 9.089 100
1.22 23.645 100
1.23 6.344 100
1.24 5.291 100
179
Remarks:-
The increase of Impedance & Sulphation in Cells 5
th
to 15
th
has not reflected in
any reduction of Specific Gravity.
Sharana make - 300 AH with age of 14 Years.
Valluvarkottam 110-33-11 KV SS - 54 Nos.
Specific
Gravity
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation % Specific
Gravity
Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
1.19 0.750 8 1.2 0.851 15
1.19 0.858 21 1.2 0.775 7
1.19 0.843 17 1.2 0.798 11
1.2 0.819 12 1.2 0.844 20
1.2 0.837 16 1.2 0.809 14
1.2 0.793 8 1.2 0.793 9
1.2 0.821 15 1.2 0.779 8
1.2 0.771 10 1.2 0.895 25
1.2 0.804 14 1.2 0.827 14
1.2 0.766 7 1.2 0.768 9
1.2 0.818 14 1.2 0.790 12
1.2 0.845 17 1.21 0.864 19
1.2 0.837 14 1.21 0.814 14
1.2 0.809 13 1.21 0.871 22
1.2 0.781 15 1.21 0.800 10
1.2 0.740 5 1.21 0.909 25
1.2 0.865 18 1.21 0.857 20
1.2 0.798 11 1.21 0.771 9
1.2 0.850 22 1.21 0.789 10
1.2 0.770 7 1.21 0.816 15
1.2 0.814 12 1.21 0.833 15
1.2 0.881 22 1.21 0.886 24
1.2 0.835 13 1.21 0.850 19
1.2 0.790 9 1.21 0.878 22
1.2 0.812 14 1.21 0.863 19
1.2 0.831 12 1.21 0.835 14
1.2 0.797 11 1.215 0.810 15
1.2 0.848 19
Remarks:-
Even though there had been varied degree of Sulphation, that has not been reflected in Specific Gravity.
180





FINDINGS RELATED WITH IMPEDANCE SPECIFIC GRAVITY CORRELATION.


Proper Specific Gravity does not Guarantee a good State of Health of Batteries as higher level of Impedance
and Sulphation has been observed

In some cases higher Impedance & Sulphation has reflected in reduction of Specific Gravity
















181
Impedance-Voltage Correlation in various make and AH capacity Batteries
Sharana make - 60 AH with age of 1 Year.
AnnaSalai 33/11 KV SS -15 Nos.
Voltage Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
1.97 5.282 66
1.98 4.412 57
1.99 4.460 61
1.99 4.006 85
1.99 5.009 85
1.99 3.978 67
1.99 3.547 62
1.99 4.564 54
2 4.362 58
2 3.943 41
2 4.488 57
2 4.255 62
2 4.707 68
2 4.604 56
2 5.056 62
Remarks:-
Float Votage not maintained properly. High level of Impedance &
182
Sulphation has not brought down float voltage drastically.
Sharana - 120 AH WITH AGE OF 3 Years.
Irungattukottai 110-33-11 KV SS -55 Nos.
Voltage Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
Voltage Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
2.01 6.946 100 2.17 1.355 0
2.05 3.093 49 2.17 1.382 0
2.06 1.386 0 2.17 1.355 0
2.14 1.340 0 2.17 1.402 0
2.16 1.372 0 2.17 1.356 0
2.16 1.325 0 2.17 1.471 0
2.16 1.408 0 2.18 1.324 0
2.16 1.379 0 2.18 1.341 0
2.16 1.521 0 2.18 1.389 0
2.16 1.398 0 2.18 1.354 0
2.16 1.468 0 2.18 1.622 0
2.16 1.323 0 2.18 1.313 0
2.16 1.394 0 2.18 1.346 0
2.16 1.377 0 2.18 1.557 0
2.17 1.759 0 2.18 1.361 0
2.17 1.348 0 2.18 1.370 0
2.17 1.624 0 2.18 1.511 0
2.17 1.384 0 2.18 1.391 0
2.17 1.232 0 2.18 1.416 0
2.17 9.529 100 2.18 1.444 0
2.17 1.329 0 2.19 1.443 0
2.17 1.379 0 2.19 1.438 0
2.17 1.350 0 2.19 1.504 0
2.17 1.445 0 2.19 1.602 0
2.17 1.333 0 2.19 1.334 0
2.17 1.342 0 2.2 1.591 0
2.17 1.290 0 2.2 1.439 0
2.17 1.496 0
183
Remarks:- First two cells
have reflected a reduction of more than 0.1V with higher Impedance. However higher
Impedance & Sulphation in 20
th
Cell has not been reflected in voltage.
Exide make - 60 AH with age of 6 Years.
Egmore 33/11 KV SS 15 Nos.
Voltage Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
2.12 2.282 11
2.12 2.016 0
2.12 2.680 21
2.13 2.210 2
2.13 2.000 0
2.11 2.280 7
2.12 3.766 65
2.12 2.315 14
2.12 2.592 31
2.12 2.766 26
2.12 2.181 9
2.12 3.629 54
2.11 2.193 1
2.11 2.083 0
2.08 3.294 58
184
Remarks:- Eventhough float
voltage has been maintained correctly, there has been an increase in Impedance
& sulphation.
Kirloskar make - 60 AH with age of 8 Years.
Sardar J ung 33-11 KV SS - 14 Nos.
Voltage Impedance
m.Ohm
Sulphation
%
2.09 3.551 40
2.11 4.733 77
2.19 23.645 100
2.20 6.344 100
2.21 25.657 100
2.22 9.089 100
2.22 5.291 100
2.23 52.566 100
2.25 5.408 100
2.28 9.895 100
2.28 35.813 100
2.28 43.704 100
2.32 26.745 100
2.42 78.846 100
185
Remarks:- Higher level of
Impedance & Sulphation has not reflected in the float voltage.




FINDINGS RELATED WITH IMPEDANCE - VOLTAGE CORRELATION.

Lead Acid Batteries are normally recommended a float voltage between 2.15 to 2.30V depending on the
type and make of Batteries

A reduction of 0.1V from the set voltage is claimed as End-of-Life of Batteries

Proper float voltage does not guarantee a good State of Health for Batteries as higher level of Impedance
and Sulphation has been observed

Higher Impedance and Sulphation has not brought a reduction of 0.1V in float voltage in majority of cases

In certain cases higher Impedance and Sulphation has brought a reduction of float voltage greater than
0.1V










186




Additional studies conducted

The following areas were further focused during the course of study:

Obtaining impedance signature values for various makes and AH capacities in new Batteries

Sulphation pattern on a new cell during discharge/charge

Possibility of revitalising sulphated cells, which are beyond 20%

Behaviour of a Battery string with a highly sulphated cell in the string













187
Average Impedance Signature of various New Battery Strings.
Capacity
AH
Make Avg.Imp.Values
60 Sharana 2.592
120 Sharana 1.77
300 Sharana 0.681
400 Sharana 0.533
300 Amararaja 1.35
1400 Amararaja 0.331
188
VRLA
Flooded Cells
Sulphation pattern of a new cell during discharge / charge
Sharana make - 120A H New Battery - Discharge Characteristics
189
Discharge - Time Vs Voltage
1.7
1.75
1.8
1.85
1.9
1.95
2
2.05
0:00 1:12 2:24 3:36 4:48 6:00 7:12 8:24 9:36 10:48
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Discharge - Initial Characteristics
1.985
1.99
1.995
2
2.005
2.01
2.015
0:00 0:07 0:14 0:21 0:28 0:36 0:43 0:50
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Discharge Characteristics
Impedance - Sulphation correlation
190
Discharge Characteristics
Impedance - Sulphation correlation
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0
:
0
0
0
:
1
5
1
:
1
0
2
:
1
0
3
:
1
0
4
:
1
0
5
:
1
0
6
:
1
0
7
:
1
0
8
:
5
3
9
:
1
3
9
:
1
8
9
:
2
3
Time
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
Impedance
Sulphation





Findings on the Sulphation pattern of new cell during discharge/ charge

A new cell of Sharana make of 120 AH was subjected to discharge/charge

The cell was discharged at C10 rate

Sulphation started to show at 5Hrs,10 Mins. of discharge and went upto 44% at 9Hrs, 13 Mins.

Impedance at the end of discharge was 3.03 m.Ohm

Charging was done for 9 Hrs, 20 Mins. at 12A and 17Hrs at 6A, the total Amp. Hrs. being 214

The sulphation was removed during charging process

This shows that the sulphation has been a reversible one during the normal course of
discharge/ charge of battery







191
Revitalisation of Sulphated Cells where Sulphation is beyond 20% - Phenomenon of Reversible Sulphation
Exide make - 60 AH with age of 2 Years from College Road SS (EDC) 33/11KV SS
Battery Discharge Characteristics 1st Cycle
192
Discharge - 1st cycle
1.74
1.76
1.78
1.8
1.82
1.84
1.86
1.88
1.9
1.92
1.94
0:00 0:07 0:14 0:21 0:28 0:36 0:43 0:50 0:57
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Discharge - 1st cycle Initial Characteristics
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.89
1.9
1.91
1.92
1.93
0:00 0:02 0:05 0:08 0:11 0:14 0:17 0:20 0:23
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Battery charge characteristics - Ist cycle
193
Charge - I
st
cycle
2
2.05
2.1
2.15
2.2
2.25
2.3
2.35
2.4
2.45
2.5
0:00:00 4:48:00 9:36:00 14:24:00 19:12:00 24:00:00 28:48:00 33:36:00
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Discharge I
st
cycle
Impedance - Sulphation correlation
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0:00:00 0:30:00 0:54:00
Time
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
Impedance
Sulphation
Battery Discharge Characteristics - 2nd Cycle
194
Discharge - 2nd cycle
1.7
1.75
1.8
1.85
1.9
1.95
2
2.05
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
2
:
2
4
:
0
0
4
:
4
8
:
0
0
7
:
1
2
:
0
0
9
:
3
6
:
0
0
1
2
:
0
0
:
0
0
1
4
:
2
4
:
0
0
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Charge - I
st
cycl e Impedance sul phati on correl ati on.
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
0
:
2
4
:
0
0
1
:
1
6
:
0
0
2
:
1
3
:
0
0
3
:
0
5
:
0
0
3
:
5
7
:
0
0
4
:
5
4
:
0
0
5
:
4
6
:
0
0
6
:
3
8
:
0
0
7
:
4
0
:
0
0
7
:
4
0
:
0
0
8
:
4
0
:
0
0
9
:
3
2
:
0
0
1
0
:
1
9
:
0
0
1
1
:
3
7
:
0
0
1
2
:
3
0
:
0
0
1
3
:
1
7
:
0
0
1
3
:
1
7
:
0
0
1
4
:
2
0
:
0
0
1
5
:
1
3
:
0
0
1
6
:
0
0
:
0
0
1
7
:
1
3
:
0
0
1
9
:
0
5
:
0
0
1
9
:
0
5
:
0
0
2
0
:
0
5
:
0
0
2
0
:
5
2
:
0
0
2
1
:
3
9
:
0
0
2
2
:
5
1
:
0
0
2
3
:
3
9
:
0
0
2
4
:
3
7
:
0
0
2
4
:
3
7
:
0
0
2
6
:
4
2
:
0
0
2
9
:
2
5
:
0
0
2
9
:
5
8
:
0
0
Time
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
Impedance
Sulphation
195
Discharge - 2nd cycle Initial characteristics
1.98
1.982
1.984
1.986
1.988
1.99
1.992
1.994
1.996
1.998
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
:
0
2
:
5
3
0
:
0
5
:
4
6
0
:
0
8
:
3
8
0
:
1
1
:
3
1
0
:
1
4
:
2
4
0
:
1
7
:
1
7
0
:
2
0
:
1
0
0
:
2
3
:
0
2
0
:
2
5
:
5
5
0
:
2
8
:
4
8
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Discharge - 2nd cycle
Impedance - Sulphation correlation
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
:
3
0
:
0
0
1
:
0
2
:
0
0
2
:
0
0
:
0
0
3
:
1
3
:
0
0
4
:
1
5
:
0
0
5
:
3
8
:
0
0
6
:
5
1
:
0
0
7
:
5
8
:
0
0
9
:
0
5
:
0
0
1
0
:
1
8
:
0
0
1
1
:
2
6
:
0
0
1
2
:
3
7
:
0
0
Time
I
m
p
.

i
n

m
.
O
h
m
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
Impedance
Sulphation
Battery Charge - 2nd cycle
196
Charge - 2
nd
cycle
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
4
:
4
8
:
0
0
9
:
3
6
:
0
0
1
4
:
2
4
:
0
0
1
9
:
1
2
:
0
0
2
4
:
0
0
:
0
0
2
8
:
4
8
:
0
0
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Voltage
Charge - 2nd cycle
Impedance - Sulphation correlation
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
:
5
2
:
0
0
0
:
5
2
:
0
0
2
:
5
2
:
0
0
4
:
0
9
:
0
0
5
:
1
2
:
0
0
6
:
0
9
:
0
0
7
:
0
1
:
0
0
7
:
0
1
:
0
0
8
:
1
6
:
0
0
9
:
3
8
:
0
0
1
1
:
1
0
:
0
0
1
2
:
1
2
:
0
0
1
3
:
0
5
:
0
0
1
3
:
0
5
:
0
0
1
4
:
1
5
:
0
0
1
5
:
2
2
:
0
0
1
6
:
0
4
:
0
0
1
7
:
4
1
:
0
0
1
9
:
0
3
:
0
0
1
9
:
0
3
:
0
0
2
0
:
1
8
:
0
0
2
2
:
2
6
:
0
0
2
4
:
5
3
:
0
0
Time
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
Impedance
Sulphation




Findings on Sulphation pattern on a Revitalized cell - Phenomenon of Reversibe Sulphation.

1st cycle - Discharge / Charge


A 2 years cell of Exide make of 60 AH was subjected to discharge/charge

The cell was discharged at C10 rate for 54Mins.

Sulphation at the beginning of discharge was 94% and went upto 100% at the end of discharge

Impedance at the end of discharge was 6.572 m.Ohm

Charging was done for 12 Hrs 10 Mins. at 6A and 17Hrs 48 Mins. at 3A, the total Amp. Hr being 126.4

The sulphation was removed during charging process

This shows that the sulphation has been a reversible one






197





2nd cycle - Discharge / Charge

The same Exide make of 60 AH cell was subjected to discharge/ charge for 2nd cycle

The cell was discharged at C10 rate for 12 hrs.,37 mins.

Sulphation at the beginning of discharge was 0% and went upto 84% at the end of discharge

Impedance at the end of discharge was 5.371 m.Ohm

Charging was done for 12 Hrs 35 Mins. at 6A and 12 Hrs 18 Mins. at 3A, the total Amp. Hr. being 111.9

The sulphation was removed during charging process

This show that the sulphation has been a reversible one

The capacity of the cell has been totally revitalised from 9% capacity to 124% capacity







198
Non-Revitalisation of Sulphated Cells where sulphation is beyond 20%
Phenomenon of Irreversible Sulphation
Sharana make - 60 AH with 1 year Battery Discharge Characteristics - Ist cycle
199
Discharge - Ist cycle
1.74
1.76
1.78
1.8
1.82
1.84
1.86
1.88
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
:
0
7
:
1
2
0
:
1
4
:
2
4
0
:
2
1
:
3
6
0
:
2
8
:
4
8
0
:
3
6
:
0
0
0
:
4
3
:
1
2
0
:
5
0
:
2
4
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Discharge - Ist cycle Initial characteristics
1.83
1.835
1.84
1.845
1.85
1.855
1.86
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
:
0
1
:
2
6
0
:
0
2
:
5
3
0
:
0
4
:
1
9
0
:
0
5
:
4
6
0
:
0
7
:
1
2
0
:
0
8
:
3
8
0
:
1
0
:
0
5
0
:
1
1
:
3
1
0
:
1
2
:
5
8
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
200
Discharge - Ist cycle
Imprdance - Sulphation correlation
5
5.2
5.4
5.6
5.8
6
6.2
6.4
6.6
6.8
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
:
0
3
:
0
0
0
:
3
5
:
0
0
0
:
4
2
:
0
0
Time
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
Impedance
Sulphation
Charge - Ist cycle
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
4
:
4
8
:
0
0
9
:
3
6
:
0
0
1
4
:
2
4
:
0
0
1
9
:
1
2
:
0
0
2
4
:
0
0
:
0
0
2
8
:
4
8
:
0
0
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Voltage
Battery Discharge Characteristic - 2nd Cycle
201
Charge - Ist Cycle
Impedance - Sulphation correlation
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
:
1
5
:
0
0
1
:
1
4
:
0
0
1
:
3
4
:
0
0
2
:
2
4
:
0
0
3
:
1
6
:
0
0
3
:
1
6
:
0
0
4
:
1
6
:
0
0
5
:
0
8
:
0
0
6
:
4
0
:
0
0
7
:
3
3
:
0
0
8
:
2
5
:
0
0
8
:
4
7
:
0
0
9
:
5
7
:
0
0
1
0
:
5
0
:
0
0
1
1
:
5
0
:
0
0
1
2
:
5
1
:
0
0
1
4
:
5
4
:
0
0
1
5
:
5
9
:
0
0
1
6
:
5
9
:
0
0
1
8
:
2
6
:
0
0
1
9
:
2
2
:
0
0
2
0
:
1
5
:
0
0
2
0
:
1
5
:
0
0
2
1
:
1
5
:
0
0
2
1
:
0
6
:
0
0
2
2
:
4
3
:
0
0
2
3
:
3
3
:
0
0
2
4
:
2
8
:
0
0
Time
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
Impedance
Sulphation
Discharge - 2nd cycle
1.7
1.75
1.8
1.85
1.9
1.95
2
2.05
2.1
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
1
:
1
2
:
0
0
2
:
2
4
:
0
0
3
:
3
6
:
0
0
4
:
4
8
:
0
0
6
:
0
0
:
0
0
7
:
1
2
:
0
0
8
:
2
4
:
0
0
9
:
3
6
:
0
0
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
202
Discharge - 2nd cycle
Impedance - Sulphation correlation
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
:
0
3
:
0
0
0
:
5
3
:
0
0
1
:
2
0
:
0
0
1
:
4
2
:
0
0
2
:
0
9
:
0
0
3
:
0
2
:
0
0
3
:
5
4
:
0
0
4
:
4
7
:
0
0
5
:
3
9
:
0
0
6
:
3
2
:
0
0
7
:
5
4
:
0
0
9
:
0
4
:
0
0
Time
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
Impedance
Sulphation
Discharge - 2nd cycle Initial Characteristics
1.98
1.99
2.00
2.01
2.02
2.03
2.04
2.05
2.06
2.07
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
:
0
2
:
5
3
0
:
0
5
:
4
6
0
:
0
8
:
3
8
0
:
1
1
:
3
1
0
:
1
4
:
2
4
0
:
1
7
:
1
7
0
:
2
0
:
1
0
0
:
2
3
:
0
2
0
:
2
5
:
5
5
0
:
2
8
:
4
8
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Battery Charge Characteristics - 2nd Cycle
203
Charge - 2nd cycle
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
4
:
4
8
:
0
0
9
:
3
6
:
0
0
1
4
:
2
4
:
0
0
1
9
:
1
2
:
0
0
2
4
:
0
0
:
0
0
2
8
:
4
8
:
0
0
Time
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Charge - 2
nd
cycle
Impedance - Sulphation correlation
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
2
:
2
5
:
0
0
4
:
1
3
:
0
0
5
:
3
8
:
0
0
7
:
4
5
:
0
0
8
:
3
8
:
0
0
8
:
3
8
:
0
0
1
5
:
1
3
:
0
0
1
6
:
5
8
:
0
0
1
8
:
1
0
:
0
0
1
9
:
4
3
:
0
0
2
1
:
2
0
:
0
0
2
1
:
2
0
:
0
0
2
2
:
3
5
:
0
0
2
3
:
2
7
:
0
0
2
4
:
5
2
:
0
0
2
6
:
4
9
:
0
0
Time
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
S
u
l
p
h
a
t
i
o
n
Impedance
Sulphation




Findings on Sulphation pattern on a Non - Revitalised cell - Phenomenon of Irreversible Sulphation
1st cycle - Discharge / Charge

A 1year cell of Sharana make of 60 AH was subjected to discharge/charge

The cell was discharged at C10 rate for 42 Mins.

Sulphation at the beginning of discharge was 100 %

Impedance at the end of discharge was 6.514 m.Ohm

Charging was done for 11 Hrs 30 Mins. at 6A and 13Hrs 58 Mins. at 3A, the total Amp. Hr being 110.9

Sulphation got reduced from 100% to 13%

This shows that the sulphation has been a irreversible one








204





2nd cycle - Discharge / Charge

The same Sharana make of 60 AH cell was subjected to discharge / charge for 2nd cycle

The cell was discharged at C10 rate for 9Hrs., 4Mins.

Sulphation at the beginning of discharge was 9% and went upto 44% at the end of discharge

Impedance at the end of discharge was 4.016 m.Ohm

Charging was done for 9 Hrs 13 Mins. at 6A and 17 Hrs 36 Mins. at 3A, the total Amp. Hr being 108.1

Sulphation got reduced from 44% to 9%

It could be inferred that the sulphation has been a irreversible one and stayed at 9% resulting in a
loss of capacity of 54 Mins.







205
206
CONCLUSI ONS

The important objectives of the project were to study the failure rate of
Batteries in sub-stations, the causes of the failures and to conduct Impedance
measurement tests establishing trend values and evolve proper maintenance
/condition monitoring techniques and replacement strategies.

A total of 2584 cells were tested during the course of the study. New
condition monitoring parameters were identified. They are Impedance,
Sulphation and Single Cell load test method. Out of the total 2584 cells, 70
cells were found to have higher Impedance ; and out of 1179 cells tested for
sulphation 254 cells were found to have high Sulphation. The impact of high
Impedance and high Sulphation on the cells was studied by subjecting such
cells with load test. Cells which were found to have low capacity were
brought to good condition by subjecting them with appropriate number of
discharge/ charge cycles by using the specially developed single cell charge/
discharge equipment.

By adopting the methods evolved in the study for condition monitoring, sub-
station battery condition could be clearly known and the Battery bank in the
Sub-Station could be kept in a reliable and ready state to take on the task
whenever required to. The other conclusions are listed below.

As of now the life of Batteries is arrived at based on the number of years
it has served, rather than the State of Health (SOH) of the Batteries
Very few failure details only could be obtained from field and the causes
of failure could not be dearly established
Float voltage, Specific gravity, Impedance and Sulphation are the key
parameters recommended for monitoring and to assess the State of
207
Health of Batteries. The following are stated on these parameters

Float voltage as SOH parameter
Cells maintained with proper float voltage too had higher levels of
Impedance and Sulphation
Higher Impedance and Sulphation have not brought a reduction of 0.1V in
float voltage in majority of cases, proving the unreliability of float voltage
as a significant parameter for health assessment

Specific Gravity as SOH parameter
Cells maintained with proper Specific gravity too had higher levels of
Impedance and Sulphation
Higher levels of Impedance and Sulphation have not brought a reduction
in specific gravity in some of the cells

Impedance as SOH parameter
The Impedance value of Battery strings of particular AH capacity has not
exceeded 20% average value in its service life in majority of the cases
Out of the cells tested 3.21% of the cells were found to exceed the 20%
Average Impedance value of strings
Higher Impedance cell values could be brought down to its initial values
by subjecting the cell to discharge/ charge cycles. As such it is concluded
that Impedance alone as a State of Health parameter could not
conclusively tell the condition of the batteries

Sulphation as SOH parameter
In a particular capacity Battery string, the cells exhibit increased
Sulphation with increased level of Impedance. However cells also have
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increased Sulphation with decreased impedance as well
Some cells also exhibit same level of Sulphation with different impedance
values
Two types of Sulphation namely Reversible and Irreversible Sulphation
were studied
New cells exhibit Reversible Sulphation, wherein the Sulphation is a
natural process during the discharge cycle that would be removed during
the charge cycle
In-service cells have characteristics that exhibit both types of Sulphation.
A 60AH cell that showed 94% Sulphation and impedance 4.629 m.ohm
got discharged at C
10
rate for 54 minutes showing 9% capacity. On
further charge the entire Sulphation was removed and impedance came
down to 1.84 m.ohm. The capacity increased from 9% to 124% as the cell
could be discharged at C
10
rate for 12 hrs. and 37 min during the second
discharge. This shows that the cell has exhibited Reversible Sulphation
characteristics
A 60 AH cell that showed 100% Sulphation and Impedance 6.291 m.ohm
was discharged at C
10
rate for 42 minutes showing 7% capacity. On
further charge the Sulphation was brought down from 100% to 13% and
Impedance came down to 2.905 m.ohm. The capacity increased from 7%
to 91% as the cell could be discharged at C
10
rate for 9 hrs. and 4
minutes during the second discharge. Further charge could not remove
the Sulphation which stayed at 9%.
This shows that the cell has exhibited Irreversible Sulphation
characteristics
Correlation between the degree of Sulphation to the loss of capacity in
cells were established.Irreversible Sulphation leads to a parmanent loss of
capacity in Cell/ Battery. 20% Irreversible Sulphation in a Cell /Battery
could mean that only 80% capacity of the Cell/ Battery is left. This could
be treated as the end of life of cells /batteries and could form the basis for
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replacement strategy and the cell could be taken out of service at this
stage
The two types of Sulphation could be distinguished by subjecting the
Cells/ Batteries to 2 cycles of discharge/charge
Experiments conducted during the study with highly Sulphated cells of the
irreversible type in the middle of a battery string, showed that such cells
failed to deliver current to the load. This is an important inference as
battery strings with highly Sulphated cells could fail to deliver load when
called for, in operating condition which could cause serious repercussions
to the system
From the above findings it is concluded that float voltage and
specific gravity should not be relied totally for SOH of Battery.
Impedance to some extent yes, but Sulphation or Impedance
along with discharge test is the effective condition monitoring
method

VRLA and Dryout as SOH parameters
Dryout occurs in Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries wherein the
electrolyte is contained within a porous matrix either Absorbed Glass Mat
(AGM) or GEL which also act as a separator
Overcharging and elevated temperature result in water loss by way of
liberation of Hydrogen and Oxygen gases through the vent leading to
Dryout
Dryout creates gaps between separators and plates leading to loss of
capacity
A 20% Dryout indicates that the cell cannot deliver more than 80%
capacity and shall be treated as the end of life of the Battery
In general, it is a misnomer that VRLA Batteries are maintenance free
Batteries. The Batteries should be operated strictly at controlled
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temperatures as recommended by the manufacturer with regular
monitoring of other state of Health parameters like float voltage, dryout
are required. It is very vital that the above parameters are monitored
regularly when VRLA Batteries are deployed in areas of critical applications

Recommendations/ Suggestions for field Engineers for the proper
maintenance of SS batteries :

As humidity and temperature will have a marked influence on the life of
the Batteries the newly supplied Batteries shall be put into service at the
earliest
In order to avoid corrosion at the battery terminals the following
procedure could be followed during the initial charge of batteries.
Even before filling the electrolyte, the battery terminals, the bolts and
nuts, connecting plates shall be smeared with thin film of petroleum jelly,
and also taking due care by smearing the internal portion of the holes in
both the terminals and the connecting plates
After completion of charging, the external surface area of the battery shall
be neatly washed with a dilute solution of sodium-bi-carbonate (baking
soda) to neutralise any of the acid present
The water used for preparation of Electrolyte/topping up in Batteries
should be distilled / demineralised water. The test for chlorine in water
shall be checked by adopting the procedure mentioned in Page 73
Batteries showing a decreasing trend in Specific gravity value shall be
necessarily subjected to boost charge for a period of time, until all the
cells start gassing. Also Batteries under float condition shall be subjected
to boost charge as stated above once in a month/ as per manufacturers
recommendation
Methodology / Guideline to replace Sub-station Batteries :
Each distribution circle should be provided with a single cell charge/
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discharge test equipment. Cells identified with higher Impedance/
Sulphation shall be subjected to a minimum of 2 discharge / charge cycle
and cells that still have sulphation at 20% and above shall be removed
from service as not reusable
It is suggested that each circle could have atleast 15 cells/ Batteries as
standby for the commonly available capacities in fully charged condition to
be used as replacement for the Sulphated cells. The Sulphated cells could
be further put to discharge/ charge cycles as a group from which the
Irreversible Sulphated cells could be identified and sent for condemnation
if they have exceeded 20% Sulphation

Improvements envisaged in the Charging System
The charger shall incorporate both Constant Current and Constant Voltage
mode of operations
Batteries shall be charged at the constant current mode during charging
modes such as the initial charge, final charge, equalizing charge and the
Boost charge. The Constant Current mode should have a feedback
mechanism to maintain automatic Constant Current at the set values.
During the float condition, the Battery shall be kept at the constant
voltage mode. The voltage for the flooded Lead-Acid Batteries with
Specific Gravity 1.200 at 27
o
C shall be kept at 2.16 + 10% or as per
manufacturer's recommendation. The Constant Voltage mode shall also
have a feed back mechanism to maintain Constant float voltage at the set
values
Digital Voltmeters and Ammeters shall be provided in all battery chargers
instead of the present analog meters. The digital meters should also work
during A.C. power off condition.
Three Ammeters shall be provided for Boost charge, Trickle charge and
Load current.
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The Boost ammeter shall be of centre zero type and shall be positioned in
the circuit in such a way that it is in series with the Battery only and not
with any other circuitry. This would help to monitor the current flowing
out from the Battery separately. This way both charge and discharge
current from the Battery could be monitored

The AC voltmeter shall be provided with a three phase selector switch.
The DC voltmeters shall be provided with a selector switch to monitor
both Battery and Load voltage
The charger shall have additional provision of single phase preventer in
case of three phase chargers and a start/stop switch
The charger shall be provided with separate discharge resistors with push
button so as to measure the voltage of the Batteries during discharge
state
Suggestion to Battery Manufacturers
Impedance signature values for new Batteries may be provided by the
manufacturers. These values may be indicative and would be used for
trending
The container shall be of transparent type so that the internal parts are
visible and any change in conditions of the plates could be observed
The possibility of having higher float voltage shall be examined for
stationary Batteries to avoid reduction in specific gravity value under float
operation





213

References
Storage Batteries A general treatise on the Physics and Chemistry of
Secondary Batteries and their Engineering Application George Wood
Vinal
IS 1651 Stationary Cells and Batteries Lead Acid type (with tubular
positive plates) Specification
World Energy Labs, User manual on Interrogator 4210
World Energy Labs, user manual on WELSOFT Companion Software for
Interrogator 4210
Discussions and correspondence with Battery manufacturer M/s.Sharana
Industries, Chennai
Discussions and correspondence with Battery charger manufacturer M/s.
R-Man System, Chennai
Discussions with CIGRE, Karaikudi