Existentialism and Metaphysics Author(s): Helmut Kuhn Reviewed work(s): Source: The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Dec.

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EXISTENTIALISM

AND METAPHYSICS I.

to an affirmation. A is the counterpart negation phil an that clears with negation, generally osophy begins emphatic the from for an affirmation. In the movement of ground thought a dialecti to affirmation from pole springs negation through pole cal rebound. to ancient This observation Scepticism. The nega applies, e.g., the tion?the thesis of the reliable truth?is of unattainability to the affirmative an art of idea of counterpart living practiced to Kant. It best by one who suspends judgment. applies equally reason to in order to make is denied competency Metaphysical room for faith. We in existentialist find the same dialectic phil and The in this case, is of utmost radicalism osophy. negation, so is the of the movement affirmation. Hence corresponding to from is of vehemence. thought pole unparalleled pole at an our powers Kant arrives Through analysis of cognitive a denial of the and of reason, competence by metaphysical to understand is meant the power competence" "metaphysical as a whole. He does not, however, suggest reality meaningful as a or that reality lacks meaning far from it. Man rationality, access to he is from the order rational debarred reasoner, affirms, of things-in-themselves, and only by recognizing this limitation of his does he learn as much of reality as is vouchsafed him. the father of existential philosophy, thinks that Kierkegaard, an to achieve is nonsense, for it is attempt Hegel's speculation man what rather than man. could achieve only if he were God While attacking Hegel, Kierkegaard actually carries Kant's nega tion one step further. Man's reason does not enable him to under stand reality as a whole. On this Kant and Kierkegaard meaningful we may add that and of agree; by way 'meaningful' explanation sense of here in rational the rationale the signifies "including of human life." But for human life," or "providing guidance a conclusion which, goes beyond Kant by drawing Kierkegaard Every 37

38

Helmut

Kuhn

it seems, Kant never considered. If reason fails to infor supply on a "rational" sense mation in the defined (rational reality just of the word) to the the idea of a rational itself falls reality ground. it we are confronted with and so arrive at By rescinding Nought the fundamental All existential of existential concept philosophy. turns on the idea of or and it may thought Nothingness Nought, a as be characterized, term used form of nihilism?a therefore, with move potency. The negative descriptive starts as a to its affirmation prelude a consists in the Nought. positing Consequently metaphysics on as a founded this basis be described might negative ontology or to traditional in contradistinction affirmative meontology, here for the sake of its which existentialism ontology. Speaking tion?would what case of be Nought?the to use an substantive word noun unless denoting it is made nega clear

is this In the present precisely being negation. to the the reference is clear enough negated something it is not of in the though always very clearly expressed writings answer is, of course, the existentialist The obvious philosophers. to say that is the negation of Being. But this answer, Nought as Plato has shown in his Parmenides, involves the great difficulty a distinction of of maintaining between the two. The concepts seem to and and each into other, by Being Nothing collapse that they pass into each other asserting with Hegel dialectially we a fresh is still of the fact, but the difficulty get expression us. Since no one with is (no "this," in Being thing particular nor a Aristotle's class of (no things terminology), particular or in In short, it is in either "such"), general. nothing particular so the difference it is and This between ontology nothing. being to a and is reduced verbal distinction, meontology merely in Parmenides be saying that only Being is would affirming with his well different words what after him maintained Gorgias known is." "Nothing paradox: an alternative inter To escape this absurdity we may place answer to the after the the "obvious" upon question pretation to be sure, the It of of is, meaning negation Being, Nought. as the act of but Being we now try to understand Being, thereby to the of it existing actually closely multiple totality relating It has no existence of living things. Life things. independent

empty denied by

Existentialism is "in" whatever is alive,

and Metaphysics

39

of of actuality distinctive as that understood be actuality living. Similarly Being might of being them from non-existing things which distinguishes the real horse in the stable from the fabulous e.g., things, a a as it and it is class class defines true, concept Pegasus. Life, means of which we involves a difference distinguish generic by no such from inanimate relationship living things things. Evidently and obtains between and Being, things, existing non-existing a as not it still be is Yet conceived class. therefore, might as a to a class. As we accept this analogous justifiable answer, as the assumes an of negation Being assignable meaning Nought it otherwise which, be, is at any rate safe against vague though a dialectical We into its own sea-change opposite. suffering arrive at that of which makes such intelligible meaning nothing as: "God created the world or sentences from "why nothing," is there rather than nothing?" The evanescent Nought something the
takes on a measure of ontological concreteness.

as a mode

as the act of affirm, should be understood Being, Being, an act in various modes and degrees by the totality performed be of what might Let us now add (introducing existing things. called the the further observa of classical rationalism) principle the object of a rational tion that this in order to become Being, or be conceived of as intelligible should study, metaphysics, as term we the latter and take this rational; involving again or a for us, for idea of i.e., as defining purpose goal meaning, man as an agent. This enrichment of the concept of Being reflects not on its antithetical must be understood partner: Nought only as the void of non-existence but also as the vacuity of meaning to these two be difficult lessness. It may separate completely or void of the (of exist components Nought?the polar aspects of and the ence, of simple "there-ness") (the privation vacuity the the first of for with their complete separation meaning), two elements would become undistinguishable and again collapse of this bipolarity from its own Being. Nonetheless, opposite, to be which it involves the and the distinction ought Nought is a cause of borne in mind. The failure to make that distinction much in existentialist writings. obscurity suggestive we obtain the clarifications On the basis of these elementary as confronted with a choice idea of philosophy (or metaphysics)

we

40 between two fundamental

Helmut and

Kuhn

opposed hypotheses. becomes affirmation, ontological the second, termed (the theory of Being); to (the theory negation, might give rise meontology ontological is actually this second of Non-Being), hypothesis provided amenable to theoretical development. The fundamental of affirmative ontology posits hypothesis sense existence actualized in the full of the word, involving Being or rational of Being and This correlation in a meaningful reality. to us. In does full not, however, intelligibility rationality imply as follows. of stead it demands a duality of gradation principles in the sense in In the first place there are degrees of rationality a of rationality reveals a greater wealth which living organism or structure than some of inanimate matter, congeries meaningful more a whole a drama or in which is by Shakespeare meaningful than a row in a wayside than a dictionary, the history of mankind inn. Every attempt to describe reality as a whole, as, for example, is based on in terms of evolution or emergent evolution, gradation of of The familiar formula of objective rationality. degrees an is but attenuated expression "integration plus diversification" of the same basic idea. The first, which may the basis of ontology be called to us, there are In the second degrees of intelligibility place, coincide with the and by no means does this second gradation is more limited at first one. Our knowledge of the human mind remain so in the future, than our and will present, probably atomic but it does not follow that structures, of, say, knowledge, exhibit than atomic processes. mental less rationality operations as in cases order of Here other the many objective rationality to us. is related to the order of intelligibity Bearing inversely it is in mind of two types of this distinction (and gradation on the scheme of affirmative either stated or wherever implied we of a is may try to conceive Supreme Being tology grasped) unin and almost which is consummate yet rationality entirely so we may to us. The the first express gradation, telligible from the second derives from situation, rationality by itself, an ideal of knowl reason as a human The first describes faculty. the second a which we can only approximate, procedure edge our status as men. us by imposed upon The of negative alternative (or meont ontology hypothesis

diametrically

Existentialism

and Metaphysics

41

or is may To say that nothing Nought. posits non-Being ology) a contradiction or else to be a seem to involve meaningless can be avoided or, at any statement. This however, difficulty, as the idea of Nought rate, decreased heavily by understanding than rather in the direction of vacuity (of meaning) weighted of void Furthermore, (or (of existence). non-Being positing as mean can not of Being: the exclusion just Nought) possibly on an without the is inconceivable thesis of Being based ontology two be theses must The inclusion of non-Being. contrasting to each other insofar exclusive and of asmutually opposed thought as affirmative of Being maintains the primacy ontology only reverses over this order. whereas ontology Nothing, negative accrues to the a measure these qualifications, of meaning With still it odd and useless though might hypothesis, meontological
appear.

to reserve The mere fact It will be wise, however, judgment. can be however that a rival hypothesis, unattractive, opposed to this affirmation the fact that making affirmation; ontological interest and alone is of greatest involves a choice or option?-this about the nature of metaphysics.The reveals something espousal alternatives in terms of a choice between of affirmative ontology as a choice between can be of causal explana principles expressed "Shall we say that in general and over tion as in Plato's Philebus: of the irrational and there rule the power this so-called whole random and chance, or on the contrary, that, as our ancestors held, reason and some mar is ordered and by governed everything recurs in the Sophist, The wisdom?" velous (28d). question treatment of as to too the is and here it expressed preliminary we more all Shall say that living and beings, specific questions: some to owe their existence nature, working inanimate, "through are or cause devoid of reason, forth that they mechanical brought with reason and Divine Knowledge?" God (265c). by here is between affirmative ontology? The choice proposed in antithesis. The its negative the thesis of Being?and emphasis on of is the the Platonic the rationalism," questions "principle the anti of and rationality. identification Accordingly, Being as a or thesis to Being, prin Nothing metaphysical non-Being terms such as "irrational" in negative is couched ( ?'?oyov ciple, or "without reason" Far from being a logical ( o?veu ftiavoia?).

42 artifice this is a real

Helmut

Kuhn

or rather it is THE of question, question of the thesis of affirmative Acceptance ontology metaphysics. involves, as Plato puts it, a risk ( xiv?i'vo? , Philebus 29a), but one worth taking. a to amore modern strictly Platonic Shifting from terminology we view as an act of rational faith, in affirmation ontological two elements: the of, and the volving anticipatory comprehension assent to, an unverified For the authentication of this hypothesis. must be fulfilled. faith two requirements In the first place, the a affirmation must be constructive, of verifi process initiating us to rest content with cation rather than the unverified. allowing the assent must have the character of total Secondly, specific
commitment.

as a is progressive and, at Metaphysics cooperative pursuit a cumulative the same time, reiterative. While forward carrying and of verification its very is process interpretation principle must attack be under and reaffirmed in continually continually at issue must be the face of creative The challenges. question treated as one of greatest moment and vital concern for every or to its is else missed. The offered one, challenge meaning the affirmation existentialist's by ontological ontological negation on the in that it moves differs from former challenges very level at which the arises. The of metaphysical problem challenge for instances, is both more insidious and less meta Positivism, physically fruitful because it denies the relevance of the meta physical question validity of specific metaphysical answers. Not so existentialist a meontology. By offering genuine to affirmative to the alternative and, ontology thereby, ontological of traditional it forces the mind into a pattern metaphysics, us renewal of the fundamental It the recapture question. helps of the called meaning enterprise metaphysics. At the same time, the under which the peculiar difficulty over idea of the of evi labors becomes primacy Being Nothing common sense view that dent. The affirmation follows negation to is borne out In order about by analysis. speak meaningfully must be made to its affirmative reference counterpart? Nothing to the term. This is denied the negative is something which by a the tends of into why theory ontological negation development to result in a derive i.e., in statements which "parasitical" doctrine, rather than the

Existentialism their

and Metaphysics

43

whose from the very conceptions validity they meaning Instances of this of unavowed reference" we shall deny. "fallacy meet presently. to The which results from giving priority Nought difficulty over over be illustrated by (to affirmation) may Being negation in of "being-at-home" (Zuhausesein) Heidegger's conception a familiar the world, the attitude by which is confidently reality and quietly From the of view of existential accepted. point to this the affirms, counterpart negative ontology, Heidegger or more the the of is attitude, alienation, experience primary we fundamental und so, Zeit, p. 189). Why (Sein phenomenon As we wonder. reflect upon the emotional facts of the polar situation no decision this question of order or priority regarding can be reached. Love, the fondness we feel for a world in which we move with as trust and it were made for us, delight though we the affect, so to which affirm the essential speak, through a in is and so is anxiety solid emotional fact, goodness things, of the experience of a strange and uncanny multitude (Angst), a mere in brute existence, things, persevering unintelligibly screen and ourselves placed between nothingness. it is true, is latent in and it is on Interpretation, feelings, to an ultimate principle that Heideg interpretation with reference over rests case. his The of ger priority Nothing Being requires the priority of estrangement in the world (Unheimlichkeit) over not But the do facts support familiarity. impartially inspected corre are this view. Admitted that the two experiences strictly seen lative in the sense that the is "being-at-home" always foil of alienation, and vice versa. Yet there is a differ the against is all in favor of the ence, and this difference positive experience. to think without a condition Not is it contradiction only possible of by any thought however itself, remotely, ap possible privation, experience to this consummation. The richer and the more intense proximates the the narrower the of felt fulfilment, margin experienced true of the is The of estrangement. negation. experience opposite Its the increases with of the intensity broadening contrasting until it reaches the point of self-destruction. first The margin rests in itself, the of upon experience revolving securely pole in an the second experience consists affirmation whereas unhappy of perfect shelteredness unruffled but and peace

44 oscillation break

Helmut

Kuhn

to btween and affirmation which threatens negation the of the self. up unity experiencing ex As we describe in human the normal aspect of reality a are more we to data in faithful the actual stating perience are of of obvious mixture features. There features opposing and and familiarity, and there is also the intelligibility opposite, into each shade off other the two contrasting aspects through a wide to the of this scale of intermediaries. Owing prevalence as an traits of science of investigation middle-ground specific to this same ambivalence there is this reality is possible. Owing an for of also room for i.e., investigation reality metaphysics, us face to face with the choice between as a whole which brings two alternative affirmation and its op hypotheses, ontological one or the No decision way easy negation. posite, ontological we is But if seek indications in the field other surely possible. emo or to I may be permitted attitudes of what call ontological which world tive aspects of the greater the view lies with reality, plausibility status in the the Scholastics in man's expressed describing as in via (on the as contrasted with in patria. The way) mixture and foreignness is admitted. At the same of familiarity or that in which time, the idea of a total accord (of man with as an emotional with which he has his existence) is regarded a priori with to which man can understand reference both the to situation. It and the his of is, say the least, prospects plight can be said of doubtful whether this much Heidegger's negative
thesis.

same of a basic attitude can also be raised in question man views his fellowman. Here to too the in which way respect a fundamental we to discover mode of (or may try experience And this mode may then be aspect of the experienced reality). not as mere characterized fact but as an ontological psychological The
determinant?as an essential feature of man's sociableness

from time it is Sartre who, departing Heidegger's Mitsein of und (Sein 117-125), Zeit, pp. analysis from advances the thesis which results the naturally negative he writes, "is the original mean premiss. Conflict, metaphysical et le n?ant, p. 431). the (U?tre being-one-for-another" ing of it can be shown that In this case too, by a parallel argument, as understood ("love" cpi?ia presupposes hostility friendship (Mitsein). admirable This

Existentialism

and Metaphysics

45

in a sense in which does not presuppose and hostility, friendship on the idea of that a of communal life can be based theory only or naturalness the of of But a priority development friendship. meta the social and existentialist's the of political implications the scope of our essay. physical premiss lies beyond II. for affirmation pave the way only an affirmative the outset intent. by as it does the So also ontological negation: denying metaphysical reason of with the traditional object of meta competence along a a demand it is ordered world, physics, rationally prompted by reason to made upon and not fulfilled it. Reason, by presuming as a should include within whole, interpret reality meaningful its rational scheme the concrete individual. But this it existing is unable to achieve. The of the existentialist individual, critique reason asserts, is unassimilable to any of rational pattern explana tion. This idea of the concrete individual expresses the affirmative intent which animates and directs the existentialist's negations. He is His declared his purpose recognized by peculiar pathos. is to restore to the concept of the individual, stunted, integrity so he believes, by the imposition upon it of necessarily inadequate Negation generally it is directed because from patterns of rational explanation. an individual, man is "man in i.e., a being general," a Caucasian the human race, and he is furthermore of specimen or African or Frenchman an American by racial extraction, by a or an artisan and so forth. journalist nationality, by profession, we define the means But all these classifications of which by as "such an one" do not touch his individual individuality? an individual he is that which he, unique speaking, is. As properly and the reach of any system. beyond classificatory irreplaceable, is his Evidence of this uniqueness of the individual peculiar occurrence to time. His but life is not a repeatable relationship an event a in the full sense of the word, singular occupying texture of historical And this "his place in the moving reality. as it not an accidental tinge, toricity" of the individual is merely a son common is of Man the hue of were, modifying humanity. his time in the radical sense that his and his beliefs, thoughts Besides can

46 to the world moment.

Helmut

Kuhn it, are fruits of the

response historical with

and his action

upon

of It may be said that man shares the character uniqueness or inanimate. But all concrete animate things, temporal not a datum but a with him it wTins a significance, being peculiar as actum. not does find himself He the unique being that he is f as a into what he is. Not himself but he continually makes as a we must conceive static but him, reversing, dynamic entity as far as he is concerned, to which the principle according esse. is the form of his tem eminent operari sequitur Futurity or more status. Man is he is becoming, continually poral precisely has the the brink of decision. And this decision poised upon in Man who character of a radical Either/Or. deciding makes can also become for himself his own unmaking. The question to be or not to be. him is whether man as he is on the of decision balanced Precariously sharp edge cares for is infinitely about his own being. He concerned with of But many things varying degrees intensity. underlying cares there is the care of all cares, the anxious these particular concern we for his own existence. If, following Kierkegaard, to an absolute desire, i.e., to one which nature takes its give by over all other desires, the name of we may precedence passion as an define man in modification of the traditional formula animal passionale. The triad of and decision, features?historicity, passion? man which uses as determines the of the existentialist conception his affirmative criterion. Tested this touch-stone he reason, by is He found the thesis of affirmative ontol holds, wanting. rejects ogy because of the actual or alleged inability of reason to com its scheme of reference this unabridged idea of the prise within in its consists use, which metaphysical a in be of either comprehending meaningful totality, may thought as reached or as In by approximation actually only completed. case can it include neither the concrete individual, according to the existentialist's lives It is true that the individual argument. into the future, and to this extent dominant is the futurity status. But this trait of man's is (sit venia verbo) temporal futurity a an the Now. present futurity, emphasis determining experienced existing The individual. work of reason

Existentialism

and Metaphysics

47

and what The fatal decision must be made at this present moment, is done can never be undone. Therefore the agent must with rely trust upon his decision. But rational unconditional knowledge, is unable to furnish of by approximation, proceeding principles are final validity, for all its positions and provisional hypothetical. to as Hence conceived is irrelevant approximative, knowledge, the individual's business of his life. living The same negative result is obtained if we look upon reason's as In this case work is before the reasoner completed. reality as a a closed determinations. of whole, i.e., system comprehensive But it is characteristic of the concrete individual to live into an acts of free he determines open field of possibilities which by the individual resists inclusion in a closed system. decision. Hence Whenever he tries to think of himself as so included, he argues out himself he is to act situation within which of the concrete an becomes his knowledge name for the (a say: "History example, at of tends towards the whole) present comprehensive eclipse . . me so ." this and demands of But institutions, liberal-capitalist is a confusion of of of as a whole conceived categories. History, ex not it does definition demand determinations, anything. By cludes the one on whom alone demands can be made, the concrete instead of evasion. He elucidating for will, it, and thus individual. Leaving pleteness
to us reality

aside the disjunction the matter may be put

as a realm of essences

of approximation and com as follows. reveals Knowledge

or essential structures. To know

is to determine it as a "such." A e.g., studies the thing physicist, atom not as this atom but as in its own particular manifesting case the atom as such. The structure the of particular general is not in terms of essential struc individual, however, expressible ture. With essence. He is not such an one him existence precedes but in he determines himself into such an one. Far from existing a definable entity among other entities, his mode of existence being to be is freedom for For to be free means possibilities. precisely not under the sway of the essences. of non-determined, sphere to be confronted It means with infinite possibilities, and the a the be of it should is merely noted, sphere possible, negative is that whose Possible is (or coming-into-being) concept. being not necessitated within a realm of essential structures. Hence the

48

Helmut

Kuhn

in a system attempt to include the individual reality interpreting as a whole the of the individual concept inevitably destroys by him to what he is not. Man, who is a person, is assimilating falsely as a viewed thing. Man is human insofar as he is an individual, and individuality means This admitted we must ask what uniqueness uniqueness. means. The existentialist tends to the negative element emphasize a it were of this concept as distinction of though chiefly principle or diversification. as The individual is not part of a unique not nor nor is he like is other individual all the others any group, them. The is is what individual he himself from by distinguishing the rest of the world. He is to all other with reference non-Being and thus the is particu of This motif Beings negation. principle in Sartre marked but it in is forecast larly Kierkegaard. a The existentialist of the individual conveys conception on the nega truth but a truth out of balance. It bases individuality tive idea of total otherness. follows however, uniqueness Actually, turn is based on and of in essential singleness, singleness identity relation. The value we place on the right of free speech may serve as an illustration. In matters which are subject to everyone'^ because everyone, judgment they elude specialized knowledge we hold, should have his do not cherish this conviction say. We in the belief that of opinions (each the unique expres diversity mean as such. sion of a is valuable may unique person) Diversity as well as abundance. we be All rather confusion individuals, are one same to but which all the related and truth is for lieve, one even understood by the wisest. By silencing incompletely a we rob of however mankind humble, may single individual, we we value of truth. So of because part uniqueness expression think of each individual as related to truth. Like single equally wise we respect the uniqueness of the individual (that whereby not for its own sake but for its he differs from others) being all individuals have in common. By being no the result of what in of persons do we honor personality. Once more: respecters the the order of things uniqueness, the negative term, follows affirmative idea of singleness based on identity of essential rela
tion.

Far relation

from being injurious to one super-individual

to

individuality truth which

the individual's reason establishes

Existentialism

and Metaphysics

49

as individual. To of the individual the extent is the foundation that it denies this "identity of essential relation" (to the common existentialism defeats its purpose and purpose of mankind) goal to rescue it. Yet there is truth and destroys personality by trying in the existentialist assertion. The of the individual individuality an accidental is substituted is wherever foi relation endangered the essential one. If we deal with man under one of his special relations or aspects as though we were dealing with man himself then indeed his is denied. almost to It is obvious individuality not man himself, man as a tailor or as a violinist is that everyone and that man's animality does not exhaust his (although personality the institutions the former truth is often ignored by practically naturalistic of industrialized society and the latter obfuscated by more comes to elevated notions of man But if it philosophies).
e.g., kind?the as, man as case the member of of a class which man as is to the become member man of a communism?,or

over case of nationalism?the mistake is generally nation,?the looked, and a protest on behalf of the individual is in order. The as such but not harm is done, however, by the general concept its by inadequacy. connects critique of false generalities rightly with with his his the individual i.e., historicity, uniqueness the events. But in the series of historical unique place again on as otherness false emphasis is to be rectified. uniqueness can not mean his The individual's essential living in historicity a Now as that moment defined which is not like any other The existentialist of the moment
mean that

and

in that

sense

unique.
is

Strictly
at

taken
any

this would
moment

man-as-living-now

unexpressible

other

absconditus. More unknowable, loosely into substituting for non-his idea tempts people less torical generalities historical ones as though the latter were are more so). Deluded to dangerous (actually, they individuality have advanced beyond by the historicist fallacy they feel they about the naive idea of primitive man-in-general by speaking and with confi man, Renaissance man, man, Western special and, used therefore, the same
dence, about contemporary man The truth of the matter is, once

a homo

man lives that uniqueness follows singularity. Every more, single out on his own account the universal and theme of humanity, all his his racial his his sex, traits, constitution, bodily unique

50 and owe

Helmut

Kuhn

his social environment, and the like, cultural inheritance, nature to the their of human relevance universality unique a nor even not in its entirety actualized group by mankind by but by each man singly. to the second feature of the existen A similar criticism applies as the chooser. of the individual: man tialist's triune portrait to decide means to determine the undetermined, and that That are man as a free acts into a field of agent possibilities?these no statements which in terms of a non interpretation descriptive human reality should be allowed to tamper with. But once again we find the reminder obscured by a of this existentialist meaning bias in favor of definition which has its roots in ontologi negative that renders decision pos cal negation. The field of possibilities is defined as Nothingness sible (and, at the same time, necessary) to the determinate is to say, as non-Being with reference ?that as a creatio ex nihilo. Since ness of and decision appears Being, to decision, for man is determined everything previous nothing on decision. depends and choice is choice, decision of fact, however, a concrete, and that means within onlv limited, field possible set of determined We choose among a determined of possibilities. to a fixed standard of and in relation preference. possibilities is rational choice is another way of saying that all decision This to the worse with a view to attaining of the better in preference a of with the good. Instead of being philosophy incompatible In point is
essences choice involves an essence of a peculiar character? one

without
be a mere

whose

presence

the idea of a structure

dream. This peculiar

of essences would
essence

speculative

essence?the

of man?defines

it a of itself what which is to become being of the spon is the mode and rational choice is, (potentially) of the "of itself") of this taneous self-actualization (the mode entity.

unique

with determined "means," and the possibilities By equating a at we of the vindication arrive "end" standard of choice with is to which choice Aristotelian well-known according principle to the facts (and between means only. But in order to be true this or Existenz to an philosophy) regained by insight gained a modification. The standard of choice, classic principle requires not a determinable fixed and therefore the good, pos though

Existentialism

and Metaphysics

51

sense in which actions are determinable sibility in the by choice, an act of is which in turn involves grasped by comprehension a This of the soul" which quasi-choice. quasi-choice, the"option all choices between means, underlies is the same act of rational of faith, from which the alternative faith, or withholding hypothe ses of affirmation and ontological ontological negation spring. This arbitrium originale (the "fair risk," as it is called in Plato's rational in the sense in which the choice a fixed towards end is rational. Unlike the a latter it is not into Even less is it analyzable practical syllogism. irrational in the sense of an unaccountable into the void of plunge Transrational would be a more negative possibilities. fitting act in for the it for the foundation furnishes predicate question, a blind belief of rationality. Far from being subsisting outside the field of rational it animates the quest of metaphysics enquiry, to test and is, at the same time, put continually by it. With these clarifications before us a just of the third appraisal and final trait of the existentialist of man is not diffi portrayal man as a cult. Once more we in the idea of recognize passionate or the truth. It is of an important being discovery rediscovery correct to say, with the Grand perfectly Inquisitor in Dostoevski's Brothers Karamasov, not to live to that man with prefers living out own to live for. Man, and life something knowing, living his or at stake, is however is dimly, that salvation infinitely perdition concerned about himself, and he is relieved of this anxiety only abandon or, to use a more by complete adequate expression, commitment. Man shows his folly but also his by absolute an insane Fuehrer to a raise in wages. grandeur by preferring errs in Man is in truth an animal passionate; but the existentialist a on his correct observation. placing negative interpretation Passion, defined as an absolute desire, is a desire satisfied with but an absolute fulfilment. the denial of It is, therefore, nothing are gen all those conditional and purposes which gratifications at hand within our terrestrial the of life. ambit erally Following a this line of thought, Jean-Paul Sartre recognizes in destruction man basic attitude of towards (conduite) (op. cit., pp. Being 42-44). Here we must demur and point out that this is only one side of the story. A of the object of definition purely negative a formal definition. total commitment Instead in equals practice Phaedo, between 114d) means is not

52

Helmut

Kuhn

man with to action, it can be filled of giving guidance by acting an indefinite contents. Total devotion be of may variety granted as in nihilistic to a beloved romantic love, to sensuous person or to the nation as in contem as in nihilistic aestheticism, beauty nihilistic And the lure behind all these forms nationalism. porary attachment may in fact be the of passionate voluptuous yearning, or austere, for death and destruction. However, every desire, as desire of something, is defined its proper object. So it will not by a which is tantamount do to define passion by negation of objects to it its defining by intensity. a it is true The object of desire may be called good. Now an absolute desire, the that the proper of object sovereign good, But this is a insofar as it is not all the other negation goods. role of the summum bonum becomes meaningful only negative or constructive char the of its affirmative against background are acter. All are ambivalent; if the other they good goods in the striven for in the order the (in right right right way, at the out of order. And the evil if willed measure, right time), the which defines this determines order (and thereby principle or of relative is the absolute supreme good. goodness goods) to call the of as We may be supreme good, conceived permitted man as a The God. existentialist idea of existing, passionate being man is a may then be re-formulated God-loving by asserting that a he does not love God in which in the way being. But plant turns to the sun, but of his own free will. So, instead of loving were as to love other he may choose God, though they things God. With these individual rectifications as a the existenialist of idea of the con

determining being unique worth, no concern, by passionate longer supports reason on the its alleged meta the verdict ground of passed upon the it becomes Instead clear that reason, impotence. physical a measure us with into the which of faculty provides insight of man is at the same time a constituent world and ourselves, his own uniqueness, individual. To understand existing to to make love discover its and his decision intelligent, help true must see himself as part of a rational, the individual object, which In fact any pattern of meaning i.e., meaningful, reality. as a whole must be to in discover may hope reality metaphysics as an

crete, existing himself and actuated

Existentialism in the not be

and Metaphysics structure

53

predelineated or else it will

of the individual, existing to us as human meaningful beings. The taken from the idea of a rational argument two-pronged as or either loses established system approximated completely contact in its destructive if with the power brought suggested of existentialist The assertion that the emendations anthropology. triple

it from becoming character of prevents approximative knowledge relevant to the urgency of the present moment of decision is to be countered outruns the of rational faith which and, concept by reason. And at the same time, a is also available guides reply to the alternative to which if assertion according knowledge, as a established closed system, freedom. This completely precludes will have recourse to our distinction between the gradation reply as embodied on the one hand, and in of rationality grada reality to us on the other. To the rational tion of system intelligibility in the former sense the argument need not and any system apply; to usj in the sense of a human construct (reflecting intelligibility matter is by its nature an To the theo in express "open system." terms: there is no contradiction between in logical believing provi to dence and man's acquire any knowledge inability maintaining of it which the barest outline and allows for appli goes beyond cation to individual between fate. Nor is there a contradiction as a the idea of a and the of reality whole, meaningful knowledge idea of a gradual approach from afar to this by the knowledge as bound this is conceived individual, provided existing approach an actual transformation and assimilation of the indi up with vidual to the aimed at and in of meaning espied varying degrees sense The scheme of affirmative makes clarity. only ontology if its "existential" is understood. In order to be significance an whole must define man's place meaningful all-comprehensive our earlier assertion. The in it?so of man," we now "place must be such that it can be either missed or hit amplify, by a with scale of intermediate and that the living man, possibilities, in question can be an aid in knowledge filling this place properly. as based we call "ontological affirmation" upon what Metaphysics as a involves the idea of of life. way philosophy The is tinged argument of the existentialist anti-metaphysical a a From by logical discrepancy significant ambiguity. stating a moral it shifts to warning against danger. No metaphysical

54 scheme of

Helmut

Kuhn

is of the concrete indi thought capable including is the basic contention. It is followed up negative to make the suggestion that in the attempt the by impossible the individual uses (and here the shift occurs) possible thought as a He runs away from his selfhood as he is subterfuge. generally reason is inclined to do, and the existentialist critique of designed as to to him up short and it were, into his own force him, bring a means thus becomes the presence. Existential analysis by which vidual?this from the of a sham existence superficiality to authentic selfhood But (Uneigentlichkeit) (Eigentlichkeit). how is that possible, we must ask, unless reason (the which faculty enables us to criticize for the reason) has that vital importance concrete it is divested individual of which the existentialist by Here we have another evidence of the negations? "parasitical" as a way in Existenz element The idea of philosophy. philosophy of life, denied in survives. actually principle, individual is recalled III. individual in a stay suspended individual the idea of the concrete himself reminds into a position which one of the of Kirillov in Dostoevski's The Possessed: plight "We need God and so he must exist?but I know He doesn't and can't." The conclusion arrived at is an intolerable impasse. one as On the hand, the existing individual is pictured relentlessly in his demand upon short of a total exacting meaning. Nothing fulfillment will do for him, and to go back on this demand (a common this renunciation involves loss of is) per thing though in sham existence. On the other hand, reason's claim sonality to discover so to abide is void. How is it by meaning possible a contradiction? glaring to impossible With void. metaphysical maneuvers existentialist It is let the his pain we the existentialist in self-loss, replies. Not only to ourselves faithfulness abide by the bankruptcy of logic but we should dwell in it the d?b?cle of our upon it and recognize existence. The breakdown of reason is to induce in us a crucial called crisis. In crisis the negative move of existen experience tialist thought die core of individual existence. Through pierces of We are free to recoil from this contradiction only should on

Existentialism

and Metaphysics

55

the individual actually experiences Nothingness, (Angst) anxiety total indeter his freedom?the and at the same time discovers And he is confronted. with which of sheer possibility minacy himself as free he can "choose himself.' virtue of discovering by self-choice?form three concepts?anxiety, These freedom, to the a of crisis. Existentialist of pattern point despair sharpened as a both to induce this is designed enterprise practical analysis denial which crisis and bring it to a happy issue. The experienced an affirmation?the dialectical mind for the is despair prepares are advanced, the the for the sake of which rebound negations initial affirmation of that into of emergence meaning plenitude in 'the idea of the existing individual. Existenz is which enveloped as a be described commentary philosophical might philosophy on the one must that lose his life to save it. (St. Luke, 9:24). saying of some is to become it The nothing which posits productive as to how (the anxiety becomes question productive is deadlock which of theoretical of the the resolution question to a of roads. in crisis) brings existentialists involved parting and those who follow him think of this resolution Kierkegaard as a discon and sudden act, entirely unaccountable rationally tinuous in relation to the critical process of reasoning, preceding a miraculous or wrongly, they identify the existen leap. Rightly and conversion, the crisis of sin, repentance, tialist crisis with with the action of deadlock God's the resolution of the grace, so in becomes faith. Philosophy and the leap lands them Christian a to a from metaphysics, and reason's divorced preamble theology out of the way. Karl in consists itself chief business clearing remains close thought, secularizing Jaspers, while Kierkegaard's to the intui the Danish master. The of transcendent inspiration in the situation the mind flashes upon of crisis tion which to to ra not amenable is, according (Grenzsituation) Jaspers, tional verification. Martin strikes out in a different Heidegger so does Jean-Paul Sartre. Only with reference of a thinkers can we metaphysical theory speak Instead of disrupting the continuity meontology. to is (which develop anxiety "leap" they try and Goodness) love is to the identity of Being direction, to these and two thing. The

or of Nothing of analysis by a as to Nothing into an or can

56

Helmut

Kuhn

With this end in view Edmund of ontological interpretation. is put in the service of existentialist Husserl's phenomenology desir willing, (thinking, perceiving, can We consciousness of ing, feeling) invariably something. same is true of not think without and the something, thinking all other conscious is what Husserl, This following operations. as the "intentional" of Franz Brentano's, identifies suggestions to intend structure of the mind. It is characteristic of the mind is are not the other than itself, to be with objects which something sense we not. to it is towards what In this transcend itself mind, that term may also speak of the mind's "transcendence," reducing to its literal externalizes To itself say that the mind meaning. this lan is another way of putting the matter, and in adopting to remember that the "external" and guage it is well expressions in relation to the unique "internal" have their primary meaning structure and that their more restricted of mental operations from derives this spatial meaning origin. and Sartre are to be credited with having restored Heidegger to its authentic the great principle of intentionality significance own later in the M?dita in Husserl's which, writings (especially this tions Cart?siennes), had become obscured. Used aright serves to confirm the truth of realism. principle metaphysical to the sense that it orders or The mind is not reality in prior In no sense is it a creative or moulds into a world. impressions the existence All mental formative activity presupposes principle. of real objects the mind and to be "intended" "outside" subsisting are real in the same sense in and these objects basically by it, itself as real. which the and mind thinking perceiving perceives no to the So there is of the conditioning one-way relationship or conditioned but reciprocity and metaphysical circularity, in the sense that it follows and is bound to be circular thought reveals a circularity in the structure of Being. Real things do not our to be reflected them but it is their just happen thinking by not inmost nature to be thinkable. Likewise, just thinking does a to be associated with real, psychological something happen an event which in turn is bound up with organized human body, occurrence an nature and the aware it is its inmost actual but by ness of this occurrence, two most intimate and insep in the the interpretation. or consciousness Mind

Existentialism arable

and Metaphysics

01

we call real in this circle of unity. Everything belongs thinkable existents and existents which, in thinking other existents, are aware of themselves as what we call existing. Furthermore,
unreal, e.g., dream images or mathematical constructs, are only

onto so, i.e., in relation to reality as circumscribed relatively by a not is dialectical construction logical circularity. This circularity but a concrete of all concreteness, datum, in fact, the condition the situation in which are made and to which all our discoveries even the most technical and theorems, highly say, of specialized nuclear refer?the of datum man-with-other physics, primary
men-in-the-world.

of man-with-men-in-the-world is all more meaning within which specialized and restricted receive their proper scope and relevance. meanings To discover the truth of a i.e., to reveal what something, thing means to it context. within that This really is place properly to or transcendent truths as, for applies also supernatural example, the concept of eternal beatitude. con It is meaningful only if to which ceived as a the fundamental "man-in situation reality as to its fulfilment. The truth the-world" points expressed by these assertions is in no need of in the in which the way discovery second law of to be discovered. needs Before thermo-dynamics we discover this law we are so in utterly ignorant of it. Not matters of we call the fundamental What situation metaphysics. is the field of mental vision of every continually within intelligent in the world. it is in that mar being, living Generally perceived fashion which is sufficient for the business ginal and inarticulate of living. At the same time it is and concealed readily distorted to one or the other attention by intellectual aspect of reality. in both of articulation is, therefore, Discovery metaphysics familiar truths and recovery of lost ones. Measured truth Cartesian by this standard of metaphysical and idealism errs in two In the first post-Cartesian ways. place, instead of context ex the of concrete interpreting Being within in the horizon of the fundamental datum "man-in i.e., perience, it assimilates it to one the-world," type of inner particular status of those inaminate the existence?to worldly objects which we can and use at will das in handle, (res, Vorhandene, inspect, In second the mind is language). Heidegger's place, interpreted the ultimate horizon of

The

fundamental

situation

58 with

Helmut

Kuhn r?le as a out ideae is for and

on its a one-sided emphasis and over against a world of whereas its nature res, reflecting This neglected. physicalist-idealist as to how the vexatious puzzle side
versa.

objects, as an existent distortion can mind

spectator placed as the locus of is

in the world

responsible affect bodies

vice

and world of concrete experience conceptions and with the of realism) (which metaphysical imply principle takes a long step his of Cartesian physicalism Heidegger critique towards the recovery of fundamental truth, and metaphysical of in that respect his work, in difference of the enormous spite with that of Whitehead. But in order bears approach, comparison to become fruitful the idea of man-in-the-world metaphysically as the basic datum in the light of the requires interpretation as described human affirmation." The hypothesis "ontological man as determined concrete which is that being perspective by seen an as must be absolute related to (divine) per analogously structure of for which the spective reality is revealed meaningful as it is in other words, distinction for which the human itself, by to us does not between intrinsic rationality and intelligibility the human is to be interpreted apply. Furthermore perspective as on the move at an infinite towards assimilation, being though move to "existential" the absolute this distance, being perspective, With his
in character, i.e. involving man as a concrete whole. This is

another way of that the existential idea of love-inspired saying to hold the as a way of is theoria life) required (philosophy at this scheme But juncture, Heidegger, metaphysical together. as he is to committed breaks away from the negation, ontological and Sartre in his own straight path of metaphysical enquiry, same in the direction. way follows is an existential mode of (man's) being-in-the "Knowledge formulates cit. world," Heidegger (op. p. 61). But this admirable a to statement of theoria as a gazing leads him disparagement we remove or even from the at, at," things which "gaping the sake of an aimless inspec relevance of for sphere practical For theoria he substitutes tion, i.e., out of curiosity (pp. 170-173). to as the affective an awareness animated by anxiety response an we For he holds that gain through Nothing Nothingness. of non of Being. "It is the permanent possibility understanding

Existentialism outside us and Sartre

and Metaphysics

59

con our in us, that conditions questions asserts (op. cit. p. 40). Being," on on based interpretation by Heidegger ontological so a as a has far remained fragment. premise tological negation and it is couched In addition in a lan it is of great complexity, an excessive in of confidence the obscured wisdom guage by native tongue. As we move in this forceful the writer's of sphere and untranslatable voiced the suspicion, neologisms repeatedly the in elements existential of of before, presence parasitical us with renewed There is, for upon thought grows strength. con on idea which man's his the essential of instance, guiltiness to do science in this case, has nothing informs him. But guilt, a voice that warns us of our nor is conscience with transgression own is in the of meontology, Guiltiness, language wrongdoing. another for the which (Nichtigkeit) per expression nothingness meates human existence. Man's of all that he is exclusion being but by is not, a is to be redeemed not guilt which by repentance an towards annihilation. His existence is existing essentially Being, cerning The
death.

More than the rather violent fusion interesting philosophically of Kierkegaard's crisis with Nietzsche's affirma of psychology tion of the terrestrial is the simple but ingenious of life finality device which It consists in underlies construction. Heidegger's in the of concept intentionality interpreting phenomenological as the idea of anxiety. Consciousness light of the Kierkegaardian or "transcendent" is consciousness "intentional" of something. so Dasein characterizes man), (the mode of being which Heideg a movement this is transcendence, ger interprets away essentially from itself and the itself with itself, a staying outside beyond own an a is it its and of itself world; possibilities, outrunning a of itself into is from it what continual not, projection flight care (Sorge), a word itself. The Dasein of is that admirably Being serves the because of its of meaning, analyst's purpose duality On the one hand it expresses the active concern for and attach ment to the one cares. On the other hand, it object for which a reflexive the idea of a disquieted backwards conveys meaning, own to one's and with the reference latter sense self, glance upon we or of a of "careworn" care." The world speak "consuming then appears as a unified and structured manifold screens of behind

60 which ner the self in anxiety

Helmut

Kuhn itself. In this man

of the self. By unmasking analysis ontological is forced the individual the rise of Being out of Nothing tracing in a and thus brought with Nothingness into confrontation posi himself. He sees tion to actualize authentic selfhood by choosing it for and recognizes the surface aspects of the world through self onto it is: the of the anguished what deceptive projection Nothingness. as onto (Entwurf) into idealism. relapse Heidegger logical key-concept The parallel device used by Sartre consists in dialectically letting of the ego as the locus of non-Being the "by-itself" (le pour-so?) of the object. the "in-itself" be pitted (P?tre-en-soi) against him he rather than Heidegger But by so following Hegel lays the self open to the same objection. He also endangers principle is at the basis of his construction. of realism which to under the world, must in understanding try Philosophy, Existenz stand itself as part of the world process. philosophy as an insists on looking upon the philosophical process rightly concerns of the one which the whole personality undertaking to an our attention who engages in it. It is also right in calling con not is It in this process. element of discontinuity wholly ideas of a the is tinuous in its theoretical why aspect, and this It is must be invoked. abitrium and of rational faith primum crisis even less so under field where its aspect?the practical crisis of sin and repentance? in the full sense of the word?the has its proper place. By using the idea of anguished projection seems to

seeks shelter an becomes

against

HELMUT KUHN.

Emory

University,

Ga.