1.

Project Report / "USEFUL PLANTS & ANIMALS"

INTRODUCTION

Essay

We have to live in harmony with our surroundings. We are helped by several animals and plants around as and in turn, we must understand and fulfill their requirements. It is thus very essential for us to differentiate between useful and harmful plants and animals. In this project we will study about various plants and animals which are useful to us and also about those that cause us harm.

USEFUL PLANTS: DEFINITION: A large number of plants and their products are used for the well being of mankind. They provide us with food, clothing and shelter. They also provide raw materials for many industrial products. Numerous plants have medicinal properties. Ornamental plants add to beauty. Many of the useful plants occur in nature in forests and a good number of them are cultivated for food and industry. In general, the useful plants can be grouped into the following categories:

1.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Food Producing
Fiber Yielding Timber Yielding Medicinal Ornamental Plants Other Useful Plants. The early nomadic men gathered wild plants and hunted animals for their food. As

FOOD PRODUCING PLANTS : they began settling down in particular areas, they started collecting seeds and planting them. This marked the beginning of agriculture. The following are some of the major food plants cultivated in India: Cereals, pulses, vegetables and fruits.

All cereals are rich in carbohydrates, proteins and vitamins A, B and C. They are cultivated as annual crops. Rice, wheat and maize are the major cereals while Jowar and Bajra are millets. Cereal cultivation in India occupies about 60% of the total land under cultivated. PULSES : The seeds of some plants are used as food. These seeds are known as pulses and they contain proteins in large amounts in addition to carbohydrates and vitamins. VEGETABLES : Vegetables constitute an important part of the daily diet. There are variety of plants whose edible parts are caten raw or are cooked for preparing delicious dishes. The vegetables include roots, leaves, flowers and even unripe fruits. The vegetables are very important because they contain minerals salts and vitamins. FRUITS : In economic botany, the term fruit is commonly used for only those which are eaten without cooking. A large number of plants are cultivated in India for their fruits. Some, like mangoes and bananas, are even exported. Other fruits common in India are guava, papaya, pineapple, orange, pear, custard - apple, grapes, litchi, etc. They provide not only carbohydrates but also vitamins. EDIBLE OILS : We get oils which are used as cooking media from plants. Oils are changed into fats in our bodies. Groundnut oil, mustard oil, sunflower oil, cottonseed oil, and coconut oil are some of the commonly used oils. Oils are also utilized for the manufacture of soaps. SPICES : The edible materials which are used more for their aromatic flavor than for their food value are known as spices. Spices are generally derived from different parts of the plants, like shoots, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, etc. Ginger, turmeric, cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, saffron, chilies (red and green peppers), black pepper, fennel, coriander, cumin, mustard seeds are commonly used as spices and condiments. FIBER YIELDING PLANTS : The fiber yielding plants are second only to the food yielding plants in importance. Man has been dependent on these plants for his clothing and for a variety of other needs from times immemorial.

TIMBER YIELDING PLANTS :

All trees can yield wood which can be used as fuel when they are dried MEDICINAL PLANTS : The most important of all the plant products used as medicines are antibiotics. Antibiotics are substances produced by micro-organisms like fungi and bacteria e.g., penicillin produced penicillium. ORNAMENTAL PLANTS : Flowering plants that are grown in private and public gardens for their beauty are called ornamental plants. Rose, magnolia, bougainvillea, zinnia, balsam, lily, money plant and many other plants are grown for their beautiful flowers. OTHER USEFUL PLANTS : Gum : Gums are the familiar exudates of the plants of the dry region. Resins : Resins occur as secretion in special ducts and canals in different parts of the plants. Tannins : Tannins are found in almost all the plants but only some plants contain substantial amount. Rubber : Rubber which we use in the manufacture of tiers, tubes, raincoats, belts, sports goods, etc. Perfumes : Perfumes are sweet smelling oils extracted or obtained from flowers like rose, jasmine, lavender, champa, saffron etc. HARMFUL PLANTS : Most of flowering plants are cultivated and used by man for his benefit. But many are known to produce poison. Poison can be described as a substance which is injurious to health or which can destroy life. White Cedar is a small neem-like tree with attractive yellow fruits. These are lethal if taken by children and cause vomiting, diarrhea and difficulty in breathing in adults. Datura poison, when administered in small doses over a long period can act as obtained from poppy seeds in mild doses serves as a sedative but an overdose can cause death. USEFUL ANIMALS DEFINITION : Since the beginning of human civilization man has been domesticating animals to use them for his own work and food. But unlike plants, the number of useful animals is not very large. Useful animals play a significant role in the welfare of mankind. We keep

certain animals not only as pets but also to serve some specific purposes. e.g. hens for eggs and cows for milk, etc. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY : The study of all the aspects of rearing the livestock is collectively known as animal husbandry. In the rearing of animals, four factors have to be considered. They are : 1. 3. Breeding Weeding 2. 4. Feeding Heeding.

BREEDING : We want the animals with desired characters. The controlled multiplication of animals to maintain or improve their qualities is known as selective breeding. Man has been able to produce many breeds of different animals which meet his requirement. FEEDING : Food is essential for all living beings. When the young calves start taking solid food, they need to be given balanced diet in the farm to get healthy animals. The feed normally given in a cattle farm is a mixture of ordinary grasses and alfa-alfa (a legume) with clover (also a legume rich in protein). WEEDING : When some animals of the livestock develop certain undesirable qualities, they have to be eliminated in order to prevent the spreading of these qualities to the other animals and the next generations. Also it is uneconomical to house and feed these animals. This elimination is known as weeding. HEEDING: Heeding means the proper care and management of animals. Care must be taken to maintain the health of the livestock. Some very simple practices are followed by farmers on caring their animals. These are (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Providing the animals food regularly and properly. Cleaning out their drinking trough and putting in clean water. Erecting the sheds away from human habitations to maintain sanitary conditions and cleaning the sheds regularly. Cleaning the animals regularly. SMALLER ANIMALS :

Many smaller animals are useful to us. Goat, pig, chicken and fish are used as food. Sheep are used for fur and wool. The other kinds are small insects like lac insect, silkworm and the honeybee. They produce certain materials at some stage of their life-cycle which are of great economic importance to man. Because of this, these insects are reared on a large scale. SHEEP AND GOAT : Sheep and goat are reared for their wool, milk, fur and hide. They move about in groups known as 'flacks' and the reared in dry lands with low rainfall. Pigs : Pigs are domesticated for their meat (pork) and hide. The management and breeding of pigs are together known as piggery. The shelters for pigs called sties are made of straw and bamboo or wood. CHICKEN (POULTRY) : Domestication of a group of birds (chicken, geese, turkey and duck) for the purpose of obtaining eggs and meat from them, is known as poultry farming. The domestic fowls can be identified as males and females on the basis of certain external characteristics. The cocks (male) have a plumped tail, a comb and wattles on the head. FISH : Rearing and managing of fish for large scale production is known as pisciculture (Pisces means fish). The Indian subcontinent is surrounded on three sides by water and the coastal areas provide a rich haul of fish. They are a major source of animal protein. Now-a-days fish and other aquatic animals are cultivated on an industrial scale in large water reservoirs. LEATHER : Skins of many animals are used for making leather. The principal animals in leather industry are goats, sheep, cows, buffaloes, lamb, snakes, lizards, tigers, crocodiles, varanus, etc. The skin of cow is allied kips and that of the buffaloes as buffs. FUR : Furs are the soft 'down' dense growth of fibres (small hairs) covering the skin of certain animals (mammals). Valuable furs are obtained from those regions where the winter temperature is low and the growth of the fur on animals is thick and luxuriant. LAC : Lac is a resin-like substance, secreted from the body of an insect called Trachardia lacca. Lac insects live on the twigs of certain plants like peepal, palas and ber. This secretion gets

stuck to the branches of the trees. The scrapping of the trees and processed to prepare shellac which is widely used in varnish, polish, printing ink, etc. Ivory : Elephant teeth are cut out and ivory products are made from them. Horns of animals are also used for making ornamental items. Pearls : Pearl is a white, highly shining globular concretion found within the shell of an oyster (a kind of shell fish). It forms as a natural process in the oyster when an irritant and gets into its shells. Pearl is used in making ornaments and is quite expensive. Now-a-days pearls are made in a large scale by culturing oysters in controlled conditions. Lime : Lime is made by burning shells of some moll uses since shells are essentially compounds of calcium. PHARMACEUTICALS : A number of drugs are prepared from the animals and animal products. Insulin is manufactured from the pancreas of cow and pig. Heparin and Vitamin B-Complex are prepared from the liver of animals. The Capsules used in pharmaceutical industries are made up of gelatin which is obtained by boiling the horns, hoofs, skin, tendons and bones of animals.

SOME HARMFUL ANIMALS :

There are certain animals and insects which cause a lot of harm to our health and also to our crops. Such animals and insects are known as pests. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Some insects, like grasshoppers, beetles and rice weevils, cause enormous damage to our A number of insects feed on flowers and fruits and they can spread viral infections. Caterpillars or larvae of many insects feed on the leaves on which they live. Certain mammals (rodents) like rats and rabbits eat up stored grains. Stored grains are also agricultural crops and thus affect their yield.

attacked by many kind of moths, caterpillars and beetle

2.Project Report on Drugs "DRUGS ADDICTION"

INTRODUCTION OF "DRUGS ADDICTION"

Addiction

Drug Addiction word is make by two words : (I) Drug (II) Addiction.

What is means Drug

Any substance, other than food, used in the prevention, diagnosis, all aviation or treatment of a disease is called a drug. A drug may also be defined as a chemical which, when taken in some way after the body function. Drug is also known as a medicine. Generally, the term drugs applied to any stimulating or depressing substance that can be habituating or addictive.

Meaning of Addiction
Addiction is the habitual, psychological and physiological dependence on a substance or practice. Which is beyond voluntary control. A person who is habituated to a substance or a practice, especially a harmful one, is called an addict.

Drugs Dependence
Drugs are prescribed by physicians for the prevention or treatment of diseases, or for increasing the physical and mental performance and are withdrawn as soon as the desired effect is achieved. Repeated use of certain drugs on a periodic or continuous basis may make the body dependence. Such drugs are called psychotropic rugs. They act on the brain and alter behaviour, consciousness and capacity of perception. Hence, they are also termed mood-altering drugs. Some people start taking drugs without medical advise due to one reason or the other and become drugs dependent.

Classification of Drugs
There are a large number of drugs on which people become dependent. These are classifies into four major groups : sedatives and tranquillizers, opiate narcotics, stimulatants and hallucinogens. Type of Drug Examples Effect Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines Depress calmness, relaxation, drowsiness.
2. Opiate Narcotics Opium, Morphine, codeine, Heroin Amphetamines, Caffeine, Cocaine excitement. 4. Hallucinogens LSQ, Mescalin, psilocybin, Ganja, chares, Hashish. Alter thoughts, feeling and perceptions. Suppress brain activity relaxed pain. Make a person more alert and active, cause

1. Sedatives and Tranquillizers CNS activity give feeling of

3. Stimulants wakeful,

Combinations of Drugs and Alcohol : Some addicts use mixtures of drugs to have immediate kid or charge. Simultaneous use of drug and alcohol may produce dangerous effects, including death. When barbiturates and alcohol are taken together, each doubles the effect of the other. A mixture of cocaine and heroin called speed ball, gives spontaneous kick of cocaine and prolonged pleasure of heroin. Combination Effect 1. Alcohol + Barbiturates Markedly increased depressant effect. 2. Alcohol + Antihistamines Marked drowsiness 3. Alcohol + Valium Dramatically increases sedative effect. 4. Alcohol + Marijuana or Hashish Decreased coordination increased reaction time impaired judgement. 5. Alcohol + Aspirin Increased changes of damage to gastric mucosa.

How drug addiction Begins ? There are many factors that lead people to drug addiction. 1. Curiosity : Frequent references to drugs by public media create curiosity for having a personal experience of the drugs. 2. Friends pressure : Frequent appreciation of drug experience by friends allures others to start the use of drugs. 3. Frustration and Depression : Some people start taking drugs to get relief from frustration and depression. 4. Desire for More Work : Students sometimes take drugs to keep awake the whole night to prepare for examination. It is not desirable as it may cause mental breakdown. 5. Looking for a Different World : A wrong notion that the drugs open up a new world tempts some young octers to start taking-drugs. 6. Relief from Pain : A prolonged use of pain-relieving drugs with physicians advise at times leads to addiction. 7. Family History : Children may take to drugs by seeing their elders in the family. 8. Excitement and Adventure : The young take to drugs to satisfy their instinct for excitement and adventure.

Social Disease - Smoking, Drinking and Use of Drugs

Smoking and drinking and use of drugs frequently or regularly are social diseases. They adversely affect the health of the addicts and the society. Young people take to these habits for fun, show off or curiosity, as an adventure or feeling of freedom, or as a gesture of defiance against the elders who themselves indulge in these activities but check the youngsters. Other factors that make people take to these vices are inability to face problems of life indifference shown by members of the family, and encouragement or pressure by friends. Temporary escape from the life problems and mental relaxation felt on taking the drugs in the beginning increase

persons interest in them. Soon they become habitual and find in difficult to leave. The daily dose to get the desired effect increases with time. As in other countries, the menace of drug addiction is spreading in India also. A large number of our young men and women have taken to intoxicants. About 87.6 per cent drug addicts are between the ages of 14 and 25 years.

Tobacco
Sources : It is a native of South Africa, where the Red Indian first started smoking. Now the tobacco plant has spread the world over. It has large, quote to lanceloate leaves and terminal clusters of tubular, white or pink flowers. Modes of Use : Tobacco is used for smoking, chewing and snuffing. Its main stimulating component is poisonous volatile alkaid nicotine, which causes addiction. Nicotine synthesis occurs in the roots of the plant but it is stored in the leaves. The leaves contain 2 to 8% nicotine. Inhaling tobacco smoke from cigars, cigarettes, biddies, pipes and hubble-bubble is called smoking. Cigar is a roll of tobacco leaf. Cigarette is cut tobacco wrapped in paper. Bidi is tobacco wrapped. In a piece of leaf. Tobacco smoke is drawn directly from pipe and through water is hubble-bubble. Smoking may give some temporary relief to the strained nerves but in the long run it proves a dangerous health hazard. The quantity of nicotine contained in one cigar may prove fatal if injected intravenously into a person. When smoked only 10% of the smoke is inhaled. Hence, no immediate ill effect is observed. Smokers may develop a physiological craving for nicotine and then they cannot give up smoking. Effect of Nicotine : Nicotine is a low concentration. (i) Stimulates conduction of nerve impulses. (ii) Relaxes the muscles. (iii) Releases adrenaline, increasing heart beat rate and pressure. (iv) Increased blood pressure due to smoking chances the risk of heart diseases.

(v) Retards foetal growth in expecting mothers and (vi) Causes tobacco addiction. High concentration of nicotine paralyses nerve cells. Other Harmful components of Tobacco Smoke : Besides the poisonous nicotine, the tobacco smoke contains carbon-monoxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and tar. Other Effects : (i) Smoking effects economy : A smoker not only waste money, but also runs risk of burns and fires. (ii) Smoking mars personality : Teeth may become stained. Lips may get discoloured and breath becomes foul. A person with a cigarette hanging from the mouth look odd. (iii) Smoking is annoying to others : Cigarette smoke is quite annoying to non-smokers. It may prove even more harmful to them. A smoker should avoid smoking. When in the company of non smokers. A smoker makes the person nearby persons passive smokers through inhaling smoke released by him.

Alcohol
Sources : Ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, flammable, colourness liquid having a penetrating odour and burning taste. It is one of the products of the distillation of fermented grains, fruit juices and starches with the help of yeast enzymes. It is the principal constituent and the in toxicating principle of wines. Modes of Use : Alcohol is taken in low concentration, as the beer, toddy and wine and in relatively high concentration as arrack, brandy, whisky, rum, gin, vodka etc.

Addition : Addition to alcohol is called alcoholism. Alcoholics are found in all society section of society. Alcohol causes intoxication and thus, acts as a poison. They drinkers begin with small doses, but may of them soon start consuming large doses and become addicts. By the time they realize that drinking in adversely affecting them, it is too late to give it up.

Why People Take to Drinking : The drinkers offer one or more of the following reasons for starting drinking. (i) Social pressure (ii) desire for excitement (iii) feeling of independence (iv) Liking of taste (v) desire to escape from such realities of life as disappointments and failures and (vi) desire to offset the hardships and monotony of daily life. What Happens when Alcohol : Alcohol is quickly absorbed in the stomach and upper part of small intestine and reaches all the tissues in minutes. Its oxidation starts at once and a large amount of heat in produced. Since heat is not needed in the body, it is taken up by the blood and carried to the skin for dissipation. Since the receptors of heat are located in the skin, the rush of blood to the skin gives a false impression of warmth in the body. The blood supply of internal organs is greatly reduced resulting in fall of temperature in them. Energy released by alcohol is not used in any life process. Rather the energy derived from food is used up in ridding the body of excess heat. Is Alcohol A Stimulant :

Many people take alcohol for stimulation. Actually alcohol is a depressant, a substance which dulls the senses. It reduces the efficiency of every tissue the body. Any feeling of lift a person may claim to feel is a mistaken impression or an attempt to justify the act in his own mind.

3.Project Report on Population Explosion

A population consist of all the individuals of the same species occupying a Particular geographical area at a given time. It ranks subordinate to species. A species may have a single population or many populations confined to distinct area. The present population of our country is 102.7 billions. In the present, the population of our country is increasing. It is very dangerous and when our natural resources are going on decreasing. The main cause of high rate of growth rate is a widening gap between birth rate and death rate. The growing urban population created many problems for urban areas as well as rural areas. In urban areas: 1. It has led to the storage of food, raw materials and wide range of commodities. 2. It has led to pollution and environmental imbalance. In rural areas, the urban growing population has led to 1. To decrease in the forest lands and 2. Left baneful influence on the fertility of the soil. If we want to develop our country and want to raises the living standard of the people then we should reduced our birth rate. CENSUS Count of people of a country is called census. Census is an official numeration of population after every ten years in India, along with certain social and economic statistics. This not only helps us in knowing the total number of population but also the latest distribution of population, sex ratio, age composition, occupational structure and literacy of a particular country. AIM OF POPULATION STUDY: Population education aimed at making the students aware of 1. The consequences of uncontrolled population growth;

2. The advantage of a small family norm; 3. The growth, distribution and density of population; and 4. The relation of population to the standards of life. The scientific study of human population is called demography. It deals with three phenomena: 1. Change in population ,i.e. growth or decline. 2. Composition of the population, i.e. age group and sex ratio. 3. Distribution of population in space. IMPORTANCE OF POPULATION STUDY The significance of studying population lies mainly in estimating the total manpower available for production and total amount of goods and service required for their consumption. After this, the studying of population is very useful from various points of view:

1. By studying population, even after ten years, tell us the exact number of people in our country only by knowing the number of people living in our country. We can know where we are going and what steps we should take to avoid the coming catastrophe as a result of the unrestricted rise of population.
2. We can know the distribution of population in our country and where more emphasis is to be laid for the development and uplift of the area. 3.We can know the sex ratio in our country and take proper steps for the welfare of the weaker section of the society including both woman and girl-child. 4. We can know the age composition of the people and how much burden of the dependent population (children and old people) the working population has to bear.

5.We can know as to how many people are engaged in the primary, secondary and tertiary occupation and what steps we should take to bring about a change in occupational structure of our country. 6. It is only by studying population that we can know the level of literacy in our country and think what steps we should take to remove illiteracy from our country. 7. It is only by studying the data of our population, that we can know how many adolescents (people in the age group of 10 to 19) are there in our country and what special steps we can take to bring them up so that they may prove good citizens for the country. 8. It is by only studying population that we can chalk out our National Population Policy and think of measures both for containing the rise of our population and take desired methods for its welfare.

POPULATION DENSITY
Population density is the number of individuals per unit area or per unit volume at a given time. The distribution of human population is not uniform throughout the world only about onethird of the total land area is inhabited. Of the inhabited areas, some are thickly populated, others sparsely. This depends upon the availability of the requirements of life. About 56% of the total world population resides in Asia alone. Japan is the most thickly populated country and Australia is the most thinly populated. In India, Kerala is the most thickly populated state.

Increasing the Population in our Country

Year 1970 1980 1990 2000 2006 Population 700000000 800000000 880000000 980000000 1100000000 11.33% 9.20% 10.88 11.66% Increasing %age

CONSEQUENCES OF INCREASE IN POPULATION DENSITY Increase in population density creates many problems. Per captia income and availablity of natural resources such as water, land, minerals, fuel etc. decreases. All the basic necessities of life are adversely affected. These necessities include space, food, employment, education, medical aid, sanitation and essential goods. 1. SPACE: New towns and cities are coming up to accommodate the growing population. This has put a great strain on agriculture land and forests. Clearing of forests for habitation has caused new problems, particularly soil erosion and floods. 2. FOOD: Large families with moderate means are unable to provide adequate and balanced diet to the children. The later suffer from malnutrition and grow into less fit members of the society. 3. EMPLOYMENT: Rise in population has resulted in large scale unemployment. New employment schemes introduced by government have failed to absorb the fast growing numbers. 4. EDUCATION:---Increase in population has led to rush in educational institutions and to lowering of educational standards. A large family is unable to afford higher education to the children. 5. MEDICAL AID: --- Proper medical facilities are also beyond the reach of large families. State too is unable to look after the health of the ever growing population. 6. SANITATION:--- Rise in human population has caused pollution of

environment/water, air and land. This is seriously affecting the human health.

7. ESSENTIAL GOODS:--Increase in population leads to shortage of essential household goods and result in hike in their prices. The above factors have caused mental tension and rise in heart disease. Crowding leads violence. Violence often erupts at crowded music/drama concerts, sports events and in traffic jams.
FACTORS CONTROLLING POPULATION DENSITY

Three kinds of factors control human population density: --geographic, socioeconomic and demographic. 1. GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS:- These factors include climate, availability of natural resources and means of transportation. 1 CLIMATE: -The regions with favourable climate have a higher population density. Arctic and Antarctic regions are uninhabited by humans because they are extremely cold and unfit for agriculture. The desert areas are less populated due to hot, dry climate not conducive to agriculture. The tropical lands are well populated because their warm, moist climate is suitable for human beings as well as for agriculture. 2. AVAILABILITY OF NATURAL RESOURCES:-- the natural resources that effect population density include water, soil, fuel and minerals. a) WATER:--Human settlements are located near sources of water. Many cities are on the banks of river and lakes. b) SOIL (EDAPHIC FACTOR):-- The soils of river valleys are very fertile and most suitable for farming. This is the reason for high population density in the IndoGenetics plains and Indus valley. c) FUEL AND MINERALS:--Industrial cities have come up in localities where fuel and minerals have been found. Bokaro, Bhilai and Rourkela are some of such cities. 3. MEANS OF TRANSPORT:--Means of transport affect human population in two ways

a) They bring about redistribution and dispersal of population. People from one state migrate temporarily or permanently to other states or foreign countries for work. This practice may results in changes in population density or lead to new settlements. b) They enable people to live in localities far away from the sites of natural resources. The latter can be made available to human population anywhere by transport. 2. SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS:--Urbanisation and acquisition of land for public well fare are important socio-economic factor which change the pattern of population distribution, these factors create serious problems for mankind. 1. URBANISATION: People migrate from rural areas to cities because of better employment prospectus, educational facilities and has services. Increasing urbanisation has created a number of problems like environment, pollution, sanitation and sewage disposal, traffic problems, housing problems, disease, and mental health etc. 2. USE OF LAND FOR PUBLIC WELL FARE:--Use of agriculture land for roads, rail lines, canals, industries, educational institution, hospitals, offices, and houses etc. 3. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS:--The birth and death rates are the major factor that determine the population growth of a country. The birth rate is regwated in human socio-economic factors such as status of women, family composition, age of women of marriage etc. The death rate depends on public hygiene, nutritional status, type of employment, medical facilities etc. the birth and death rates vary from region to region and from time to time, depending upon environmental factors. FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION There are many factors, which put the effects on the population due to which our population increases. These are the factors such as birth rate, death rate, immigration, literacy, age structure, sex ratio and environmental factor.

1.BIRTH RATE:--It can be expressed as the number of birth per thousand human in the population per year. In the starting of 20th century the birth rate was 49.2 (per 1000) and it become 26.1 (per 1000) in the end of century. 2. DEATH RATE:--It can be expressed as the number of deaths per 1000 human in the population per year. Birth and death rate both are reduced but birth rate reduced very fastly. It is 42.6 (per 1000) in the starting of 20th century and after decreasing it become 8.7(per 1000) at the end of century. It is due to the protection from natural risk, better transport, storage facility and control of communicable disease etc. 3. IMMIGRATION:--Immigration is the entry of additional peoples into a population from outside. 4. LITERACY:--Literacy is the most important factor due to which our population increases because educated people can understand the importance of small family. In India, literacy rate increase from 5%(1901) to 65.35%(2001) in Kerala, the percentage of literacy is maximum from all states. It is 90%. There is a relation between illustration and growth of population where are literacy rate is minimum there population. 5. AGE STRUCTURE:--Age structure of population can divided into three parts: Below 15 years old child, 15-59 years old people and above 59 years old people, The group of 15-59 years old people is known as productive population and below 15 years old child and above 59 years old people are called dependent population. In 2001, the percentage of working population was 58.7% and dependent population was 41.3%. But still the percentage of dependent population was quite large and this large percentage of dependent population, especially children would naturally have deep repercussions on us. The standard of living would naturally fall and all would be spent by the working population on feeding themselves and their dependents. In such a case, very little would be left for education of children. There would be very little scope of saving for the rainy day. 6. SEX RATIO:-- The number of females per thousand males in the population is called sex ratio. According to the census of 2001, the sex ratio was 933 females to 1000 males. In our country, the sex ratio remained favorable to males except in

Kerala where in 2001 this ratio was 1058 females to 1000 males and in Pondicherry where the sex ratio was 1001 females to 1000 males. 7.ENVIRONENTAL FACTORS:--Food and shelter (space) are the most important environmental factors that effect the size and density of population. Population tends to increase so long as food and shelter are available. If shelter is scare, fewer individuals can be accommodated and the rest are expose to enemies and weather. Natural calamities such as drought, cloud bursts flood, fire, earthquake, volcanic eruption, and storms etc. may cause sudden change in the environment by destroying food and shelter. Adrastic change in the environment can destabilize or even exterminate a population.

REASON FOR INCREASE IN POPULATION

The main factors that contributed to the declined in death rate and the consequent rise in population are:-1. PROTECTION FROM NATURAL RISKS:-- Living in houses protected man from wild animal, heat, cold, rain, floods, and storms. Life in villages, towns, and cities provided further security. 2. ADVANCEMENT IN AGRICULTURE:--Improved agriculture techniques increased food output for rising population. 3. STORAGE FACILITIES:--Better storage facilities made food available all the year round. It also prevented or minimized loss by grain pests. 4. BETTER TRANSPORT:--Modern transport system rapidly carried food from surplus regions to sear city regions and eliminated famines. 5. GOVERNMENT EFFORTS:---Certain governmental measures such as public distribution system checking or hoarding, ensure food supply to all. 6. CONTROL OF DISEASE:--Control of communicable disease with antibiotics elimination of epidemics and sound public health measures reduce the death rate and increased the human population.

Deaths in developing countries are often due to respiratory and digestive tract infection particularly in infants. Such deaths are easily avoidable with the use of clean water and nutritious food and with basic education in hygiene. The only practicable and direct method of control population is to reduce the birth rate. This can be achieved by education and family planning. 1. EDUCATION:--People particularly those in reproductive age group, should be educated about the advantages of small family and consequent benefit to the nation as a whole. 2. FAMILY PLANNING:--Birth rate can be reduced by family planning measures, such as use of contraceptives and pills, sterilization and termination of pregnancy.

4.Project Report on Manures and Chemical fertilizers

Manures The deficiency of plant nutrients and organic matter in the soil is made up by adding manures and fertilizers to the soil of crop-fields.Both manures and fertilizers are major sources of nutrients of plants, so they are used in crop production. Besides water CO2 and sunlight plants required no. of elements for their growth. These elements are known as nutrient. Plants get their elements from the salt of these elements present in the soil. But after repeated cultivation of plants soil become poor in these elements. The substance added to the soil to make up the deficiency of the essential elements these by increasing the fertility of soil are called fertilizers. Qualities of Good Fertilizers 1. The elements present in good fertilizers must be easily available to plants. 2. Good fertilizers must be sufficiently soluble in water. 3. Good fertilizers should contain nothing injurious to plants. Theory of Chemical Fertilizers The majority of the chemical fertilizer whether simple or mixed are in organic compounds, the generally contain cation likes Ca2+, K+, NH4+ etc. and are soluble in water. Therefore, these can be identified from their aqueous solution by the regular systematic scheme used for qualitative mixture analysis.
Analysis of Chemical Fertilizers

All the plants need nutrients for their growth but each plant may not require the same kinds, to meet the requirement of particular crop we first need to analyse the soil and then select the fertilizer. This proper selection of fertilizer is possible if we know the cation and anion present in a particular fertilizer. The analysis means identification of acid and basic radicals present in fertilizers. In general, a chemical fertilizer may contain :

Anions : Cl, NO3, SO42, PO43 etc. Cations : Ca2+, K+, NH4+ etc.
Manures or natural fertilizers

Manures are natural fertilizers. They are bulky sources of organic matter which supply nutrients in small quantities but organic matter in large quantities. Manures include farmyard manure (FYM), compost, green manures, vermicompost, etc.
Advantages of Manures :

Manures affect the soil in following three ways : (i) The manures enrich the soil with nutrients. They replenish the general deficiency of nutrients in the soil. Since manures contain nutrients in small quantities, they are needed to be applied in large quantities. (ii) The manures add organic matter (called humus) to the soil which restores the soil texture for better retention of water and for aeration of soil. For example, organic matter present in the manures increases the water holding capacity in sandy soils and drainage in clayey soil. (iii) The organic matter of manures provide food for the soil organisms (decomposers such as bacteria, fungi, etc.) which help in making nutrients available to plants. Thus, organic matter help to improve the physical properties of soil, reduce soil erosion, increase the moisture holding capacity of soil and above all these advantages, they are low cost nutrient carriers.
Disadvantages of Manures :

Manures are bulky with low nutrient content. The nutrients of manures are released slowly, not keeping pace with the high and rapid demand of nutrients by improved high-yielding hybrid varieties of crops. Being bulky and voluminous, they are inconvenient to handle, store and transport. Moreover, a manure is not nutrient specific and hence it is not much useful when a particular nutrient is required in the soil for a particular crop.
Types of Nutrient

1. Farmyard Manure (FYM) : FYM is the decomposed mixture of cattle excreta (dung) and urine along with litter (i.e., bedding material used in night under cattles) and left over organic matter such as roughage or fodder. These waste materials are collected daily from the cattle shed and stored in a pit for decomposition by the microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc.). FYM contains nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Thus, a well decomposed farmyard manure contains about 0.5 percent nitrogen (N), 0.2 percent phosphorus pentaoxide (P2O5) and 0.5 percent potassium monoxide (K2O). 2. Compost : Compost is prepared from farm and town refuge such as vegetable and animal refuse (e.g., excreta of domestic animals such as cattle, goat, sheep, horse, donkey, camel, dogs, cats, etc.), faecal matter of human beings, sewage waste (Box 7-2), weeds, crop stubble, straw, rice, hulls, forest litter, etc. Composting is a biological process in which both aerobic (organisms requiring the presence of oxygen for the respiration) and anaerobic (organisms, in which respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen) microorganisms decompose the organic matter. It takes about 3 to 6 months for decomposition of organic refuse. The nutrient contents of farm compost and town compost are not the same. For example, farm compost generally contains about 0.5 percent nitrogen (N), 0.15 percent phosphorus pentaoxide (P 2O5) and 0.5 percent potassium monoxide (K2O), whereas compost prepared from town refuse (garbage and night soil) contains about 1.4 percent nitrogen (N), 1.0 percent phosphorus pentaoxide (P2O5) and 1.4 percent potassium monoxide (K2O).
Method of Preparing Compost :

For the preparation of compost, a trench of suitable size 4 to 5 m. long, 1.5 to 1.8 m. broad and 1.0 to 1.8 m. deep in dug. A layer of well-mixed refuse of about 30 cm. thickness is spread in the trench. This layer is well moistened by slurry (water paste) of cattle dung and water or earch and water. A second layer of mixed refuse is spread in trench till the heap rises to a height of 45 to 60 cm. above ground level. The top of this heap is then covered with a thin layer of mois earth. After three months, the partially decomposed biomass is taken out of the trench and collected in conical heap. This heap is moistened if necessary and covered with earth. After another one or two months, the compost is ready for use in the field. 3. Green Manuring : The practice of green manuring includes growing, turning or ploughing and mixing of green crops with soil to improve physical structure and soil fertility. Green manures

may include both leguminous and non-leguminous plants, e.g., Sannhemp (Crotalaria juncea), Egyption clover (Berseem, Trifolium alexandrium), Sesbania or Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) and cluster bean or Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba). These plants are used by Indian farmers to add nitrogen and organic matter to the soil for the improvement of crop yield. The green manure crops are grown in the field for about 6 to 8 weeks and turned into field in the tender stage, i.e., at flowering stage. These crops remain buried for about one to two months. During this period, plants should be completely decomposed before sowing of next crop. Generally the crops which require high nutrient input, are raised in the green manured field. Such crops are rice, maize, sugarcane, cotton, wheat, etc.
Artificial Fertilizers or Chemical Fertilizers

Fertilizers are the sources of plant nutrients, manufactured commercially from chemicals. They contain much higher amount of nutrients in comparison to the manures and are, therefore, used in very small quantities. These fertilizers may supply one or more nutrients. Chemically they may be inorganic compounds (e.g., ammonium sulphate) or organic compounds (e.g. urea). On the basis of the availability of nutrients from them, fertilizers are divided into following four groups : 1. Nitrogenous Fertilizers : These fertilizers supply the macronutrient nitrogen. Examples of nitrogenous fertilizers are the following : (i) Urea, CO (NH2)2 ; (ii) Ammonium Sulphate, (NH4)2 SO4 ; (iii) Calcium ammonium nitrate ; (iv) Sodium nitrate, Na NO3 ; (v) Ammonium Nitrate, NH4NO3 ; 2. Phosphatic Fertilizers : They are the source of the macronutrient phosphorus. Examples of phosphatic fertilizers are the following : (i) Single Superphosphate ;

(ii) Triple Superphosphate ; (iii) Dicalcium phosphate. 3. Potassic Fertilizers : These fertilizers supply the potassium which is one of the essential macronutrient to the plants. Examples of potassic fertilizers are the following : (i) Muriate of potash or potassium chloride, KCl ; (ii) Potassium Sulphate, K2SO4 ; (iii) Potassium nitrate, KNO3 ; 4. Complex Fertilizers : When a fertilizer contains at least two or more nutrients (N, P 2O5 and K2O), it is called Complex Fertilizers. Examples of complex fertilizers are the following : (i) Nitrophosphate ; (ii) Ammonium phosphate ; (iii) Urea ammonium phosphate. Modern agriculture depends greatly on the chemical fertilizers. Indeed high doses of these chemicals greatly increase crop yield but then chemicals get washed off through irrigation, rainfalt as drainage and reach rivers, lakes, streams and pollute them (by causing toxicity, algal bloom and eutrophication) disturbing the ecosystem. The water of these water bodies become unfit for human consumption and even kills the aquatic animals such as fishes. So chemical fertilizers must be used carefully and judiciously. 5. Biofertilizers : A Biofertilizers is Organisms which enrich the soil with nutrients are called biofertilizers. Biofertilizers are used for the specific crop plants such as pulses, legumes, oil seeds and rice. Biofertilizers are renewable and non-pollutant sources of plant nutrients such as nitrogen. They are not alternatives to chemical fertilizers but can play a supplementary role is supplying nitrogen to specific crops under specific soil conditions. Nitrogen fixing micro-organisms i.e., non-symbiotic and symboitic cyanobacteria and phosphate-solubilising micro-organism, are the main type of biofertilizers that are being used in India. Recently, two biofertilizers, namely

Rhizobium cultures and blue green algae (such as Anabaena and Nostoc) have gained popularity amongst farmers cultivating pulses, legumes, oil seeds and wet-land rice. 6. Mycorrhiza : Mycorrihiza is a symboitic (mutualistic) association of certain fungi with roots of higher plants. Mycorrhiza increases water and nutrient uptake by plants and increase growth, vigour and yield of the plants.

Differences between Manure and Fertilizers

Manure Fertilizers

1. A manure is a natural substance. It is obtained 1. A fertilizer is a human made substance. It is by decomposition of animal wastes such as an inorganic salt or an organic compound. dung (gobar) of cattle and buffaloes and plant residues. 2. Fertilizers are very rich in plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. 2. A manure contains small amounts of essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and 3. A fertilizer does not add any humus to the potassium. soil. 3. A manure adds a great amount of organic 4. Being soluble in water, a fertilizer is readily matter in the form of humus in the soil. absorbed by the crop plants. 4. Nutrients present in the manure are absorbed 5. A fertilizer is nutrient specific. It can provide slowly by the crop plants since manure is not specifically nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium soluble in water. Nutrients exist locked inside to the soil according to the need. the organic compounds of humus. 6. A fertilizer is compact and concentrated so it 5. A manure is not nutrient specific and it tends is easy to store, transport and apply to the crop. to remove the general deficiency of the soil. 7. A fertilizer is costly and is prepared in 6. A manure is voluminous and bulky so it is factories. inconvenient to store, transport, handle and apply to the crop. 7. A manure is cheap and is prepared in rural homes or fields.

5. Project Report on A.I.D.S.

INTRODUCTION OF HIV AIDS

What is AIDS ? This is Project Report/Essay - HIV AIDS. Definition : Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome. It is a pandemic disease. AIDS cannot be compared to disease like malaria and cholera which claim more live in country currently. It has a greater impact than other disease. The treatment options are still in the initial stages and are prohibitively expensive. There are instances of quacks taking advantage of the situation. This has compounded the misery of AIDS patients.

History of HIV AIDS:

It was first noticed in USA in 1981. The American and French scientist independently identified the AIDS virus 1984. The virus first named as HCLV III ( Human cell leukemia virus III). The name (Human cell leukemia deficiency virus) is now preferred. It now seems that HIV first passed into human from chimpanzees by eating butchered chimps. 10% of the people, who get AIDS virus infection, actually develop full blown AIDS. Causes of AIDS The main causes of AIDS is a disorder of cell mediated immune system of the body. The disorder is characterized by a reduction in the number of helper. T-cell which stimulate antibody production by B-cells. This result in the loss of natural defense against viral infection. Transmission of AIDS Virus It is only transmitted by a direct contact of infected cells - containing blood of patient to the blood of a healthy person as in -

1) Sexual intercourse with an infected partner if there is tissue injury to permit blood contact. 2) Use of contaminated needles and syringes to inject drugs or vaccines. 3) Use of contaminated razors, needles for boring pinnae. 4) Transfusion of infected blood or blood product. 5) Organ transplant. 6) Artificial insemination. 7) Parturition from mother to baby due to rupturing of blood vessels. Note : The sexual of transmission account for over 75% of infections. AIDS is not a contagious disease. It does not spread by casual contact, such as handshake , body contact in crowded places, working or playing together , sharing clothes , eating food cooked by infected person, using same toilet, swimming pools. It is also not and ribovirin seem most promising. A drugs named zide vuidine prolongs the life of many AIDS patient. However some patients AIDS virus have already mutated to zidovudine resistant forms.

INTRODUCTION OF AIDS VIRUS

It is 100 to 140 nm. in diameter and has a cylindrical core. It is found in blood and semen and to a lesser extent in milk tears and saliva. It is a retrovirus, i.e. its genetic material is - RNA (single stranded linear) which can make a DNA copy of itself with the help of the reverse transcriptase enzyme. The virus bind specifically to a surface receptor on a helper T-cell and introduce its RNA and reverse transcriptase enzyme into the cells here it multiplies and the release of new virus destroys the cell. AIDS occurs when the helper T-cell falls too low to fight the disease. Screening Test of AIDS

AIDS Patient generally have circulating antibodies which can be detected. In many countries this test is done as a routine on blood, donor, screening may prove harmful to victims. Persons found to be HIV positive become depressed and suicidal and are denied insurance, evicted from their houses, fired from their jobs only a small minority of such persons are likely to develop full blown AIDS. However the infected persons may spread infection to others. Today ELISA test is done identify this pandemic disease (AIDS). Manifestation of AIDS Manifestation :- It can manifest in two major ways i) Maligent tumours in connective tissue

ii) Viral, bacterial, protozoan and fungalin-fection of any system of the body. There are destruction of WBCS, damage to brain,. unexplained fever, unexplained loss of appetite, unexplained loss weight over a short time, chronic diarrhea, cough, night sweats, enlargement of lymph glands, shortness of breath, weakness. AIDS Treatment :- Medical treatment of AIDS consist of : i) Antiviral therapy against the causative agent

ii) Immuno simulative therapy to increase the number of resistance - providing cells in the body or both. However no specific treatment has been found so far and the mortality form AIDS is virtually 100%. A victim of full blown AIDS dies with in 3 year from infection of many drugs tried, azithmidine transmitted by blood sucking insects such as mosquitoes, AIDS virus has been found in urine, tears saliva, breast milk and vaginal secretions, but is seems not to transmitted by these fluids unless it gets a cut.

PREVENTIONS FROM AIDS

Following steps may help in controlling this dreaded disease.

i) People particularly those in high risk group should be educated about AIDS transmission. ii) High risk group should refrain from blood donation. iii) iv) Disposable needles and syringes should be used. Sexual habits should changed immediately.

v) Before receiving blood, ensure that it has been screened for HIV. vi) Routine screening may be done in a) Blood Donors, b) Organ Donors c) Donors of semen and growth hormone, d) Patient receiving haemodialysis e) Females in high risk group, Who are pregnant or contemplating pregnancy. Chastity, life long monogamy, and a clean needle for each injection are the only ways to prevents the spread of AIDS. These measure will succeed only in persons not already infected.
Major causes & steps to prevent it

Reasons of spreading AIDS among world people More than 90% of the infected persons are belong to developing countries. REASONS :(i) Low-level of socio-economic development. (ii) Low health consciousness and facilities

(iii) A growing unmarried youth population due to delayed marriage (iv) High rate of labour migration. (v) Low level of literacy among high-risk groups.

(vi) High incidence of sexuality transmitted diseases and reproductive tract infections among men and women. Steps taken to prevent the spreading of AIDS : (i) National AIDS programme of south East Asian countries are beginning to yield encouraging results. The 100% condom use programme in Thailand and the Sonagachi project in Calcutta, a model peer education programme among sex workers, have helped bring down AIDS infection and also reduced the incidence of STD. (ii) Non-government organizations have brought Baptist interest litigations against such cases of discrimination and the courts have pronounced the rights of such peoples. This has helped alleviate the misery of affected persons.

CONCLUSION
After studying the cause and effects of AIDS from different views, we conclude that it is a pandemic disease. It is mainly spreading sexually and person of the age group of 25-45 years are the most affected group. There are some methods like Antiviral Therapy and Immuno Stimulative therapy which bring some hope that even then no specific treatment has been found so for and morality form is virtually 100%. So only prevention in the test medicine care.

OBSERVATION
AIDS immersed as pandemic disease. It is nondurable. It is more common in developing countries. Now every day 1000 peoples are going to become HIV infected in world. This is mainly due to blood transfusion & Sexual contact. In whole world about 3 crore 30 lakhs people are HIV +ve & in India 3 lakh 70 thousands are HIV +ve. The number of HIV +ve persons are higher in Tamilnadu Bombay, Calcutta and Kerala and Manipur.

PROBLEMS FOR PATIENT

AIDS cause disease of Immune system of body. The HIV cause damage to T & B cell. Thus this is becoming a threatening problem of today and of future.

HYPOTHESIS
AIDS is non curable due to its nature of pathogen. It also damage immune system of the body. Therefore any medicine (Antiviral) drugs are not effective against HIV virus. Ignorance and lack of knowledge about this disease is the root cause of wide spread of this disease.

6.Project Report / Essay - PETROLEUM

PETROLEUM is a dark coloured, viscous, and foul smelling crude oil. The name of petroleum means rock oil (petra=rock ; oleum=oil). It is found under the crust of earth trapped in rocks .The crude oil petroleum is a complex mixture of several solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons mixed with water, salt and earth particles. Thus, the crude petroleum oil is not a single chemical compound, it is a mixture of compounds. Petroleum is lighter than water and insoluble in it. Petroleum is a natural product obtained from oil wells.

ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM Petroleum oil was formed by the decomposition of the remains of extremely small plants and animals (micro-organisms) buried under the sea millions of years ago. It is believed that millions of years ago, the microscopic plants and animals (or microorganism) which lived in seas, died. Their bodies sank to bottom of sea and were soon covered with mud and sand. The chemical effects of pressure, heat and bacteria, converted the remains of microscopic plants and animals onto petroleum oil just as they converted forest trees into coal. This conversion took place in absence of oxygen or air. The petroleum thus formed got trapped between two layers of impervious rocks (non-porous rocks) forming an oil trap. Natural gas is above this petroleum oil.

PETROLEUM OCCURRENCE Petroleum occurs deep down under the earth between two layers of impervious rocks (non-porous rocks). Oil deposites are usually found mixed with water, salt and sand (earth-particles).Natural gas occurs above the petroleum oil trapped under the rocks.

PETROLEUM PRODUCTION PETROLEUM is obtained by drilling holes (oil wells) into earths crust where the presence of oil has been predicted by survey. When a well is drilled through the

rocks, natural gas comes out first with a great pressure and for a time, the crude oil comes out by itself due to gas pressure. After the pressure has subsided, the crude oil is pumped out of the oil wells. It should be noted that many wells yield only natural gas but no oil. So, hundreds of wells may have to be drilled into the rocks and tested before getting an oil well from which oil can be produced profitably.

PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM IN INDIA Some of the places in our country where petroleum oil is being produced from the oil wells are 1.Ankeleshwar and Kalol in Gujrat 2 Rudra Sagar and Lakwa in Assam 3. Mumbai high (off store area)

There are two government for exploration of production and petroleum oil in India . These are :

1.Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) 2. Oil India Limited (OIL)

Oil and Natural Gas Commission (ONGC) is a major government organization engaged in the exploration and production of the oil in India. It was established in 1956 . ONGC is exploring and production oil from land (on-shore) and sea-side (offshore) areas of country . A recent achievement of ONGC is the production of oil from Mumbai High seas. The other organization, Oil India Limited, was established in 1981 . It is working in the Eastern region, Mahandi Basin and Rajasthan.

REFINING OF PETROLEUM The crude petroleum oil is a complex mixture of alkene hydrocarbons with water, salt and earth particles. So, before it can be used for specific purposes, it has to be purified or refined. The process of separating crude petroleum oil into more useful fractions is called refining. The refining of petroleum is done by the process of fractional distillation. In other words, petroleum is separated into its constituents by the process of fractional distillation. The refining of petroleum or separation of petroleum into different components is based on the fact that the different components of crude oil have different boiling point ranges. The fractional distillation of petroleum is done by using a tall fractionating tower . The crude petroleum oil is heated to a temperature of about 400oC in a furnance and the vapours thus formed are passed into a tall fractionating column from near its bottom. As the mixture of hot vapors rises in the column, it starts getting cooled gradually. Due to this, the vaporous of higher boiling fractions of petroleum condense first in the lower part of the tower, but the vapours of the low boiling fractions rise up into the tower and condense later. In this way the fraction of petroleum having highest boiling point range is collected in the lowest part of the fractionating tower, whereas the fraction having lowest boiling point range is collected in the topmost part of the tower.

PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM The various fractions or products obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, their moleculer compositions, boiling ranges and uses are given below. 1.PETROLEUM GAS :- The moleculer composition of petroleum gas is from C1 to C4 hydrocarbons i.e., it contains hydrocarbons having 1 to 4 carbon atoms per molecule its boiling range is below 40o C. Petroleum gas is used as fuel as such or in form of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Petroleum gas is also used in the production of carbon black (needed in tyre industry) and of hydrogen industry). It is also used in the manufacture of gasoline (petrol) by the process of polymerization.

2.GASOLINE OR PETROL:- The moleculer composition of gasoline is from C5 to C10 hydrocarbons and its boiling range is 40o C to 170o C. Gasoline or petroleum is used as in fuel in motor cars, scooters, motor-cycles and other light vehicles. Petrol is also used as a solvent; for dry cleaning clothes, and for making petrol gas. Petrol is more volatile than Kerosene oil. 3. KEROSENE OIL:- The moleculer composition of Kerosene oil is from C10 to C12 hydrocarbons and its boiling range is from 1700 C to 2500 C. Kerosene oil is used as a household fuel. For examples Kerosene is used in wick stoves or pressure stoves to cook food. Kerosene is also used as an illuminant (for lighting purposes) in hurricane or petromax lamps. Kerosene is also used for making oil gas. A special grade of Karosene oil is used as activation oil in jet airplanes. 4. DIESEL OIL:- The moleculer composition of diesel oil is from C13 to C15 hydrocarbons and its boiling. Diesel oil is used as a fuel for heavier vehicles like buses, trucks, railway engines and ships. Diesel is also used to run water pumps required for irrigation in fields and diesel generators to produce electricity on small scale. 5.FUEL OIL:- The moleculer composition of fuel oil is from C15 to C18 hydrocarbons and range is 350o C to 400o C. Fuel oil is used in industries to heat boilers and in furnances. Fuel oil is better oil than than coal because fuel oil is completely and does not need any residue. On other hand , When coal is burned , it leaves behind a lot of ash which has to be removed from the coal furnance. 6.LUBRICATING OIL:- The moleculer composition of lubricant oil is C17 to C20 hydrocarbons, and its boiling range is beyond 400o C. Lubricant oil is obtained during the fractionation of residual oils. It is used for lubricant machinery. 7.PARAFFIN WAX:- The moleculer composition of paraffin wax is from C20 to C30 hydrocarbons and its boiling range is above 400 o C. Paraffin wax is also obtained during the further fractionation of residual oils. Paraffin wax is used for making candles, Vaseline, ointments, wax papers and grease. 8.ASPHALT:- Asphalt is a black, sticky substance having moleculer composition of C30 to C50 hydrocarbons. Asphalt is a non-volatile substance, so it does not vaporize.

It is left behind as a residue in the fractionation of residue oils. Asphalt is used for making road surfaces.

HUMAN DISEASES
A disease is a condition of the body or apart of it in which functions are disturbed or arranged. Diseases may also be defined as morphological , physiological , psychological disturbance in the body or body parts caused by some external agencies which may be non-parasitic e.g. deficiency of nutrients or may be parasitic caused by causes, bacteria , fungi etc. The term disease means DIS-EASE or discomfort. In short it can be defined as diseases is disorder of body.

SOURCES OF DISEASES
The reservoir of human diseases are: a) Air: It is reservoir of pathogens of many diseases like, measles, mumps, tuberculosis, diphtheria etc. b) Food and Water: These are reservoir of pathogens of many diseases like, cholera, polio, typhoid, roundworm, tapewormetc. c) Soil: It is a reservoir of pathogen of tetanus diseases. d) Animals: These are those living organisms which spread the pathogens from an infected person of healthy person. These do not suffer from the diseases so are also called reservoir host.

TYPES OF DISEASES
Diseases are broadly classified into two categories: A. CONGENITAL DISEASES Diseases present since birth and are caused due to defective development of inheritance e.g. congenital heart diseases, hemophilia, colour blindness etc.

B. Acquired diseases Diseases developed after birth. They are further classified asa) Communicable diseases b) Non-Communicable diseases

Differences between Communicable Diseases

S.No. Communicable diseases
1. 2.

Communicable

and

Non-

S.No. Non-communicable diseases

The diseases which spread from one person to 1. another. They are caused by pathogens, e.g. malaria, 2. smallpox etc.

The diseases which are not transmitted from on to another. They are caused by deficiency of nutrients abnormal proliferation of cells etc. e.g. kwa cancer etc.

MODES OF TRANSMISSION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

The diseases are transmitted from the reservoirs of infection to the healthy persons the following ways:

1) Direct transmission: The pathogens are transmitted from an infected person or healthy person directly without an intermediate agent. It occurs in following waysa) Contact with infected person e.g., small pox and chicken pox.

b) Contact with soil e.g., tetanus. 2. Indirect transmission: The pathogens of some diseases are carried through some intermediate agents. It occurs in following ways: a) Air borne diseases. b) By unclean hands and fingers.

VIRAL DISEASES
INFLUENZA It is commonly known as Flu and is highly infectious. It is commonly caused by influenza virus (Myxo virus influenzae). Mode of transmission: through direct contact, sneezing, coughing etc. (airborne diseases). Symptoms: It affects upper respiratory tract. It starts with fever, headache, sore throat, coughing and pain all over the body with restlessness. Control: Antibiotics should be given to prevent secondary complications like pneumonia and ear infections. No vaccine is available which can give protection against all types of influenza viruses. Prevention: The patient should avoid joining parties or gatherings of people. Handkerchief should be used while sneezing and coughing.

JAUNDICE Jaundice is yellowness of sclera of eyes (White part of eyes) and skin. Yellowness is due to excessive deposition of bile pigments in these structures. Jaundice is caused by hepatitis virus. Liver is the most important organ in the body caused its inflammation due to jaundice affects digestion adversely. The types of hepatitis are hepatitis-A, B, C, D, E or G. Modes of transmission: Hepatitis A is spread mostly by contaminated food and water. Hepatitis B is transmitted by contact with infected body secretions and blood. Symptoms: Fever and loss of appetite. Nausea and vomiting. Yellowness of skin. Dark yellow coloured urine and light-coloured stool after 3 to 10 days. Control: Adequate bed rest. Carbohydrate rich diet should be given to the patient. Consumption of protein and fat should be limited. Interferon injection should be administered on the advice of the doctor. Prevention:

 Eating hygienic food and drinking disinfected water. Hepatitis B and Hepatitis A vaccine should be taken to prevent the diseases. Use of disposable syringes and blood should be tested before transfusion. Properly clean hands after handling bed and utensils of the patient. RABIES Rabies a fatal viral disease that is transmitted to human beings by bite of rabid dog or cat. A number of wild animals also carry the virus, e.g. Jaundice wolves, foxes, bat, monkeys, rabbit etc. Disease is not expressed after infection up to 1-3 months. Symptoms: Rabies is 100% fatal disease. It is characterized by high fever and pain contraction of muscles of throat and chest. The patient feels restless, has choking feet and finds difficulty in taking even liquid food. He is afraid of water, so called hydrophobia. The virus destroys the brain and spinal cord. So, it causes paralysis and painful death. Prevention: Compulsory immunization of dogs and cats should be done. Pet dogs should be vaccinated with anti-rabies vaccine. Rabid animal should be killed, if it shows excessive salivation and tries seeking isolation. Control: There is no treatment until now. AIDS Aids stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. It is caused by HIV (Human immune-deficiency virus). It was firstly detected in June 1981 in USA. This virus weakness the human bodys immunity or self defense mechanism. Hence the aids

virus reduces the natural immunity of the human body; therefore, the body saving AIDS becomes prone to many other infections. Modes of transmission: It spreads though sexual contact with an infected person carrying AIDS virus. It spread though the transfusion of blood infected with AIDS virus. It spread though the use of infected needles for injections, blade or razors and other equipment of barbers. The children of AIDS infected mother get this disease from mothers blood. Symptoms: The important symptoms are Severe brain damage which may lead to loss of memory, ability to speak and think. Swollen lymph nodes. Decreased count of blood platelets causing hemorrhage. Sweating at night and weight loss. AIDS patient also become more susceptible to infections of any body. A full blown AIDS patient dies within three years and mortality is 100%. Prevention: No absolutely satisfactory vaccine is yet available. So, we can prevent AIDS only preventive measures like Use of disposable syringes. Using condoms and adopt clean sex habits. People should be educated about AIDS.

 Blood test must be done in pregnant woman, blood donors organ donors. Dentists should use sterilized instrument. The common razor at the barber shop should be used. Control: Till today there is no specific therapy against HIV infection. Some medical have been discovered which can suppress AIDS virus. National AIDS control program was started in 1987. World AIDS day: December 1.

BACTERIAL DISEASES
CHOLERA CHOLERA: It is highly communicable diseases caused by vibrio-cholera it is common during fairs and after floods. Some times it may occur in epidemic form. Modes of transmission: It is transmitted through contaminated food and water flies it is spread rapidly when sanitation is poor. Symptoms: It is characterized by Rice watery stool, which is generally painless. Rapid loss of large amount of water from the body, which causes dehydrates muscular cramps and weight loss. Repeated effortless vomiting without nausea. Due to excessive loss of water, eye becomes sunken, cheeks hollow subnet temperature etc. Prevention:

 Use of boiled water and proper cooking of food. The drinking water must disinfect with strong chlorine solution. Underground disposal of human faces. Cholera vaccine should be given during epidemics and fairs. Vaccine immunity for about 6 months. Control: Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT)- in which fluid and electrolytes (NaCL3.5g , Sodium bicarbonate -2.5g, KCL-1.5g, Glucose- 20.0g, Sucrose-40g in one liter of water) are given to patient orally (through mouth).This solution helps in preventing dehydration. Saline drip may be given intravenously. Use ant cholera drugs. Doctor should be consulted immediately. DIARRHEA DIARRHOE: Diarrheas is a group of infection of the intestinal tract, including food poisoning. The main pathogens are bacteria such as Escherichia coil, Salmonella, Shigella, etc. A protozoan Giardia and certain viruses also can cause similar conditions. Modes of transmission: Contaminated food and water. Contamination through fingers, cloths bed sheets and utensils. Symptoms: Frequent passage of stools with blood and mucus.

 Abdominal camps, vomiting leading to dehydration. Due to rapid loss of water (dehydration), eyes appear sunken, cheeks hollow; the inner sides of cheeks appear dry, sudden loss of weight, fever, deep breathing etc. Prevention: Proper personal hygiene and community hygiene. Proper coverage of eatables to prevent contamination. Underground disposal of human faces. Use of boiled water and proper cooking of food. The drinking water must be disinfected with strong chlorine solution. Control: Complete bed rest. Oral rehydration therapy or Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS). Saline drip may be given. Isabgol should be given with curd or water, to provide relief. Pulp of unripe banana along with amount of turmeric powder, salt and lime, also helps in controlling diarrhea. Antibiotics can treat the diseases.

Differences between Cholera and Diarrhea

S.No.
1)

Cholera
It is caused by bacteria Vibrio cholera.

S.No.
1)

Diarrhea

It is caused by either bacteria or protozoa o viruses. Some common pathogens are Guardia Escherichia coli.

2) 3)

Passage of rice watery stool. Vaccine is available which can give immunity of 6 months.

2) 3)

Frequent passage of stool with blood and mucus. Vaccine is not available.

TYPHOID TYPHOID: Typhoid is caused by Salmonella typhoid bacteria, commonly found in interterm of man. It is most common communicable diseases. This is common is age group of 1-15 years. Every year about 2.5 million people suffer from typhoid. Modes of transmission: Contaminated food and water and house flies. Symptoms: It is characterized by Headache and rise in body temperature. Lesions of intestinal mucosa. Diarrhea which becomes hemorrhagic. Rose coloured rash on the upper abdomen. Control: Antibiotics can treat the diseases. Prevention: Underground disposal of human faces. Disinfection of water and proper cooking of food. Typhoral oral vaccines also prevent typhoid. TAB- Vaccine provides immunity for 3 years. Typhoid is diagnosed by widal test.

TUBERCULOSIS TUBERCULOSIS: TB was first discovered by Robert Koch (1882).It is caused bacteria My Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It most commonly affects the lungs it may also people live in dingy, congested part of large cities. The bacterium releases a toxin called tablet. Modes of transmission: It can be transmitted directly as well as indirectly. Symptoms: The symptoms of tuberculosis vary depending on the site of diseases in the body. Two specific sites of infection area) Lymph gland TB: The main symptom is swelling and tender ness of lymph glands often in the leg, whish may discharge secretions though the skin. Pulmonary(Lung) TB: The main symptoms are Fever Coughing Chest pain and breathlessness Sputum containing blood Loss of weight and weakness. Control: Anti-tubercular therapy- Antibiotics can treat the diseases. Proper rest, diet, rehabilitation and surgery help in controlling diseases. Prevention: Isolation of TB patients.

b)

 Health education e.g. avoiding indiscriminate spitting, use of handkerchief while coughing and sneezing. BCG vaccine provides immunity. Vigorous public health measures are the best method of prevention.

PROTOZOAN DISEASES
MALARIA MALARIA: Malaria is more common in tropical and subtropical countries, especially in Africa and Asia. It is estimated that about 300 million people are infected with malaria every year and more then 2 million people die annually due to this diseases. Causes: Malaria is caused by the toxins produced in the human body by the malarial parasite Plasmodium. Presence of malarial parasite can be checked by blood test. Modes of transmission: Plasmodium of transmitted by female Anopheles mosquito. When this mosquito bites man to suck blood, it introduces its saliva containing the malarial parasite into the blood stream of the man. Symptoms: Malaria attack is preceded by headache, nausea and muscular pain. Total period of malarial attack is of 6-10 hour and can be divided into 3 stages: Cold stage- Characterized by chilling and shivering. Hot stage- Characterized by high fever, faster rate of breathing and heart beat, etc. Sweating stage- It is characterized by lowering down of temperature to normal. After the malaria attack, the patient feels weak, exhausted and anemic. The malaria may secondarily cause engagement of lever and spleen.

Prevention: Use of insect repellants to prevent mosquito bite. Wire- gauzing of doors, windows, etc. to check the entry of mosquitoes. Killing of adult mosquitoes by spraying insecticides like D.D.T and B.H.C. All the mosquito breeding places should be destroyed or covered. Kerosene oil should be sprayed on ponds and ditches to kill the larva. Sleeping under mosquito nets. Destroying breeding places of mosquitoes. Control: A number of anti-malarial drugs are available. The commonest anti-malarial drug is quinine. Efforts are being medicine for the development of an anti-malarial vaccine.

SOME IMPORTANT DATES ABOUT DISEASES: World TB Day- 24 March. National TB control program was started in 1962. The incidence of tetanus in India is about 30-50 persons per one lakh. Bubonic Plague is commonest type of plague. Incidence of Diarrhea diseases is highest in Andhra and Orissa states. Hepatitis is more dangerous then AIDS. Macculoch (1827) proposed the name malaria.

 Laveran (1880) discovered malarial parasites in the blood of a malarial patient. Ronald Ross (1897) proved that malarial parasite is spread by female Anopheles mosquito. August 20 is called Malaria Day.

7.Green House Effect

Green House Effect is heating up of earth's atmosphere due to the trapping of intra-red ray. (reflected from the earth's surface) by the carbon dioxide layer in the atmosphere is called green-house effect. The green-house effect in the atmosphere occurs due to the presence of a blanket of carbon-dioxide gas in the atmosphere. This blanket of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere allows the sunlight to come in freely but does not allow the intra-red radiation reflected by the earth's surface to go out. It is just because the sun light can come in freely but the intra-red rays cannot go out freely that the temperature of earth's atmosphere is raised. The rise in temperature produce gas in the by green-house effect on earth's atmosphere depends on the amount of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere. In other words, the proportion of carbon dioxide in atmosphere effects the temperature of atmosphere. So, if the proportion of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere increases, than the temperature of earth's atmosphere will also rise further.

What is Green House Effect ?

The name "Green-house effect" comes from the fact that this effect is use in horticulture for the up bringing of green plant's in small house made of glass walls and glass root. The green walls and roofs of a green-house allows the sun-light to come in freely but it does not allows the long wavelength infrared radiations reflected by the soil, plants and other contents of green house to go out. These trapped intrared rays show their heating effect due to which the temperature is raised inside the green house. Thus, even without an external supply of heat, the temperature inside a green house is found to be higher than it is outside. Thus, green house acts as a heat trap. Due to the presence of carbon dioxide, our atmosphere acts like the glass rat of an ordinary horticultural green-house.

Causes of Green House Effect

The principal cause of Green-House effect is the increase in the quantity of green house gases like CO2 in the atmosphere. The naturally occurring "Green House gases", including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapor, keep ground temperature at a global average of 15 0 Celsius. without this natural blanked earth's surface would be about 300 Celsius colder than it is today, making the planet a freezing barren, lifeless place similar to Mars. The green house gases keep the surface warm because as incoming solar radiation strikes earths, the surface gives off infrared radiation or heat, that the gases temporarily trap and keep near ground level.

Problem from Green House Effect

The problem is that human activity may be making the green house gas blanket "thicker" For example, burning tonsil fuel throws huge amounts of CO into the air, the destruction of forests allows carbon stored in the trees to escape into the atmosphere and other activities such as raising cattle and planting rice emit methane, nitrous oxide, and other green house gases. Until man kind began burning fossil fuels, green house gases that occur naturally remained in relative balance. But the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain ushered in rapid industrialization that greatly increased man's assault on the ecology.
2

The importance of Carbon Dioxide- The Green House Effect

Carbon dioxide present in small proportion (0.03%) is nonetheless a very important member of the atmosphere. The proportion of (O2) is

maintained by a host of difference processes. The major consumers of CO2 from the atmosphere are the green plants use the CO2 to prepare their tool and the oceans dissolve the CO2 in the form of carbonates. The major suppliers of CO2 to the atmosphere are the volcanic earth processes and living organisms. The atmosphere gains CO2 from the volcanoes which release this gas from the interior of the earth and from organisms in the process of their respiration and decay. In this manner both the atmosphere and the oceans continuously exchange CO2 with the rocks, plants and higher organisms.

Role of Carbondioxide in Green House Effect

The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere also performs another major role. The earth receives light of different wavelengths from the sun. The Ozone in the upper atmosphere absorbs most of the harmful ultraviolet radiation and lets the other wavelengths pass through. However, some of the light incident on earth is reflected back in the form of intra-red light that is light whose wavelength is greater than that of red light. Carbon dioxide molecules have the ability to absorb the intra-red radiation reflected from the earth. A blanket of CO2 can, therefore, trap intrared light in the atmosphere causing the atmosphere to heat up-This heating due to trapped radiation is called the Green House effect. A similar phenomena is observed inside an automobile. The sun's rays enter the car through the glass window. Some of this light is reflected from the metal and the upholstery inside the car in the form of intra-red light. The glass windows like CO2 can trap this reflected intra-red light and cause the interior of the car to heat up considerably. Infect the name green house is derived from a glass structure used to cultivate putted plants in some countries water vapors and ozone also have the ability to trap intra-red radiation and also some times referred to as green house gases. However, water vapors is only found near the surface of the earth and ozone only in the upper reaches of the

atmosphere carbon dioxide which is much more evenly distributed in the atmosphere and contributes to the green house effect to a larger extent. The proportion of carbon dioxide can therefore, effect the temperature of the atmosphere. If this proportion increases, the temperature is liable to rise. The atmosphere has been evolving over billions of years and will continue to do so. However, in this century the atmosphere has received a large contribution from man himself. In the course of modern human activities, huge quantities of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere. This is done during the burning of tonsil fuels. It is estimated that man in burning fusel fuels is releasing 6000 million tones of CO2 into the atmosphere each year. The cultivation of soil releases vast quantities of carbon dioxide produced by bacteria to escape in to the air. These agricultural pursuits release 2000 million tones more. A part from CO2 mans industrial activities also release large quantities of noxious gases like nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon monoxide and sulpher dioxide solid suspensions and dust are also increasing in proportion. Nature however, is extremely kind. It cleanses many of the pollutions with rain. Green plants absorbs most of the excess CO2 from the atmosphere and give back healthy oxygen in return. By destroying green plants and trees we destroy those very agents that clean our atmosphere. Afforestation, that is, the replanting of destroyed trees and forests is one solution for preserving a healthy proportion of CO2 in the atmosphere. Over the past hundred years we have released approximately 360000 million tones of Cl2 and are continuing to do so at an increasing pace. As a result of this large scale dumping, the proportion of CO2 has increased by 13 per cent. If the green house effect is understood correctly, this would have increased the average temperature of the earth by if. At the end of this

century, the earths average temperature would have increases by about 3.60 F. The full consequence of this disastrous rise have jet to be understood.

Green House Effect from Automobile

The internal heating due to green- house effect can be observed in a car parked in sun-shine with all its windows closed, This can be explained as follows : The glass windows of a car allow the visible sunlight and the very short wavelength intra-red rays contained in sunlight to pass through them freely and go inside the car. These rays are reflected from the inside surface of the car (like dash-board, seats, etc.) Now, the intra-red radiation emitted by very hot sun and which entered the closed car was of very short wavelength, but the intra-red radiation reflected (or emitted) by the less hot "inside surface" of cares of longer wavelength. The glass windows of car do not allow this long wavelength intra-red radiation to go out through them. So, the intra-red rays get trapped inside the car. since the intra-red radiations produce a heating effect, therefore, the interior (inside) of the car gets heated considerably. Thus glass is a solid substance which produces green house effect. Those gases which can trap intra-red radiation given by the sun to produce green-house effect leading to heating up of the environment are called green-house gases. One of the most important green-house gas is carbon dioxide. Water vapor and ozone also have the ability to trap the intrared radiation so they are also called green house gases. Thus, we have three green-house gases :(i) (ii) Carbon dioxide, CO2 Water vapor, H2O and

(iii) Ozone, O3 Out of these three, water-vapor and ozone do not contribute much green-house effect to the earth's atmosphere because ozone is present only

in the upper part of atmosphere whereas water. Vapor is found only near the surface of earth (which is at the bottom of the atmosphere). Only carbon dioxide contributes largely to the green house effect in the earth's atmosphere, because carbon dioxide is much more uniformly distributed in atmosphere. The green-house effect produced by carbon dioxide gas is very crucial to our existence on earth. This can be explained as fellows : By producing the green-house effect, carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere traps the intra-red rays (heat rays), leading to the heating of earth and its atmosphere. This heating of earth (or rise in temperature of earth) is very necessary for our existence because without it, the whole earth would be converted into an extremely cold planet, making the existence of life difficult. Our earth's atmosphere is transparent to the visible radiations coming from sun, stars etc. But reflects back the infrared radiations and hence it does not allow the infrared radiations to pass. The energy from the sun, heats the earth which in turn starts emitting radiations. Since the earth gets heated to much lower temperature than the temperature of sun, the radiations emitted by earth are mostly in the infrared region, according to Plancks low. These radiations emitted by earth are reflected back by earth's atmosphere. Due to which the earth's surface remains warm at night.

Green House Gases Effect and Global Warming

Sun emits light of different wavelengths consisting of ultra-violet, visible region and intra-red of these the harmful ultra. Violet radiations one absorbed by the ozone layer in the stratosphere and warm the air rather than coming to the surface of the earths. The visible and intra-red radiations pass through the

atmosphere and reach the surface of the earth. However, some of the light incident on the earth is reflected back. For example of the total incoming light that falls upon the earth, about 50% reaches the surface and is absorbed by it, About 20% of the incoming light is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, such as ultraviolet light by ozone in astrosphere and intra-red by CO2 and water vapour present in air. The remaining 30% is reflected back in to space by sand, snow, cloud ice snow and other reflecting bodies without being absorbed. Some gases in air such CO2 has the property of allowing visible light to pass through it but absorbing the intra-red radiations reflected from the surface of earth. Therefore, all the IR emitted from the earth's surface and atmosphere escape directly into space. After the absorption of IR radiation by CO2 molecules these thermal IR radiations are re-emitted in all direction and some are redirected back towards earth surface and heat up the atmosphere. Chlorofluere carbons have also the greatest potential to cause global warming due to their greater efficiencies of absorbing thermal IR radiations. Each molecule of cfc has the potential to cause the same extent of global warming as do tens of thousands molecules of CO2 cfc's are being excessively used in insulating freezers, refrigerators and air conditioners and are posing threat of global warming However, Government is now trying, to control the production of cfc's. The next effect of increased level of all these green house gases is increased green house effect or global warming which may lead to increased global temperature. If nothing is done to control the concentration of these gases in to the atmosphere, than average temperature will increase. It has been observed that the average temperature of the earth has increased by about. If due to green house effect. If CO2 is continued to be released into the atmosphere at the present rate then by the end of this century the earths average temperature is expected to increase by 3.60F. This excessive heating of the earth would melt all the snow on poles and different mountains. This

would increase the water level of the sea and as a result the cities located on the coastal areas are likely to the flooded.

Effects of Global Temperature on Climate on the Earth

The increase in average global temperature can have the following effects on the climate of the earth. a) In temperature regions, the summer will be longer and hotler and winter will be shorter and warmer. A warmer climate will make certain cities extremely hot to live. b) There will be increase in total amount of global rainfall but some regions will receive less rainfall. c) The number of days having intense showers and high temperature both will increase. d) The problem of desertification bought and soil erosion will become more worese. e) As a result of rise in temperature of the earth, ocean will get warm up and sea level would rise flooding low lying regions. The increase in sea level would have profound effects on habitation patterns and will threaten to submerge many coastal countries like. Bangladesh, Indonesia, Maldives, parts of coastal India and many other island nations. f) Increase in greenhouse effect is expected to cause cooling of the stratosphere. This is because most thermal IR radiation will be absorbed at low attitudes and little will be left to warm stratosphere. g) Tropical storms, hurricanes etc will be stronger and more frequent and will cause devastation.

h) Some areas may become more humid or welter or some other areas will become dry. The tropics may become wetter and the subtropics which are already dry, are expected to be drier. i) Due to global warming, human health will be affected. Increased number of hot days and extreme weather may cause chronic. j) Insect carrying diseases such as malaria may also increase.

k) Animal health will also be affected due to spread of diseases by parasites. l) Ocean temperature change may also affect marine life adversely.

8.Project Report on "Malnutrition" Malnutrition : Introduction

For its sustenance on the earth, every living organism requires food, which is quite essential for carrying out its physical and mental activities, growth and development. For normal growth and development, man requires some specific nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, roughage and water in right proportion and sufficient quantity, which he gets through the food he eats. The food, which provides all these essential nutrients in proper amounts, is called balanced diet. The deficiency or even excess of any of these in a persons diet results into d isorders regarding nutrition, which may be collectively, called malnutritional disorders. The condition in which the people become weak and sick because of insufficient and unbalanced food is called malnutrition. A large no of people in our country and other developing countries suffer from malnutrition because of poverty, lack of education, wrong notions and frequent pregnancies. The main cause of malnutrition is poverty. The deficiency diseases are of three types: 1. Protein energy malnutrition (PEM)-the condition of being nourished on low protein and low energy diet is called Protein Energy Malnutrition or PEM. So, deficiency of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in PEM. It is the most important nutritional disorder affecting Indian children, in the age of period 1-3 years. The symptoms of PEM are: (A) (B) (C) Loss in weight and height Poor muscular development Susceptible to many diseases of respiratory and gastro intestinal systems.

2. Mineral deficiency disease (Anemia, Goiter and Rickets): these are caused due to the deficiency of either iron or iodine. The symptoms are: either he will feel tiredness easily or there will be swelling in his throat region of neck. Goiter is an endemic disease (the diseases, restricted to a given reason and arising from its specific environmental condition are called endemic diseases) which is more common in hilly areas because soil of hilly areas is poor in iodine. Due to this the drinking water as well as food grown in this area is deficient in iodine. So, it leads goiter among them. 3. Vitamin deficiency disease: the diseases which are caused due to the deficiency of Vitamins in diet are called Vitamin Deficiency diseases. Some of the diseases that are caused due to the deficiency of Vitamins are Night blindness, Exophthalmia, Beri-Beri. (A) Night Blindness and Xerophthalmia: these are caused due to the deficiency of Vitamin A (retinol). (B) Beri-Beri: the deficiency of vitamin B1 causes beri-beri. Vitamin B1 is also called anti beri-beri or antineuretic factor

Types of Malnutrition
In human beings, these disorders may be classified into three categories-UNDER NUTRITION, which means the malnutrition, caused due to the availability of less food for a long period. For example slow starvation, which is found most in extremely poor or low income group people.

Excessive nutrition that means disorders developed due to overfeeding or overeating for a long time. For example obesity (or motapa). Such disorders are more evident in the families belonging to the middle class families or rich category. Deficiency disease which are caused due to the lack of a specific nutrient in our diet. For example protein energy malnutrition, mineral deficiency diseases like anemia etc. such diseases may be found in nearly every family-rich, middle class or poor. It is thus evident that the problem of malnutrition is not confined to poor families alone but is spreading fast even in the middle and rich class families. If the increasing level of diseases in children due to the malnutrition is not taken care off than this may result into excessive weakness or obesity after a few years. We must not forget that malnutrition affects the immune system of a child which may cause frequent sickness, increase the possibility of infections from communicable diseases like cold and cough etc. So, malnutrition must be checked in the childhood itself.

Importance of studying malnutrition

Today we are living in computer age. The work that required a long time to be completed can now be done with in a few seconds. In other words man is progressing

in his mental abilities, but if we measure the physical standards, we will find he is becoming physically weak and now he is not so able as he used to be. Now, the question arises what is the cause behind this physical disability, that even after attaining complete independence in the field of agriculture, children of our country are suffering from malnutrition. Malnutrition in children can prove as an obstruction in the progress of any country because todays children are tomorrows future. Therefore for the progress of a country it is necessary that its children are healthy. Malnutrition is found in rich and middle class families also. Although, the type and level is different from the one found in poor families still it is a serious problem.

Causes and solutions

There are two reasons for Malnutrition in middle and high class families 1.Inbalanced diet 2.Ignorance of wrong food habits in children by parents. It is also found that some parents are totally unaware of what a balanced diet should consist of. They dont know the importance of balanced diet. They only care that their children eat adequate diet. If child wants to eat chips, samosas, maggi, chowmin, pastries, their parents do not resist. parents themselves also eat junk food and allow their children also. Children dont want to eat green vegetables. They only prefer food items made of potatoes which increases their weight. Cold drinks, chocolates, coffee etc. that give sufficient calories but dont give nutrition.

Therefore, parents need to improve food habits of their children. They should take balanced diet. Earlier boys and girls were treated differently. So, girls were found to suffer from malnutrition. But, today that is not the case.

Suggestions for preventions

Malnutrition in children is a major obstruction in progress of a nation. In our country about 60% children are suffering from malnutrition. Therefore, it is very important to eradicate this problem completely. After working on this project we suggest the following ways to prevent malnutrition: 1.Guardians, themselves must change their food style, as children learn their food habits from their home. 2.Mothers should breast feed their children for adequate period. 3.Children should be provided medical check up from time to time. 4.Teachers must give information to students on how to prevent disease from malnutrition. 5. All the people should eat the food which is sufficiently boiled.

What we came to know after preparing this project

All the data collected for the project revealed that most of the children suffer from malnutrition due to their wrong food habits and eating imbalanced diet. If the parents show a little concern towards their children, this problem can also be eradicated. Meetings between parents, teachers and child specialist doctors would be of much help in solving this problem. All these steps should be taken in a hurry because todays children are tomorrow's future.

Collected data In a survey which was held in our own school last year, it came to light that : 1.only 5% students in the age group of 3-7 years like green vegetables. 2. 3% students like pulses. 3. only 2% students like milk. 4. 5% students like fruits. 5. 40% students like maggi /chowmin. 6. 40%students like cold drink. 7. 5% students like juice. In this survey study of malnutrition in students was done according to the weight of the children. It was found that 15% children are weighing above the normal weight, 70% children are weighing below the normal weight and only 15% children are found with the normal weight.

Also in this survey it was found that 20% students have low frequency of infection while 80% students have high frequency of infection. Also the activities of the children were examined and were observed which revealed that 35%children were lazy while 65% were found active.