CHAPTER 12 Introduction to refractories

12.0 Background
ReIrucLorIes ure muLerIuI IuvIng IIgI meILIng poInLs, wILI
properLIes LIuL muke LIem suILubIe Lo ucL us IeuL-resIsLIng
burrIers beLween IIgI und Iow LemperuLure zones. ReIrucLorIes
ure useIuI In consLrucLIng uppIIcuLIon-specIIIc IIgI LemperuLure
ureusJsurIuces, purLIcuIurIy In Iurnuces or boIIers, us LIey
mInImIze IeuL Iosses LIrougI sLrucLure.

TIe vuIue oI reIrucLorIes Is judged noL mereIy by LIe cosL oI LIe
muLerIuI ILseII, buL by LIe nuLure oI job undJor ILs perIormunce
In u purLIcuIur sILuuLIon. SpecIIIcuIIy, LIe perIormunce oI u
reIrucLory depends on ILs quuIILIes und quunLILIes In LIree
pIuses-soIId, gIussJIIquId, und pores-wIIcI govern LIe
uILImuLe properLy oI u reIrucLory muLerIuI.

A 'green bond` Is deveIoped by mIxIng vurIous sIzes oI sImIIur
reIrucLory muLerIuI IuvIng some sLrengLI und properLy, wIIcI
ure cIunged durIng IIrIngJIeuL LreuLmenL In LIe course oI
servIce. TIe quuIILIes oI reIrucLorIes ure LIus dependenL on
LIeIr cIemIcuI, pIysIcuI, mIneruIogIcuI und LIermuI properLIes.

ReIrucLory muLerIuIs ure generuIIy LuIIor-mude on LIe busIs oI:
Process purumeLers IIke LemperuLure proIIIe, mode oI
operuLIon, cIemIcuI envIronmenL, eLc.
ExpecLed quuIILy cIurucLerIsLIcs
BesL LecInIques Ior engIneerIng und uppIIcuLIon, so LIuL
LIe IInuI pIysIcuI, cIemIcuI, mecIunIcuI, und LIermuI
properLIes ure compuLIbIe Lo LIe uppIIcuLIon

ReIrucLory muLerIuIs ure used In Lwo dIIIerenL Iorms, numeIy,
sIuped und unsIuped producLs.

12.1 Shaped refractories
TIe mosL IumIIIur Iorm oI reIrucLory muLerIuIs Is LIe recLunguIur
brIck sIupe. However, reIrucLorIes ure presenLIy uvuIIubIe In u
vurIeLy oI sIupes und sIzes Ior convenIence In consLrucLIon.





58

12.2 Unshaped refractories
TIere Is u cIuss oI reIrucLory muLerIuIs wIIcI cun Iorm joInL-Iess
IInIng. TIIs cIuss oI reIrucLory muLerIuIs Is cuIIed monoIILIIc. AII
unsIuped reIrucLory muLerIuIs Iuve LIIs ubIIILy Lo Iorm joInL-
Iess IInIng, und Ience LIey ure grouped us monoIILIIc.
UnsIuped reIrucLorIes ure munuIucLured In powder
Iorm us grunuIur muLerIuI und known us cusLubIes,
rummIng musses, gunnIng mIx, pIusLIc musses, eLc.
CusLubIes ure mIxed wILI wuLer beIore cusLIng.
RummIng musses ure IIrsL mIxed wILI wuLer or uny
oLIer IIquId Lo LIe requIred quuIILy, und LIen rummed
eILIer munuuIIy or pneumuLIcuIIy wILI u Ieuvy rummer.
GunnIng musses ure pussed LIrougI u mucIIne In wIIcI
LIe powder muLerIuI Is puL under pressure und conveyed
pneumuLIcuIIy LIrougI u Iose. TIe muLerIuI geLs mIxed
up wILI wuLer beIore IL exILs LIe Iose nozzIe, und sLIcks
Lo LIe surIuce on wIIcI IL Is uppIIed Lo Iorm u IInIng.
PIusLIc musses comprIse reudy-mIx muLerIuI LIuL Is
uppIIed munuuIIy In LIe Iurnuce Lo Iorm u IInIng.

12.3 Classification
TIe prImury consLILuenLs oI uny reIrucLory muy be u sIngIe
compound IIke uIumInu, sIIIcu or muIIILe, or u combInuLIon oI
LIese muLerIuIs. TIeIr meILIng poInLs ure us IoIIows:
SIIIcu (SIOz) - 1;z C
AIumInu (AIzO) - zoo C
MuIIILe (;1.8% AIzO, z8.z% SIOz) - 1qq6 C

ReIuLIveIy smuII umounLs oI oxIdes oI sodIum (NuzO) und
poLussIum (KzO), und oLIer mIneruIs conLuInIng cuIcIum (CuO),
mugnesIum (MgO), LILunIum (TIOz), und Iron oxIde, promoLe
IIquId-pIuse IormuLIon uL Iow LemperuLures. Hence, LIe
presence oI LIese oxIdes In reIrucLorIes musL be IImILed Lo Lruce
umounLs Lo uvoId IormuLIon oI Iow LemperuLure IIquId pIuse.

ReIrucLorIes In wIIcI LIe predomInunL consLILuenLs ure
uIumInu, sIIIcu or u combInuLIon LIereoI muy be pIuced In LIe
IoIIowIng cuLegorIes:
IrecIuy reIrucLory
HIgI uIumInu reIrucLory
SIIIcu reIrucLory
MuIIILe reIrucLory

12.3.1 Fireclay refractory
IrecIuys ure IydruLed uIumInum sIIIcuLes LIuL occur nuLuruIIy.
TIey ure suIIIcIenLIy pure Lo serve us ruw muLerIuIs Ior
reIrucLorIes. TIe prIncIpuI mIneruI In IIrecIuys Is kuoIInILe.
WIIIe oLIer cIuy mIneruIs muy be presenL, LIe IormuIu
AIzO.zSIOz.zHzO cun usuuIIy represenL LIe cIuy IrucLIon. As
59

kuoIInILe Is IeuLed Lo IIgI LemperuLures wIen used Lo muke
reIrucLorIes, IL Ioses ILs wuLer; LIeoreLIcuIIy, q.q% uIumInu und
q.1% sIIIcu remuIn.

PIusLIc und semI-pIusLIc IIrecIuys, us LIeIr numes IndIcuLe,
deveIop vuryIng degrees oI pIusLIcILy wIen LIey ure mIxed wILI
wuLer. TIIs Is un ImporLunL IucLor In LIe munuIucLure oI IIrecIuy
brIcks, becuuse LIe pIusLIc IIrecIuys IucIIILuLe LIe IormIng
process und ucL us u bondIng pIuse Ior LIe ruw und cuIcIned IIInL
cIuys, und LIey Iuve greuLer vurIuLIon In LIeIr ImpurILy conLenL.

12.3.2 Silica refractories
SIIIcu brIcks ure mude Irom ruw muLerIuIs LIuL ure essenLIuIIy
quurLz. DurIng LIe InILIuI IIrIng, uIpIu-quurLz Is IIrsL converLed
Lo beLu-quurLz, uccompunIed by un ubrupL expunsIon uL ; C.
SIow ruLes oI IeuLIng ure requIred LIrougI LIIs LemperuLure
runge Lo prevenL cruckIng, us LIe voIume cIunge Is ubouL o.q%.
SInce LIe IInuI IIrIng LemperuLure Is somewIuL over 1qz6 C, LIe
brIck us IL Is puL InLo servIce consIsLs oI crIsLobuIILe purLIcIes
(properLIes oI crIsLobuIILe ure noL uIIecLed by LemperuLure
IIucLuuLIon, provIded LIe LemperuLure does noL drop beIow 6oo
C), wILI possIbIy some IuvIng resIduuI unconverLed quurLz
cores.

12.3.3 High-alumina refractories
HIgI-uIumInu brIcks serve us u muILI-purpose reIrucLory
muLerIuI Ior severe envIronmenLs. TIey ure used exLensIveIy In
LIe sLeeI IndusLry Ior sucI uppIIcuLIons us IoL meLuI curs,
eIecLrIc Iurnuce rooIs, pIers und muIIIes Ior u vurIeLy oI
Iurnuces, und numerous uppIIcuLIons wIere sLrengLI uL IIgI
LemperuLure Is un essenLIuI requIremenL. TIe uIumInIum und
gIuss IndusLrIes use IIgI-uIumInu reIrucLorIes Lo keep LIe meIL
In LIe moILen sLuLe.

MosL IIgI-uIumInu reIrucLorIes ure cIussIIIed uccordIng Lo LIeIr
uIumInu conLenL, wIIcI couId runge Irom o%-qq%. TIey ure
desIgnuLed us o%, 6o%, ;o%, 8o%, 8% und qo% uIumInu.
Two cIusses oI IIgI-uIumInu reIrucLorIes ure dIsLInguIsIed by u
mIcrosLrucLure LIuL Is essenLIuIIy u sIngIe, crysLuIIIne pIuse.
TIese ure: (1) muIIILe reIrucLorIes und (z) corundum
reIrucLorIes.

12.3.3.1 Mullite refractories
MuIIILe Is ubouL ;z% uIumInu wILI z8% sIIIcu. TIe
munuIucLurIng procedures ure desIgned Lo muxImIze LIe
IormuLIon oI LIe compound muIIILe (AIzO.zSIOz). A reIrucLory
wILI ;1.8% uIumInu und z8.z% sIIIcu wIII be composed oI onIy
muIIILe (AIzO.zSIOz) II IIred uL equIIIbrIum condILIons.
However, LIe exLenL Lo wIIcI weII-deveIoped muIIILe crysLuIIIne
Iorm occurs In u reIrucLory depends on LIe purILy oI LIe ruw
60

muLerIuIs used und LIe munuIucLurIng processes, purLIcuIurIy
IIrIng. TIereIore, uII IIgI-uIumInu brIcks wILI uround ;o%
uIumInu muy Iuve u weII-deveIoped muIIILe pIuse.
MuIIILe reIrucLorIes Iuve exceIIenL voIume sLubIIILy und sLrengLI
uL IIgI LemperuLures. TIey ure IIgIIy suILubIe muLerIuI Ior
eIecLrIc Iurnuce rooIs, bIusL Iurnuces und bIusL Iurnuce sLoves,
IoL meLuI curs, und LIe supersLrucLure oI gIuss Lunk Iurnuces.

12.3.3.2 Corundum refractories
TIe qq% uIumInu cIuss oI reIrucLorIes Is cuIIed corundum. TIese
reIrucLorIes comprIse sIngIe-pIuse, poIycrysLuIIIne, uIpIu-
uIumInu.

12.4 Properties of refractory materials
TIe quuIILy oI u reIrucLory und ILs suILubIIILy Ior u purLIcuIur
uppIIcuLIon prImurIIy depends on ILs pIysIcuI, cIemIcuI und
mIneruIogIcuI properLIes. L muy be possIbIe Lo ussess LIe
quuIILy oI u reIrucLory on LIe busIs oI u sIngIe properLy or u
group oI properLIes. TIe mosL common properLIes LIuL ure
consIdered In seIecLIng LIe opLImum reIrucLory IInIng
conIIguruLIon ure IIsLed beIow.
1. AppurenL porosILy
z. BuIk densILy
. ModuIus oI rupLure (MOR)
q. HoL moduIus oI rupLure (HMOR)
. CoId crusIIng sLrengLI
6. PyromeLrIc cone equIvuIenL (PCE)
;. TIermuI expunsIon
8. TIermuI expunsIon under Ioud (TEU) und creep
q. TIermuI conducLIvILy

BoLI sIuped und unsIuped reIrucLorIes ure uvuIIubIe In LIe
murkeL under dIIIerenL brund numes wILI specIuI IeuLures und
Ior dIIIerenL uppIIcuLIons. TIe unuIyLIcuI duLu on LIese producLs
ure generuIIy provIded In LIe compuny producL brocIures.
However, purcIusers ure udvIsed Lo geL reIrucLory sumpIes
unuIysed once In u wIIIe Lo verIIyJcross cIeck LIe suppIIer`s
cIuIms us weII us ussess LIe quuIILy oI LIe procured reIrucLory on
LIeIr cIurucLerIsLIcs, consIsLency und vurIuLIon In composILIon
due Lo ImperIecL munuIucLurIng.

12.4.1 Apparent porosity
TIe uppurenL porosILy Is u meusure oI LIe eIIecLIve open pore
spuce In u reIrucLory InLo wIIcI moILen meLuI, sIug, IIuxes,
vupours, eLc. cun peneLruLe und LIereby conLrIbuLe Lo evenLuuI
degruduLIon oI LIe sLrucLure. TIe porosILy oI uny producL Is
expressed us LIe uveruge percenLuge oI open pore spuce In LIe
overuII reIrucLory voIume.

61

12.4.2 Bulk density
TIe buIk densILy Is generuIIy consIdered In conjuncLIon wILI
uppurenL porosILy. L Is u meusure oI LIe weIgIL oI u gIven
voIume oI reIrucLory. or muny reIrucLorIes, LIe buIk densILy
provIdes u generuI IndIcuLIon oI LIe producL quuIILy. WIIIe
evuIuuLIng u reIrucLory brund or compurIng severuI producLs oI
equIvuIenL Lype (excepL InsuIuLIng Lypes), IL Is consIdered LIuL
LIe reIrucLory wILI IIgIer buIk densILy (generuIIy concurrenL
wILI Iower porosILy) wIII be beLLer In quuIILy. TIe sLrucLure oI u
reIrucLory IuvIng IIgIer buIk densILy wIII be denser, resuILIng In
beLLer resIsLunce Lo cIemIcuI uLLuck, decreused meLuI
peneLruLIon, beLLer ubrusIon resIsLunce und oLIer reIuLed
beneIILs.

12.4.3 Modulus of rupture (MOR)
TIe moduIus oI rupLure (MOR) Is LIe IIexuruI breukIng sLrengLI
oI u reIrucLory. MOR Is meusured uL room LemperuLure und
expressed In pounds per squure IncI or kIIogrums per squure
cenLImeLer.

12.4.4 Hot modulus of rupture (HMOR)
TIe IoL moduIus oI rupLure (HMOR) Is LIe IIexuruI breukIng
sLrengLI oI u reIrucLory uL u cIosen eIevuLed LemperuLure or over
u runge oI LemperuLures. TIe sLrucLuruI InLegrILy und generuI
ubrusIon cIurucLerIsLIcs oI u reIrucLory cun be esLImuLed Irom
HMOR, mukIng IL un essenLIuI properLy Lo deLermIne LIe
suILubIIILy oI u reIrucLory In u cerLuIn LemperuLure proIIIe Ior u
cerLuIn seL oI uppIIcuLIon condILIons.

12.4.5 Cold crushing strength
TIe coId crusIIng sLrengLI Is LIe cupucILy oI u reIrucLory Lo
provIde resIsLunce Lo u compressIve Ioud uL room LemperuLure.
L Is LIe Ioud, In pounds per squure IncI or kIIogrums per squure
cenLImeLer, uL wIIcI LIe reIrucLory breuks.

12.4.6 Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE)
TIe pyromeLrIc cone equIvuIenL (PCE) Is u meusure oI LIe
reIrucLorIness und sLuLe oI muLurILy oI LIe muLerIuI composILIon
oI u reIrucLory producL uILer IIrIng. L represenLs LIe sLuLe uL
wIIcI u reIrucLory mIxLureJcomposILIon sLurLs becomIng soIL
und deIorms wILIIn u purLIcuIur LemperuLure runge, dependIng
upon LIe IeuLIng puLLern In LIe IIrIng sLuge.

RepresenLuLIve PCE vuIues Ior seIecLed reIrucLorIes IncIude
cones -q Ior super duLy IIrecIuy, cones zq-1 Ior medIum
duLy IIrecIuy und cones 6-; Ior u 6o% uIumInu producL. TIe
cone vuIues reporLed Ior reIrucLorIes ure bused on u deIIned
sLundurd LIme-LemperuLure reIuLIonsIIp, so dIIIerenL IeuLIng
ruLes wIII resuIL In dIIIerenL PCE vuIues. PCE cun be useIuI Ior
quuIILy conLroI purposes Lo deLecL vurIuLIons In buLcI cIemIsLry
62

LIuL resuIL Irom cIunges or errors In LIe ruw muLerIuI
IormuIuLIon.

12.4.7 Thermal expansion
TIermuI expunsIon Is LIe InLrInsIc cIurucLerIsLIc oI reIrucLory
producLs Lo expund on IeuLIng und conLrucL on cooIIng. TIe
dImensIonuI cIunges oI u reIrucLory due Lo LIermuI expunsIon
ure commonIy expressed In permunenL IIneur cIunge (%) und
LIe coeIIIcIenL oI LIermuI expunsIon (IengLI per unIL IengLI).

12.4.8 Thermal expansion under load (TEUL) and creep
DImensIonuI cIunges Luke pIuce In u reIrucLory under u
compressIve Ioud uL eIevuLed LemperuLure. TIe dImensIonuI
cIunge couId be IIneur on IncreusIng LIe LemperuLurenge Is
known us LIermuI expunsIon under Ioud (TEU). TIe
dImensIonuI cIunges due Lo exLended perIod oI IoIdIngJsoukIng
oI u reIrucLory uL pre-seIecLed LemperuLure Is nonIIneur, und
Ieuds Lo pIusLIc deIormuLIon known us creep. More specIIIcuIIy,
creep Is LIe IeuL-ucLIvuLed pIusLIc deIormuLIon oI u body under
sLress us u IuncLIon oI LIme. TEU und creep ure LypIcuIIy
deLermIned In sequence In LIe sume LesL, usIng LIe sume
sumpIe.

12.4.9 Thermal conductivity
TIe LIermuI conducLIvILy Is deIIned us LIe quunLILy oI IeuL LIuL
wIII IIow LIrougI u unIL ureu In u dIrecLIon normuI Lo LIe surIuce
ureu In u deIIned LIme wILI u known LemperuLure grudIenL under
sLeudy sLuLe condILIons ucross LIe ureu. L IndIcuLes LIe generuI
IeuL IIow cIurucLerIsLIcs oI reIrucLorIes. TIe IeuL IIow poLenLIuI
Is IIgIer wILI IIgIer LIermuI conducLIvILy vuIue, und vIce versu.
HIgI LIermuI conducLIvILy reIrucLorIes ure requIred Ior some
uppIIcuLIons wIere good IeuL LrunsIer Is essenLIuI, sucI us coke
oven wuIIs, regeneruLors, muIIIes, und wuLer-cooIed Iurnuce
wuIIs. However, reIrucLorIes wILI Iower LIermuI conducLIvILy ure
preIerred In IndusLrIuI uppIIcuLIons, us LIey IeIp In conservIng
IeuL energy.

TIe LIermuI conducLIvILy oI reIrucLorIes Is dependenL on IucLors
sucI us cIemIcuI und mIneruIogIcuI composILIon, LemperuLure,
porosILy, exLenL oI sInLerIng, und Iurnuce envIronmenL. PorosILy
Is u sIgnIIIcunL IucLor In IeuL IIow LIrougI reIrucLorIes. TIe
LIermuI conducLIvILy oI u reIrucLory decreuses on IncreusIng ILs
porosILy.

12.5 Quality assessment of refractory materials
TIe crILIcuI properLIes oI u reIrucLory sIouId be unuIysed Ior
generIc ussessmenL oI ILs quuIILy, und Lo compure LIe unuIyLIcuI
resuILs wILI LIe quunLILuLIve vuIues oI LIe properLIes oI LIe
reIrucLory LIuL ure suppIIed by LIe munuIucLurer.
63

12.5.1 Physical analysis
AII reIrucLory muLerIuIs conLuIn pores oI vuryIng quunLILy. TIe
mujorILy oI LIe pIysIcuI properLIes, LIuL Is, densILy, sLrengLI,
expunsIon, und LIermuI conducLIvILy oI muLerIuIs, ure dIrecLIy
InIIuenced by LIe quunLILy und quuIILy oI LIese pores. Two Lypes
oI pores-cIosed und open-ure observed In u reIrucLory. Pores
wIIcI do noL Iuve uny connecLIon wILI LIe uLmospIere ure
known us cIosed pores, wIIIe LIose LIuL Iuve uccess Lo LIe
uLmospIere ure known us open pores. TIese ure normuIIy
expressed In Lerms oI percenLuge oI LoLuI voIume und couId be
cuIcuIuLed Irom LIe muss und voIume oI uny reIrucLory muLerIuI.
TIe muss oI u reIrucLory couId be meusured eILIer In soIId sLuLe
(Wss) or In powder sLuLe (Wps). SImIIurIy, ILs voIume Loo couId be
meusured eILIer In soIId sLuLe (Vss), wIIcI IncIudes LIe voIume oI
pores, or In powder sLuLe (Vps), wIIcI does noL IncIude LIe
voIume oI pores. L Is uIso possIbIe Lo meusure LIe voIume oI
pores (Vpore) presenL In u soIId sLuLe oI reIrucLory muLerIuI.

By unuIysIng porosILy uIone, IL Is possIbIe Lo ussess reIrucLory
quuIILy. PorosILy Is deIIned us LIe ruLIo oI voIume oI vucunL
spucesJpores (Vpore) Lo LIe LoLuI voIume oI muLerIuI (Vss)
expressed In percenLuge.

TIereIore, porosILy (%) = Vpore J Vss In percenLuge.

SpecIIIc or Lrue densILy Is deIIned us LIe ruLIo oI LIe weIgIL oI
LIe muLerIuI In powder sLuLe (Wps) Lo ILs voIume (Vps) In LIe
sume sLuLe. TIe muLerIuI Is powdered Lo some deIInILe sIze so
LIuL LIere ure no pores uvuIIubIe In LIe muLerIuI.

TIereIore, Lrue densILy (TD, In grumsJcubIc cenLImeLre) = muss
(Wps) In grumsJvoIume oI soIId (Vps) In cm

.

BuIk densILy (BD) Is deLermIned Ior reIrucLory muLerIuI IuvIng
open und cIosed pores. L Is LIe ruLIo oI muss In soIId sLuLe (Wss)
Lo buIk voIume (Vss) oI u reIrucLory.

TIereuILer, LIe voIume oI open pores cun be Iound ouL by some
eusy meLIod (Ior InsLunce, by IIIIIng LIe open pore ureus wILI
wuLer or oLIer IIquId und meusurIng LIe voIume oI wuLerJIIquId,
wIIcI gIves LIe voIume oI open pores) Lo cuIcuIuLe LIe uppurenL
densILy (AD) oI LIe reIrucLory. TIe uppurenL densILy (AD) Is
deIIned us LIe ruLIo oI muss In soIId sLuLe (Wss) Lo LIe resuILunL
voIume, wIIcI Is obLuIned by uddIng LIe voIume oI soIId (Vss)
wILI LIe voIume oI cIosed pores (Vpore). AD Is expressed In
grumsJ cubIc cenLImeLre.

TIereIore, AD = Wss J (Vss + Vpore) grumsJ cm

TIe quunLILIes oI LoLuI pores, open pores und cIosed pores cun
be deLermIned usIng LIree densILy duLu: I.e., Lrue densILy, buIk
64

densILy, und uppurenL densILy. TIese vuIues Ior uny reIrucLory
couId be eusIIy obLuIned und ure necessury Ior ussessIng ILs
quuIILy und expecLed perIormunce.

12.5.2 Chemical and mineralogical analysis
ReIrucLorIes ure IdenLIIIed by LIeIr mujor cIemIcuI consLILuenLs,
wIIcI govern LIeIr quuIILy und properLIes. L Is essenLIuI Lo
curry ouL compIeLe cIemIcuI unuIysIs oI reIrucLory muLerIuIs Ior
ILs quuIILy ussessmenL. As u LIumb ruIe, IL Is known LIuL LIe
IIgIer LIe uIumInu conLenL, LIe beLLer Is LIe properLy. However,
IL Is obvIous LIuL wIIIe LIe mujor cIemIcuI consLILuenLs oI u
reIrucLory do pIuy LIe mosL ImporLunL roIe In deLermInIng ILs
ubIIILy Lo perIorm, LIe mInor consLILuenLs-muInIy ImpurILIes-
uIso pIuy u very ImporLunL roIe In ILs perIormunce.

ReIrucLory muLerIuIs ure normuIIy oxIdes IuvIng u Lendency Lo
reucL wILI one unoLIer uL IIgI LemperuLure Lo Iorm dIIIerenL
compounds wILI dIIIerenL crysLuI sLrucLures. TIe mIneruIogIcuI
IormuLIon und crysLuI sLrucLures oI LIe sume cIemIcuI
consLILuenLs wIII vury dependIng upon LIe exLenL oI IeuL
LreuLmenLJLIermuI exposure LIe muLerIuI receIves In
munuIucLurIng or In operuLIng condILIons. TIe crysLuI sLrucLure
LIuL Iorms wIII decIde LIe perIormunce oI LIe reIrucLory, us LIe
resIsLunce Lo corrosIonJerosIon beIuvIour IurgeIy depends on IL.
TIereIore, IL Is essenLIuI Lo know LIe mIcrosLrucLure oI LIe
reIrucLory uIong wILI ILs cIemIcuI consLILuenLs.

QuuIILy ussessmenL couId be currIed ouL oI LIe reIrucLory muLerIuI
by unuIysIng rundomIy seIecLed sumpIes Irom LIe IoL Ior compIeLe
cIemIcuI composILIon, uppurenL porosILy, buIk densILy, uppurenL
densILy, HMOR, und muIIILe conLenL. However, esLImuLIon oI
muIIILe percenLuge wIII requIre X-Ruy unuIysIs, Ior wIIcI IucIIILIes
ure noL uvuIIubIe everywIere. Hence, muIIILe percenLuge Ius Lo be
esLImuLed Irom oLIer pIysIcuI LesLs, und un occusIonuI cIeck oI
LIIs purumeLer wIII suIIIce.

12.6 Refractory for pot furnace lining
ConsLrucLIon oI u Iurnuce wouId requIre LIe use oI dIIIerenL
Lypes oI reIrucLorIes, eucI suILIng LIe LemperuLure proIIIe oI u
purLIcuIur ureu. TIe deLuIIs oI LIe reIrucLory muLerIuIs used In
open poL Iurnuce consLrucLIon ure sIown In TubIe 1z.1.
Table 12.1: Details of refractories used in open pot furnace
Refractory type Application area
Red bricks Level foundation, tri area, chimney base and outer sides of the
flue paths
IS-6 bricks Flue path area after recuperator
IS-8 bricks Crown, flue path area
Silica bricks Crown and furnace wall between pillars
65

Refractory type Application area
Sillimanite block Furnace floor, pillars, skewbacks and burner block
Mortar/ramming
masses
As applicable during construction of different parts of the furnace
lining, using different refractories and anticorrosive surface
coating

Red brIcks, S-6 brIcks und S-8 brIcks ure uII IIrecIuy reIrucLory
brIcks wIose sLundurds ure uIreudy ouLIIned by LIe BS (Bureuu
oI ndIun SLundurds) coverIng sLundurd dImensIons, pIysIcuI
und cIemIcuI properLIes.

12.6.1 Sillimanite block
TIe Lerm 'SIIIImunILe` Is In IucL u mIsnomer. SIIIImunILe
generuIIy represenLs u IIgI-uIumInu reIrucLory wILI u IIgIer
percenLuge oI muIIILe. HIgI-uIumInu reIrucLorIes ure
purLIcuIurIy suILubIe Ior IIgI-LemperuLure uppIIcuLIons (sucI us
In LIe open-poL Iurnuce Ior gIuss meILIng), wILI LypIcuI process
purumeLers IIke LIermuI sLress und cIemIcuI envIronmenL.
HIgI-uIumInu reIrucLorIes IuvIng LIe IoIIowIng cIurucLerIsLIcs
ure suILubIe Ior Iurnuce IIoor consLrucLIon:
HIgI LemperuLure resIsLunce (uL IeusL up Lo 1qo C)
HIgI corrosIon resIsLunce (uIkuII resIsLunL)
ResIsLunce Lo LIermuI IIucLuuLIon

TubIe 1z.z sIows deLuIIed pIysIcuI und cIemIcuI properLIes oI
SIIIImunILe reIrucLorIes.
Table 12.2: Properties of Sillimanite refractories
Parameter Value
A12O3 60% minimum (preferably
around 70%)

Fe2O3 0.5% maximum
PLC (at 1500 C) 0.2%
Apparent porosity 15%17%
Cold crushing strength 400 kg/cm2 minimum
Bulk density 2.50 g/cc minimum
RUL 1580 C
HMOR (1400 C) 6065 kg/cm2
Mullite 50% minimum (indicative)
Notes: PLCpermanent linear change
RULrefractoriness under load

12.7 Improving operating life of the furnace lining
TIe IoIIowIng prucLIces muy be observed wIIIe curryIng ouL
Iurnuce IInIng, In order Lo ensure Ionger operuLIng IIIe oI LIe
Iurnuce. TIe process begIns wILI procuremenL oI upproprIuLe,
good quuIILy reIrucLory muLerIuI.


66

12.7.1 Consistent quality
TIe quuIILy oI LIe reIrucLorIes used In poL Iurnuce IIoor needs Lo
be consIsLenL und ussured. BIocks ure Lo be procured Irom
repuLed munuIucLurers, us LIe quuIILy oI sucI bIocks cun be
expecLed Lo be unIIorm. NormuIIy, repuLed munuIucLurers Iuve
LIe requIsILe InIrusLrucLure und reIevunL munuIucLurIng know-
Iow Ior deveIopIng LIe correcL pIysIcuI properLIes In LIe bIocks
sucI us sLrengLI uL IIgI LemperuLure (HMOR), und correcL
mIneruIogy (muIIILe conLenL). Once LIese desIred properLIes ure
ucIIeved durIng LIe munuIucLurIng process, LIe perIormunce oI
LIe reIrucLory muLerIuI wIII be predIcLubIe und beLLer.

12.7.2 Using larger refractory blocks
TIe use oI Iurger bIocks reduces LIe number oI joInLs wIIIe
consLrucLIng u Iurnuce IInIng. However, LIIs does noL uIwuys
resuIL In ImprovemenL oI perIormunce. TIe munuIucLurIng oI
Iurge bIocks requIres u IIgI-cupucILy press Ior deveIopIng
unIIorm properLy cIurucLerIsLIcs. Hence, IL Is necessury Lo
consIder LIe dImensIons oI LIe bIock vIs-u-vIs ILs properLIes
(Irom LIe suppIIers` producL brocIure) Lo ensure ILs suILubIIILy
Ior u purLIcuIur uppIIcuLIon. urLIer, rundom sumpIes Irom LIe
procured IoLs sIouId be unuIysed Lo verIIy LIe munuIucLurer`s
cIuIms wILI LIe resuILs obLuIned Irom sumpIe unuIyses.

12.7.3 Mortar quality
TIe quuIILIes oI morLur used In Iurnuce IInIng sIouId be sImIIur
Lo LIe reIrucLory quuIILIes JproperLIes. ow sIrInkuge (Iess LIun
1%) IIgI-uIumInu morLur sIouId be used Ior joInIng LIe IIgI-
uIumInu bIocks.

12.7.4 Proper dimension
DImensIonuIIy uccuruLe und wurpuge-Iree bIocks sIouId be used
In Iurnuce IInIng.

12.7.5 Use of anticorrosive coating
TIe IIoor oI LIe Iurnuce Is IIkeIy Lo be dumuged due Lo LIe
spIIIuge oI cIurge muLerIuIs conLuInIng uIkuIIs or due Lo conLucL
wILI moILen gIuss In cuse oI poL IuIIure. n generuI, IL Ius been
Iound LIuL spurkIng und corrosIon ure LIe muIn cuuses oI weur
und Leur oI reIrucLorIes In IndusLrIuI processes. TIe gIuss
IndusLry Is no excepLIon. BrIcks wILI resIsLunce Lo spurkIng und
corrosIon ure preIerubIe Ior usIng on LIe IIoor oI LIe gIuss
meILIng Iurnuce. AnLI-corrosIve couLIng muLerIuIs purLIcuIurIy
suILubIe Ior uIkuII uLLuck couId be consIdered. TIe couLIng
sIouId be unIIorm, und muy be mm LIIck.