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A New Look at Anaximenes Author(s): Daniel W. Graham Source: History of Philosophy Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Jan., 2003), pp. 1-20 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of North American Philosophical Publications Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27744938 . Accessed: 12/07/2013 08:26
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History
of Philosophy
Volume
20, Number
Quarterly
1, January
2003
and the be of the twentieth the beginning century our of of the twenty-first century understanding Between ginning at all. The third philosopher has changed Anaximenes hardly a theory of mat to have advocated he is reputed from Miletus, is to which and to have ter according air, really everything a theory of change according developed rarefied other kinds of matter by being at the least inherited style allegedly from his change, bution.1 to which air or condensed. turns into he Since
theory to fame is the theory of his real claim predecessors, as a significant contri has been which acknowledged Anaximenes Now the modest reputation enjoys has been In a recent edition of Anaximenes, that Anaximenes'
of his
of matter
Georg theory of change alleged and foisted on Anaxime by Theophrastus sense Is it true nes to make in an attempt of his cosmogony. is even more mediocre than we have reckoned? that Anaximenes I believe that to a large degree Anaxime I think not. Indeed, nes' of pre-Socratic philosophy interpretation by Wohrle's as a seminal Anaximenes
the shape theory determined raised forever after him. The issues serve to vindicate I shall will, argue, thinker. In this paper of Anaximenes I shall
inter the traditional (I) rehearse criticism of it; (II) examine and W?hrle's pretation Anaximenes' testimonies ancient concerning theory of change; to show that Anaximenes had a ro evidence and (III) advance in from that different bust of key respects change theory to him. These attributed imenes a different?and philosophy.
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HISTORY
OF PHILOSOPHY I
QUARTERLY
The
traditional
account
of Anaximenes I:
goes
back
to Aristotle's
analysis
in Metaphysics
Of the first philosophers, the majority the sources thought For of all things were found only in the class of matter. [1] that of which all existing and from which that things consist, the they perish last?[2] they come to be first and into which in its substance but properties?this, continuing changing and source of existing they say, is the element things. Ac comes not think either to be do [3] they cordingly anything
or
either one or more than one, there is a certain nature, comes to is pre from which be else while this everything on the number served. do not agree and All, however, character of this source, but Tha?es, of this the originator ... kind of theory, says it is water. and [4] Anaximenes posit air as a simple body prior to [of Apollonia] Diogenes water that is most properly the source. bl7-21, (983b6-13, For 984a5-7)2 We observe here three claims about early philoso being made comes to be from and perishes into back "source"; (2) everything (3) there is no theory is in es coming to
perishes,
inasmuch
as
this
nature
is always
preserved.
. . .
to what kind of of Material Monism different versions according a as source: matter the identifies water, air, given philosopher is air. In the case of Anaximenes, fire, or earth. (4) the source Besides utes to Material contrib Anaximenes Monism, subscribing a distinctive to of theory Theophrastus: change, according
expressed by these as Material a theory that is known Monism, to Tha?es, it attributes Aristotle and Heraclitus; Anaximenes, it to Anaximander,3 is less clear whether he attributes and at are least some doxographers attribute it to Xenophanes.4 There
son of Anaximenes, ate of Anaximander, nature is single and it air. says, calling its rarity or density.
was an associ of Miletus, Eurystratus, who says, like him, that the underlying as he but not indeterminate boundless, It differs in essence in accordance with it is thinned When it becomes [i] fire, it [ii: air] is condensed while when it becomes [iii] wind, then still more it becomes condensed [iv] cloud, when [v] water, then [vi] earth, then [vii] stones. Everything else comes from as a result of these. And he too makes motion everlasting,
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of materials
and (vii) stones; (vi) earth, one to an adjacent material the material, respectively. Now
consisting of: (i) fire, (ii) air, (iii) wind, (iv) cloud, (v) water,
from one the change (3) in which or is made rarefying by condensing ba
we may at an interpretation arrive of Anaximenes' I shall call the Standard which sic principles Interpretation: Standard Interpretation to be from of Anaximenes and back into
MM
1. Everything
source.
(Material Monism)
comes
perishes
one
2. Everything that source. is in essence to be or perishing, 3. There is no coming of all things is air. 4. The source
but
only alteration.
TC (Theory of Change)
1. There relative 2. Which
stones.
is a determinate
sequence
ordered earth,
by and com
materials
by being
I do not exagger In calling this the Standard Interpretation, ate: in the English-speaking world alone the view is endorsed and Kirk, Cornford, Guthrie, Bailey, Lloyd, Hussey, by Burnet, are very few dissenting others.6 There Barnes, among many voices, The and two are they have sets been largely ignored.7 MM and TC, respec designated one of each other: could ascribe independent tively, logically MM without to Anaximenes without TC, and TC without MM, The one link between the two sets of prin any inconsistency. a certain to Anaximenes is found in MM3, which ciples assigns For Aristotle there are four kinds of change: kind of change. of principles locomotion,
or change in the category and of place; increase or or in the of quantity; alteration, decrease, category change in the category to be and perish and coming of quality; change in the category of substance.8 On Aristotle's ing, or change the monists material interpretation, recognize only one kind of can be no hence there substance?in Anaximenes' case, air;
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HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
QUARTERLY
in substance. to be changes in substance, What appear changes for instance from wind to cloud, are really only changes of qual In that is: instances of alteration.9 has MM3 any case, ity, something not about W?hrle's TC.10 He Plutarch, to say about the ontological or mechanisms the stages attack calls which on states: the Standard to the attention character of change. Interpretation reported of change, but
cosmogony
on focuses in Pseudo
to be air, held the source of the world They say Anaximenes in quantity, in its quali and this was boundless but definite ties. All things were generated and by a sort of condensation of this. Motion has existed from ev respectively, thinning, [a] air was felted he says [b] the earth was erlasting. When formed first, being completely flat. For this very reason it on sun floats air. [c] The and the moon and the other heav their source of generation from earth. At enly bodies have the sun is earth, and because least he declares of its rapid mo tion it gains an excess of heat.11 (Ps.-Plutarch Stromateis 3 = A6) What in the passage is the sequence finds striking of into (b) earth, from which (a) air turns developments: bodies arise. On the Standard (c) the other heavenly Interpre we to produce would the air then clouds, tation, wind, expect so that there then water, and only then earth, and then stones, no would be for the materials need to of the heavenly bodies W?hrle cosmic arise isted. But from the earth: exist they would already there is no reason for Pseudo-Plutarch tradition His before earth ex to depart from
he is actually unless reporting as it the "lectio difficilior" that were, is, real view.12 W?hrle theorizes that in an Anaximenes' changes In other TC, into view, a set gener Theophrastus series governed by a cos Anaximenes' real us to trace TC to its
to rationalize attempt a alized few de facto single mogony inventor, This earlier mechanism.13 conflicts is an Theophrastus.14 ingenious commentators.15
words, allowing
with
of some other
with
testimonies, precisely calls into question all But there of course, is very little
ifW?hrle is right, one testimony because, the other testimonies that conflict with it. has no distinctive from his as apart of air And theory of change, fellow advocates of a source dis is, indeed, to see Anaximenes
Material tinctive,
it is hard
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or to the progress of philosophical speculation contributing to offer.16 advances scientific inquiry if he has no methodological II
There nes'
than Aristotle mentions Anaximenes in a very seem, then, that we are trapped and three small of texts testimonies collection (twenty-three a in tenuous very nar very Diels-Kranz)18 reflecting fragments an row range of views. The ideal situation would be to discover It would early which tion. testimony we could But where and Theophrastus of Aristotle independent by check the judgments of the doxographic tradi could we find such a testimony? the Consider from Plato's Timaeus:
dition, no by name.17
in trying to reconstruct Anaxime problem testimonies: all of them from date from philosophy existing or are most of them the time of Aristotle later, and dependent or his colleague on the views of Aristotle In ad Theophrastus. author earlier
is an obvious
following First,
discussion what we
as we have now called [v] water we observe, as it is com believe, turning into [vii] stones and [vi] earth and being separated, but then dissolving this same pacted; and and [iii] wind [ii] air, being thing becomes ignited, air in turn, and and becomes quenched [i] fire, being compressed fire departs and turns back into the form of [ii] air, and again air coming together and being condensed becomes [iv] cloud comes and mist, and from these being felted still more [v] flowing water, and from water come [vi] earth and [vii] stones on to each other in a circle, these things thus passing again, as it appears, their generation. (Plato Timaeus 49b7-c7)
into felt?prominent pressed as a technological Anaximenes plied ruled Plato imenes out to the as changes. sources
I have that this passage should be accepted argued a testimony of Anaximenes.19 For now let me call attention to the similarities account between and Plato's: (1) Simplicius's in all seven kinds of matter identified appear by Simplicius same in the Plato's the series.20 account, (2) places occupying of condensation and rarefaction The mechanisms the govern is com of felting?by which wool (3) The analogy changes. Elsewhere as first invoked probably by of compression,21 is ap sources can be All other pre-Socratic as indeed can for this theory of change, model recognized But they Anax fail to in and
himself.22
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6 consider
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
QUARTERLY
menes.
a legitimate but also embodies of Anaximenes, interpretation or we see correct can Anaximenes least At (whether not). by a mere account of Plato's that his reading is not de inspection on Aristotle's, or on anything like it, for it accords the pendent several what
on behalf I shall not argue of Plato's but reading, a line of investigation that departs from only suggest radically on Plato or Anaximenes the path has been any commentator us to Let that Plato's of discussion pursue. suppose willing some on not in the of draws, vague way, change only theory Here
the possibility that the passage be taken as in might for the views of Anaximenes. evidence this Evidently seems too of Anaximenes of that the from reading divergent even as a to count tradition of Anaxi doxographical testimony dependent
status. And so, minimally, we may see substances equal one predecessor of Aristotle in find the might theory of is indeed reacting to Anaximenes, we creatively, in his information to interpretation according however
Anaximenes.
find sufficient
with
theory of change. Accord both the sequence of changes and the mechanisms ing toW?hrle, of change were in invented his attempt to ra by Theophrastus if tionalize Anaximenes' But is Plato familiar cosmology. already the sequence and the mechanisms not have well in the mid-fourth before cen could tury, Theophrastus the theory. They were already set his But stylus we need to his notebooks not limit invented known the principles
skeptical no articulated
of
to compose
philosophy. ourselves something reactions iar with the among Sea For nor of Anaximenes' theory. in several pre-Socratics. Anaximenes materials: is made In his meteorology There to Plato's to learn reaction are correlations and That Xenophanes is famil
rainbow.24
is the source of water, the source of wind; neither <would there be wind> without great sea, currents of rivers nor rain water from the sky, but great sea is the begetter of clouds and winds and rivers. (B30)
the sequence of changes is not fully perspicuous in Although we see that from sea arises wind, this account, from which pre clouds feeds the sea. condense, rain, which sumably producing
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Some
commentators
to wind to cloud to water. of cycle of water want to make into a dualist Xenophanes out earth tells of but B27 and water,25 things are all things and into earth do all things end.
If earth
source
in his discussion to be neither clear nor systematic of changes,27 we might allow a sequence infer that he would of earth, water, then is wind, cloud, and fire. His view of meteorological changes at least consistent with Anaximenes' of theory change. Heraclitus earth turn a theory of change in which in a balanced and into one another has and of sea half fire, water, sequential is earth, and way: half
water and end of all things, presumably out of that. At the other extreme, the sun seems arise from moist vapors, of sparks which sug seems to fire.26 While from vapor Xenophanes
The turnings of fire: first sea, firewind.28 (B31a) The scheme similar: than is simpler an ordered it involves that
series
The fire turns into water, transformations. and by inverse turns back into fire, while the other half turns of the water half of earth turns back earth. Presumably into water. It may be objected Heraclitus recognizes on their debt doubt There the evidence
nor at this point that neither Xenophanes in the series, air as a material casting to the seven-fold scheme of Anaximenes.
may ther Xenophanes both at scheme, very similar In the western portant Nor Nor criticism
that Heraclitus is a possibility does air, but recognize is problematic.29 The absence of air in the scheme a criticism in fact embody of Anaximenes. But while nei nor Heraclitus follows Anaximenes' simply least seem to accept schemes of serial change in conception. to that of Anaximenes Greek Parmenides tradition, kind of theory: of a certain presents an
im
is it divisible, since all is alike, is there any more here, which would is full of what-is.
keep
it from hold
nor anything
less here
or there.
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8
Parmenides' differences
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
attack
QUARTERLY
The being. that to appeal to the is the only philosopher Anaximenes ports mechanisms of condensation and rarefaction Of explicitly.31 course W?hrle we have but Theophrastus' impugns veracity; already according mechanisms And since, to Simplicius, not assign does the Theophrastus to any other philosophers, if we reject Theophras tus' testimony we are left with no one against whom Parmenides is reacting. W?hrle Anaximenes, rests earth there remark, is an recognizes notably geology, on a cushion of air as even more striking parallel, following passage: in his that Anaxagoras seen reason to rehabilitate him as a witness.
a theory that explains is directed against in terms of differing of character concentrations of re obvious is Anaximenes.30 target Theophrastus
is deeply influenced by to which the flat according in Anaximenes (p. 31). But which W?hrle does not
in the
these things being separated From earth is compacted. For from clouds water is separated, from water earth, and from earth stones are compacted stones move by the cold. These out more than water. (B16) Here menes, we find four members with of the seven-fold scheme of Anaxi of condensation. What is complete a cannot is that condensation be in basic process striking to him all change for according results from the Anaxagoras, or rarefaction can of substances. Condensation rearrangement only be appearances concentration.32 Yet formations the series resulting from fundamental the in the series Note context Anaxagoras of Anaxagoras?and occurs claims imitates precisely it does not of changes of trans also that of cos the mechanism
his mechanisms.
for Anaxime belong Anaximenes' of thought Anaxagoras theory was It is no apt in the field of cosmogony. especially change wonder that writers of philosophical successions made a even student of the relation Anaximenes, Anaxagoras though a chronological ship was impossibility.33 In we Finally, criticisms find a trace of Anaximenes'
theory in Melissus. in which of theories of change he alludes to and Anaxagoras, he also seems to re Heraclitus, Empedocles, fer to Anaximenes: But it appears to us that the hot becomes cold and the cold . . .And from water hot, and the hard soft and the soft hard. earth and stone seem to come to be. (B8.3)
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by Anaxagoras. to be addressed: cosmogony would response how be to account by Pseudo he has simply or perhaps has himself that recorded
defective
I think there is another us heavily to discount him as that does not require possibility a source. What in his account, he is likely to be doing perhaps sources is focus from Theophrastus, the doxographic following on If the bodies. that of is appearance correct, there heavenly ing is no reason for him to mention intermediate the of con stages in the present context densation be taken for (that would The granted). the earth. We is that the first heavenly is point body to appear a simple not overlook should observation here: to does not say that earth is the first element that the Earth the noun,
is the first thing; the definite as well as the characterization accompanying on air, makes of the earth as a flat body floating the in clear tended And the earth referent. did the only after appeared reverse in this the stars. Seen of rarefaction process generate narrative light Pseudo-Plutarch's condensation and rarefaction but formation there was presupposes explicitly bodies. Hence it cannot be inferred of heavenly that no wind, or was water before there cloud, earth, only that there was no stable cosmic the earth. This is body before of Hippolytus, consistent with the account who records: came to be from earth because The heavenly bodies of the came to be moisture from which thinned it, arising being were from fire aloft the and bodies fire, floating heavenly 1.7.5 = All) composed. (Refutation of All Heresies deals the processes with only of the
A further is merely
in most
was
for the continued without the earth as heavenly What traces and bodies could
are forced to see Anaximenes phy. We a but rather without theory of change,
seems to emerge from this brief survey is that there are in both its cosmological of Anaximenes' theory of change its cosmogonical all pre-Socratic settings philoso through not as as a philosopher a philosopher whose
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10
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
QUARTERLY
influential theories of pre theory of change was one of the most to Anaximenes If Plato's Socratic is revealing, response thought. it is certainly not the earliest to his theory of change. A reaction thorough pre-Socratic edition of Anaximenes as would count philosophers testimonies fragments of his theory. of other
Ill
named after him, Meno raises the ques dialogue we would tion of how, when we were after something, inquiring some new if we had know in Plato it. Is there found insight in a new light? Let us turn that will help us to see Anaximenes at least which testimony, see of and what Anaximenes, adaptation on the F. notes: M. Cornford passage, Commenting tion or The tus back to what I call Plato's is his we reac have. In the Platonic
result so far is that fire and the rest are denied the sta or permanent an of elements with things unchanging character. Their in a cycle is de transformation apparent scribed in terms borrowed from Anaximenes and Anaxagoras. Anaximenes had conceived that all things at all times really are air. Air is the permanent fire is air in a rarefied nature; air becomes state; when more closely packed, successively
wind, cloud, water, earth, stone. . . .
Plato the contrary rejects this interpretation, asserting that there is a change of quality without any underlying stance or permanent (1937, 180) ground.
view sub
recited the Standard like of Anaximenes Interpretation Having a catechism, as Cornford Plato Anax interprets rejected having in favor of another. account imenes' But where does Plato reject the account? He provisionally it, and draws his conclu adopts seems to favor the account sions. He it says because precisely what to say?even of change adequate theory ideal account. the (For Plato will modify own to of suit the needs his of atomic-math theory change In other words, in adopting ematical the account, theory.)35 Plato as an initial is not rejecting but at least it, it, endorsing true of the approximation (his own, to be articulated theory a genuinely If that is so, we have different perspective later). though it is not the on that the the meaning and significance found in the doxographical it may be that Plato of Anaximenes' tradition. theory from he wants an
fast and loose with playing its real ontological basis and its implica theory, ignoring tions in order to say something to say. He may also be he wants
Now
is just
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11
it is objective I can and unbiased.36 But be the case if Plato were might right in his inter We might realize that we had found of Anaximenes. pretation what we were for: a different point of view from which looking right, much suggest what less that to understand If we Anaximenes. to the Standard for a moment, go back Interpretation in the Theory shall find that of Change by rely defending we have into question Monism.37 called Material ing on Plato, one material turns into another to Plato, in an end According is no single material that is always less cycle. There present, and not every material Plato is always changing account into some is the other material. flux What discovers in the
from his on theory of change across. own to On Plato's message get tological or potential wit the other hand, he at least is our only witness, ness, who is not in the thrall of the doxographical interpretation. I cannot here give a demonstration is that Plato's perspective theory in order
we
the constancy of a single the series of changes itself. reduce all stuff, we cannot because and MM3 there are is no false.
is always constant underlying to it. Change is not alter stuff to be altered. Hence
continuing
is this not wildly from a historical implausible I think not. Consider account Anaximander's fragment:
point
of
of change
From what objects things existent take place, does their destruction be: for they give recompense and pay to the for their injustice according Less than derliness According
to them too to what must "according restitution to each other of time." (Bl) ordering to be,
come
a theory of change, this account the or establishes over and balance time. of change when viewed to the best interpretation, this passage tells us that on into each other.38 When the hot trespasses perish of the The hot cold in summer, must make it eventually in into the cold and the winter, perishes
of the hot. It in turn must we have is not a single sub is now hot, now cold, but one temporary existence as another If it perishes into another. it is arises, to its successor substance. Heraclitus is explicit about the status of
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12
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
QUARTERLY
to water To souls it is death to become water, to be death come earth, but from earth water is born, and from water soul. (B36) Heraclitus Immortal those, The even makes a paradoxical generalization living of the pattern: the death of
of birth and death is the concrete correlate of the language to be and perishing, of coming both expressed language by the same verbs a child, and the or bears in Greek. A parent begets an ani child is born; it is not identical with its parents. When are generated mal in its carcass, dies and organisms they are not identical is not
with it. The dominant of birth and death imagery or change the imagery for expressing of qual alteration, is it the to for be and ity; imagery expressing coming cosmos But does not Heraclitus destruction. is say the whole fire? Yes and no: This world, the same of all, no god nor man did create, but it ever was and is and will be: everliving in mea fire, kindling sures and being quenched in measures. (B30)
is fire, but the fire lives by perishing and (kosmos) one The at world is fire because time its parts again. kindling were fire, and parts of it are now fire, and other parts will later be fire. In another the it world is is fire because sense, always like fire changes. changing The not he ers cycle, the "begetter" riv of and clouds, winds, (yeverup) a in that embodies the birth of (B30.5), phrase again imagery rather than of alteration. If sea begets clouds and winds, they are born from it and are not identical so we arrive with it. And all Plato the early seems Ionians to find explicit. sea calls are of Xenophanes presuppositions metaphysical if we recall his discussion But of the water again
The
world
are
at a surprising to which reading according the same is what saying thing, which in Anaximenes' attractive theory. If Plato's
is right, Anaximenes did not invent the reading common to of the Ionians. he took concept Rather, change from Anaximander the notion of one kind of thing chang and identified the items that undergo ing into another, change, which a natural his predecessor had left vague. His move was basic over one: could to specify what into what. turned In principle, he things a have of unconnected white posited plurality changes: to black, wet to dry, hot to cold, and vice versa.39 This, too, was
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13
a bi the changes, or that would allow process symmetrical changes, materials. of adjacent This mechanism transformations or rare from light to heavy allow and justify an ordering This can theory of change that all other materials
to dense.
the be articulated without are basic with one privi It What, then, is the role of air in Anaximenes? ex state before the cosmos one, undifferentiated
with associated air has special Furthermore, properties as can account well for the the world which orderliness of life, we as for animal not But and human need suppose intelligence. into six other that after air is differentiated stuffs, they are or offspring41 of air. still air: rather, they are products Anaximenes' mogony?presumably us And it allows account allows the explanation. in a ratio to explain the cosmos change within we as it is Indeed, nal?or, may say, scientific?way. precisely a mechanism to assign the attempt for change which makes pre and meteorology, of cosmogony, Socratic theories cosmology, seem at all the scientific. Without that, they would be no more we was can than re putative From write histories of the world. Anaximenes, To whom of philosophy. of Plato's also immediate and for an orderly aim of Ionian rational cos
standpoint
the early history Parmenides to be? Since the and coming reacting when he ruled out change there of Paul demise of the Pythagorean hypothesis Tannery,42 If the early Ionians had already has not been a good candidate. had a the theory of Material elaborated Monism, they already common in to that has much with Parmenides Aristotle's reply comes to be from nothing, but there is later response: nothing a continuing substratum. always can hypothesize that Parmenides' for the first time made other it clear by coming if A perishes we reading, is Anaximenes, who target that materials into each change On the Platonic <j)9eipouaiv.43 there is nothing I think Heraclitus Kai
But
In fact reliably. of the theory, and it consequences that Parmenides is replying most it is But directly. an argument. that gives Heraclitus theory of change and could the doxographical think they even was right
could Aristotle, Theophrastus, so wrong? How get Anaximenes a material was monist that Anaximenes
if Plato
in
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14
his
HISTORY
OF PHILOSOPHY
QUARTERLY
not
other major
answer to that. We have is a simple There interpretation? one in the that talked Anaximenes about yet pre-Socratic most: fluenced of Anaximenes' Apollonia. Diogenes Following
thing is arranged for the best (B3). But he holds that everything
is, and must ties needed of air. For air has those spiritual be, made quali to direct after the world (B3, B4, B5). But writing a firm for real needed substantial basis Diogenes of Parmenides' understanding that there is only one reality: monistic
devotee,
Anaxagoras,
Diogenes
argued
that
every
Parmenides,
are It seems right to me in general to say that all existents altered from the same thing and are the same thing. And this is manifest: for if the present existents of this world water, order?earth, fire, air, and the rest, which plainly exist in this world-order?if any of these was different the one from the other, being other in its own nature and not it would the same, often and alter, and in no way change . . . unless would they have been able to mix with each other so as were same. to be the But since all are constituted they same altered from the thing, they become different at differ ent times and turn back into the same thing. (B2) There phy. It Xenophanes: ard, much is only one material is not Anaximenes more monist or Tha?es, And Diogenes in pre-Socratic philoso or not Heraclitus we haz was, may
it is Diogenes.44 in his metaphysics than Anaximenes. explicit as he read in light of Diogenes read Anaximenes Aristotle in light of the post-Parmenidean Anaximander pluralists.45 onto the metaphysics And he projected of the later philosopher the earlier. If Plato is right, Anaximenes that a paradigm of phi produced the of conception shaped philosophical explanation losophy was not Mate down to the time of Parmenides. The paradigm nor was a pluralistic at all. it monistic rial Monism, It was an that into other substance theory positing original changed substances successor in such substances
in its turn, and portions of it would direct other emerge again and presumably the cosmos. stuffs from within, from without, was to fall before the devastat The Ionian destined paradigm of Parmenides. it fell, it would And when fall so ing criticisms completely know what told modern that after it had scholars the fourth looked even century B.C., no one would era if anyone like. And from an earlier what it looked would like, they perhaps
a way that it no longer its existed when But the original existed. stuff would
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15
look
This
It has and
to challenge and reject the Material Monism that formed the other part of the Standard Whether the alter Interpretation. can native critical sketched here withstand interpretation even millen and the cumulative inertia of centuries, scrutiny to be seen. But perhaps remains nia, of doxographical orthodoxy, it will be enough if it stimulates to take for themselves others a new look at Anaximenes.46
and ramifications of drawn a de in that reaction. the perspective embodied with Starting we found additional fense of Anaximenes' of change, theory reasons we were to support in the process, that theory. But led
reaction
Brigham
Young University
NOTES
1. See
2. All
esp. Classen
translations
(1977)
are my
and Hussey
own, except
(1972, p. 28).
as otherwise noted.
3. Aristotle variously seems to treat him as a monist 16) and as a pluralist (Physics 187a20-23). 4. Stobaeus,
Theophrastus
(Physics Galen
187al2? that
Theodoret,
nowhere
Olympiodorus,
this view
and Sabinus;
to Xenophanes.
notes
See
attributes
sources
collected
as Xenophanes
A36.
distinguishing
between
testimonies
6. Burnet (1892/1930, pp. 73-74), Bailey (1928, pp. 16-18), Guthrie (1962, pp. 115-116), Lloyd (1970, pp. 19-20, 21-22; 1979, pp. 140-141), and Schofield (1972, p. 27), Kirk in Kirk, Raven, Hussey (1983, pp. Barnes for Cornford, see below. Against 145-146), (1979/1982, pp. 38-44);
Barnes
pling of the majority. 7. Heidel (1906), Cherniss H?lscher (1953, pp. 267-268,
chap. tion, advocates 2). and These their of figures alternative the majority do not
in particular
in Graham
(1997,
pp.
12-17).
These
are
but
sam
(1953), (1971,
by
interpreta
proposals view.
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16
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY
QUARTERLY
8. Categories From Physics V on, 201a9-15, V.l-2. 14; Physics ULI, but Aristotle defines coming to be and perishing as changes, metabolai,
not as motions, hi?eseis, a subset of changes.
9. E.g.,
On Generation
and Corruption
314a8-ll.
10. W?hrle (1993, p. 18 ff.). In fact he rejects MM also, following in this (pp. 22, 32) without much argu Klowski (1972) and Cherniss
ment.
lkcivws 6ep|i?Tr|Ta
13. "Verdichtung und Verd?nnung . System . . nicht jedoch in der Weise, n?mlich als Faktoren eines Prozesses auf der einen und den Steinen auf der
spielten eine Rolle in Anaximenes' wie sie aus Theophrast hervorgeht, in zwei Richtungen mit dem Feuer anderen Seite' (58).
14. W?hrle (1993, pp. 19-23 and 58), following Klowski rather closely next the problem as an inconsistency note). Moran (1975) discusses (see
in Anaximenes' theory.
an argument in H?lscher 15. Klowski (1953, pp. (1972), developing There is a further argument based on a disputed MS reading 273-274).
of Hippolytus 1.7.7: Diels corrects
? df|p ?pai?joel? ?KTT TrL>KV(jL)|ievo? (|)epr|Tai by dropping the ?k- prefix and <j) pr|Tai. Klowski (pp. 137?138) changing the final words to Kai ??ei?
stresses that there is no
dve'iiou?
??
yevv?odai,
otciv
grammatical
reason
to emend
the
text, sees
which
account
of Anaximenes'
account
physics. On
and no
the
con
hand,
Hippolytus
accepts
the
traditional
to the Klowski-W?hrle
readings.
interpretation
does
textual
16. Hussey
cal change was
theory of physi
important
17. W?hrle
(1993, p. 31).
18. W?hrle adds four new testimonies, but all of them date from well after Aristotle, indeed from the Christian Era. 19. "A Testimony
20. I am
of Anaximenes
the mention
in Plato,"
of'mist'
submitted
for publication.
for cloud.
Plato
wind
omits
in his of a
assuming
in 49c5
is a synonym
[iv] cloud
subsequent
in his account
account
of water's
being how
being rarefied,
condensed, he reverses but
and
[iii]
of air's
is cyclical, he establishes
(Notice also
by
affirm
are the
order of
exposition.
of them.)
21. According toHippolytus "from air cloud is produced by felting [Kara tt\v Tu\r|aiv]" (Ref. 1.7.3) and the stars "turn around the earth like a fell cap [to ttiXiov]" (ibid., 6), a striking simile.
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17
55d ff. assigning one kind of triangle to earth and another to the other three canonical (Empedoclean) elements, with the result (56d) that earth
cannot change into any other sees element. as Hence
pre-Socratic
theories.
Plato
Tim,.
accepts
his rect
neither
the account
in propria
persona the
Plato
found in
cor
passage, account;
(1928) and F. M.
Cornford
(1937) ad he,
Vlastos and
24. Compare Xenophanes scholium on Aratus 515.27, 25. Barnes 26. According
hence eclipses
B32 with the texts of Aetius collected in Anaximenes A18. pp. 41-42).
sun
3.5.10
(1979/1982,
to Theophrastus
as reported by Aetius
comes of from burning vapors the moist
at 2.20.3 = A40;
clouds." that Solar provide
failure
1967.
27. On the other hand I do not wish to be as skeptical as Lloyd (1966, that Xenophanes p. 81) when he says that "It seems quite improbable
had either a very
when he
28.
precise
or
a very
elaborate
physical
theory
in mind
[stated B29]."
some sort
TTpnaTfip: "soul"
teorology 369al0-12,
with in place
371al5-17.
of "fire."
of fiery manifestation
of storms:
Aristotle
Me
air in the series with fire, water, and earth, but the of this fragments are likely to be infected by the four
of Empedocles, accepted as standard from classical times
on. Kahn
remains fold
(1979, pp.
be
153-155)
on an other
gives
grounds.
some reasons
As Kahn that allows
for accepting
Heraclitus' for expansion.
air, but
three
notes,
abbreviated
one
30. Taran (1965, p. 109) is at pains to deny that any particular theory as the is in question. Coxon (1986, p. 18 et ad loc.) sees Anaximenes in B8. Guthrie target in B4, B6, and B7, but says nothing of the passages
(1965, p. 33) sees Anaximenes as one of several possible targets.
on Aristotle's Physics 31. See Simplicius Commentary where Simplicius feels entitled to extend the mechanisms
There losophers. was consistent has in been some the question mechanisms about whether only ascribing
Theophrastus to Anaximenes
1953, p. 143, n. 72), but it seems to me in terms of explicit vs. tacit ascription. B9, B12, B13, B17 with Stokes
the problem
can be
32. Anaxagoras
33. Diogenes Laertius 2.6. According to Apollodorus, in the 63rd Olympiad (528-525 b.c.) while Anaxagoras 70th (500-497 b.c.) (D.L. 2.3, 2.7).
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18
HISTORY
OF PHILOSOPHY
QUARTERLY
34. Thus Xenophanes in Aetius 2.13.14 = A38, 2.20.3 = A40, 2.24.9 = n. 21 above); Heraclitus in Aetius 2.28.6 = A12 with B6; cf. A41a (see 3 On work influenced via Breaths (a by Anaximenes [Hippocrates] stars the of "But of is the and sun, moon, Diogenes path Apollonia): is the fuel wind for fire: fire the of air, wind; through deprived [Tpo^rj]
could 35. not See survive." above, n. 10.
36. In fact, I think it is colored by a Heraclitean perspective. But that, at least, is a perspective different from the one held by the Peripatetics. 37. W?hrle himself questions Material Monism, esp. pp. 22-23, but his argument is vitiated in part by its reliance on a flawed rejection of the Theory of Change. 38. That of Kahn (1960, 166ff.). B4, did in the realm of medical 2 = A10.
in what . . . said seems boundless to me air a close is the
theory.
Stromateis
appears
paraphrase source,
of from
"Anaximenes
which the things that are and were and will be and gods and divinities come to be, the rest from the offspring of these" (Hippolytus Refutation
1.7.1).
as reacting to a 42. Tannery (1887/1930, chap. 9) saw the Eleatics pluralistic Pythagorean theory; his view influenced many scholars for
generation, including Burnet, Cornford, and Raven.
43. A point grasped by Gigon (1968, p. 104), speaking of Anaximenes: "Der Eine Ursprung verwandelt sich in Alles und der unendliche Prozess der Verd?nnung und Verdichtung steht dem Begriff des reinen Werdens
schon
ganz
nahe.
. . .Anaximenes
der sichtbaren Dinge und wird darum der Hauptgegner des Parmenides." the Eleatics.
Curd's though Zeno more that or, to use precise is now an
gibt
als
Erster
die
konkrete
Anschauung
in einem
from consideration
monist,
I am inclined
terminology controversial
to believe
(1998, (see
contra, Barnes,
him seem as
1979a,
a
1970, pp.
anti-pluralist, sense,
132
Melissus
One do
is most
not
likely a numerical
to be material
"nondualist").
and
fiable with any element or stuff in the world; see Melissus B9 with Vlastos (1953, pp. 34-35). McDiarmid (1953, pp. 102-106) notices the close con nections Anaximenes and Diogenes between in Aristotle and on but focuses he the differences between Diogenes' and Theophrastus;
Aristotle's theories: "the air
in any
of Diogenes
is no more
an Aristotelian
sub
air is (p. 105). Yet even if Diogenes' terms, it is a single material reality.
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19
introduces 984a5-7.
is at least a trace of this in the way Aristotle in the same breath, Metaphysics and Diogenes
as perhaps a pluralist, see n. 3 above.
at the of Classics 46. I read a version of this paper to the Department an Con at XI the version and Dec. of 14, 2001, Toronto, early University 2001. Mexico de of the Asociaci?n 15, M?xico, City, Aug. gress Filos?fica in both presentations. I am grateful for helpful discussion
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