2.

Chemical Context of Life Compound is a substance that consists of 2 or more elements 25 elements are essential for life o Major elements C, H, O, P, K, I, N, S o Minor elements Fe, Mg, Mn 4 elements Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen make up 96% of living matter Most of the remaining 4% -- phosphorous, sulfur, calcium, and potassium Trace elements are required by an organism but only in minute quantities o Some trace elements, like iron, are required by all organisms o Iodine deficiency causes thyroid gland to grow (i.e. goiter) o Serpentine contains toxic elements such as chromium, nickel, and cobalt Atomic structure: o 1 dalton = mass of a neutron or proton o Mass of an electron = 1/2000 the mass of proton or neutron, negligible Bohr model atom with electrons orbiting a positively-charged nucleus o Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a set size and energy. o The energy of the orbit is related to its size. The lowest energy is found in the smallest orbit. o Radiation is absorbed or emitted when an electron moves from one orbit to another. o Violates Heisenberg principle (i.e. electrons dont have a known radius/orbit) Electron structure: o Electrons have potential energy based on their position relative to the nucleus Electrons are attracted to positively charged nucleus The farther the electrons, the more potential energy they have o Different states of potential energy electrons can have are called electron shells 1st shell, closest to the nucleus, has lowest potential energy o Atomic chemical behavior is determined by electron configuration o 1st electron shell can only hold 2 electrons o 2nd electron shell can hold up to 8 electrons o Chemical behavior can also depend on valence shell o Atoms with the same number of valence electrons have similar chemical behaviors o Orbital is space where an electron is found 90% of the time Each orbital holds a max of 2 electrons Chemical bonding o Strongest chemical bonds are covalent bonds and ionic bonds o Covalent bonds 2 atoms share a pair of valence electrons o Molecules 2 or more atoms held together by covalent bonds

o Valence Every atom has a characteristic total number of covalent bonds that it can
form, equal to the number of unpaired electrons in the outermost shell

o Electronegativity attraction of an atom for the shared electrons of a covalent bonds o Nonpolar covalent bond electrons in covalent bond are shared equally Covalent bonds between 2 atoms of the same element is always nonpolar Covalent bonds between atoms of similar electronegativities is also nonpolar o Polar covalent bond 2 atoms that differ in electronegativity, they dont share electrons equally Weak chemical bonds o Hydrogen bonds hydrogen atom thats already bonded is attracted to another electronegative atom Usually HH, HO, HN Polar covalent bond leaves H with partial positive charge and other atom with a partial negative charge o Van der Waals Molecules or atoms in close proximity can be attracted by fleeting
charge differences

Molecules function is related to its shape o Molecule shape is determined by position of electron orbitals Covalent bonds rearrange orbitals (hybridization) o Atoms with s and p orbitals that covalent bond hybridizes the orbitals to 4 orbitals with a tetrahedral shape o Molecules with similar shape can have similar biological effects Chemical reactions o Chemical reactions chemical bonds are broken and reformed