SELF-ADAPTIVE HANDOFF MODEL FOR 4G

1. INTRODUCTION

The 4G wireless networks will integrate heterogeneous technologies such as wireless

LAN (WLAN) and third generation (3G) cellular network because no single wireless
network technology simultaneously can provide a low latency, high bandwidth, and wide
area data service to a large number of mobile users.

The movement of a user within or among different types of networks can be referred as
the vertical mobility. One of the major challenges for seamless service in the vertical
mobility is a vertical handoff, where handoff is the process of maintaining a mobile user's
active connection by changing its point of attachment. In the 4G wireless systems,
seamless handoff with small latency and packet losses should be executed. Handoff
latency is one of important factors that decide the quality of service (QoS) in the 4G
wireless networks. In the deployment of multimedia services with real-time requirements,
the handoff process can significantly degrade the QoS from the user's perspective. Since
many packets can be typically lost before vertical handoff by the unstable channel
condition, this article presents a design mobile architecture which is seen suitable for
envisioned various network architectures and technologies for 3G and beyond.

The continuing evolution of micro electronics, telecommunication, audio-visual

techniques and information services is delivering the technology to fulfill the vision of
omnipresent services. Today many technologies are available that can be combined to
exploit the business potential of application that work anywhere anytime in a seamless
and intuitive way.

The wide spread success of wireless and mobile communication has resulted in the
creation of a large variety of wireless technologies, including 2G and 3G cellular,
satellite, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth. Each technology is tailored to reach a particular market.
The advantage of these diverse networks is that they offer many choices for increasing
bandwidth, accessing the internet and increasing the coverage area for the average user.
Expanding services to the use and co-ordination of diverse networks creates the challenge
of developing novel interoperable network protocols to manage user mobility, between
different types of systems-a level of interoperability currently not available in 3G
systems. The evolutionary goals of beyond 3G (B3G) and 4G include building on packet
based CDMA networks. Some goals may be forecast by emerging issues, such as
spectrum efficiency, dynamic bandwidth allocation, security, quality of service (QoS) and
transceiver technology.

Universal wireless access refers to the ability of the user to connect any where at any time
from any network. The change in connection may be initiated by the user or by the
network, transparent to the user. For instance, a user may choose to access a wireless
LAN (WLAN) to send a large a data file, but may choose a cellular network for voice call
on the other hand, a network may decide to handoff a stationary data user to a WLAN
user in order to increase bandwidth availability for mobile users in a 3G cellular
networks. To achieve seamless mobility, network management operations must be
conducted without causing degradation of services, and without need for user
intervention. The movement of a user within or among different types of networks can be
referred to as intersystem or vertical mobility. Handoff research has been based on
evaluation of the signal strength received at the mobile node, followed by a change in
access point, if needed and up dated.

2. HAND OFF

When a mobile user travels from one area of coverage or cell to another cell within a
call’s duration the call should be transferred to the new cell’s base station. Otherwise, the
call will be dropped because the link with the current base station becomes too weak as
the mobile recedes. Indeed, this ability for transference is a design matter in mobile
cellular system design and is call hand off

Fig1 han off

Initiation of the handoff may begin when the signal strength at the mobile received from
base station 2 is greater than that of base station 1

Any hand off operation is a three stage process, that includes hand off decision, radio link
transfer and channel assignment. Hand off decision is performed based on a perception of
channel quality reflected by the received signal strength and other measurements and the
availability of resources in a new cell. The base station usually measures quality of the
radio link channels being used by mobile nodes in its surface area. This is done
periodically so that degradation in signal strength below a prescribed threshold can be
detected and hand off is initiated by the base station. Radio link transfer refers to the
responsibility of the network to form links to the call at its new point of attachment. It
may require hand off rerouting operations. The third handoff stage channel assignment
consists of allocations of resources to the hand off at the new point of attachment.

While performing handoff, the mobile user connection may be created at the target base
station before the old base station connection is released. This is soft hand off. On the
other hand the new connection may be set up after the old connection is released. This is
hard hand off. Also we have hand off between different networks termed as vertical
handoff and handoff between same networks known as horizontal handoff. The handoff
model developed here can suite any network

2.1 HANDOFF INITIATION

A hard handoff occurs when the old connection is broken before a new connection is
activated. The performance evaluation of a hard handoff is based on various initiation
criteria [1, 3, 13]. It is assumed that the signal is averaged over time, so that rapid
fluctuations due to the multipath nature of the radio environment can be eliminated.
Numerous studies have been done to determine the shape as well as the length of the
averaging window and the older measurements may be unreliable. Figure 2 shows a MS
moving from one BS (BS1) to another (BS2). The mean signal strength of BS1 decreases
as the MS moves away from it. Similarly, the mean signal strength of BS2 increases as
the MS approaches it. This figure is used to explain various approaches described in the
following subsection.
1.2.1 Relative Signal Strength
This method selects the strongest received BS at all times. The decision is based on a
mean measurement of the received signal. In Figure2 , the handoff would occur at
position A. This method is observed to provoke too many unnecessary handoffs, even
when the signal of the current BS is still at an acceptable level.
1.2.2 Relative Signal Strength with Threshold
This method allows a MS to hand off only if the current signal is sufficiently weak (less
than threshold) and the other is the stronger of the two. The effect of the threshold
depends on its relative value as compared to the signal strengths of the two BSs at the
point at which they are equal. If the threshold is higher than this value, say T1 in Figure
2, this scheme performs exactly like the relative signal strength scheme, so the handoff
occurs at position A. If the
threshold is lower than this value, say T2 in Figure 2, the MS would delay handoff until
the current signal level crosses the threshold at position B. In the case of T3, the delay
may be so long that the MS drifts too far into the new cell. This reduces the quality of the
communication link from BS1 and may result in a dropped call. In addition, this results in
additional interference to cochannel users. Thus, this scheme may create overlapping cell
coverage areas. A threshold is not used alone in actual practice because its effectiveness
depends on prior knowledge of the crossover signal strength between the current and candidate
BSs

1.2.3 Relative Signal Strength with Hysteresis

This scheme allows a user to hand off only if the new BS is sufficiently stronger (by a
hysteresis
margin, h in Figure 2) than the current one. In this case, the handoff would occur at point
C. This technique prevents the so-called ping-pong effect, the repeated handoff between
two BSs caused by rapid fluctuations in the received signal strengths from both BSs. The
first handoff, however, may be unnecessary if the serving BS is sufficiently strong.
1.2.4 Relative Signal Strength with Hysteresis and Threshold
This scheme hands a MS over to a new BS only if the current signal level drops below a
threshold and the target BS is stronger than the current one by a given hysteresis margin.
In Figure 2, the handoff would occur at point D if the threshold is T3.
3 TYPES OF HAND OFF

There are mainly two types of handoff

a) Soft handoff

While performing handoff, the mobile user connection may be created at the
target base station before the old base station connection is released. This is soft
hand off

Soft handoff is used in voice-centric cellular networks such as GSM or

CDMA(code-division multiple access). It uses a make-before-break approach
whereas a connection to the next BS is established before a SS leaves an ongoing
connection to a BS. This technique is suitable to handle voice and other latency-
sensitive services such as Internet multiplayer game and video conference. When
used for delivering data traffic (such as web browsing and e-mail), soft handoff
will result in lower spectral efficiency because this type of traffic is bursty and
does not require continues handover from one BS to another.
 In CDMA, all base station use the same frequency channel for each mobile phone
set, no matter where the set is located. Each set has an identity based on a code,
rather than on a frequency (as in FDM) or sequence of time slots (as in TDM).
Because no change in frequency or timing occurs as a mobile set passes from one
base station to another, there are practically no dead zones. As a result,
connections are almost never interrupted or dropped.

A soft handoff may involve using connections to more than two cells, e.g.
connections to three, four or more cells can be maintained by one phone at the
same time

b) Hard handoff

New connection may be set up after the old connection is released. This is hard
hand off

Mobile WiMAX has been designed from the outset as a broadband technology
capable of delivering triple play services (voice, data, video). However, a typical
Mobile WiMAX network is supposedly dominated by delay-tolerant data traffic.
Voice in Mobile WiMAX is packetized (what is called VoIP) and treated as other
types of IP packets except it is prioritized. Hard handoff (HHO) is therefore used
in Mobile WiMAX.
In hard handoff, a connection with a BS is ended first before a SS switches to
another BS. This is known as a break-before-make approach. Hard handoff is
more bandwidth-efficient than soft handoff, but it causes longer delay. A network-
optimized hard handoff mechanism was developed for Mobile WiMAX to keep a
handoff delay under 50 ms.

An advantage of the hard handoff is that at any moment in time one call uses only
one channel. Another advantage of the hard handoff is that the phone's hardware
does not need to be capable of receiving two or more channels in parallel, which
makes it cheaper and simpler.
4 HANDOFF ARCHITECTURE FOR 4G

The mobile host has a multi-mode card that can access the WLAN (such as
802.11b) and cellular (such as CDMA2000) networks. Their hierarchical foreign
agents and multi-path structure used is shown in Figure 2. For conventional
handoff techniques, the criteria that select the initial mode in mobile host are the
radio link quality, data rate, service type, speed of mobile host, and capacity of
cellular network. If its data rate is low and fast moving, then the mobile host can
select the CDMA2000 network. For high data rates, then the WLAN is selected.
For accessing the internet, we know that the uplink and downlink traffics are not
balance. Normally, user prefers a wider downlink frequency than the uplink. Here
our goal is to use the combination of cellular network for uplink traffic services
and WLAN network for downlink traffic services to provide an efficient
application for mobile user to access the internet
In figure 1, structured mobility anchor point (MAP) can offer a mobile
node (MN) seamless mobility when it moves from MAP2 to MAP3 while
communicating with a corresponding node (CN). In this approach, different
mechanisms and protocols can handle authentication, billing and mobility
management in the cellular and 802.11 portions of the network [4-7]. When an
MN enters a new foreign subnetwork, it first acquires a new physical care-of
address (PCoA) by means of address autoconfiguration, in which the MN uses it
as the source address for all datagrams that it sends. The MN will also register a
unique virtual care-of address (VCoA) with a home agent (HA) and CN for each
level of the hierarchy. It all starts when the MN receives a router advertisement
with the mobility information option that contains a new hierarchy, in which it
will send a binding update. That binding update binds its PCoA to its lowest
VCoA (i.e. at the lowest MAP).

After that the lowest MAP will send a surrogate binding update to the next
higher MAP. That binding forms a binding between the VCoAs of the mobile
node in the MAPs hierarchy. This continues until the highest MAP receives a
surrogate binding update when it will check whether that MN is allowed to use
the network and finally sends a binding acknowledgement to the next lower MAP.
These surrogate acknowledgements are sent until the lowest MAP receives one.
Then the lowest MAP sends acknowledgement to the MN.

In figure 2, mobile node sends binding update to the MAP2, which is the
lowest MAP (VCoA2®PCoA). MAP2 sends a surrogate binding update to MAP1
(VCoA1®VCoA2). MAP1 is the highest MAP and it processes the authentication
header of the original binding update and authenticates the mobile node. In figure
1 and figure 2, multiple paths are maintained while mobile node transits the
overlapping area of two adjacent cells, keeping connections for both

cells.
 To avoid drastic quality degradation and stream disruptions, Yi Pan et al.
[9] proposed a scheme that reduces packet loss and maintains high throughput
during handoffs by transmitting packets on multiple paths. Meanwhile, high
throughput is maintained by exploiting all the available bandwidth on multiple
paths. To allow a source node to be able to maintain multiple paths
simultaneously, mobile IP simultaneous binding [10, 11] and route optimization
option [12] are used. Simultaneous binding option allows a mobile node to
simultaneously register multiple CoAs, and route optimization option allows the
sender to be always informed of the CoA registration directly form the receiver.

5 HANDOFF ALGORITHM AND ANALYSIS

Based on our architecture, we proposed a 4G mobile control handoff algorithm

showed in figure 3. In our proposal, we hope that the MN request with go through
the first connection (MN ® MAP2 ® MAP1 ® CN) and the reply from the second
connection (CN ® MAP1 ® MAP3 ® MN) showed in figure 2. In order to
implement this, path management is needed to distribute different task by
different path based on different bandwidth. In order to realize this function, a
cache is configured in MAP1 which is used for bandwidth option. When a mobile
node send a request out, it travels from mobile node to MAP2 to MAP1 and
finally reach the CN. A reply from CN will have to come into MAP1. In MAP1,
the reply needs to be rerouted. There is a database in the cache of MAP1, which
include the mobile node ID. It will go into MAP3 but not to MAP2 after
comparing the mobile node ID if it is the same mobile node. As a result, a more
effective use of the available bandwidth can be realized which result in achieving
a higher speed data rate connection.

When the mobile node serving in the cellular network region enters the WLAN
service region, it connects to the network (in our case the 802.11 network). In this
case, handoff happen between cellular network and WLAN network. For our
proposed handoff algorithm showed in figure 3 based on three novel idea: (i) the
handoff point is not a critical factor, because the cellular network overlaid the
802.11 region; (ii) multi-path is used for both networks; (iii) bandwidth
optimization, which try to combine cellular network for uplink traffic services and
802.11b Wi-Fi network for downlink traffic service during and after handoff
according to internet characteristics which uplink traffic services is one of fourth
of downlink traffic service. In our proposed algorithm, the mobile node receives a
beacon signal from the access point through activating the 802.11 card. If the
mobile node receives an agent advertisement message from the MAP3, it sends a
handoff ready request message to the MAP2 which is the currently serving
cellular network. Then the MAP1 transmits in-bound packets to the MAP3. After
that, the mobile node checks the received beacon signals continuously to
determine whether to handoff or not. If the conditions for the handoff are
satisfied, then the handoff procedure is performed. At this point, the mobile node
requests to keep the channel that is currently allocated to the cellular network and
transmits a reassociation request message to the access point in the WLAN. So
two connections are used by the mobile node. From now on, the mobile node
communicates with both networks. i.e. the 802.11
 Figure 3. 4G Handoff Algorithm

when a mobile node enters 802.11 region it gets an advertisement from access
point and try to measure the signal strength in order to get a best access point for
service, this is the fist step of our proposed handoff algorithm showed in figure 3.
In the mobile controlled handoff algorithm the signal strength measurements are
taken by the mobile device, as indicated by step two in figure 3. if a candidate
access point having better signal strength is detected then the handoff execution
process is initiated. Since mobile controlled handoff is scalable and more
distributed, it can continuously monitor signal strength measurements. A handoff
 adapter object located at the mobile device drives handoff execution. Mobile
controlled handoff is executed as a forward, soft handoff. To accomplish soft
handoff and select a best access point, the mobile device can simultaneously
receives data from multiple access point, but handoff only can be taken place at
one access point, so a best AP is selected by step three in figure 3. It is similar
with other handoff procedure after selected a best AP, that is registration and
setting up a connectivity, and then transfer parameter in order that a new data path
can be setup by step 4,5 ,6and 7 in figure 3.Handoff notice by step 8 in figure 3 is
different from traditional handoff procedure, since old data path will be kept
continuously, so path management is needed by step 9 in figure 3 in order that to
make sure multiple path can service for the seam mobile device. Actually, they are
two data path distributed both of WLAN and cellular network serving the seam
mobile device by sending request and getting reply from both network based on
their own characteristics which is the different bandwidth. Since WLAN have
more wide bandwidth with cellular network, and the internet characteristics is that
reply could need more wide bandwidth with request. Consequently, bandwidth
selected by last step in figure 3 should be necessary. Thus our algorithm has been
optimized bandwidth to increase data transmission.

6 VERTICAL HAND-OFF SCENARIO

Today's wireless access networks consist of several overlapping tiers. The

combination of 3G and WLAN technologies enable the internet access from
anywhere and anytime thereby bringing benefits to both end users and service
providers. A horizontal handoff is defined as a handoff between base stations
(BSs) that use the same type of wireless network interface. This is the traditional
definition of handoff for homogeneous cellular systems. A vertical handoff is
defined as a handoff between BSs that uses different wireless network
technologies such as the WLAN and the 3G cellular network. The heterogeneous
networks (3G cellular network and WLAN) have some important properties. First,
the network service areas are overlapped as shown in Fig. [1].

For example, the 3G cellular network acts as an umbrella network to the WLAN
network. Also the different cells of the same network are overlapped. To reduce
service disruption, we can utilize this overlapping by simultaneously connecting
to the different networks at the boundary of one network during vertical handoff.
Second, two networks may support different data rates. The WLAN can support a
data rates in Mbps, while 3G cellular network can only supply tens of Kbps. In
our scenario, we focus on the vertical handoff between the WLAN and the 3G
 cellular network. Fig. 1 shows the vertical handoff when the mobile station (MS)
moves from the location A in the WLAN to the location C in the 3G cellular
MASTER As
networks. ALGORITHM-OUTLOOK OF THE
the MS leaves the access pointSOFTWARE PART of the beacon
(AP), the strength
signal received from the AP periodically weakens. If its strength is decreased
READ THE VOLTAGE OF THE NTH NETWORK
below the threshold value, the MS tries connecting to the 3G cellular network and
COMPARE
starts synchronizing VOL WITH
with the system RANGEthe
to prepare VOLhandoff.

6.1 PROPOSED MOBILE MODEL

IF
Vn=Vr
Even today researchers are looking in innovative point of view about the handoff
feature in soft vertical
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NETWORK
we give less work to the BTS, BSC, MTC etc and mould the mobile handset in
order to provide moreSTORE
complex
VALUE
operations which is carried out in a simpler
fashion and also flexible as compared to the present approach models (vertical
handoff and other models).
IF INR N
N=M

Proposed model

N=0
MEMOR
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GET ALL PARAMETERS OF NTH NETWORK
MICRO

CONTROLLER
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IF
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USER PREFERENCE HANDOVER TO NEW NETWORK

 Here we introduce a block which contains both hardware and software
sectors as shown in fig 3 and fig 4. In the hardware sector we have a block which
 can be an integral part of mobile with various available chips like DSP,
Microprocessors, A/D Converters Memory.

6.2 Comparison between 3G and 4G

PARAMETERS 3G 4G

Major Requirement Predominantly voice driven Converged data and voice over
Driving Architecture - data was always add on IP

Hybrid - Integration of Wireless

Network Architecture Wide area cell-based
LAN (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth)

Speeds 384 Kbps to 2 Mbps 20 to 100 Mbps in mobile mode

Dependent on country or Higher frequency bands (2-8

Frequency Band
continent (1800-2400 MHz) GHz)

Bandwidth 5-20 MHz 100 MHz (or more)

Switching Design
Circuit and Packet All digital with packetized voice
Basis

Access Technologies W-CDMA, 1xRTT, Edge OFDM and MC-CDMA

Forward Error
Convolution rate 1/2, 1/3 Concatenated coding scheme
Correction

Optimized antenna design, Smarter Antennas, software

Component Design
multi-band adapters multiband and wideband radios

A number of air link

IP All IP (IP6.0)
protocols, including IP 5.0

7. NEED FOR 4G

4G has sprung from a usage –driven research frame work to invent new
technologies to wireless world vision. The evolution of such a wireless system
(also called ‘Beyond 3G ‘or ‘B3G’) is closely linked to rapid advances in digital
and component technologies. So future mobile devices will be capable of
 supporting multiple wireless standards, and operate in multi-mode, multiband
fashion. The 4G wireless communication system can be integrated with the
Internet protocol (IP) backbone network to provide quality of service (QoS)
support for multimedia applications. It will support dynamical scheduling, link
adaptation and frequency selection as well as full roaming capabilities. 4G also
mean mobile telephony at a data rate of 100Mbps globally (between any two
points in the world) and 1Gbps locally.

• Need for 4 G 3G performances may not be sufficient to meet needs

of future high- performance applications like multi-media, full-motionvideo,
wireless teleconferencing. We
need a network technology that extends 3G capacity by an order of magnitude.

• There are multiple standards for 3G making it difficult to roam and inter
operate across networks. we need global mobility and service
portability

• 3G is based on primarily a wide-area concept. We need hybrid networks

that utilize both wireless LAN concepts.

8. 4G APPLICATIONS

1. PUBLIC SAFETY:
One of the most notable advanced applications for 4G systems is location-based
service.. This database could be accessed by a subscriber in a moving vehicle
equipped with the appropriate wireless device, which would provide the platform
on which would appear a virtual representation of the environment ahead. For
example, one would be able to see the internal layout of a building during an
emergency rescue. This type of application is sometimes referred to as
"Telegeoprocessing", Telegeoprocessing over 4G networks will make it possible
for the public safety community to have wireless operational functionality and
specialized applications for everyday operations, as well as for crisis
management.

2. VIRTUAL NAVIGATION: As described, a remote database contains the

graphical representation of streets, buildings, and physical characteristics of a
large metropolis. Blocks of this database are transmitted in rapid sequence to a
vehicle, where a rendering program permits the occupants to visualize the
environment ahead. They may also "virtually" see the internal layout of buildings
to plan an emergency rescue, or to plan to engage hostile elements hidden in the
building.

3. TELE-MEDICINE: A paramedic assisting a victim of a traffic accident in a

remote location could access medical records (e.g., x-rays) and establish a video
conference so that a remotely based surgeon could provide “on-scene” assistance.
In such a circumstance, the paramedic could relay the victim's vital information
(recorded locally) back to the hospital in real time, for review by the surgeon.

4. CRISIS-MANAGEMENT APPLICATION: These arise, for example, as a

result of natural Disasters where the entire communications infrastructure is in
disarray. In such circumstances, restoring communications quickly is essential.
With wideband wireless mobile communications, both limited and complete
communications capabilities, including Internet and video services, could be set
up in a matter of hours. In comparison, it may take days or even weeks to re-
establish communications capabilities when a wireline network is rendered
inoperable.
8. FUTURE CHALLENGES

One of the most challenging issues facing deployment of 4G technologies is how

to make the network architectures compatible with each other. The success of 4G
systems would largely depend upon its ability to overcome the capability
challenges. Some of the challenges concerning 4G architectural design issues are
given below:

1. HIGH USABILITY & GLOBAL ROAMING: The end user terminals should
be compatible with any technology, at any time, anywhere in the world. The basic
idea is that the user should be able to take his mobile to any place, for example,
from a place that uses CDMA to another place that employs GSM.

2. MULTIMEDIA SUPPORT: The user should be able to receive high data rate
multimedia services. This demands higher bandwidth and higher data rate.

3. PERSONALISATION: This means that any type of person should be able to

access the service. The service providers should be able to provide customized
services to different type of users.

4. TERMINAL MOBILITY: This is one of the biggest issues the researchers are
facing. Terminal mobility allows the user to roam across different geographical
areas that uses different technologies. There are two important issues related to
terminal mobility. One is location management where the system has to locate the
position of the mobile for providing service. Another important issue is hand off
management. In the traditional mobile systems only horizontal hand off has to be
performed where as in 4G systems both horizontal and vertical hand off should be
performed.

5. SECURITY & PRIVACY: The existing security measures for wireless

systems are inadequate for 4G systems. The existing security systems are
designed for specific services. This does not provide flexibility for the users and
 as flexibility is one of the main concerns for 4G, new security systems has to be
introduced.

6.FAULT TOLERANCE : As we all know, fault tolerant systems are becoming

more popular throughout the world. The existing wireless system structure has a
tree like topology and hence if one of the components suffers damage the whole
system goes down. This is not desirable in case of 4G. Hence one of the main
issues is to design a fault tolerant system for 4G.

7. BILLING SYSTEM: 3G mostly follows a flat rate billing system based where
the user is charged just by a single operator for his usage according to call
duration, transferred data etc. But in 4G wireless systems, the user might switch
between different service providers and may use different services. In this case, it
is hard for both the users and service providers to deal with separate bills. Hence
the operators have to design a billing architecture that provides a single bill to the
user for all the services he has used. Moreover the bill should be fair to all kinds
of users.

9. CONCLUSION
 4G in its evolutionary and revolutionary contexts does not allow an exact
vision of the future. However if past evolution developments are a indication of
the future, there is need to promote technological adaptability interoperability for
the next generation of wireless communication. The article presents the design for
achieving an adaptable-soft vertical handoff in a multi-network of 4G
environment Possible mobile architecture which we have proposed for 3G, B3G,
or 4G is a significant step towards 4G systems based on all IP networking
technologies. Traditional handoff considered among the various stations requires
support which can be provided by out mobile model.

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] G. G. Savo, “Advanced Wireless Communications 4G Technologies”.

[2] J. McNair and Zhu. Fang, “Vertical handoffs in fourth-generation
multinetwork environments,” IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 11, pp. 8-15.

[3] U. Varshney and R. Jain, “Issues in emerging 4G wireless networks,”

IEEE Computer, vol. 34, pp. 94-96.

[4] J. McNair and Zhu. Fang, “Vertical handoffs in fourth-generation

multi- network environments,”