Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive testing method used for defect detection. MPI is a fast and relatively easy to apply and part surface preparation is not as critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These characteristics make MPI one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing methods. MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect flaws in components. The only re uirement from an inspecta!ility standpoint is that the component !eing inspected must !e made of a ferromagnetic material such iron, nickel, co!alt, or some of their alloys. "erromagnetic materials are materials that can !e magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to !e affective. The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms such as castings, forgings, and weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a component#s fitness$for$use. %ome e&amples of industries that use magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries. 'nderwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may !e used to test such things as offshore structures and underwater pipelines.

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Basic Principles
In theory, magnetic particle inspection )MPI* is a relatively simple concept. It can !e considered as a com!ination of two nondestructive testing methods+ magnetic flu& leakage testing and visual testing. ,onsider a !ar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. -ny place that a magnetic line of force e&its or enters the magnet is called a pole. - pole where a magnetic line of force e&its the magnet is called a north pole and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.

.hen a !ar magnet is !roken in the center of its length, two complete !ar magnets with magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is /ust cracked !ut not !roken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each edge of the crack. The magnetic field e&its the north pole and reenters the at the south pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it encounter the small air gap created !y the crack !ecause the air can not support as much magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet can. .hen the field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus, it is called a flu& leakage field.

If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will !e attracted to and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet !ut also at the poles at the edges of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack and this is the !asis for magnetic particle inspection.

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The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is to !e inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will create a leakage field. -fter the component has !een magnetized, iron particles, either in a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The particles will !e attracted and cluster at the flu& leakage fields, thus forming a visi!le indication that the inspector can detect.

History of Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetism is the a!ility of matter to attract other matter to itself. The ancient 1reeks were the first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite. 2ater on 3ergmann, 3ec uerel, and Michael "araday discovered that all matter including li uids and gasses were affected !y magnetism, !ut only a few responded to a noticea!le e&tent. The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect an o!/ect took place as early as (454. ,annon !arrels were checked for defects !y magnetizing the !arrel then sliding a magnetic compass along the !arrel#s length. These early inspectors were a!le to locate flaws in the !arrels !y monitoring the needle of the compass. This was a form of nondestructive testing !ut the term was not really used until some time after .orld .ar I. In the early (6078s, .illiam 9oke realized that magnetic particles )colored metal shavings* could !e used with magnetism as a means of locating defects. 9oke discovered that a surface or su!surface flaw in a magnetized material caused the magnetic field to distort and e&tend !eyond the part. This discovery was !rought to his attention in the machine shop. 9e noticed that the metallic grindings from hard steel parts, which were !eing held !y a magnetic chuck while !eing ground, formed patterns on the face of the parts which corresponded to the cracks in the surface. -pplying a fine ferromagnetic powder to the parts caused a !uild up of powder over flaws and formed a visi!le indication. In the early (6:78s, magnetic particle inspection )MPI* was uickly replacing the oil$ and$whiting method )an early form of the li uid penetrant inspection* as the method of choice !y the railroad to inspect steam engine !oilers, wheels, a&les, and the tracks. Today, the MPI inspection method is used e&tensively to check for flaws in a large variety of manufactured materials and components. MPI is used to check materials such as steel !ar stock for seams and other flaws prior to investing machining time during the manufacturing of a component. ,ritical automotive components are $:$

inspected for flaws after fa!rication to ensure that defective parts are not placed into service. MPI is used to inspect some highly loaded components that have !een in$ service for a period of time. "or e&ample, many components of high performance race cars are inspected whenever the engine, drive train and other systems are overhauled. MPI is also used to evaluate the integrity of structural welds on !ridges, storage tanks, and other safety critical structures.

Magnetism
Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. 'ses of magnets range from holding pictures on the refrigerator to causing tor ue in electric motors. Most people are familiar with the general properties of magnets !ut are less familiar with the source of magnetism. The traditional concept of magnetism centers around the magnetic field and what is know as a dipole. The term ;magnetic field; simply descri!es a volume of space where there is a change in energy within that volume. This change in energy can !e detected and measured. The location where a magnetic field can !e detected e&iting or entering a material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic poles have never !een detected in isolation !ut always occur in pairs and, thus, the name dipole. Therefore, a dipole is an o!/ect that has a magnetic pole on one end and a second e ual !ut opposite magnetic pole on the other. - !ar magnet can !e considered a dipole with a north pole at one end and south pole at the other. - magnetic field can !e measured leaving the dipole at the north pole and returning the magnet at the south pole. If a magnet is cut in two, two magnets or dipoles are created out of one. This sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to the atomic level. Therefore, the source of magnetism lies in the !asic !uilding !lock of all matter...the atom. The Source of Magnetism -ll matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the atom#s nucleus and the electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus. <lectrons carry a negative electrical charge and produce a magnetic field as they move through space. - magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the magnetic moment. This may!e hard to visualize on a su!atomic scale !ut consider electric current flowing through a conductor. .hen the electrons )electric current* are flowing through the conductor, a magnetic field forms around the conductor. The magnetic field can !e detected using a compass. The magnetic field will place a force on the compass needle, which is another e&ample of a dipole. %ince all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way !y a magnetic field. 9owever, not all materials react the same way. This will !e e&plored more in the ne&t section. $=$

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic Materials

.hen a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the material#s electrons will !e affected. This effect is known as "araday#s 2aw of Magnetic Induction. 9owever, materials can react uite differently to the presence of an e&ternal magnetic field. This reaction is dependent on a num!er of factors such as the atomic and molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic field associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins. These are the electron or!ital motion, the change in or!ital motion caused !y an e&ternal magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons. In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. <ach electron in a pair spins in the opposite direction. %o when electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause there magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic field e&ists. -lternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic field and will react more to an e&ternal field. Most materials can !e classified as ferromagnetic, diamagnetic or paramagnetic. Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative suscepti!ility to magnetic fields. Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled !y a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties when the e&ternal field is removed. Diamagnetic materials are solids with all paired electron and, therefore, no permanent net magnetic moment per atom. Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron or!its under the influence of an e&ternal magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic ta!le, including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic. Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive suscepti!ility to magnetic fields. These materials are slightly attracted !y a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties when the e&ternal field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons and from the realignment of the electron or!its caused !y the e&ternal magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include Magnesium, moly!denum, lithium, and tantalum. Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive suscepti!ility to an e&ternal magnetic field. They e&hi!it a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are a!le to retain their magnetic properties after the e&ternal field has !een removed. "erromagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net magnetic moment. They get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domains. In these domains, large num!ers of atoms moments )(7>(0 to (7>(?* are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong. .hen a ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnitized state, the domains are nearly randomly organized and the net magnetic field for the part as a whole is zero. .hen a magnetizing force is applied, the domains !ecome aligned to produce a strong magnetic field within the part. Iron, Nickel, and co!alt are e&amples of ferromagnetic $?$

materials. ,omponents with these materials are commonly inspected using the magnetic particle method.

Magnetic Domains
"erromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties not only !ecause their atoms carry a magnetic moment !ut also !ecause the material is made up of small regions known as magnetic domains. In each domain, all of the atomic dipoles are coupled together in a preferential direction. This alignment develops as the material develops its crystalline structure during solidification from the molten state. Magnetic domains can !e detected using Magnetic "orce Microscopy )M"M* and images of the domains like the one shown !elow can !e constructed.

Magnetic "orce Microscopy )M"M* image showing the magnetic domains in a piece of heat treated car!on steel.

During solidification a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong in one direction. "erromagnetic materials are said to !e characterized !y ;spontaneous magnetization; since they o!tain saturation magnetization in each of the domains without an e&ternal magnetic field !eing applied. <ven though the domains are magnetically saturated, the !ulk material may not show any signs of magnetism !ecause the domains develop themselves are randomly oriented relative to each other. "erromagnetic materials !ecome magnetized when the magnetic domains within the material are aligned. This can !e done my placing the material in a strong e&ternal magnetic field or !y passes electrical current through the material. %ome or all of the domains can !ecome aligned. The more domains that are aligned, the stronger the magnetic field in the material. .hen all of the domains are aligned, the material is said to !e magnetically saturated. .hen a material is magnetically saturated, no additional amount of e&ternal magnetization force will cause an increase in its internal level of magnetization.

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'nmagnetized Material

Magnetized Material

Magnetic Field Characteristics

Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet -s discussed previously a magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of space. The magnetic field surrounding a !ar magnet can !e seen in the magnetograph !elow. - magnetograph can !e created !y placing a piece of paper over a magnet and sprinkling the paper with iron filings. The particles align themselves with the lines of magnetic force produced !y the magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the magnetic field e&its the material at one pole and reenters the material at another pole along the length of the magnet. It should !e noted that the magnetic lines of force e&ist in three$dimensions !ut are only seen in two dimensions in the image.

It can !e seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the length of the magnet !ut that the poles are concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where the e&it poles are concentrated is called the magnet#s north pole and the area where the entrance poles are concentrated is called the magnet#s south pole. Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more common is the horseshoe )'* magnet. The horseshoe magnet has north and south poles /ust like a !ar magnet !ut the magnet is curved so the poles lie in the same plane. The magnetic lines of force flow from $@$

pole to pole /ust like in the !ar magnet. 9owever, since the poles are located closer together and a more direct path e&ists for the lines of flu& to travel !etween the poles, the magnetic field is concentrated !etween the poles.

If a !ar magnet was placed across the end of a horseshoe magnet or if a magnet was formed in the shape of a ring, the lines of magnetic force would not even need to enter the air. The value of such a magnet where the magnetic field is completely contained with the material pro!a!ly has limited use. 9owever, it is important to understand that the magnetic field can flow in loop within a material when the concept of circular magnetism is later covered.

General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force Magnetic lines of force have a num!er of important properties, which include+

They seek the path of least resistance !etween opposite magnetic poles. In a single !ar magnet as shown to the right, they attempt to form closed loop from pole to pole. They never cross one another. They all have the same strength. Their density decreases )they spread out* when they move from an area of higher permea!ility to an area of lower permea!ility. Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles. They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement occurs. They flow from the south pole to the north pole within the material and north pole to south pole in air.

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Electromagnetic Fields
Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. In (407, 9ans ,hristian Aersted discovered that an electric current flowing through a wire caused a near!y compass to deflect. This indicated that the current in the wire was generating a magnetic field. Aersted studied the nature of the magnetic field around the long straight wire. 9e found that the magnetic field e&isted in circular form around the wire and that the intensity of the field was directly proportional to the amount of current carried !y the wire. 9e also found that the strength of the field was strongest close to the wire and diminished with distance from the conductor until it could no longer !e detected. In most conductors, the magnetic field e&ists only as long as the current is flowing )i.e. an electrical charge is in motion*. 9owever, in ferromagnetic materials the electric current will cause some or all of the magnetic domains to align and a residual magnetic field will remain. Aersted also noticed that the direction of the magnetic field was dependent on the direction of the electrical current in the wire. three$dimensional representation of the magnetic field is shown !elow. There is a simple rule for remem!ering the direction of the magnetic field around a conductor. It is called the right hand rule. If a person grasps a conductor in ones right hand with the thum! pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers will circle the conductor in the direction of the magnetic field. $6$

A !ord of caution a"out the right hand rule "or the right$hand rule to work, one important thing that must remem!ered a!out the direction of current flow. %tandard convention has current flowing from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This convention is credited to the "rench physicist -mpere who theorized that electric current was due to a positive charge moving from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. 9owever, it was later discovered that it is the movement of the negatively charged electron that is responsi!le for electrical current. Bather than changing several centuries of theory and e uations, -mpere#s convention is still used today.

Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil

.hen a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a coil, a magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along longitudinal a&is and circles !ack around the outside of the loop or coil. The magnetic field circling each loop of wire com!ines with the fields from the other loops to produce a concentrated field down the center of the coil. - loosely wound coil is illustrated !elow to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil when it is wound tighter.

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The strength of a coil#s magnetic field increases not only with increasing current !ut also with each loop that is added to the coil. - long straight coil of wire is called a solenoid and can !e used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a !ar magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the magnetic particle testing method. Please !e aware that the field outside the coil is weak and is not suita!le for magnetize ferromagnetic materials.

Quantifying Magnetic Properties

Magnetic Field !trength, Flu" Density, #otal Flu" and Magneti$ation% 'ntil now, only the ualitative features of the magnetic field have !een discussed. 9owever, it is necessary to !e a!le to measure and e&press uantitatively the various characteristics of magnetism. 'nfortunately, a num!er of unit conventions are in use as shown !elow. %I units will !e used in this material. The advantage of using %I units is that they are tracea!le !ack to an agreed set of four !ase units $ meter, kilogram, second, and -mpere. Cuantity %I 'nits %I 'nits )%ommerfeld* )Dennelly* H -Em -Em tesla we!er $ ,1% 'nits )1aussian* oersteds gauss ma&well erg.Ae$(.cm$:

"ield "lu& Density tesla )Magnetic Induction* "lu& we!er Magnetization M -Em

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The units for magnetic field strength H are ampereEmeter. - magnetic field strength of ( ampereEmeter is produced at the center of a single circular conductor of diameter ( meter carrying a steady current of ( ampere.

The num!er of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a given area at a right angle is known as the magnetic flu# densit$ B. The flu& density or magnetic induction has the tesla as its unit. Ane tesla is e ual to ( NewtonE)-Em*. "rom these units it can !e seen that the flu& density is a measure of the force applied to a particle !y the magnetic field. The 1auss is ,1% unit for flu& density and is commonly used !y '% industry. Ane gauss represents one line of flu& passing through one s uare centimeter of air oriented 67 degrees to flu& flow. The total num!er of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic flu# . The strength of the flu& is determined !y the num!er of magnetic domains that are aligned within a material. The total flu& is simply the flu& density applied over an area. "lu& carries the unit of a we!er, which is simply a tesla$s uare meter. The magnetization is a measure of the e&tent to which an o!/ect is magnetized. It is a measure of the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the o!/ect. Magnetization carries the same units as a magnetic fieldF amperesEmeter. %on&ersion "et!een %GS and SI magnetic units'

#he Hysteresis &oop and Magnetic Properties

- great deal of information can !e learned a!out the magnetic properties of a material !y studying its hysteresis loop. - hysteresis loop shows the relationship !etween the

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induced magnetic flu& density B and the magnetizing force H' It is often referred to as the 3$9 loop. -n e&ample hysteresis loop is shown !elow.

The loop is generated !y measuring the magnetic flu& B of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizing force H is changed. - ferromagnetic material that has never !een previously magnetized or has !een thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. -s the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H)*, the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B)*. -t point ;a; almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flu&. The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation. .hen H is reduced !ack down to zero, the curve will move from point ;a; to point ;!.; -t this point, it can !e seen that some magnetic flu& remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. )%ome of the magnetic domains remain aligned !ut some have lost there alignment.* -s the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point ;c;, where the flu& has !een reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. )The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flu& within the material is zero.* The force re uired to remove the residual magnetism from the material, is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material. -s the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again !ecome magnetically saturated !ut in the opposite direction )point ;d;*. Beducing H to zero !rings the curve to point ;e.; It will have a level of residual magnetism e ual to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H !ack in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph !ecause some force is re uired to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a

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different path form point ;f; !ack the saturation point where it with complete the loop. "rom the hysteresis loop, a num!er of primary magnetic properties of a material can !e determined. (. Retenti&it$ $ - measure of the residual flu& density corresponding to the saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material#s a!ility to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. )The value of B at point 3 on the hysteresis curve.* 0. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flu# $ the magnetic flu& density that remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has !een magnetized to the saturation point. 9owever, the level of residual magnetism may !e lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level. :. %oerci&e Force $ The amount of reverse magnetic field which must !e applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flu& return to zero. )The value of H at point , on the hysteresis curve.* =. Permea"ilit$+ - property of a material that descri!es the ease with which a magnetic flu& is esta!lished in the component. ?. Reluctance $ Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the esta!lishment of a magnetic field. Beluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.

Permeability
-s previously mentioned, permea!ility is a material property that descri!es the ease with which a magnetic flu& is esta!lished in the component. It is the ratio of the flu& density to the magnetizing force and, therefore, represented !y the following e uation+

= /
It is clear that this e uation descri!es the slope of the curve at any point on the hysteresis loop. The permea!ility value given in papers and reference materials is usually the ma&imum permea!ility or the ma&imum relative permea!ility. The ma&imum permea!ility is the point where the slope of the 3E9 curve for unmagnetized material is the greatest. This point is often taken as the point where a straight line from the origin is tangent to the 3E9 curve. The relative permea!ility is arrived at !y taking the ratio of the material#s permea!ility to the permea!ility in free space )air*. $ (= $

)relative* G )material* , (air)

where+

(air) G = & (7>$@ 9m>$(

The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal a!out the material !eing magnetized. The hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the graph. Belative to the other material, the materials with the wide hysteresis loop has+

2ower Permea!ility 9igher Betentivity 9igher ,oercivity 9igher Beluctance 9igher Besidual Magnetism

The material with the narrower loop has+

9igher Permea!ility 2ower Betentivity 2ower ,oercivity 2ower Beluctance 2ower Besidual Magnetism.

In magnetic particle testing the level of residual magnetism is important. Besidual magnetic fields are affected !y the permea!ility, which can !e related to the car!on content and alloying of the material. - component with high car!on content will have low permea!ility and will retain more magnetic flu& than a material with low car!on content. In the two 3$9 loops a!ove, which one would indicative of a low car!on steelH -nswer

Magnetic Field 'rientation and Fla( Detectability

To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to understand that orientation !etween the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very important. There are two general types of magnetic fields that can !e esta!lished within a component.

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- longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run parallel to the long a&is of the part. 2ongitudinal magnetization of a component can !e accomplished using the longitudinal field set up !y a coil or solenoid. It can also !e accomplished using permanent or electromagnets. - circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run circumferentially around the perimeter of a part. circular magnetic field is induced in an article !y either passing current through the component or !y passing current through a conductor surrounded !y the component. The type of magnetic field esta!lished is determined !y the method used to magnetize the specimen. 3eing a!le to magnetize the part in two directions is important !ecause the !est detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are esta!lished at right angles to the longest dimension of the defect. This orientation creates the largest disruption of the magnetic field within the part and the greatest flu& leakage at the surface of the part. -s can !e seen in the image !elow, if the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will see little disruption and no flu& leakage field will !e produced.

-n orientation of =? to 67 degrees !etween the magnetic field and the defect is necessary to form an indication. %ince defects may occur in various and unknown directions, each part is normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each other. If the component !elow is considered, it is known that passing current through the part from end to end will esta!lish a circular magnetic field that will !e 67 degrees to the direction of the current. Therefore, defects that have a significant dimension in the direction of the current )longitudinal defects* should !e detecta!le. -lternately, transverse$type defects will not !e detecta!le with circular magnetization.

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Magneti$ation of Ferromagnetic Materials

There are a variety of methods that can !e used to esta!lish a magnetic field in a component for evaluation using magnetic particle inspection. It is common to classify the magnetizing methods as either direct or indirect. Magneti-ation .sing Direct Induction (Direct Magneti-ation* .ith direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the component. Becall that whenever current flows a magnetic field is produced. 'sing the right$hand rule, which was introduced earlier, it is known that the magnetic lines of flu& form normal to the direction of the current and form a circular field in and around the conductor. .hen using the direct magnetization method, care must !e taken to ensure that good electrical contact is esta!lished and maintained !etween the test e uipment and the test component. Improper contact can result in arcing that may damage the component. It is also possi!le to overheat components in areas of high resistance such as the contact points and in areas of small cross$ sectional area. There are several ways that direct magnetization is commonly accomplished. Ane way involves $ (@ $

clamping the component !etween two electrical contacts in a special piece of e uipment. ,urrent is passed through the component and a circular magnetic field is esta!lished in and around the component. .hen the magnetizing current is stopped, a residual magnetic field will remain within the component. The strength of the induced magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current passed through the component. - second techni ue involves using clams or prods, which are attached or placed in contact with the component. ,urrent is in/ected into the component as it flows from the contacts. The current sets up a circular magnetic fields around the path of the current.

Magneti-ation .sing Indirect Induction (Indirect Magneti-ation* Indirect magnetization is accomplished !y using a strong e&ternal magnetic field to esta!lish a magnetic field within the component. -s with direct magnetization, there are several ways that indirect magnetization can !e accomplished. The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of esta!lishing a magnetic field. 9owever, their use is limited due to lack of control of the field strength and the difficulty of placing and removing strong permanent magnets from the component. /lectromagnets in the form of an ad/usta!le horseshoe magnet )called a yoke* eliminate the pro!lems associated with permanent magnets and are used e&tensively in industry. <lectromagnets only e&hi!it a magnetic flu& when electric current is flowing around the soft iron core. .hen the magnet is placed on the component, a magnetic field is esta!lished !etween the north and south poles of the magnet. -nother way of indirectly inducting a magnetic field in a material is !y using the magnetic field of a current carrying conductor. - circular magnetic field can !e esta!lished in cylindrical components !y using a central conductors' Typically, one or more cylindrical components are hung from a solid copper !ar running through the inside diameter. ,urrent is passed through the copper !ar and the resulting circular magnetic field esta!lished a magnetic field with the test components. The use of coils and solenoids is a third method of indirect magnetization. .hen the length of a component is several time larger than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic field can !e esta!lished in the component. The component is placed longitudinally in the concentrated $ (4 $

magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization techni ue is often referred to as a ;coil shot.;

Magneti$ing Current
-s seen in the previous pages, electric current is often used to esta!lish the magnetic field in components during magnetic particle inspection. -lternating current and direct current are the two !asic types of current commonly used. ,urrent from single phase ((7 volts, to three phase ==7 volts are used when generating an electric field in a component. ,urrent flow is often modified to provide the appropriate field within the part. The type of current used can have an effect on the inspection results so the types of currents commonly used will !e !riefly reviewed. Direct %urrent Direct current )D,* flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. !attery is the most common source of direct current. -s previously mentioned, current is said to flow from the positive to the negative terminal when in actuality the electrons flow in the opposite direction. D, is very desira!le when performing magnetic particle inspection in search of su!surface defects !ecause D, generates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the material. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field produced !y D, generally penetrates the entire cross$section of the componentF whereas, the field produced using alternating current is concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component. Alternating %urrent -lternating current )-,* reverses in direction at a rate of ?7 or 57 cycles per second. In the 'nited %tates, 57 cycle current is the commercial norm !ut ?7 cycle current is common in many countries. %ince -, is readily availa!le in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle inspection. 9owever, when -, is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials the magnetic field will !e limited to narrow region at the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known as ;skin effect; and it occurs !ecause induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is recommended that -, !e used only when the inspection is limited to surface defects. Iiew a short video on the -, versus D, )(6? D3 mov* Rectified Alternating %urrent ,learly, the skin effect limits the use of -, since many inspection applications call for the detection of su!surface defects. 9owever, the convenient access to -,, drive its use !eyond surface flaw inspections. 2uckily, -, can !e converted to current that is very much like D, through the process of rectification. .ith the use of rectifiers, the reversing -, can !e converted to a one$directional current. The three commonly used types of rectified current are descri!ed !elow.

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Half 0a&e Rectified Alternating %urrent (H0A%* .hen single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is !locked out so that a one directional, pulsating current is produced. The current rises from zero to a ma&imum and then returns to zero. No current flows during the time when the reverse cycle is !locked out. The 9.-, repeats at same rate as the unrectified current )?7 or 57 hertz typical*. %ince half of the current is !locked out, the amperage is half of the unaltered -,. This type of current is often referred to as half wave D, or pulsating D,. The pulsation of the 9.-, helps magnetic particle indications form !y vi!rating the particles and giving them added mo!ility. This added mo!ility is especially important when using dry particles. The pulsation is reported to significantly improve inspection sensitivity. 9.-, is most often used to power electromagnetic yokes. Full 0a&e Rectified Alternating %urrent (F0A%* (Single Phase* "ull wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than !locking it out. This produces a pulsating D, with no interval !etween the pulses. "iltering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified current. .hile particle mo!ility is not as good as half$wave -, due to the reduction in pulsation, the depth of the su!surface magnetic field is improved. Three Phase Full 0a&e Rectified Alternating %urrent $ 07 $

Three phase current is often used to power industrial e uipment !ecause it has more favora!le power transmission and line loading characteristics. It is also highly desira!le for magnetic part testing !ecause when it is rectified and filtered, the resulting current very closely resem!les direct current. %tationary magnetic particle e uipment wire with three phase -, will usually have the a!ility to magnetize with -, or D, )three phase full wave rectified*, providing the inspector with the advantages of each current form.

&ongitudinal Magnetic Fields Distribution and Intensity

.hen the length of a component is several time larger than its diameter, a longitudinal magnetic field can !e esta!lished in the component. The component is often placed longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic field that fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization techni ue is often referred to as a ;coil shot.; The magnetic field travels through the component from end to end with some flu& loss along its length as shown in the image to the right. Deep in mind that the magnetic lines of flu& occur in three dimensions and are only shown in 0D in the image. The magnetic lines of flu& are much denser inside the ferromagnetic material than in air !ecause ferromagnetic materials have much higher permea!ility than does air. .hen the concentrated flu& within the material comes to the air at the end of the component, it must spread out since the air can not support as many lines of flu& per unit volume. To keep from crossing as they spread out, some of the magnetic lines of flu& are forced out the side of the component. .hen a component is magnetized along its complete length, the flu& loss is small along its length. Therefore, when a component is uniform in cross section and magnetic permea!ility, the flu& density will !e relatively uniform throughout the component. "laws that run normal to the magnetic lines of flu& will distur! the flu& lines and often cause a leakage field at the surface of the component.

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.hen a component with considera!le length is magnetized using a solenoid, it is possi!le to magnetize only a portion of the component. Anly the material within the solenoid and a!out the same width on each side of the solenoid will !e strongly magnetized. -t some distance from the solenoid, the magnetic lines of force will a!andon their longitudinal direction, leave the part at a pole on one side of the solenoid and return to the part at a opposite pole on the other side of the solenoid. This occurs !ecause the magnetizing force diminishes with increasing distance from the solenoid, and, therefore, the magnetizing force may only !e strong enough to align the magnetic domains within and very near the solenoid. The unmagnetized portion of the component will not support as much magnetic flu& as the magnetized portion and some of the flu& will !e forced out of the part as illustrated in the image !elow. Therefore, a long component must !e magnetized and inspected at several locations along its length for complete inspection coverage.

Solenoid $ -n electrically energized coil of insulated wire, which produces a magnetic field within the coil.

Circular Magnetic Fields Distribution and Intensity

-s discussed previously, when current is passed through a solid conductor, a magnetic field forms in and around the conductor. The following statements can !e made a!out the distri!ution and intensity of the magnetic field.

The field strength varies from zero at the center of the component to a ma&imum at the surface. The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the conductor increases when the current strength is held constant. )9owever, a larger conductor is capa!le of carrying more current.* The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current strength. Inside the conductor the field strength is dependent on the current strength, magnetic permea!ility of the material, and if magnetic, the location on the 3$9 curve. The field strength outside the conductor decreases with distance from the conductor. $ 00 $

In the images !elow, the magnetic field strength is graphed versus distance from the center of the conductor. It can !e seen that in a nonmagnetic conductor carrying D,, the internal field strength rises from zero at the center to a ma&imum value at the surface of the conductor. The e&ternal field strength decrease with distance from the surface of the conductor. .hen the conductor is a magnetic material, the field strength within the conductor is much greater that it was in the nonmagnetic conductor. This is due to the permea!ility of the magnetic material. The e&ternal field is e&actly the same for the two materials provided the current level and conductor radius are the same.

The magnetic field distri!ution in and The magnetic field distri!ution in and around a solid conductor of a around a solid conductor of a magnetic nonmagnetic material carrying direct material carrying direct current. current.

The magnetic field distri!ution in and around a solid conductor of a magnetic material carrying alternating current.

.hen the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic field strength rises from zero at the center to a ma&imum at the surface. 9owever, the field is concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the conductor. This is known as the ;skin effect.; The skin effect is evident in the field strength versus distance graph for a magnet conductor shown to the right. The e&ternal field decreases with increasing $ 0: $

distance from the surface as it does with D,. It should !e remem!ered that with -, the field is constantly varying in strength and direction.

In a hollow circular conductor there is no magnetic field in the void area. The magnetic field is zero at the inside wall surface and rises until it reaches a ma&imum at the outside wall surface. -s with a solid conductor, when the conductor is a magnetic material, the field strength within the conductor is much greater that it was in the nonmagnetic conductor due to the permea!ility of the magnetic material. The e&ternal field strength decrease with distance from the surface of the conductor. The e&ternal field is e&actly the same for the two materials provided the current level and conductor radius are the same.

The magnetic field distri!ution in and around a hollow conductor of a nonmagnetic material carrying direct current.

The magnetic field distri!ution in and around a hollow conductor of a magnetic material carrying direct current.

The magnetic field distri!ution in and around a hollow conductor of a magnetic material carrying alternating current.

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.hen -, is passed through a hollow circular conductor the skin effect concentrates the magnetic field at the AD of the component.

The magnetic field distri!ution in and around a nonmagnetic central conductor carrying D, inside a hollow conductor of a magnetic material . -s can !e seen in the field distri!ution images, the field strength at the inside surface of hollow conductor carrying a circular magnetic field produced !y direct magnetization is very low. Therefore, the direct method of magnetization is not recommended when inspecting the inside diameter wall of a hollow component for shallow defects. The field strength increases rather rapidly as one moves in from the ID so if the defect has significant depth, it may !e detecta!le. 9owever, a much !etter method of magnetizing hollow components for inspection of the ID and AD surfaces is with the use of a central conductor. -s can !e seen in the field distri!ution image to the right, when current is passed through a nonmagnetic central conductor )copper !ar* the magnetic field produced on the inside diameter surface of a magnetic tu!e is much greater and the field is still strong enough for defect detection on the AD surface.

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Demagneti$ation
-fter conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize the component. Bemanent magnetic fields can+

affect machining !y causing cuttings to cling to a component. interfere with electronic e uipment such as a compass. can create a condition known as ;ark !low; in the welding process. -rc !low may causes the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to !e repelled from the weld. cause a!rasive particle to cling to !earing or faying surfaces and increase wear.

Bemoval of a field may !e accomplished in several ways. This random orientation of the magnetic domains can !e achieved most effectively !y heating the material a!ove its curie temperature. The curie temperature for a low car!on steel is @@7 degrees , or (:67 degrees ". .hen steel is heated a!ove its curie temperature, it will !ecome austenitic and loose its magnetic properties. .hen it is cooled !ack down it will go through a reverse transformation and will contain no residual magnetic field. The material should also !e placed with it long a&is in an east$west orientation to avoid any influence of the <arth#s magnetic field. It is often inconvenient to heat a material a!ove it curie temperature to demagnetize it so another method that returns the material to a nearly unmagnetized state is commonly used. %u!/ecting the component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic field will return the dipoles to a nearly randomly oriented throughout the material. This can !e accomplished !y pulling a component out and away from a coil with -, passing through it. The same can also !e accomplished using an electromagnetic yoke with -, selected. -lso, many stationary magnetic particle inspection units come in a demagnetization feature that slow reduce the -, in a coil in which that component is placed. - field meter is often used to verifying that the residual flu& has !een removed from a component. Industry standards usually re uire that the magnetic flu& !e reduced to less than : gauss after completing a magnetic particle inspection.

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Measuring Magnetic Fields

.hen performing a magnetic particle inspection, it is very important to !e a!le to determine the direction and intensity of the magnetic field. -s discussed previously, the direction of the magnetic field should !e !etween =? and 67 degrees to the longest dimension of the flaw for !est detecta!ility. The field intensity must !e high enough to cause an indication to form, !ut not too high or nonrelevant indications may form that could mask relevant indications. To cause an indication to form, the field strength in the o!/ect must produce a flu& leakage field that is strong enough to hold the magnetic particles in place over a discontinuity. "lu& measurement devices can provide important information a!out the field strength. %ince it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the devices measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material. There are a num!er of different devices that can !e used to detect and measure an e&ternal magnetic field. The two devices commonly used in magnetic particle inspection are the field indicator and the 9all effect meter, which is also often called a 1auss meter. Pie gages and shims are devices that are often used to provide an indication of the field direction and strength !ut do not actually yield a uantitative measure. They will !e discussed in a later section. Field Indicators "ield indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron vane that will !e deflected !y a magnetic field. The J$ray image !elow shows the inside working of a field meter looking in from the side. The vane is attached to a needle that rotates and moves the pointer for the scale. "ield indicators can !e ad/usted and cali!rated so that uantitative information can !e o!tained. 9owever, the measurement range of field indicators is usually small due to the mechanics of the device. The one shown to the right has a range from plus twenty gauss to minus twenty gauss. This limited ranges makes them !est suited for measuring the residual magnetic field after demagnetization.

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Hall /ffect (Gauss,Tesla*Meter - 9all$effect meter is an electronic device that provides a digital readout of the magnetic field strength in 1auss or Tesla units. The meters use a very small conductive or semiconductor element at the tip of the pro!e. <lectric current is passed through the conductor. In a magnetic field, the magnetic field e&erts a force on the moving electrons which tends to push them to one side of the conductor. - !uildup of charge at the sides of the conductors will !alance this magnetic influence, producing a measura!le voltage !etween the two sides of the conductor. The presence of this measura!le transverse voltage is called the 9all effect after <dwin 9. 9all who discovered it in (4@6.

The voltage generated 1h can !e related to the e&ternal magnetic field !y the following e uation. 1h 2 I B R h , " .here+ 1h is the voltage generated. I is the applied direct current. B is the component of the magnetic field that is at a right angle to the direct current in the 9all element. Rh is the 9all ,oefficient of the 9all element. " is the thickness of the 9all element. $ 04 $

Pro!es are availa!le with either tangential )transverse* or a&ial sensing elements. Pro!es can !e purchased in a wide variety of sizes and configurations and with different measurement ranges. The pro!e is placed in the magnetic field such that the magnetic lines of force intersect the ma/or dimensions of the sensing element at a right angle. Placement and orientation of the pro!e is very important and will !e discussed in a later section.

Portable Magneti$ing E)uipment for Magnetic Particle Inspection

To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to !ecome familiar with the different types of magnetic fields and the e uipment used to generate them. -s discussed previously, one of the primary re uirements for detection of a defect in a ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must intercept the defect at a =? to 67 degrees angle. "laws that are normal )67 degrees* to the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications !ecause they disrupt more of the magnet flu&. Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to !e a!le to esta!lish a magnetic field in at least two directions. - variety of e uipment e&ist to esta!lish the magnetic field for MPI. Ane way to classify e uipment is !ased on its porta!ility. %ome e uipment is designed to !e porta!le so that inspections can !e made in the field and some is designed to !e stationary for ease of inspection in the la!oratory or manufacturing facility. Porta!le e uipment will !e discussed first. Permanent magnets Permanent magnets are sometimes used for magnetic particle inspection as the source of magnetism. The two primary types of permanent magnets are !ar magnets and horseshoe )yoke* magnets. These industrial magnets are usually very strong and may re uire significant strength to remove them from a piece of metal. %ome permanent magnets re uire over ?7 pounds of force to remove them from the surface. 3ecause it is difficult to remove the magnets from the component !eing inspected, and sometimes difficult and dangerous to place the magnets, their use is not particularly popular. 9owever, permanent magnets are sometimes used !y a diver for inspection in an underwater environment or other areas, such as in an e&plosive environment, where electromagnets cannot !e used. Permanent magnets can also !e made small enough to fit into tight areas where electromagnets might not fit.

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/lectromagnets Today, most of the e uipment used to create the magnetic field used in MPI is !ased on electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current to produce the magnetic field. -n electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of e uipment that is used to esta!lish a magnetic field. It is !asically made !y wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of soft ferromagnetic steel. - switch is included in the electrical circuit so that the current and, therefore, also the magnetic field can !e turn on and off. They can !e powered with alternating current from a wall socket or !y direct current from a !attery pack. This type of magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles of magnet touch the part to !e inspected. %ome yokes can lift weights in e&cess of =7 pounds.

Portable yo*e (ith battery pac*

Portable magnetic particle *it

Iiew a short movie on porta!le magnetic yokes )@(5 D3 mov* Prods Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed against the surface of the component !eing inspected to make contact for passing electrical current through the metal. The current passing !etween the prods creates a circular magnetic field around the prods that is can !e used in magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically made from copper and have an insulated handle to help protect the operator. Ane of the prods has a trigger switch $ :7 $

so that the current can !e uickly and easily turned on and off. %ometimes the the two prods are connected !y any insulator as shown in the image to facilitate one hand operation. This is referred to as a dual prod and is commonly used for weld inspections. If proper contact is not maintained !etween the prods and the component surface, electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. "or this reason, the use of prods are now allowed when inspecting aerospace and other critical components. To help to prevent arcing, the prod tips should !e inspected fre uently to ensure that they are not o&idized, covered with scale or other contaminant, or damaged. The following applet shows two prods used to create a current through a conducting part. The resultant magnetic field roughly depicted gives an estimation of the patterns e&pected with magnetic particle on an unflawed surface. The user is encouraged to manipulate the prods to orient the magnetic field to ;cut across; suspected defects.

Porta"le %oils and %onducti&e %a"les ,oils and conductive ca!les are used to esta!lish a longitudinal magnetic field within a component. .hen a performed coil is used, the component is placed against the inside surface on the coil. ,oils typically have three or five turns of a copper ca!le within the molded frame. - foot switch is often used to energize the coil. ,onductive ca!les are wrapped around the component. The ca!le used is typically 77 e&tra fle&i!le or 7777 e&tra fle&i!le. The num!er of wraps is determined !y the magnetizing force needed and, of course, the length of the ca!le. Normally the wraps are kept as close together as possi!le. .hen using a coil or ca!le wrapped into a coil, amperage is usually e&pressed in ampere$turns. -mpere$turns is the amperage shown on the amp meter times the num!er of turns in the coil.

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Portable coil

Conducti+e Cable

Porta"le Po!er Supplies Porta!le power supplies are used to provide the necessary electricity to the prods, coils or ca!les. Power supplies are commercially availa!le in a variety of sizes. %mall power supplies generally provide up to (,?77 - of half wave direct current or alternating current when used with a =.? meter 7777 ca!le. They are small and light enough to !e carried and operate on either (07 I or 0=7 I electrical service. .hen more power is necessary, mo!ile power supplies can !e used. These unit come with wheel so that they can !e rolled where needed. There units also operate on (07 I or 0=o I electrical service and can provide up to 5,777 - of -, or half$wave D, when 6 meter or less of 7777 ca!le is used.

!tationary E)uipment for Magnetic Particle Inspection

%tationary magnetic particle inspection e uipment is designed for use in la!oratory or production environment. The most common stationary system is the wet horizontal )!ench* unit. .et horizontal units are designed to allow for !atch inspections of a variety of components. The units have head and tail stocks, similar to a lath !ut with electrical contact that the part can !e clamped !etween for the production of a circular magnetic field using direct magnetization. The tail stock can !e moved and locked into place to accommodate parts of various lengths. To assist the operator in clamping the parts, the contact on the headstock can !e moved pneumatic via a foot switch. Most units also have a mova!le coil that can !e moved into place so the indirect magnetization can !e use to produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have five turns and can !e o!tained in a variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle solution is collected and held in a tank. - pump and hose system is used to apply the particle solution to the components !eing inspected. <ither the visi!le or fluorescent particles $ :0 $

can !e used. %ome of the systems offer a variety of options in electrical current used for magnetizing the component. The operator has the option to use -,, half wave D,, for full wave D,. In some units, a demagnetization feature is !uilt in, which uses the coil and decaying -,. To inspect a part using a head$shot, the part is clamped !etween two electrical contact pads. The magnetic solution, called a !ath, is then flowed over the surface of the part. The !ath is then interrupted and a magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short duration of 7.0 to 7.? seconds. - circular field flowing around the circumference of the part is created. 2eakage fields from defects then attract the particles forming indications.

.hen the coil is used to esta!lish a longitudinal magnetic field within the part, the part is placed on the inside surface of the coil. Kust as done with a head shot, the !ath is then flowed over the surface of the part. magnetizing current is applied to the part for a short duration of 7.0 to 7.? seconds /ust after coverage with the !ath is interrupted. 2eakage fields from defects attract the particles forming visi!le indications.

The wet horizontal unit can also !e used to esta!lish a circular magnetic field using a central conductor. This type of a setup is used to inspect parts that are hollow such as gears, tu!es, and other ring$shaped o!/ects. - central conductor is an electrically conductive !ar that is usually made $ :: $

of copper or aluminum. The !ar is inserted through the center of the hollow part and then the !ar is clamped !etween the contact pads ,urrent is passed through the central conductor and a circular magnetic field then flows around the !ar and /umps into the part or parts !eing inspected.

Multidirectional E)uipment for Magnetic Particle Inspection

Multidirectional units allow the component to !e magnetized in two directions, longitudinally and circumferentially, in rapid succession. Therefore, inspections are conducted without the need for a second shot. In multidirectional units, the two fields are !alanced so that the field strengths are e ual in !oth directions. These uickly changing !alanced fields produce a multidirectional field in the component providing detection of defects lying in more than one direction.

Kust as in conventional wet$horizontal systems, the electrical current used in multidirectional magnetization may !e alternating, half$wave direct, or full$wave. It is also possi!le to use a com!ination of currents depending on the test applications. Multidirectional magnetization can !e used for a large num!er of production applications, and high volume inspections. To determine ade uate field strength and !alance of the rapidly changing fields, techni ue development re uires a little more effort when multidirectional e uipment $ := $

is used. It is desira!le to develop the techni ue using a component with known defects laying in at least two directions, or a manufactured defect standard. Cuantitative uality indicator )CCI* are also often used to verify the strength and direction of magnetic fields.

&ights for Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection can !e performed using particles that are highly visi!le under white lighting conditions or particles that are highly visi!le ultraviolet lighting conditions. .hen an inspection is !eing performed using the visi!le color contrast particles, no special lighting is re uired as long as the area of inspection is well lit. - light intensity of !etween :77 and (777 lu& ):7 and (77 ftc* is recommended when a visi!le particles are used, !ut a variety of light sources can !e used. .hen fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must !e used. "luorescence is defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and during e&posure to radiation. Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are coated with a material that produces light in the visi!le spectrum when e&posed to the near$ ultraviolet light. This ;particle glow; provides a high contrast indications on the component anywhere particles collect. Particles that fluoresce yellow$green are most common !ecause this color matches the peak sensitivity of the human eye under dark conditions. 9owever, particles that fluoresce red, !lue, yellow, and green colors are availa!le. .ltra&iolet Light 'ltraviolet light or ;!lack light; is light in the (,777 to =,777 -ngstroms )(77 to =77 nm* wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form of light that is invisi!le to the human eye. .avelengths a!ove =,777 -ngstroms fall into the visi!le light spectrum and are seen as the color violet. 'I is separated according to wavelength into three classes+ -, 3, and ,. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy that is carried in the light and the more dangerous it is to the human cells. $ :? $

,lass 'I$'I$3 'I$,

.avelength Bange :,077L=,777 -ngstroms 0,477L:,077 -ngstroms 0,477L(,777 -ngstroms

The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is !etween :,?77 and :,477 -ngstroms with a peak wavelength at a!out :,5?7 -. This wavelength range is used !ecause it is in the 'I$- range, which is the safest to work with. 'I$3 will do an effective /o! of causing su!stances to fluoresce, however, it should not !e used !ecause harmful effects such as skin !urns, and eye damage can occur. This wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the welding process. 'I$, )(,777 to 0,477* is even more dangerous to living cells and is used to kill !acteria in industrial and medical settings. The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is o!tained !y filtering the ultraviolet light generated !y the light !ul!. The output of a 'I !ul! spans a wide range of wavelengths. The short wave lengths of :,(07 - to :,:=7 - are produced in low levels. - peak wavelength of :5?7 - is produced at a very high intensity. .avelengths in the visi!le violet range )=7?7 - to =:?7 -*, green$yellow )?=57 -*, yellow )5007 -* and orange )5@@7 -* are also usually produced. The filter allows only radiation in the range of :077 to =777 angstroms and a little visi!le dark purple to pass. Basic .ltra&iolet Lights 'I !ul!s come in a verity on shapes and sizes. The more common types are the low pressure tu!e, high pressure spot, the high pressure flood types. The tu!ular !lack light is similar in construction to the tu!ular florescent lights used for office or home illumination. These lights use a low pressure mercury vapor arc. Tu!e lengths of 5 to =4 inches are common. The low pressure !ul!s are most often used to provide general illumination to large areas rather than for illumination of components to !e inspected. These !ul!s generate a relatively large amount of white light that is a concern as inspection specifications re uire less than two foot candles of white light at the inspection surface. "lood lights are also used to illuminate the inspection area as they provide even illumination over a large area. Intensity levels for flood lamps is relatively low !ecause the energy is spread over a large area. They generally do not generate the re uired 'I light intensity at the given distance that specifications re uire. %pot lights on the other hand provide concentrated energy that can !e directed to the area of inspection. - spot light will generate a si& inch diameter circle of high intensity light when held fifteen inches from the inspection surface. (77 watt mercury vapor lights are most commonly used, !ut higher wattages are availa!le.

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In the high pressure mercury vapor spot or flood lamps, 'I light is generated !y a uartz tu!e inside the !ul!. This tu!e contains two electrodes that esta!lish an arc. The distance !etween electrodes is such that a starting electrode must !e used. resister limits the current to the starting electrode that esta!lishes the initial arc that vaporizes the mercury in the tu!e. Ance this low level arc is esta!lished and the mercury is vaporized the arc !etween the main electrodes is esta!lished. It takes appro&imately five minutes to ;warm up; and esta!lish the arc !etween the main electrodes. This is why specifications re uire a ;warm up time; !efore using the high pressure mercury vapor lights. "lood and spot !lack lights produce large amounts of heat and should !e handled with caution to prevent !urns. This condition has !een eliminated !y newer designs that include cooling fans. The arc in the !ul! can !e upset when e&posed to an e&ternal magnetic field, such as that generated !y a coil. ,are should !e taken not to !ring the lamp close to strong magnetic fields, !ut if the arc is upset and e&tinguished, it must !e allowed to cool !efore it can !e safely restarted. High Intensit$ .ltra&iolet Lights The =77 watt metal halide !ul!s or ;super lights; can !e found in some facilities. This super !right light will provide ade uate lighting over an area of up to ten times of that covered !y the (77 watt !ul!. Due to their high intensity, e&cessive light reflecting from the surface of a component is a concern. Moving the light a greater distance from the inspection area will generally reduce this glare. -nother type of high intensity light availa!le is the micro discharge light. This particular light produces up to ten times the amount of 'I light conventional lights produce. Beadings of up to 57,777 u.Ecm0 at (? inches can !e achieved. The term !lack light originates from the fact that ultraviolet radiation is not visi!le to the human eye and is, therefore, characterized as !eing !lack.

Magnetic Field Indicators

Determining whether a magnetic field is of ade uate strength and in the proper direction is critical when performing magnetic particle testing. -s discussed previously, knowing the direction of the field is important !ecause the field should !e as close to perpendicular to the defect as possi!le and no more than =? degrees from normal. 3eing a!le to evaluate the field direction and strength is especially important when inspecting using a multidirectional machine, !ecause if the fields are not !alanced a vector field will !e produced that may not detect some defects. There is actually no easy to apply method that permits an e&act measurement of field intensity at a given point within a material. In order to measure the field strength it is necessary to intercept the flu& lines. This is impossi!le without cutting into the material and cutting the material would immediately change the field within the part. $ :@ $

9owever, cutting a small slot or hole into the material and measuring the leakage field that crosses the air gap with a 1auss meter is pro!a!ly the !est way to get an estimate of the actual field strength within a part. Nevertheless, there are a num!er of tools and methods availa!le that are used to determine the presence and direction of a field surrounding the component. Gauss Meter or Hall /ffect Gage - 1auss meter with a 9all <ffect pro!e, is commonly used to measure the tangential field strength on the surface of the part. -s discussed in some detail on the ;Measuring Magnetic "ields; page, the 9all effect is the transverse electric field created in a conductor when placed in a magnetic field. 1auss meters, also called Tesla meters, are used to measure the strength of a field tangential to the surface of the magnetized test o!/ect. The meters measure the intensity of the field in the air ad/acent to the component when a magnetic field is applied. The advantages of 9all effect devices areF they provide a uantitative measure of the strength of magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece, they can !e used for measurement of residual magnetic fields, and they can !e used repetitively. Their main disadvantages are that they must !e periodically cali!rated, and they cannot !e used to esta!lish the !alance of fields in multidirectional applications. 3uantitati&e 3ualit$ Indicator (33I* The Cuantitative Cuality Indicator )CCI* or -rtificial "law %tandard are often the preferred method of assuring proper field direction and ade uate field strength. The use of CCIs is also the only practical way of ensuring !alanced field intensity and direction in multiple$direction magnetization e uipment. CCIs are often used in con/unction with a 1auss meter to esta!lish the inspection procedure for a particular component. They are used with the wet method only and, as other flu& sharing devices, they can only !e used when continuous magnetization is used. The CCI is a thin strip of either 7.770 or 7.77= inch thick -I%I (77? steel. photoetch process is used to inscri!e a specific pattern, such as concentric circles or a plus sign. CCIs are nominally :E= inch s uare, !ut miniature shims are also availa!le. CCIs must !e in intimate contact with the part !eing evaluated. This is accomplished !y placing the shim on a part etched side down, and taping or gluing it to the surface. The component is then magnetized and particles applied. .hen the field strength is ade uate, the particles will adhere over the engraved pattern and provide information a!out the field direction. .hen a multidirectional techni ue is used, a !alance of the fields is noted when all areas of the CCI produce indications. %ome of the advantages of CCIs are+ they can !e uantified and related to other parametersF they can accommodate virtually any configuration with suita!le selectionF and they can !e reused with careful application and removal practices. %ome of the disadvantages are+ the application process is somewhat slow, the parts must !e clean and dryF shims cannot !e used as a residual magnetism indicator as they are a flu& sharing deviceF they can !e easily damaged with improper handling and will corrode if not cleaned and properly stored. $ :4 $

-!ove left is a photo of a typical CCI shim. The photo on the right, shows the indication produced !y the CCI when it is applied to the surface a part and a magnetic field is esta!lished that runs across the shim from right to left. Pie Gage The pie gage is a disk of highly permea!le material divided into four, si&, or eight sections !y nonferromagnetic material. The division serve as artificial defects that radiate out in different directions from the center.. Diameter of the gage is M to ( inch. The divisions !etween the low car!on steel pie sections are to !e no greater than (E:0 inch. The sections are furnace !razed and copper plated. The gage is placed on the test piece copper side up, and the test piece is magnetized. -fter particles are applied, and e&cess removed, the indications provide the inspector the orientation of the magnetic field.

The principal application is on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel castings where dry powder is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is not recommended for precision parts with comple& shapes, for wet$method applications, or for proving field magnitude. The gage should demagnetized !etween readings. %everal of the main advantages of the pie gage are+ it is easy to useF and it can !e used indefinitely with out deterioration. The pie gage has several disadvantages, which include+ it retains some residual magnetism, so indications will prevail after removal of the source of magnetizationF it cannot !e used on relatively flat areas, and it cannot !e relia!ly used for determination of !alanced fields in multidirectional magnetization.

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Slotted Strips %lotted strips, also known as 3urmah$,astrol %trips, are pieces of highly permea!le ferromagnetic material with slots of different widths. They are placed on the test o!/ect as it is inspected. The indications produced on the strips give the inspector a general idea of the field strength in a particular area. -dvantages of these strips are+ they are relatively easily applied to the componentF they can !e used successfully with either the wet or dry method when using the continuous magnetizationF they are repeata!le as long as orientation to the magnetic field is maintained and they can !e used repetitively. Disadvantages include+ they cannot !e !ent to comple& configurationF and they are not suita!le for multidirectional field applications since they indicate defects in only one direction.

Magnetic Particles
-s mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection are a key ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to defects. Particles start out as tiny milled )a machining process* pieces of iron or iron o&ide. pigment )somewhat like paint* is !onded to their surfaces to give the particles color. The metal used for the particles has high magnetic permea!ility and low retentivity. 9igh magnetic permea!ility is important !ecause it makes the particles attract easily to small magnetic leakage fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. 2ow retentivity is important !ecause the particles themselves never !ecome strongly magnetized so they do not stick to each other or the surface of the part. Particles are availa!le in a dry mi& or a wet solution. Dr$ Magnetic Particles Dry magnetic particles can typically !e purchased in are red, !lack, gray, yellow and several other colors so that a high level of contrast !etween the particles and the part !eing inspected can !e achieved.. The size of the magnetic particles is also very important. Dry magnetic particle products are produced to include a range of particle sizes. The fine particles are around ?7 m )7.770 inch* in size are a!out three times smaller in diameter and more than 07 times lighter than the coarse particles )(?7 m or 7.775 inch*, which make them more sensitive to the leakage fields from very small discontinuities. 9owever, dry testing particles cannot !e made e&clusively of the fine particles. ,oarser particles are needed to !ridge large discontinuities and to reduce the powder#s dusty nature. -dditionally, small particles easily adhere to surface contamination, such as remanent dirt or moisture, and get trapped in surface roughness features producing a high level of !ackground. It should also !e recognized that finer particles will !e more easily !lown away !y the wind and, therefore, windy conditions can reduce the sensitivity of an inspection. -lso, $ =7 $

reclaiming the dry particles is not recommended !ecause the small particle are less likely to !e recaptured and the ;once used; mi& will result in less sensitive inspections. The particle shape is also important. 2ong, slender particles tend align themselves along the lines of magnetic force. 9owever, research has shown that if dry powder consists only of long, slender particles, the application process would !e less than desira!le. <longated particles come from the dispenser in clumps and lack the a!ility to flow freely and form the desired ;cloud; of particles floating on the component. Therefore, glo!ular particles are added that are shorter. The mi& of glo!ular and elongated particles result in a dry powder that flows well and maintain good sensitivity. Most dry particle mi&es have particle with 2ED ratios !etween one and two. 0et Magnetic Particles Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry !ecause the suspension provides the particles with more mo!ility and makes it possi!le for smaller particles to !e used since dust and adherence to surface contamination is reduced or eliminated. The wet method also makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a relatively large area. .et method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in a num!er of ways. Ane way is that !oth visi!le and fluorescent particle are availa!le. Most nonfluorescent particles are ferromagnetic iron o&ides, which are either !lack or !rown in color. "luorescent particles are coated with pigments that fluoresce when e&posed to ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce green$yellow are most common to take advantage of the peak color sensitivity of the eye !ut other fluorescent colors are also availa!le. )"or more information on the color sensitivity of the eye, see the penetrant inspection material.*

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The particles used the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the dry method for the reasons mentioned a!ove. The particles are typically (7 m )7.777= inch* and smaller and the synthetic iron o&ides have particle diameters around 7.( m )7.77777= inch*. This very small size is a result of the process used to form the particles and is not particularly desira!le, as the particles are almost too fine to settle out of suspension. 9owever, due to their slight residual magnetism, the o&ide particles are present mostly in clusters that settle out of suspension much faster than the individual particles. This makes it possi!le to see and measure the concentration of the particles for process control purposes. .et particles are also a mi& of long slender and glo!ular particles. The carrier solutions can !e water$ or oil$!ased. .ater$!ased carriers form uicker indications, are generally less e&pensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off no petrochemical fumes, and are easier to clean from the part. .ater$!ased solutions are usually formulated with a corrosion inhi!itor to offer some corrosion protection. 9owever, oil$!ased carrier solutions offer superior corrosion and hydrogen em!rittlement protection to those materials that are prone to attack !y these mechanisms.

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!uspension &i)uids
%uspension li uids used in the wet magnetic particle inspection method can !e either a well refined light petroleum distillate or water containing additives. Petroleum$!ased li uids are the most desira!le carriers !ecause they provided good wetting of the surface of metallic parts. 9owever, water$!ased carriers are used more !ecause of low cost, low fire hazard, and the a!ility to form indications uicker than solvents !ased carriers. .ater$ !ased carriers must contain wetting agents to disrupt surface films of oil that may e&ist on the part and to aid in the dispersion of magnetic particles in the carrier. The wetting agents create foaming as the solution is moved a!out, so anti$foaming agents must !e added. -lso, since water promotes corrosion in ferrous materials, corrosion inhi!itors are usually added as well. Petroleum !ased carriers are primarily used in systems where maintaining the proper particle concentration is a concern. The petroleum !ased carriers re uire less maintenance !ecause they evaporate at a slower rate than the water$!ased carriers. Therefore, petroleum !ased carriers might !e a !etter choice for a system that only gets occasional use and ad/usting the carrier volume with each use is undesira!le. Modern solvent carriers are specifically designed with properties that have flash points a!ove 077 degrees " and keep nocuous vapors low. Petroleum carriers are re uired to meet certain specifications such as -M% 05=(.

Dry Particle Inspection

In this magnetic particle testing techni ue, dry particles are dusted onto the surface of the test o!/ect as the item is magnetized. Dry particle inspection is well suited for the inspections conducted on rough surfaces. .hen an electromagnetic yoke is used, the -, or half wave D, current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides mo!ility to the powder. The primary applications for dry powders are unground welds and rough as$cast surfaces. Dry particle inspection is also used to detect su!surface cracks. Dry particles with half wave D, is the !est approach when inspection welds for lack$ of$root penetration. 9alf wave D, with prods and dry particles is commonly used when inspecting large castings for hot tears and cracks. $ =: $

Step in performing an inspection using dr$ particles Prepare the part surface $ the surface should !e a relatively clean !ut this is not as critical as it is with li uid penetrant inspection. The surface must !e free of grease, oil or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. - thin layer of paint or rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity !ut can sometimes !e left in place with ade uate results. -ny loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must !e removed. Appl$ the magneti-ing force $ 'se permanent magnets, a electromagnetic yoke, prods, a coil or other means to esta!lish the necessary magnetic flu&. Dust on the dr$ magnetic particles Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles. Gentl$ "lo! off the e#cess po!der .ith the magnetizing force still applied, remove the e&cess powder from the surface with a few gently puffs of dry air. The force of the air needs to !e strong enough to remove the e&cess particle !ut not strong enough to dislodge particle held !y a magnetic flu& leakage field' Terminate the magneti-ing force If the magnetic flu& is !eing generated with an electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should !e terminated. It permanent magnets are !eing used, they can !e left in place. Inspect for indications 2ook for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.

,et !uspension Inspection

.et suspension magnetic particle inspection, or more commonly wet magnetic particle inspection, involves applying the particles while they are suspended in a li uid carrier. .et magnetic particle inspection is most commonly performed using a stationary, wet, horizontal inspection unit !ut suspensions are also availa!le in spray cans for use with an electromagnetic yoke. - wet inspection has several advantages over a dry inspection. "irst, all the surfaces of the component can !e uickly and easily covered with a relatively uniform layer of particles. %econd, the li uid carrier provides mo!ility to the particles for an e&tended period of time, which allows enough particle to float to small leakage fields to form a visi!le indication. Therefore, wet inspection is considered !est for detecting very small discontinuities on smooth surfaces. An rough surfaces, however, the particle )which are much smaller in wet suspensions* can settle in the surface valleys and loose mo!ility rendering them less effective than dry powders under these conditions. Step in performing an inspection using !et suspensions Prepare the part surface $ Kust as is re uired with dry particle inspections, the surface should !e relatively clean. The surface must !e free of grease, oil and other moisture that could prevent the suspension from wetting the surface and preventing the particles from moving freely. - thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity, !ut can sometimes !e left in place with ade uate results. -ny loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must !e removed. Appl$ the suspension $ The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the surface $ == $

of the part. 'sually, the stream of suspension is diverted from the part /ust !efore the magnetizing field is applied. Appl$ the magneti-ing force $ The magnetizing force should !e applied immediately after applying the suspension of magnetic particles. .hen using a wet horizontal inspection unit, the current is applied in two or three short !usts )(E0 second* which helps to improve particle mo!ility. Inspect for indications 2ook for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered. %urface discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The indications from su!surface flaws will !e less defined and loose definition as depth increases.

Inspection -sing Magnetic .ubber

The magnetic ru!!er techni ue was developed for detecting very fine cracks and is capa!le of revealing finer cracks than other magnetic techni ues. -dditionally, the techni ue can !e use to e&amine difficult to reach areas, such as the threads on the inside diameter of holes, where the molded plugs can !e removed and e&amined under ideal conditions and magnification if desired. The tradeoff, of course, is that inspection times are much longer. The techni ues uses a li uid )uncured* ru!!er containing suspended magnetic particles. The ru!!er compound is applied to the area to !e inspected on a magnetized component. Inspections can !e performed using either an applied magnetic field, which is maintained while the ru!!er sets )active field*, or the residual field from magnetization of the component prior to pouring the compound. - dam of modeling clay is often used to contain the compound in the region of interest. The magnetic particles migrate to the leakage field caused !y a discontinuity. -s the ru!!er cures, discontinuity indications remain in place on the ru!!er. The ru!!er is allowed to completely set, which takes from (7 to :7 minutes. The ru!!er cast is removed from the part. The ru!!er conforms to the surface contours and provides a reverse replica of the surface. The ru!!er cast is e&amined for evidence of discontinuities, which appear as dark lines on the surface of the molding. The molding can !e retained as a permanent record of the inspection. Magnetic ru!!er methods re uires similar magnetizing systems used for dry method magnetic particle tests. The system may include yokes, prods, clamps, coils or central conductors. -lternating, direct current, or permanent magnets may !e used to draw the particles to the leakage fields. The direct current yoke is the most common magnetization source for magnetic ru!!er inspection.

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Continuous and .esidual Magneti$ation #echni)ues

In magnetic particle inspection, the magnetic particles can either !e applied to the component while the magnetizing force is applied, or after it has !een stopped. ,ontinuous magnetization descri!es the techni ue where the magnetizing force is applied and maintained while the magnetic particles are dusted or flowed onto the surface of the component. In a wet horizontal testing unit the application of the particles is stopped /ust !efore the magnetizing force is applied !ut since particles are still flowing over and covering the surface, this is considered continuous magnetization. Besidual magnetization, on the other hand,descri!es the techni ue where the magnetizing force is applied to magnetize the component and then stopped !efore applying the magnetic particles. Anly the residual field of the magnetized component is used to attract magnetic particles and produce an indication. The continuous techni ue is generally chosen when ma&imum sensitivity is re uired !ecause it has two distinct advantages over the residual techni ue. "irst, the magnetic flu& will !e highest when current is flowing and, therefore, leakage fields will also !e strongest. "ield strength in a component depends primarily on two varia!les...the applied magnetic field strength and the permea!ility of the test o!/ect. Iiewing the upper right portion of the hysteresis loop !elow, it is evident that the magnetic flu& will !e strongest when the magnetizing force is applied. If the magnetizing force is strong enough, the flu& density will reach the point of saturation. .hen the magnetizing force is removed, the flu& density will drop to the retentivity point. The two gray traces show the path the flu& density would follow if the magnetizing force was applied and removed at levels !elow that re uired to reach saturation. It can !e seen that the flu& density is always highest while the magnetizing current is applied. This is independent of the permea!ility of a material.

Field Direction and Intensity

Field Direction -s discussed previously, determining the direction of the field is important when conducting a magnetic particle inspection !ecause the defect must produce a significant distur!ance in the magnetic field to produce an indication. It is difficult to detect discontinuities that intersects the magnetic field at an angle less than =? degrees. .hen the orientation of a defect is not well esta!lished, components should !e magnetized in a minimum of two directions at appro&imately right angles to each other. Depending on the geometry of the component, this may re uire longitudinal $ =5 $

magnetization in two or more directions, multiple longitudinal and circular magnetization or circular magnetization in multiple directions. Determining strength and direction of the fields is especially critical when inspecting with a multidirectional machine. If the fields are not !alanced a vector field will !e produced that may not detect some defects. Depending on the application, pie gages, CCIs, and a guass meter can !e used to check the field direction. The PI< gage is generally only used with dry powder inspections. CCI shims can !e used in a variety of applications !ut are the only method recommended for use in esta!lishing !alanced fields when using multiderectional e uipment. Field Strength The applied magnetic field must have sufficient strength to produce a satisfactory indication, !ut not so strong that it produces nonrelevant indications or limits particle mo!ility. If the magnetizing current is e&cessively high when performing a wet fluorescent particle inspection, particles can !e attracted to the surface of the part and not allowed to migrate to the flu& leakage fields of defects. .hen performing a dry particle inspection, an e&cessive longitudinal magnetic field will cause furring. "urring is when magnetic particles !uild up at the magnetic poles of a part. .hen the field strength is e&cessive, the magnetic field is forced out of the part !efore reaching the end of the component and the poles along its length attract particle and cause high !ackground levels. -de uate field strength may !e determined !y+

performing an inspection on a standard specimen that is similar to the test component and has known or artificial defects of the same type, size, and location as those e&pected in the test component. CCI shims can sometimes !e used as the artificial defects. using a guass meter with a 9all effect pro!e to measure to the peak values of the tangent field at the surface of the part in the region of interest. Most specifications call for a field strength of :7 to 57 gauss at the surface when the magnetizing force is applied. looking for light furring at the ends pipe and !ar when performing dry particle inspections of pipe, !ar and other uncomplicated shapes.

"ormula for calculating current levels should only !e used to estimate current re uirements. The magnetic field strength resulting from calculations should !e assessed for ade uacy using one of the two method discussed a!ove. 2ikewise, pu!lished current level information should also !e used only as a guide unless the values have !een esta!lished for the specific component and target defects of the inspection at hand. .sing a PI/ Gage - PI< gage is placed copper side up and held in contact with the component as the magnetic field and particles are applied. Indications of the leakage fields provide a visual representation of defect direction within the component. PI< gages work well on flat surfaces, !ut if the surface is concave or conve& inaccurate readings $ =@ $

may occur. The PI< gage is a flu& sharing device and re uires good contact to provide accurate readings. .sing 3uantitati&e 3ualit$ Indicator (33I* Shims Cuantitative Cuality Indicator )CCI* flaw shims are used to esta!lish proper field direction and to ensure ade uate field strength during techni ue development. The CCI flaw shim is the most efficient means of determining !alance and effectiveness of fields. The CCI are also flu& sharing devices and must !e properly attach so as not allow particle to !e trapped under the artificial flaw. -pplication using super glue is the preferred way of attaching the artificial flaw, !ut does not allow for reuse of the shims. %hims can also !e attached with tape applied to /ust the edge of the shim.. It is recommended that the tape !e impervious to oil, not !e fluorescent, and !e (E= to (E0 inch in width. The CCI must !e applied to locations on the component where the flu& density may very. Ane e&ample would !e the center area of a yoke or N shaped component. Aften times the flu& density will !e near 7 in this area. If two legs of a N are in contact with the pad in circular magnetization it must !e determined if current is flowing evenly through each leg. - CCI on each leg would !e appropriate under such conditions. CCI#s can !e used to esta!lish system threshold values for a defect of a given size. 3y attaching a CCI shim with three circles )=7O, :7O and 07O of shim thickness* to the threshold values for a specific area of the component can !e esta!lished. 3egin !y applying current at a low amperage and slowly increasing it until the largest flaw is o!tained. The flu& density sound !e verified and recorded using a 9all effects pro!e. The current is then increased until the second circle is identified and the flu& density is again recorded. -s the current is raised more, the third ring is identified and the current values are recorded. 9all <ffects 1auss Meter There are several types of 9all effects pro!es that can !e used to measure the magnetic field strength. Transverse pro!es are the type most commonly used to evaluate the field strength in magnetic particle testing. Transverse pro!es have the 9all effect element mounted in a thin, flat stem and they are used to make measurements !etween two magnetic poles. -&ial pro!es have the sensing element mounted such that the magnetic flu& in the direction of the long a&is of the pro!e is measured. To make a measurement with a transverse pro!e, the pro!e is positioned such that the flat surface of the 9all effect element is transverse to the magnetic lines of flu&. The 9all effect voltage is a function of the angle at which the magnetic lines of flu& pass through the sensing element. The greatest 9all effect voltage occurs when the lines of flu& pass perpendicularly through the sensing element. If not perpendicular, the output voltage is related to the cosine of the difference !etween 67 degrees and the actual $ =4 $

angle. The peak field strength should !e measured when the magnetizing force is applied. The field strength should !e measured in all areas of the component to !e inspected.

9owever, the permea!ility of the material is very important. 9igh permea!ility materials do not retain a strong magnetic field so flu& leakage fields will !e e&tremely weak or none&istent when the magnetizing force is removed. Therefore, materials with high magnetic permea!ility are not suited for inspection using the residual techni ue. .hen the residual techni ue is used to inspect materials with low permea!ility, care should !e taken to ensure that the residual field is of the necessary strength to produce an indication. Defects should !e relatively large and surface !reaking to have a high pro!a!ility of detection using the residual method. The second advantage of the continuous techni ue is that when current is used to generate the magnetizing force, it can provide added particle mo!ility. -lternating or pulsed direct current will cause the particles to vi!rate and move slightly on the surface of the part. This movement allows the particles to travel to leakage sites. More particles mean !righter indications compared to those formed using the residual techni ue. Ane disadvantage of the continuous method is that heating of the component occurs when using direct magnetization. "or e&ample, when prods are used, they may create areas of localized heating when the continuous techni ue is used. This may !e accepta!le on components that will !e further processed removing this condition !ut machined or in$service components may !e adversely affected !y this condition. .hile generally not recommended, the residual techni ue does have its uses. It is commonly used in automated inspection systems to inspect materials with high $ =6 $

retentivity. To speed throughput, automated systems often magnetize the parts and then su!merge them in a agitated magnetic particle !ath or pass them through a spray station. ,losely controlled automated systems provided good results using the residual magnetism techni ue.

Particle Concentration and Condition

Particle %oncentration The concentration of particles in the suspension is a very important parameter in the inspection process and must !e closely controlled. The particle concentration is checked after the suspension is prepared and continued regularly as part of the uality system checks. -%TM <$(===$7( re uires concentration checks to !e performed every eight hours or ever shift change. The standard process used to perform the check re uires agitating the carrier for a minimum of thirty minutes to ensure even particle distri!ution. - sample is then taken in a pear$shaped (77 ml centrifuge tu!e having a stem graduated to (.7 ml in 7.7? ml increments for fluorescent particles, and graduated to (.? ml. in 7.( ml increments for visi!le particles. The sample is then demagnetized so that the particles do not clump together while settling. The sample must then remain undistur!ed for a minimum of 57 minutes for a petroleum$!ased carrier or :7 minutes for a water$!ased carrier, unless shorter times have !een documented to produce results similar to the longer settling times. The volume of settled particles is then read. -ccepta!le ranges are 7.( to 7.= ml for fluorescent particles and (.0 to 0.= ml for visi!le particles. If the particle concentration is out of the accepta!le range, particles or the carrier must !e added to !ring the solution !ack in compliance with the re uirement. Particle loss is often attri!uted to ;dragout;. Dragout occurs !ecause the solvent easily runs off components and is recaptured in the holding tank. Particles, on the other hand, tend to adhere to components, or !e trapped in geometric features of the component. These particles will !e ;drug out; or lost to the system, and will eventually need to !e replaced. Particle %ondition -fter the particles have settled, they should !e e&amined for !rightness and agglomeration. "luorescent particles should !e evaluated under ultraviolet light and visi!le particles under white light. The !rightness of the particles should !e evaluated weekly !y comparing the particles in the test solution to those in an unused reference solution that was saved when the solution was first prepared. The !rightness of the two solutions should !e relatively the same. -dditionally, the particles should appear loose and not lumped together. If the !rightness or the agglomeration of the particles is noticea!ly different from the reference solution, the !ath should !e replaced.

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!uspension Contamination
The suspension solution should also !e e&amined for evidence of contamination. ,ontamination primarily comes come from inspected components. Ails, greases, sand, and dirt will !e introduced to the system through components. If the area is unusually dusty the system will pickup dust or other contaminates from the environment. This e&amination is performed on the carrier and particles collected for concentration testing. The graduated portion of the tu!e is viewed under ultraviolet and white light when fluorescent particles are !eing used, and under white light when visi!le particles are !eing used. The magnetic particles should !e e&amined for foreign particles, such as dirt, paint chips and other solids. Differences in color, layering or !anding within the settled particles would indicate contamination. %ome contamination is to !e e&pected !ut if the foreign matter e&ceeds :7 percent of the settled solids, the solution should !e replaced. The li uid carrier portion of the solution should also !e inspected for contamination. Ail in a water !ath and water in a solvent !ath are the primary concerns. If the solution fluoresces !rightly when fluorescent particles are !eing used, this can !e an indication that dye is !eing dislodged from the particles !y the mi&ing pump. .hile not technically contamination, this condition should !e further evaluated !y allowing the collected sample !ath to set for (7 to (0 hours and viewing under ultraviolet light. If a !and that fluoresces !righter than the !ulk of particles is evident on top of the settled solids, the !ath contains e&cessive unattached fluorescent pigments and should !e discarded. 0ater Brea4 Test - daily water !reak check is re uired to evaluate the surface wetting performance of water$!ased carriers. The water !reak check simply involves flooding a clean surface similar to those !eing inspected and o!serving the surface film. If a continuous film forms over the entire surface, sufficient wetting agent is present. If the film of suspension !reaks )water !reak* e&posing the surface of the component, insufficient wetting agent is present and the solution should !e ad/usted or replaced.

Electrical !ystem Chec*s

,hanges in the performance of the electrical system of a magnetic particle inspection unit can o!viously have an effect on the sensitivity of an inspection. Therefore, the electrical system must !e checked when the e uipment is new, when a malfunction is suspected, or every si& months. 2isted !elow are the verification tests re uired !y -%TM <$(===$7(

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Ma#imum .nit 5utput - magnetic particle unit should !e checked regularly )daily* to verify that the ma&imum current output of its electrical system has not changed over time. This check is performed !y placing a large diameter )( inch or more typical* copper or aluminum !ar !etween the contacts and energizing the circuit with the current control set to the ma&imum value. The ma&imum amperage as recorded !y the systems ammeter should !e noted and compared to the value o!tained when the unit was last certified or cali!rated. - significant drop or gradual decay indicates a pro!lem with the unit that should !e corrected. Internal Short Test The internal short circuit testing is re uired to determine the if current is ;leaking past; the test article. Internal electrical leakage will cause the test e uipment to indicate current is flowing through the component when it is actually !ypassing the component. The process for checking e uipment for this condition is to energize the system with nothing !etween the contact heads and the amperage set to the highest output. If the ammeter shows any current flow, internal shorting should !e suspected. Ammeter %hec4 It is important that the ammeter provide consistent and correct readings. If the meter is reading low, over magnetization will occur and possi!ly result in e&cessive !ackground. If ammeter readings are high, flu& density could !e too low to produce detecta!le indications. To verify ammeter accuracy, a cali!rated ammeter is connected in series with the output circuit and values are compared to the e uipment#s ammeter values. Beadings are taken at three output levels in the working range. The e uipment meter is not to deviate from the cali!rated ammeter more than PE$ (7 percent or ?7 amperes, whichever is greater. If the meter is found outside of this range, the condition must !e corrected. It should !e noted that when measuring half$wave rectified current, the readings should !e dou!led. 3uic4 Brea4 Test - uick !reak circuit is primarily used in three$phase, full$wave rectified systems to ensure longitudinal magnetic fields maintain their strength to the end of a component. Cuick !reak circuits cause the current to a!ruptly collapse or drop to zero at the end of the activation cycle. 3y doing this, low fre uency eddy currents are produced close to the surface of a component. These eddy currents help e&tend the usea!le longitudinal field to the ends of the component. To determine if a uick !reak system is functioning properly an oscilloscope is often used. 3y o!serving the sine wave of the current, it can !e determine if current drops a!ruptly when the circuit is interrupted. Shot Timer %hec4 .hen a timer is used to control the shot duration, the timer must !e cali!rated. -%TM <$(=== $7( re uires the timer !e cali!rated to within PE$ 7.( second. - certified timer should !e used to verify the e uipment timer is within the re uired tolerances

&ighting
Magnetic particle inspection predominately relies on visual inspection to detect any indications that are formed. Therefore, lighting is a very important element of the $ ?0 $

inspection process. A!viously, the lighting re uirements are different for an inspection conducted using visi!le particles than they are for an inspection conducted using fluorescent particles. The lighting re uirements for each of these techni ues, as well as how light measurements are made, is discussed !elow. Light Re6uirements 0hen .sing 1isi"le Particles Magnetic particle inspections conducted using visi!le particles can !e conducted using natural lighting or artificial lighting. .hen using natural lighting, it is important to keep in mind that daylight varies from hour to hour so inspector must stay constantly aware on the lighting conditions and make ad/ustment when needed. To improve uniformity in lighting from one inspection to the ne&t, the use of artificial lighting is recommended. -rtificial lighting should !e white whenever possi!le and white flood or halogen lamps are most commonly used. The light intensity is re uired to !e (77 foot$candles at the surface !eing inspected. It is advisa!le to choose a white light wattage that will provide sufficient light, !ut avoid e&cessive reflected light that could distract from the inspection. Light Re6uirements 0hen .sing Fluorescent Particles .ltra&iolet Lighting .hen performing a magnetic particle inspection using fluorescent particles, the condition of the ultraviolet light and the am!ient white light must !e monitored. %tandards and procedures re uire verification of lens condition and light intensity. 3lack lights should never !e used with a cracked filter as output of white light and harmful !lack light will !e increased. The cleanliness of the filter should also !e checked as a coating of solvent carrier, oils, or other foreign materials can reduce the intensity !y up to as much as ?7O. The filter should !e checked visually and cleaned as necessary !efore warm$up of the light. "or 'I lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is (777 microwatts per s uare centimeter when measured at (? inches from the filter face )re uirements can vary from 477 to (077*. The re uired check should !e performed when a new !ul! is installed, at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is noticed, or every eight hours if in continuous use. Begularly checking the intensity of 'I lights is very important !ecause !ul!s loose intensity over time. In fact, a !ul! that is near the end of its operating life will often have an intensity of only 0? percent of its original output. 3lack light intensity will also !e affected !y voltage variations, so it is important to provide constant voltage to the light. - !ul! that produces accepta!le intensity at (07 volts will produce significantly less at ((7 volts. Am"ient 0hite Lighting .hen performing a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, it is important to keep white light to a minimum as it will significantly reduce the inspectors a!ility to detect fluorescent indications. 2ight levels of less than 0 fc are re uired !y most procedures with some procedures re uiring less than 7.? fc at the inspection surface. .hen checking !lack light intensity at (? inches a reading of the white light produced !y the !lack light may !e re uired to verify white light is !eing removed !y the filter. $ ?: $

0hite Light for Indication %onfirmation .hile white light is held to a minimum in fluorescent inspections, procedures may re uire that indications !e evaluated under white light. The white light re uirements here are the same as when performing an inspection with visi!le particles. The minimum light intensity at the surface !eing inspected must !e (77 foot$candles. Light Measurement 2ight intensity measurements are made using a radiometer. - radiometer is an instrument that translate light energy into an electrical current. 2ight striking a silicon photodiode detector causes a charge to !uild up !etween internal layers. .hen an e&ternal circuit is connected to the cell, an electrical current is produced. This current is linear with respect to incident light. %ome radiometers have the a!ility to measure !oth !lack and white light, while others re uire a separate sensor for each measurement. .hichever type used, the sensing area should !e clean and free of any materials that could reduce or o!struct light reaching the sensor. Badiometers are relatively unsta!le instruments and readings often change considera!le over time. Therefore, they must !e cali!rated regularly. They should !e cali!rated at least every si& months. - unit should !e checked to make sure its cali!ration is current !efore taking any light readings. 'ltraviolet light measurements should !e taken using a fi&ture to maintain a minimum distance of (? inches from the filter face to the sensor. The sensor should !e centered in the light field to o!tain and record the highest reading. 'I spot lights are often focused so intensity readings will vary considera!le over a small area. .hite lights are seldom focused and depending on the wattage, will often produce in e&cess of the (77 fc at (? inches. Many specifications do not re uire the white light intensity check to !e conducted at a specific distance.

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E"amples of /isible Dry Magnetic Particle Indications

Ane of the advantages that a magnetic particle inspection has over some of the other nondestructive evaluation methods is that flaw indications generally resem!le the actual flaw. This is not the case with NDT methods such as ultrasonic and eddy current inspection, where an electronic signal must !e interpreted. .hen magnetic particle inspection is used, cracks on the surface of the part appear as sharp lines that follow the path of the crack. "laws that e&ist !elow the surface of the part are less defined and more difficult to detect. 3elow are some e&amples of magnetic particle indications produced using dry particles.

Indication of a crac* in a sa( blade

Indication of crac*s in a (eldment

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Indication of crac*s originating at a fastener hole

Before and after inspection pictures of crac*s emanating from a hole

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Indication of crac*s running bet(een attachment holes in a hinge

E"amples of Fluorescent ,et Magnetic Particle Indications

The indications produced using the wet magnetic particles are more sharp than dry particle indications formed on similar defects. .hen fluorescent particles are used, the visi!ility of the indications is greatly improved !ecause the eye is drawn to the ;glowing; regions in the dark setting. 3elow are a few e&amples of fluorescent wet magnetic particle indications.

Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac*s in a dri+e shaft

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Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac* in a bearing

Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac* in the crane hoo*

$ ?4 $

Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac* at a sharp radius

Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac* in casting

$ ?6 $

Magnetic particle (et fluorescent indication of a crac*s at a fastener hole

$ 57 $