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Crusades
The Crusades were religious conflicts during the High Middle Ages through the end of the Late Middle Ages, conducted under the sanction of the Latin Catholic Church. Pope Urban II proclaimed the first crusade in 1095 with the stated goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem. There followed a further six major Crusades against Muslim territories in the east and Detail of a miniature of Philip II of France arriving in Holy Land numerous minor ones as part of an intermittent 200-year struggle for control of the Holy Land that ended in failure. After the fall of Acre, the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land, in 1291, Catholic Europe mounted no further coherent response in the east. Many historians and medieval contemporaries, such as Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, give equal precedence to comparable, Papal-blessed military campaigns against pagans, heretics, and people under the ban of excommunication, undertaken for a variety of religious, economic, and political reasons, such as the Albigensian Crusade, the Aragonese Crusade, the Reconquista, and the Northern Crusades. While some historians see the Crusades as part of a purely defensive war against the expansion of Islam in the near east, many see them as part of long-running conflicts at the frontiers of Europe, including the ArabByzantine Wars, the ByzantineSeljuq Wars, and the loss of Anatolia by the Byzantines after their defeat by the Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Urban II sought to reunite the Christian church under his leadership by providing Emperor Alexios I with military support. Several hundred thousand soldiers became Crusaders by taking vows and by receiving plenary indulgences.[1][2] These crusaders were Christians from all over Western Europe under feudal rather than unified command, and the politics were often complicated to the point of intra-faith competition leading to alliances between combatants of different faiths against their coreligionists, such as the Christian alliance with the Islamic Sultanate of Rm during the Fifth Crusade. The impact of the Crusades was profound. Jonathan Riley-Smith identifies the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Crusader States as the first experiments in "Europe Overseas". These ventures reopened the Mediterranean to trade and travel, enabling Genoa and Venice to flourish. The collective identity of the Latin Church was consolidated under the Popes leadership. The Crusades were the source of heroism, chivalry, and medieval piety that spawned medieval romance, philosophy, and literature. However, they reinforced the nexus between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism that ran counter to the Peace and Truce of God that Urban had promoted. The chance of ending the EastWest Schism and reuniting the church was ended by the conflict between the Latin Crusaders and the Orthodox Christians, leading to the ultimate weakening and fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans. The conduct of the Crusaders was shocking not only to modern sensibilities but also to a contemporary of the First Crusade, Bernard of Clairvaux. The Crusaders pillaged the countries in transit, living off the land, as did all transiting armies of the time. The First Crusade resulted in the massacre of 8,000 Jews in the Rhineland in the first of Europe's pogroms. It also resulted in the slaughter of a purported 70,000 citizens in the fall of Jerusalem. The nobles carved up the territory that they had gained rather than return it to the Byzantines, as they had vowed to do. The Fourth Crusade resulted in the sacking of Constantinople. The majority of crusaders, however, were poor people trying to escape the hardships of medieval life in an armed pilgrimage leading to Apotheosis at Jerusalem.
Crusades
Terminology
Crusade
"Crusade" is a modern term, from the French croisade and Spanish cruzada, that was applied to the medieval military expeditions only in retrospect. The French form of the word first appears in the L'Histoire des Croisades written by A. de Clermont and published in 1638. By 1750, the various forms of the word "crusade" had established themselves in English, French, and German.[3] The Oxford English Dictionary records its first use in English as occurring in 1757 by William Shenstone.[4]
The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various terms, including fideles Sancti Petri (the faithful of Saint Peter) or milites Christi (knights of Christ). Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a votus) to be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (crux) to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of the cross", the crux, eventually became associated with the entire journey.[5] They saw themselves as undertaking an iter, a journey, or a peregrinatio, an armed pilgrimage. The inspiration for this messianism of the poor was the expected mass apotheosis at Jerusalem.
Numbering
Historians consider that between 1096 and 1291 there were seven major crusades and numerous minor ones. However, some consider the Fifth Crusade of Frederick II as two distinct crusades. This would make the crusade launched by Louis IX in 1270 the Eighth Crusade. In addition, sometimes even this Crusade is considered as two, leading to a Ninth Crusade.
The Crusades
A pluralist view of the Crusades has developed in the 20th century inclusive of all papal-led efforts, whether in the Middle East or in Europe.[6] This takes into account the view of the Latin Church and medieval contemporaries such as Saint Bernard of Clairvaux that gave equal precedence to comparable military campaigns against pagans, heretics and many undertaken for political reasons. This wider definition includes the persecution of heretics in Southern France, the political conflict between Christians in Sicily, the Christian re-conquest of Spain and the conquest of heathens in the Baltic. Countering this is the view the Crusades were a defensive war in the Middle East against Muslims to free the Holy Land from Muslim rule.
Political Crusades
Popes called frequent crusades for political reasons and crusades were also declared as a means of conflict resolution amongst fellow Christians. Pope Innocent III declared a crusade against his political opponent Markward of Anweiler in Sicily. Only a few people took part, and the need for the crusade ended in 1202 when Markward died. This is generally considered the first "political crusade"[7] Between 1232 and 1234 there was a crusade against the Stedingers, peasants who refused to pay tithes to the Archbishop of Bremen. The archbishop excommunicated them, and Pope Gregory IX declared a crusade in 1232. The peasants lost the Battle with Altenesch on 27 May 1234 and were destroyed.[8] Emperor Frederick II was the object of several political crusades called by a number of popes. In 1240 Pope Gregory IX deposed and preached a crusade against him for his opposition in Italy. In 1248 Pope Innocent IV's [9] crusade against him was transferred in 1250 to his son, Conrad IV when he died to little effect. Crusades were called against Frederick's illegitimate son Manfred, King of Sicily, from 1255 through 1266,[10] and
Crusades Conrad's son, Conradin, in 1268 with the urging of Charles of Anjou.[11] Two crusades appear to have been called against opponents of King Henry III of England one from 1215 to 1217 and the other from 1263 to 1265 with the first enjoying the same privileges as those given to crusaders on the Fifth Crusade. The second got as far as having papal legates being dispatched to England with the power to declare a crusade against Simon de Montfort, but Montfort's death in 1265 ended this.[12] The Norwich Crusade of 1383, also called the Despenser's crusade, which was a military expedition that aimed to assist the city of Ghent in its struggle against the supporters of Antipope Clement VII was really an extension of the Hundred Years War, rather than a purely religious enterprise.[13]
Historiography
... The lives and labours of millions who were buried in the East, would have been more profitably employed in the improvement of their native country Edward Gibbon in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
During the Reformation and Counter-Reformation of the 16th century, historians saw the Crusades through the prism of their own religious beliefs. Protestants saw them as a manifestation of the evils of the Papacy, while Catholics viewed the movement as a force for good.[14] During the Enlightenment, historians tended to view both the Crusades and the entire Middle Ages as the efforts of barbarian cultures driven by fanaticism.[15] By the 19th century, with the dawning of Romanticism, this harsh view of the Crusades and its time period was mitigated somewhat,[16] with later 19th-century crusade scholarship focusing on increasing specialization of study and more detailed works on subjects.[17] Enlightenment scholars in the 18th century and modern historians in the West have expressed moral outrage at the conduct of the crusaders. In the 1950s, Sir Steven Runciman wrote that "High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed... the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God".[18] In the 20th century, three important works covering the entire history of the crusades have been published, those of Rene Grousset, Steven Runciman, and the multi-author work edited by K. M. Stetton.[19] A pluralist view of the Crusades has developed in the 20th century inclusive of all papal-led efforts, whether in the Middle East or in Europe.[6] Historian Thomas Madden has made the contrary argument that "[t]he crusade, first and foremost, was a war against Muslims for the defense of the Christian faith.... They began as a result of a Muslim conquest of Christian territories." Madden says the goal of Pope Urban was that "[t]he Christians of the East must be free from the brutal and humiliating conditions of Muslim rule."
Background
Byzantium & The Near East
... Arguably, the only fruit of the Crusades kept by the Christians was the Apricot Jacques Le Goff in La Civilisation medieval de lOccident
After 636, when Muslim forces defeated the Eastern Roman/Byzantines at the Battle of Yarmouk, the control of Palestine passed through the Umayyad Dynasty,[20] the Abbasid Dynasty,[21] and the Fatimids.[22] Toleration, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe ebbed and flowed until 1072 when the Fatimids lost control of Palestine to the rapidly expanding Great Seljuq Empire.[23] For example, the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, only to have his successor allow the Byzantine Empire to rebuild it.[24] The Muslim rulers allowed pilgrimages by Christians to the holy sites. Resident Christians were considered people of the book and so were tolerated as Dhimmi, and inter-marriage was not uncommon. Cultures and creeds coexisted as much as competed, but the frontier conditions were not conducive to Latin Christian pilgrims and merchants.[25] The disruption of pilgrimages prompted support for the Crusades in Western Europe. Exaggerated propaganda of the violence of the conquering Seljuk Turks and
Crusades negative and defamatory information instigated resentment toward Muslims making this a key justification for the crusades. The Byzantine Empire was resurgent from the end of the 10th century, with Basil II spending most of his 50-year reign on campaign, conquering a massive amount of territory. He left a burgeoning treasury, at the expense of neglecting domestic affairs and ignoring the cost of incorporating his conquests into the Byzantine Ecumene. None of Basils successors had any particular military or political talent, and governing the Empire increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service. Their efforts to spend the Byzantine economy back into prosperity only resulted in burgeoning The Byzantine Empire and the Sultanate of Rm before the First Crusade inflation. To balance the increasingly unstable budget, Basils large standing army was dismissed as unnecessary, and native thematic troops were cashiered and replaced by foreign mercenaries. Following the defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuq Turks had taken over almost all of Anatolia, and the Empire descended into frequent civil wars.[26]
Council of Clermont
In 1074, Emperor Michael VII sent a request for military aid to Pope Gregory VII, but while Gregory appears to have considered leading an expedition to aid Michael, nothing reached the planning stage.[31] The Eastern Empire faced difficulties in the Danube river area, as the Pechenegs had allied with the Seljuk Turks and threatened the Empire until 1091, when they were defeated by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. In 1095 Alexius sent envoys to the west requesting military assistance against the Seljuks. Alexios needed to reinforce his tagmata, so the embassy likely sought to recruit mercenaries and may have exaggerated the dangers facing the Eastern Empire in order to secure the needed troops.[32] The message was received by Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza. In November Urban called the Council of Clermont to discuss the matter, further urging the bishops and abbots whom he addressed directly to bring with them the prominent lords in their provinces. The Council lasted from 19 to 28 November, attended by nearly 300 clerics from throughout France. Urban discussed Cluniac reforms of the Church and extended the excommunication of Philip I of France. Urban spoke for the first
Crusades time on 27 November about the problems in the east, promoting the struggle of western Christians against the Muslims who had occupied the Holy Land and were attacking the Eastern Roman Empire. There are six main sources of information on the Council: the anonymous Gesta Francorum ("The Deeds of the Franks" dated c. 1100/1101), which influenced all versions of the speech, except that by Fulcher of Chartres who was present at the council; Robert the Monk, who may have been present; as well as Baldric, archbishop of Dol, and Guibert de Nogent, who were not present at the council. All the accounts were written much later following different literary traditions and differing widely.[33] Robert the Monk, in Historia Iherosolimitana, written in 1106/7, reports that Urban called for orthodoxy, reform, and submission to the Church. Robert records that the pope asked western Christians, poor and rich, to come to the aid of the Byzantine Empire because "Deus vult," ("God wills it"). Robert records that Urban promised remission of sins for those who went to the east, although the 'Liber Lamberti', a source based on the notes of Bishop Lambert of Arras, who attended the Council, indicates that Urban offered the remission of all penance due from sins, what later came to be called an indulgence. Robert makes Urban deliver a classical battle speech: he emphasizes reconquering the Holy Land more than aiding the Greeks; the intervening decades and the events of the First Crusade had certainly shifted the emphasis. According to Robert, Urban listed various gruesome offenses of the Muslims, and more alleged atrocities were Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, given a late Gothic setting in this illumination from the expressed in inflammatory images derived from hagiography. Perhaps Livre des Passages d'Outre-mer, c. 1490 with the wisdom of hindsight, Robert has Urban advise that none but (Bibliothque National) knights should go, not the old and feeble, nor priests without the permission of their bishops, "for such are more of a hindrance than aid, more of a burden than advantage... nor ought women to set out at all, without their husbands or brothers or legal guardians". A later version by Baldric, archbishop of Dol, reported the sermon as focusing on the offenses of the Muslims and the reconquest of the Holy Land, and that Urban deplored the violence of the Christian knights of Gaul. He wanted the violence of knights to be ennobled in the service of Christ, defending the churches of the East as if defending a mother. Guibert, abbot of Nogent, also has Urban emphasize the reconquest of the Holy Land more than providing aid to the Greeks or other Christians there. This may, as in the case of Robert and Baldric, be due to the influence of the Gesta Francorum's account of the reconquest of Jerusalem. A general call was sent out to the knights and nobles of France. Urban apparently knew in advance of the day that Raymond IV of Toulouse was prepared to take up arms. Urban himself spent a few months preaching the Crusade in France, while papal legates spread the word in the south of Italy, during which time the focus presumably turned from helping Alexios to taking Jerusalem. Urban's letter to the faithful "waiting in Flanders" laments that Turks, in addition to ravaging the "churches of God in the eastern regions," have seized "the Holy City of Christ, embellished by his passion and resurrectionand blasphemy to say ithave sold her and her churches into abominable slavery." Yet he does not explicitly call for the reconquest of Jerusulem. Rather he explicitly calls for the military "liberation" of the Eastern Churches and appoints Adhemar of Le Puy to lead the Crusade, to set out on the day of the Assumption of Mary, 15 August.[34] Pope Urban's speech ranks as one of the most influential speeches ever, launching holy wars that occupied the minds and forces of western Europe for 200 years before their ultimate failure.[35]
Crusades
Less historically certain was a Children's Crusade movement in France and Germany in 1212 that attracted large numbers of peasant teenagers and young people, with some under the age of 15. They were convinced that they could succeed where older and more sinful crusaders had failed: the miraculous power of their faith would triumph where the force of arms had not. Many parish priests and parents encouraged such religious fervor and urged them on. The pope and bishops opposed the attempt but failed to stop it entirely. A band of several thousand youth and young men, led by a German named Nicholas, set out for Italy. About a third survived the march over the Alps and got as far as Genoa; another group went to Marseilles. The luckier ones eventually managed to return home, but many others were sold as lifetime slaves on the auction blocks of Marseilles slave dealers.[44] Three crusading efforts among the peasants occurred in the middle 1250s and again in the early 1300s. The first, the Shepherds' Crusade of 1251, was preached in northern France. After meeting with Blanche of Castile, however, it became disorganized and had to be disbanded by the government. The second, in 1309, occurred in England, northeastern France, and Germany, and had as many as 30,000 peasants arriving at Avignon before being disbanded.[45] The last one, in 1320, had similar origins as the first shepherds' crusade but quickly turned into a series of attacks on clergy and Jews, and was forcibly dispersed.[46]
Legacy
Politics and culture
Crusades
Crusades continued to take place against the Christian Greeks who had been expelled from Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade. With their recapture of the city in 1261, crusades were called by the papacy from 1262 through 1281 to drive the Greeks back out of Constantinople, with little result.[47] The Crusades influenced the attitude of the western Church and people towards warfare. The frequent calling of crusades habituated the clergy to the use of violence. The crusades also sparked debate about the legitimacy of taking lands and possessions from pagans on purely religious grounds that would arise again in the 20th-century depiction of a victorious Saladin 15th and 16th centuries with the Age of Discovery.[48] The needs of crusading warfare also stimulated secular governmental developments, although this was not always a totally positive development. The resources collected for crusading could have been used by the developing states for local and regional needs instead of in far away lands.[49] The crusades impacted the papacy in a number of ways. Although they did raise the prestige of the papacy, the sheer effort required to support the crusaders took away resources that might have been better employed elsewhere. The crusades did increase the control of the papal curia over the entire western Church, by extending the system of papal taxation throughout the whole ecclesiastical structure of the west. The crusades also stimulated the development of the indulgence system that grew greatly in extent in late medieval Europe, later to spark the Protestant Reformation in the early 1500s.[50] The military experiences of the crusades had a limited degree of influence on European castle design; for example, Caernarfon Castle, in Wales, begun in 1283, directly reflects the style of fortresses Edward I had observed while fighting in the Crusades. The crusades otherwise seem to have had little effect on military tactics or organization, mainly because it was difficult to transfer the lessons that were learned in the Holy Land to the different terrain and fighting styles of Europe.[51] The First Crusade ignited a long tradition of organized violence against Jews in European culture.[52] The Albigensian Crusade was initiated by the Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar heresy in Languedoc. The violence led to France's acquisition of lands with closer cultural and linguistic ties to Catalonia. The Albigensian Crusade also had a role in the creation and institutionalization of both the Dominican Order and the Medieval Inquisition.[53] The Crusades were criticised by some contemporaries such as Roger Bacon who felt the Crusades were not effective because, "those who survive, together with their children, are more and more embittered against the Christian faith."[54] Nevertheless the movement was widely supported in Europe long after the fall of Acre in 1291.[55] One aspect of the crusades that shocked some easternersWikipedia:Avoid weasel words was the formation in the west of military religious orders.[56] The Orthodox Christian Byzantine Greeks complained that the Crusaders broke their promise to return lands that had once belonged to Byzantium.[57]
Crusades
Trade
The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade throughout Europe between Europe and the Outremer. Genoa and Venice flourished through profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the Holy Land and later in captured Byzantine territory.[58]
Age of Crusade
Reconquista (7181492)
Although the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslims began in the 8th century and reached its turning point around 100 years before the preaching of the First Crusade in 1095,[59] with the recapture of Toledo in 1085,[60] Urban II also tied the ongoing wars in Iberia to his preaching of the First Crusade and the crusading effort. It was through a papal encyclical of 1123 by Pope Calixtus II that these wars attained the status of crusades.[61] After this, the papacy declared Iberian crusades in 1147, 1193, 1197, 1210, 1212, 1221 and 1229. Crusading privileges were also given to those people who were helping the military The Reconquista, 7901300 orders both the traditional Templars and Hospitallers as well as the specifically Iberian orders that were founded and eventually merged into two main orders that of the Order of Calatrava and the Order of Santiago. From 1212 to 1265, the Christian kingdoms of Iberia drove Muslim rule into the far south of the Iberian Peninsula, confined to the small Emirate of Granada. In 1492, this remnant was conquered and Muslims and Jews were expelled from the peninsula.[62]
Crusades
The official crusader armies set off from France and Italy at different times in August and September 1096, with Hugh of Vermandois departing first, and the bulk of the army dividing into four parts travelling separately to Constantinople.[65][66] In all, the western forces may have totaled as many as 100,000 persons, counting both combatants and non-combatants.[67] The armies journeyed eastward by land toward Constantinople, where they received a wary welcome from the Byzantine Emperor.[68] Pledging to restore lost territories to the empire,[69] the main army, mostly Route of the First Crusade through Asia French and Norman knights under baronial leadership, marched south through Anatolia.[70][71] The leaders of the First Crusade included Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert Curthose, Hugh of Vermandois, Baldwin of Bouillon, Tancred de Hauteville, Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond of Taranto, and Robert II, Count of Flanders, and Stephen, Count of Blois. The King of France and Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, were both in conflict with the Papacy and did not take part.[72] The Crusader armies initially fought the Turks at the lengthy Siege of Antioch that began in October 1097 and lasted until June 1098. Once inside the city the Crusaders massacred the Muslim inhabitants and pillaged the city.[73] However, a large Muslim relief army under Kerbogha immediately besieged the victorious Crusaders within Antioch. Bohemond of Taranto led a successful rally of the crusader army and defeated Kerbogha's army on 28 June.[74] Bohemond and his men retained control of Antioch, in spite of his pledge to the Byzantine emperor.[75] Most of the surviving crusader army marched south, moving from town to town along the coast, finally reaching the walls of Jerusalem on 7 June 1099 with only a fraction of their original forces.[] Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the invading Franks. On 15 July 1099 the crusaders entered the city. They proceeded to massacre the remaining Jewish and Muslim civilians and The crusader states after the First Crusade pillaged or destroyed mosques and the city itself.[76] As a result of the First Crusade, four main Crusader states were created: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem.[77]
... Wonderful sights were to be seen. Some of our men (and this was more merciful) cut off the heads of their enemies; others shot them with arrows, so that they fell from the towers; others tortured them longer by casting them into the flames. Piles of heads, hands and feet were to be seen in the streets of the city. It was necessary to pick one's way over the bodies of men and horses. But these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a place where religious services are normally chanted ... in the temple and the porch of Solomon, men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins. Indeed it was a just and splendid judgement of God that this place should be filled with the blood of unbelievers since it had suffered so long from their blasphemies Raymond D'Aguilers in Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem
On a popular level, the preaching of the First Crusade unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious Christian fury that was expressed in the massacres of Jews that accompanied and preceded the movement of the crusaders through Europe,[78] as well as the violent treatment of the "schismatic" Orthodox Christians of the east.[79]
Crusades Following this crusade was a second, less successful wave of crusaders, known as the Crusade of 1101, in which Turks led by Kilij Arslan defeated the crusaders in three separate battles in a response to the First Crusade.[80] Sigurd I of Norway was the first European king to visit the crusading states, as well as the first European king to take part in a crusading campaign, although his expedition was as much pilgrimage as crusade. His fleet helped at the Siege of Sidon. Also in 1107, Bohemond I of Antioch attacked the Byzantines at Avlona and Dyrrachium, in what is occasionally called Bohemond's Crusade, which ended in September 1108 with a defeat for Bohemond and his retiring to Italy. Further efforts in the 1120s included a crusade preached by Pope Calixtus II around 1120, which became the Venetian Crusade of 11221124;[81] a pilgrimage of Count Fulk V of Anjou in 1120; an effort by Conrad III of Germany in 1124, of which few details are known; and the Damascus Crusade of 1129 by Fulk V, which resulted in the recognition of the Knights Templar by Pope Honorius II in January 1129. Some historians have seen Pope Innocent II's grant in 1135 of the same crusading indulgences to those who opposed papal enemies as the first of the politically motivated crusades against papal opponents, but other historians do not agree.[82] The Crusader states were initially secure, but Imad ad-Din Zengi, who was appointed governor of Mosul in 1127, captured Aleppo in 1128 and Edessa in 1144.[83] These defeats led Pope Eugenius III to call for another crusade on 1 March 1145.
10
Wendish (11471162)
Contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, Saxons and Danes fought against Polabian Slavs in the Wendish Crusade or First Northern Crusade. The Wends defeated the Danes and the Saxons did not contribute much to the crusade.[89] The Wends did acknowledge the overlordship of the Saxon ruler, Henry the Lion. Further crusading actions continued although no papal bulls were issued calling new crusades.[90] Efforts to conquer the Wends began again in 1160 under Henry the Lion,[91] continuing until 1162, when the Wends were defeated at the Battle of Demmin.[92]
Crusades
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Crusades
12
13
Emperor Frederick II (left) meets al-Kamil (right), from a manuscript of the Nuova Cronica by Giovanni Villani
Crusades A followup to this crusade was the effort by King Theobald I of Navarre in 1239 and 1240 that had originally been called in 1234 by Pope Gregory IX to assemble in July 1239 at the end of a truce. Besides Theobald, Peter of Dreux and Hugh, Duke of Burgundy and other French nobles took part. They arrived in Acre in September 1239 and after a defeat in November, Theobald arranged a treaty with the Muslims that returned territory to the crusading states, but caused much disaffection within the crusaders. Theobald returned to Europe in September 1240. Also in 1240, Richard of Cornwall, younger brother of King Henry III of England, took the cross and arrived in Acre in October. He then secured the ratification of Theobald's treaty and left the Holy Land in May 1241 for Europe.[]
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Crusades
15
The Hussite Crusade(s), also known as the "Hussite Wars," or the "Bohemian Wars," involved the military actions against the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia in the period 1420 to around 1431. Crusades were declared five times in that period in 1420, 1421, 1422, 1427 and in 1431. The net effect of these expeditions was to force the Hussite forces, which disagreed on many doctrinal points, to unite to drive out the invaders. The wars were brought to a conclusion in 1436 with the ratification of the Compactata of Iglau by the Church.[137] In April 1487, Pope Innocent VIII called a crusade against the Waldensian heretics of Savoy, the Piedmont, and the Dauphin in southern France and northern Italy. The only efforts actually undertaken were against heretics in the Dauphin, and resulted in little change.[138]
The battle between the Hussite warriors and the Crusaders, Jena Codex, 15th century
The Polish-Hungarian king, Wadysaw Warneczyk invaded the recently conquered Ottoman territory and reached Belgrade in January 1444. Negotiations
Crusades over a truce eventually led to an agreement, that was repudiated by Sultan Murad II within days of its ratification. Further efforts by the crusaders ended in the Battle of Varna on 10 November 1444 which, although resulting in a draw between the two forces, led to the crusaders withdrawing. This withdrawal led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, as it was the last Western attempt to help the Byzantine Empire. In 1456 John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano organized a crusade to lift the Ottomon siege of Belgrade.[139]
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References
[1] Nelson Byzantine Perspective of the First Crusade p. 40 [2] Asbridge Crusades p. 1 [3] Lock Routledge Companion p. 258 [4] Hindley Crusades pp. 23 [5] American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009 [6] Lock Routledge Companion p. 270 [7] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 155156 [8] Lock Routledge Companion p. 172 [9] Lock Routledge Companion p. 176 [10] Lock Routledge Companion p. 179 [11] Lock Routledge Companion p. 180 [12] Lock Routledge Companion p. 167 [13] Tyerman England and the Crusades p. 336 [14] Lock Routledge Companion p. 257 [15] Lock Routledge Companion p. 259 [16] Lock Routledge Companion p. 261 [17] Lock Routledge Companion p. 266 [18] Runciman History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre p. 480 [19] Lock Routledge Companion p. 269 [20] Wickham Inheritance of Rome p. 280 [21] Lock Routledge Companion p. 4 [22] Hindley Crusades p. 14 [23] Hindley Crusades p. 15 [24] Pringle "Architecture in Latin East" Oxford History of the Crusades p. 157 [25] Hindley Crusades pp.1516 [26] Asbridge, First Crusade p. 97 [27] Mayer Crusades pp.23 [28] Riley-Smith Crusades pp.810 [29] Housley Contesting the Crusades p. 31 [30] Mayer Crusades pp.1718 [31] Lock Routledge Companion pp.306308 [32] Mayer Crusades pp.67 [33] Georg Strack, The sermon of Urban II in Clermont 1095 and the Tradition of Papal Oratory, in: Medieval Sermon Studies 56 (2012), S. 30-45.<http://www.mag.geschichte.uni-muenchen.de/downloads/strack_urban.pdf>. [34] Quotes from Urban's letter in [35] Munro "Speech of Pope Urban II" American Historical Review [36] Hodgson Women, Crusading and the Holy Land pp. 3944 [37] C.T. Maier, "The roles of women in the crusade movement: a survey" Journal of medieval history (2004). 30#1 pp6182 [38] Susan B. Edgington and Sarah Lambert, eds., Gendering the Crusades (2002) [39] Riley-Smith First Crusaders p. 99 [40] Hodgson Women, Crusading and the Holy Land pp. 110112 [41] Owen Eleanor of Aquitaine p. 22 [42] Edington and Lambert Gendering the Crusades p. 98 [43] Nicholson "Women on the Third Crusade" Journal of Medieval History p. 337 [44] Zacour "Children's Crusade" Later Crusades pp. 330337 [45] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 187188 [46] [47] [48] [49] Lock Routledge Companion p. 190 Lock Routledge Companion pp. 181182 Housley Contesting the Crusades pp. 146147 Housley Contesting the Crusades p. 149
Crusades
[50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] Housley Contesting the Crusades pp. 147149 Housley Contesting the Crusades p. 155 Housley Contesting the Crusades pp. 161163 Strayer Albigensian Crusades p. 143 Quoted in Rose Order of the Knights Templar p. 72 Rose "Order of the Knights Templar p. 72 Kolbaba Byzantine Lists p. 49 Vasilev History of the Byzantine Empire p. 408 Housley Contesting the Crusades pp. 152154 Barber Two Cities pp.341345 Bull "Origins" Oxford History of the Crusades pp.1819 Lock Routledge Companion pp. 205209 Lock Routledge Companion pp. 211212 Hindley Crusades pp.2021 Hindley Crusades p. 23 Hindley Crusades pp.2730 Lock Routledge Companion pp. 2021 Hindley Crusades pp.3031 Tyerman God's War pp. 106110 Ashbridge Crusades pp. 5052 Ashbridge Crusades p. 46 Riley-Smith Crusades pp. 3236
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[72] Hindley Crusades pp.2526 [73] Nicholle First Crusade p. 56 [74] Tyerman God's War pp.143146 [75] Mayer Crusades pp.6061 [76] Tyerman God's War pp. 156158 [77] Riley-Smith Crusades pp. 5051 [78] Riley-Smith Crusades pp.2324 [79] Tyerman God's War pp. 192194 [80] Housley Contesting the Crusades p. 42 [81] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 144145 [82] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 146147 [83] Riley-Smith Crusades pp. 104105 [84] Hindley Crusades pp. 7174 [85] Hindley Crusades pp. 7785 [86] Hindley Crusades pp. 7577 [87] Villegas-Aristizbal "Anglo-Norman involvement" Crusades [88] Lock Routledge Companion p. 151 [89] Lock Routledge Companion p. 48 [90] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 213214 [91] Lock Routledge Companion p. 55 [92] Lock Routledge Companion p. 56 [93] Holt "Saladin and His Admirers" Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies pp.235239 [94] Ashbridge Crusades pp. 343357 [95] Ashbridge Crusades p. 367 [96] Ashbridge Crusades pp. 512513 [97] Lock Routledge Companion p. 84 [98] Lock Routledge Companion p. 82 [99] Lock Routledge Companion p. 92 [100] Lock Routledge Companion p. 96 [101] Lock Routledge Companion p. 103 [102] Lock Routledge Companion p. 104 [103] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 221222 [104] Tyerman God's War pp. 502508 [105] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 158159 [106] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 159161 [107] Tyerman God's War pp. 554561 [108] Ashbridge Crusades pp. 531532
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[109] Nicolle Fourth Crusade p. 5 [110] In the Footsteps of St. Paul: Papal Visit to Greece, Syria & Malta Words (http:/ / www. ewtn. com/ footsteps/ words/ CHRISTODOULOS_5_4. htm). EWTN. [111] " Pope sorrow over Constantinople (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 3850789. stm)". BBC News. June 29, 2004. [112] Phillips. The Fourth Crusade, p. xiii. [113] In Communion News issue 33 (http:/ / www. incommunion. org/ articles/ issue-33/ news-issue-33) [114] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 163165 [115] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 172173 [116] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 168169 [117] Riley-Smith Crusades pp. 179180 [118] Hindley Crusades pp. 561562 [119] Lock Routledge Companion p. 169 [120] Ashbridge Crusades pp. 566568 [121] Ashbridge Crusades p. 569 [122] Ashbridge Crusades pp. 574576 [123] Tyerman God's War pp. 770775 [124] Hindley Crusades pp. 194195 [125] Lock Routledge Companion p. 178 [126] Strayer "Crusades of Louis IX" Later Crusades p. 487 [127] Tyerman God's War pp. 816817 [128] Michaud, The History of the Crusades, Vol. 3, p. 18 ; available in full at Google Books (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=mAcMAAAAYAAJ). Note that in a footnote Michaud claims reliance on "the chronicle of Ibn Ferat" (Michaud, Vol.3, p.22) for much of the information he has concerning the Mussulmans. [129] Lock Routledge Companion p. 164 [130] Lock Routledge Companion p. 186 [131] Lock Routledge Companion p. 122 [132] "The Crusades" by Edward Gibbon (1963), pp 7678 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ crusades00scotgoog#page/ n87/ mode/ 1up) [133] Tyerman God's War pp. 820822 [134] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 195196 [135] Lock Routledge Companion p. 199 [136] Lock Routledge Companion p. 200 [137] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 201202 [138] Lock Routledge Companion p. 204 [139] Lock Routledge Companion pp. 202203
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Asbridge, Thomas (2011). The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land. Ecco. ISBN978-0-06-078729-5. Asbridge, Thomas (2005). The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-518905-6. Barber, Malcolm (1992). The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 10501320. London: Routledge. ISBN0-415-09682-0. Brand, Charles M. (April 1962). "The Byzantines and Saladin, 11851192: Opponents of the Third Crusade". Speculum 37 (2): 167181. doi: 10.2307/2849946 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2849946). JSTOR 2849946 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2849946). Brhier, Louis (1908). "Crusades" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04543c.htm). Catholic Encyclopedia 4. Bull, Marcus (1999). "Origins". In Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.1534. ISBN0-19-280312-3. Cohn, Norman (1970). The pursuit of the Millennium. Davies, Norman (1997). Europe A History. Pimlico. ISBN0-7126-6633-8. Dickson, Gary (2008). The Children's Crusade: Medieval History, Modern Mythistory. Palgrave Macmillan. Edington, Susan B. and Lambert, Sarah (2002). Gendering the Crusades. New York: Columbia University Press. Esposito, John L. What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (http://www.amazon.ca/ What-Everyone-Needs-about-Islam/dp/0195157133).
Crusades Findley, Carter Vaughan (2005). The Turks in World History. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-516770-8. Hillenbrand, Carole (1999). The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Hindley, Geoffrey. The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy. New York: Carrol & Graf. ISBN0-7867-1344-5. Hodgson, Natasha (2007). Women, Crusading and the Holy Land in Historical Narrative. Boydell. Holt, P. M. (1983). "Saladin and His Admirers: A Biographical Reassessment". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 46 (2): 235239. doi: 10.1017/S0041977X00078824 (http://dx.doi. org/10.1017/S0041977X00078824). JSTOR 615389 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/615389). Housley, Norman (2006). Contesting the Crusades. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN1-4051-1189-5. Jackson, Peter (2007). The Seventh Crusade, 12441254. Kolbaba, T. M. (2000). The Byzantine Lists: Errors of the Latins. University of Illinois. Lewis, Richard D. (2005). Finland: Cultural Lone Wolf. Intercultural Press. ISBN978-1-931930-49-9. Lock, Peter (2006). Routledge Companion to the Crusades. New York: Routledge. ISBN0-415-39312-4. Madden, Thomas F. (2005). The New Concise History of the Crusades. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN978-0-7425-3822-1. Mayer, Hans Eberhard (1988). The Crusades (Second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-873097-7. Munro, Dana Carleton (January 1906). "The Speech of Pope Urban II at Clermont, 1095". American Historical Review 11 (2): 231242. doi: 10.2307/1834642 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1834642). JSTOR 1834642 (http:/ /www.jstor.org/stable/1834642). Nelson, Laura N. The Byzantine Perspective of the First Crusade. Nicholson, Helen (1997). "Women on the Third Crusade". Journal of Medieval History 23 (4): 335. doi: 10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00013-4 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00013-4). Nicolle, David (2007). Crusader Warfare Volume II: Muslims, Mongols and the Struggle against the Crusades. Nicolle, David (2003). The First Crusade 106699: Conquest of the Holy Land. Campaign. Wellingborough, UK: Osprey. ISBN1-84176-515-5. Nicolle, David (2011). The Fourth Crusade 120204: The Betrayal of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing. Pringle, Denys (1999). "Architecture in Latin East". In Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.155175. ISBN0-19-280312-3. Owen, Roy Douglas Davis (1993). Eleanor of Aquitaine: Queen and Legend. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1990). The Atlas of the Crusades. New York: Facts on File. ISBN0-8160-2186-4. Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2005). The Crusades: A Short History (Second ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN0-300-10128-7. Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1997). The First Crusaders 10961131. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Rose, Karen (2009) "The Order of the Knights Templar" Runciman, Steven (1951). A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (reprinted 1987 ed.). Cambridge University Press. Sinclair, Andrew (1995). Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade. New York: Crown Publishers. Strayer, Joseph Reese (1992). The Albigensian Crusades. University of Michigan Press. ISBN0-472-06476-2. Strayer, Joseph R. (1969). "The Crusades of Louis IX" (http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/ History-idx?type=article&did=HISTORY.CRUSTWO.I0023&isize=M). In Wolff, R. L. and Hazard, H. W. The Later Crusades, 11891311. pp.487521. Tolan, John; Veinstein, Gilles and Henry Laurens (2013). Europe and the Islamic World: A History. Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-14705-5. Tyerman, Christopher (1988). England and the Crusades, 10951588. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-82013-0.
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Crusades Tyerman, Christopher (2006). God's War: A New History of the Crusades. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN978-0-674-02387-1. Vasilev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1952). History of the Byzantine Empire: 3241453. University of Wisconsin Press. Villegas-Aristizbal, L. (2009). "Anglo-Norman involvement in the conquest of Tortosa and Settlement of Tortosa, 11481180". Crusades (8): 63129. Wickham, Chris (2009). The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 4001000. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN978-0-14-311742-1. Zacour, Norman P. (1969). "The Children's Crusade" (http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/ History-idx?type=article&did=HISTORY.CRUSTWO.I0023&isize=M). In Wolff, R. L. and Hazard, H. W. The Later Crusades, 11891311. pp.325342. Further reading Introductions Andrea, Alfred J. Encyclopedia of the Crusades. (2003) Asbridge, Thomas. The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam (2005) France, John. Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 10001300 (1999) Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives. (2000) Holt, P.M. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. (1986) Phillips, Jonathan. Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades (2010) Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. The Atlas of the Crusades (1991) Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam (2011) Specialized studies Boas, Adrian J. Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape, and Art in the Holy City under Frankish Rule (2001) Bull, Marcus, and Norman Housley, eds. The Experience of Crusading Volume 1, Western Approaches. (2003) Edbury, Peter, and Jonathan Phillips, eds. The Experience of Crusading Volume 2, Defining the Crusader Kingdom. (2003) Florean, Dana. "East Meets West: Cultural Confrontation and Exchange after the First Crusade." Language & Intercultural Communication, 2007, Vol. 7 Issue 2, pp.144151 Folda, Jaroslav. Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre (2005) France, John. Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade (1996) Harris, Jonathan. Byzantium and the Crusades. (2003) Hillenbrand, Car. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (1999) Housley, Norman. The Later Crusades, 12741580: From Lyons to Alcazar (1992) James, Douglas. "Christians and the First Crusade." History Review (Dec 2005), Issue 53 Kagay, Donald J., and L. J. Andrew Villalon, eds. Crusaders, Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in Societies around the Mediterranean. (2003) Maalouf, Amin. Crusades Through Arab Eyes (1989) Madden, Thomas F. et al., eds. Crusades Medieval Worlds in Conflict (2010) Peters, Edward. Christian Society and the Crusades, 11981229 (1971) Powell, James M. Anatomy of a Crusade, 12131221, (1986) Queller, Donald E., and Thomas F. Madden. The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople (2nd ed. 1999) Riley-Smith, Jonathan.The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. (1986)
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Crusades Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades: Volume 2, The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East (1952) vol 2 online free (http://www.archive.org/details/historyofcrusade02runc); A History of the Crusades: Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades (1954); the classic 20th century history Setton, Kenneth ed., A History of the Crusades. (19691989), the standard scholarly history in six volumes, published by the University of Wisconsin Press Includes: The first hundred years (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?id=History. CrusOne) (2nd ed. 1969); The later Crusades, 11891311 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=header& id=History. CrusTwo) (1969); The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=header& id=History. CrusThree) (1975); The art and architecture of the crusader states (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=header& id=History. CrusFour) (1977); The impact of the Crusades on the Near East (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=header& id=History. CrusFive) (1985); The impact of the Crusades on Europe (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ History/ History-idx?type=header&id=History.CrusSix) (1989) Smail, R. C. "Crusaders' Castles of the Twelfth Century" Cambridge Historical Journal Vol. 10, No. 2. (1951), pp.133149. Stark, Rodney. God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades (2010) Tyerman, Christopher. England and the Crusades, 10951588. (1988) Historiography Constable, Giles. "The Historiography of the Crusades" in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World (2001) Extract online. (http://www.doaks.org/resources/ publications/doaks-online-publications/byzantine-studies/crusades/cr01.pdf) Illston, James Michael. 'An Entirely Masculine Activity'? Women and War in the High and Late Middle Ages Reconsidered (MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2009) full text online (http://hdl.handle.net/10092/2915) Madden, Thomas F. ed. The Crusades: The Essential Readings (2002) Maier, C.T. "The roles of women in the crusade movement: a survey" Journal of medieval history 2004. Powell, James M. "The Crusades in Recent Research," The Catholic Historical Review (2009) 95#2 pp 313-19 in Project MUSE (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/catholic_historical_review/v095/95.2.powell.html) Rubenstein, Jay. "In Search of a New Crusade: A Review Essay," Historically Speaking (2011) 12#2 pp 25-27 in Project MUSE (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/historically_speaking/v012/12.2.rubenstein.html) Primary sources Barber, Malcolm, Bate, Keith (2010). Letters from the East: Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th13th Centuries (Crusade Texts in Translation Volume 18, Ashgate Publishing Ltd) Bird, Jessalynn, et al. eds. Crusade and Christendom: Annotated Documents in Translation from Innocent III to the Fall of Acre, 1187-1291 (2013) excerpts (http://www.amazon.com/ Crusade-Christendom-Middle-Ages-Jessalynn-ebook/dp/B00B4FJPGA/) Housley, Norman, ed. Documents on the Later Crusades, 12741580 (1996) Krey, August C. The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eye-Witnesses and Participants (1958) Shaw, M. R. B. ed.Chronicles of the Crusades (1963) Villehardouin, Geoffrey, and Jean de Joinville. Chronicles of the Crusades ed. by Sir Frank Marzials (2007)
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External links
The Crusades (http://crusades.boisestate.edu/), a virtual college course through Boise State University ed. by E. L. Knox. Crusades: A Guide to Online Resources (http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/religion/crusades/crusade.html), Paul Crawford, 1999. The Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East (http://www.staff.u-szeged.hu/~capitul/sscle/ )an international organization of professional Crusade scholars De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History (http://www.deremilitari.org)contains articles and primary sources related to the Crusades Resources > Medieval Jewish History > The Crusades (http://www.dinur.org/resources/ resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryid=453&rsid=478) The Jewish History Resource Center Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
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