Hasan Jaashan

SERIES OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS; STYLISTICS

About the Author

Dr. Hasan M. S. Jaashan is an Assistant Professor (Applied Linguistics) in the Department of English !acult" of Languages and #ranslation $ing $halid %ni&ersit" Saudi Arabia. 'n ()** he +or,ed as a -isiting Assistant Professor in the Department of English Literature and Linguistics .atar %ni&ersit" .atar. !rom ())/ to ()*) He +or,ed in the Department of English Al0mah+eet college of Education Sana1a %ni&ersit" 2emen and +as the head of the English department for the sessions (())30()*)). He got his Master and PhD degrees from 'ndia (()))0())/). He has man" Academic acti&ities o&erseas. He has published man" papers beside this boo, such as4 *0 5#he 'ntert+ined 6elation bet+een sound and Sense in Arabic Language7. (0 5#he Linguistic 'mpairment and its 6elation to the 8rain4 a 9ero0Linguistic Stud" on some Aphasic People in 2emen7. :0 5#he De&iant 6egisteral !eatures of #rade Ad&ertising in Arabic7.

Dedicated To m !ids
6afid Mala, and 6aghad

;op"right " Hasan Jaashan #he right of Hasan Jaashan to be identified as author of this +or, has been asserted b" him in accordance +ith section << and <= of the ;op"right Designs and Patents Act *3==. All rights reser&ed. 9o part of this publication ma" be reproduced stored in a retrie&al s"stem or transmitted in an" form or b" an" means electronic mechanical photocop"ing recording or other+ise +ithout the prior permission of the publishers. An" person +ho commits an" unauthori>ed act in relation to this publication ma" be liable to criminal prosecution and ci&il claims for damages. A ;'P catalogue record for this title is a&ailable from the 8ritish Librar". 'S89 3<= *?3/: ?/) * +++.austinmacaule".com !irst Published (()*?) Austin Macaule" Publishers Ltd. (@ ;anada SAuare ;anar" Bharf London E*? @L8

P#e$ace
#he terms st"listics and discourse anal"sis ha&e attracted the attention of linguists and literar" critics ali,e in the last fe+ decades. #hese terms are defined and interpreted in a +ide range and their inter0relationship has been discussed &er" strongl" from different angles and points of &ie+. 'n applied linguistics +e appl" the linguistic theories to the stud" of different modes and uses of language. #o stud" a language means to offer a complete s"stematic stud" of language structures at all language le&els4 phonolog" morpholog" s"ntaC semantics etc. #he scientific stud" has also adapted itself to go be"ond +ords and sentences to account for the communicati&e process of +hole teCts and discourse. St"listics as a branch of applied linguistics shoulders the responsibilit" of pro&iding a scientific stud" of the language of literature. #he st"listicians eCplain scientificall" the linguistic structures of literar" teCt +ord order pattern of sound and rh"thm choices of &ocabular" items etc. !or them literar" +riting is a creati&e use of language. #herefore the linguists +ould &ie+ language as a medium of literature and a subDect matter of linguistics. #his boo, is compiled from three main sources4 one part is a modified &ersion of m" PhD thesis accepted b" the Department of Linguistics Aligarh Muslim %ni&ersit" 'ndia. #he second one is a paper presented in '>mir %ni&ersit" of Economics #ur,e". #he third part is the collection of m" master lectures on st"listics. 't is intended for the students of applied linguistics. 't aims to eCplain the basic concepts of st"le and ma,e students familiar +ith the fundamentals of st"listics and discourse anal"sis in a clear manner. 't is di&ided into se&en chapters. ;hapters * and ( eCplain the theoretical bac,ground of st"le and st"listics. ;hapters : ? @ / and < are eCpositor" and eCplanator" +ith eCamples. All eCamples are ta,en from English literature and anal">ed at different le&els of

linguistics. #he principles of language stud" +hich ha&e been adopted in this boo, (St"listic De&ices) are applicable to an" language in general. ' hope that the students of st"listics +ho are interested in the creati&e and aesthetic aspects of literar" discourse +ill find this boo, interesting and illuminating.

Hasan. M. S. Jaashan
((E*)E()*)

A%%#e&iations

#he follo+ing abbre&iations are commonl" used in this boo,4 AdD Ad& !#A !B8# G9D 'nf 9 H HMS P Pph P& S SD F AdDecti&e F Ad&erb F !are+ell to Arms F !or Bhom the 8ell #olls F Gerund F 'nfiniti&e F 9oun F HbDect F #he Hld Man and the Sea F Pronoun F Prepositional F Passi&e &oice F SubDect F St"listic de&ice F -erb

Cha'te# (
() *hat is St +istics, ;r"stal (*3=@) di&ided the +ord st"listics into t+o parts (style-, -stics). St"le means the +a" of +riting literature and 0stics means the scientific stud". So st"listics is the scientific stud" of st"le. ;ommonl" st"listics is a branch of applied linguistics +hich studies the features of situationall" distincti&e uses (&arieties) of language. 't tries also to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made b" indi&iduals and social groups in their use of language. Since the *3@)s the term st"listics has been applied to critical procedures +hich tried to reinstate the impressionism and subDecti&it" of standard language +ith a scientific and obDecti&e anal"sis of literar" teCt. #he st"listicians absorbed the descripti&e methods of se&eral ne+ linguistic theories such as European and American Structuralism #ransformational Grammar ;ase Grammar !unctional Grammar etc. During the time from the *3@)s to the *3<)s st"listics became recogni>ed as an academic discipline +ith its o+n speciali>ed Dournals reference guides disciplinar" histories and general o&er&ie+s. St"listicians in this period produced eCtensi&e treatment of topics li,e IPoetic -ocabular"1 (Miles *3/?) I-isual !orm in Poetr"1 (Hollander *3<@) Sound S"mbolism1 (!onag" *3<3) IPoetic S"ntaC1 and IMeter1 (#arlins,aDa *3</). St"le as a term in criticism had been +idel" used for a long time before often in a rather impressionistic +a". 't attempts to dra+ the attention to the characteristics or peculiar use of language in a specific teCt b" a specific author in a particular period. Modern st"listics is a +a" to approach the Auestion of st"le on stricter and more methodical lines. 't is not so much a discipline in itself as a crosso&er point bet+een linguistics for +hich literar" teCts are onl" items of interest in the broad stud" of language and literar" criticism. 't starts from the proposition

that an" idea or concept ma" be eCpressed in one or a number of different +a"s and that an author eCercises a choice (conscious or unconsciousJ dictated b" personal taste or the demands of the reader) in determining the precise form of the +ords to be used. Such a proposition is incidentall" anathema to ne+ criticism +hich refuses to distinguish bet+een the form and content of literatureJ +hat is +ritten is +ritten. Linguistic st"listics poses itself the assignment of classif"ing the range of linguistic choices that are a&ailable to the authors. 't also identifies the +a"s in +hich features of the linguistics ma" call attention to themsel&esJ these features ma" de&iate from the accepted norms in their manner of eCpression. #hese classifications ma" be applicable to a particular teCt or number of teCts in such a +a" as to highlight their peculiar &erbal characteristics. ()( Re+ation %et-een +in./istics and +ite#at/#e #here is a contro&ersial debate about the relationship bet+een linguistics and literature. Someone ma" sa" that linguistics and literature are ali,e and similar because the" both deal +ith language and the language is the main concern of them both. 8ut the linguists stopped this notorious argument and the" agree on the idea that linguistics and literature are t+o different fields. #he" clearl" differentiate bet+een linguistic and literature. #he" sa" that literature is concerned +ith thought and imaginar". An"thing +hich is imaginar" is called literature. #he basis on +hich literature is related to linguistics is language. Language ser&es as the content of linguistics. So the linguists define linguistics as the scientific stud" content and subDect matter of language. So language pla"s a dual role as the medium and contentJ medium in literature and content in linguistics. Literature is one of the fine arts such as painting and sculpture. 'n painting +e need a special medium to paintJ that is colour. #he same thing +ith sculptureJ +e need roc, marbles etc. Similarl" in sa"ing literature +e need a special medium to do itJ that is language. #he shape belo+ sho+s that language pla"s t+o roles one in literature and the other in linguistics. 'n linguistics language is the content or the subDect

matterJ and in literature language is the medium. #he scope that connects bet+een linguistics and literature is called st"listics so st"listics is one of the applied linguistic areas. 't studies the language of literature form the linguistic point of &ie+. 't tells us ho+ the language functions in literature i.e. the different theories of linguistics are applied to the language of literature to gi&e us a field called st"listics.

Shape (*) relation bet+een linguistics and literature ()0 A''#oaches to +ite#at/#e Literature is something that can be approached from different angles and &arious points of &ie+. 't can be studied from philosophical ps"chological aesthetic and linguistic points of &ie+. Bhat concern us here are onl" three approaches to literature that ha&e relation to linguistics. * 0 Linguistic approach to literature. ( 0 Aesthetic approach to literature. : 0 Semiotic approach to literature.

#he first t+o approaches are related to st"listics. #hus the" +ill be discussed in detail belo+. #he third approach is mentioned here Dust for ,no+ledge. 't is discussed under another branch of applied linguistics called semiotics. ()0)( Lin./istic a''#oach to +ite#at/#e Linguistic approach to literature is a &er" +ide approach. #he linguists discuss it under the follo+ing categories4 ()0)()( Lin./istics and +ite#at/#e A) Linguistics as +e ,no+ is the scientific stud" of language. 'n linguistics the language is studied and anal">ed scientificall". Since linguistics is the scientific stud" of a language it is also the s"stematic anal"tic and obDecti&e stud" of language as +ell. 'n the linguistic approach to literature +e also ma,e anal"tic scientific and s"stematic stud" of the literar" language. 8) A language can be studied and anal">ed at &arious le&els of linguistics such as4 phonolog" morpholog" s"ntaC and semantics. 'n the same +a" +e can anal">e the language of literature at phonological morphological s"ntactical and semantic le&els. ;) #he prime concern of linguistics is language. 'n the linguistic approach to literature also the main concern is language. #his approach concerns itself +ith the linguistic stud" of the language of literature. Literature is a +or, of art li,e other +or,s of art such as painting sculpture music etc.J it gi&es us aesthetic pleasure. 'n other +ords +hen +e read literature our heart is filled +ith pleasure and enDo"ment. #his can be described as aesthetic pleasure. Bhen +e get pleasure in reading literature +e appreciate it. 'n a linguistic approach to literature +e tr" to disco&er the aesthetic pleasure through the description of language. ()0)()0 Lin./istics desc#i%es and ana+ 1es the st +e o$ +ite#a# -#ite# Literature uses language as its medium and it is the same language +hich is studied and described in linguistics. #he

poets and literar" +riters create st"le b" using language. 't is therefore Auite logical to stud" and describe the st"le and the language of literature. Linguisticall" +hile ma,ing the linguistic description of literar" teCt +e do the follo+ing4 A) Appl" the theoretical ,no+ledge deri&ed from linguistics. 2) %se the linguistic frame of reference. C) %se the terminologies of linguistics. ()0)()3 Cont#i%/tion o$ +in./istics to the st/d o$ +ite#at/#e Linguistics is one of the most important areas +here the application of it can be made possible. Linguistics can contribute a great deal to our understanding of literature. Linguistics approach to literature therefore highlights the follo+ing points4 A4 Linguistics enhances our aesthetic eCperience of literature. #his can be noticed +hen reading a +or, of literature such as a no&el poem or pla". #he ,no+ledge of linguistics helps us to enDo" more and get more aesthetic pleasure. 2) Linguistics pro&ides &ocabularies methodolog" and a frame of reference through +hich +e can sho+ ho+ our aesthetic eCperience is deri&ed from its &erbal structure (linguistic structure). C) Linguistics can also sol&e man" problems of literar" interpretation. #hrough linguistic method +e can sho+ +h" one structure is possible but another is not in literar" teCt. ()0)()5 Cha#acte#istics o$ +in./istic a''#oach to +ite#at/#e #he linguistic approach to literature has man" features. Some of these are4 A) #his approach deals +ith literar" and poetic functions of a language. 2) 't is concerned +ith st"le and creati&e means of language. C) #his approach is creati&e and anal"tical in nature. D) 't is based on the direct obser&ation of literature.

E) 't is teCt0oriented. #he things +hich lie be"ond the teCt such as the life and personalit" of the +riter his age or his societ" are gi&en no importance in linguistic approach. F) #he conclusions about the literar" teCt are dra+n on the basis of linguistic anal"sis. ()0)()6 7ethods /sed in the +in./istic a''#oach to +ite#at/#e A4 Linguistic tools and terminologies are used. #he linguistic frame of reference is adopted as +ell. 24 Statistical method is used in freAuenc" counts. C4 #eCts are anal">ed at &arious linguistic le&els such as phonolog" morpholog" s"ntaC and semantics. D) #he different features of st"le are identified. ()0)0 Aesthetic a''#oach to +ite#at/#e #he +ord aesthetic refers to the beaut" or the appreciation of beaut" or beautiful things. #he aesthetic approach to literature is concerned +ith the disco&er" of these elements +hich ma,e the piece of literature beautiful and attracti&e. 't ma" be pointed out that the main purpose of literature is to gi&e aesthetic pleasure and it is deri&ed from the beautification. #he piece of literature especiall" poetr" is called a beauteous thing. 't is the Dob of a critic to disco&er all the elements of beaut" in literature and to anal">e them. An aesthetic approach to literature is basicall" disco&ering the process of beautification in literature. ()0)0)( *hat is %ea/t in +ite#at/#e, 8eaut" in literature has specific &ie+s. Man" critics agree on the &ie+ that beaut" is the same of eAuilibrium order and arrangementJ it has also been said Kbeautiful colourK and light is beautiful others sa" Ksimplicit" is beaut"K. 8ut generall" spea,ing beaut" is the combination of Aualities +hich gi&e pleasure to the senses (especiall" to e"e and ear) or to the mind. Almost all the thin,ers and philosophers agree that beaut" gi&es pleasures and fills our hearts +ith Do". 't is because of

this beaut" that the literature becomes a fountain of Do" and pleasure and it attracts the people. ()0)0)0 Ho- %ea/t is mani$ested in +ite#at/#e 't is important to ,no+ ho+ beaut" is manifested in literature. #he manifestation of poetr" in literature ta,es t+o shapes4 A) #he beaut" of thoughts 8) #he beaut" of eCpressions ()0)0)0)( The %ea/t o$ tho/.hts #he beaut" of literature is not contained onl" in eCpression or presentation but in matter of thought also. 'n an aesthetic approach to literature the beaut" of thought or content has the same &alue or importance as the beaut" of eCpression. Man" critics consider that literature implies greatness of thought along +ith the beaut" of eCpression. #he aesthetic approach to literature gi&es eAual importance to thought processes contained in the literar" piece of +or,. ()0)0)0)0 The %ea/t o$ e8'#essions 't deals +ith ho+ the beautiful idea has been eCpressed and ho+ +ords phrases and eCpressions con&e" the ideas beautifull". #he use of proper +ords and their proper arrangement is therefore the great concern of the aesthetic approach to literature. #he +ords and their order and arrangement should be such so that the" could produce musicalit". #he euphon" (pleasing sounds) and the musicalit" of +ords ma,e the piece of literature especiall" poetr" beautiful. #he beaut" of musicalit" is produced +hen there is rh"ming euphon" and harmon" of sounds. #here are some features +hich are e&aluated in the aesthetic approach to literatureJ these features are also found in good prose. 't is said that good prose +hen read aloud should loo, li,e poetr". 8eaut" of eCpression is also created +hen a +riter uses different t"pes of figurati&e speechEst"listic de&ices such as simile metaphor personification meton"m" alliteration consonance assonance etc. All these contribute to the beaut" of eCpression in literature and gi&e aesthetic &alue to it.

()0)0)0)3 Cha#acte#istics o$ the aesthetic a''#oach to +ite#at/#e A) #his approach deals +ith those matters +hich create beaut" in literature especiall" in poetr". 8) #he critics tr" to find out the elements of Do" and the beaut" in the +or,s of literature. ;) #he critics eCamine those methods b" +hich the poetsL imagination is eCpressed. D) 'n this approach the importance is gi&en to intuition. 'ntuition is a guiding factor in this approach. E) #he critic indulges in impressionism. 'n other +ords the criticLs attitude to+ards literature is impressionistic. !) 'n this approach aesthetic &alues are the Dudging &alues. #hat is the Dudgments are based on the basis of the aesthetic method. ()0)0)0)5 7ethods /sed in the aesthetic a''#oach to +ite#at/#e #he linguists came out +ith the main methods used in this approach. Some of them are4 A) #he critic ma,es the anal"sis of st"le and techniAues of eCpression. 8) #he critic ma,es the stud" of choice and the beaut" of +ords. #he" stud" their order arrangement rh"thm musicalit" and phonic effects as +ell. ;) #he critic proposes the beaut" of thought and its effect. D) #he +riter is Dudged from the aesthetic &alues point of &ie+. ()3 St +istics and socio+in./istics Most of the language theories agree on the idea of the close relationship bet+een the concept of st"le and the phenomena of language &ariation. Accordingl" st"listics as a linguistic acti&it" comes closer to sociolinguistics since both emphasi>e &arious ,inds of linguistic &ariation. #he difference bet+een a literar" st"le and a sociolinguistic st"le +ould be one of conteCtuali>ation +ith the former gi&ing us literar" meaning

and the latter social meaning. Bhereas literar" meaning is mar,ed for additional aesthetic information the social meaning re&eals situational factors or the spea,er1s membership to some social group. 't is for this reason that the functional differentiation of literar" language is considered to be a t"pe of sociolinguistic &ariation. Man" linguists regard st"listics as a branch of sociolinguistics. Spilner (*3<?4 *<:) felt that 5st"listics and sociolinguistics are indeed concerned +ith the same problem of utterances con&e"ing the same information and ha&ing the same semantic &alue but differing either in some additional aesthetic informationM or in some information Aualif"ing the spea,er as to his membership in some social group7. !or the same purpose Biddo+son (*3<?4 ()() states that 5St"listics then is the stud" of the social function of language and is a branch of +hat has come to be called sociolinguistics7. Semen"u, (*3<<4 ??) comments that 5st"listics differentiation has to be regarded as specific form of language1s social &ariation7. $umer (*3=<4 '-) is conscious of the relation bet+een st"le and social discourse +hen he sa"s that 5+hat ought to be stressed is the a+areness that st"le is the propert" of discourse in general and not an eCclusi&e propert" of literature7. #hus st"le can be &ie+ed from t+o perspecti&es4 the broader &ie+ of st"le in consonance +ith sociolinguistics principles and the narro+er &ie+ of st"le restricted to the literar" corpus. #he broad &ie+ of st"le of course subsumes literar" st"le.

Cha'te# 0
0) Lan./a.e o$ +ite#at/#e 0)( The $eat/#es o$ the +an./a.e o$ +ite#at/#e As +e ,no+ language is a means of communication. And through language +e con&e" our ideas and thoughts to each other. #here are t+o main t"pes of communication4 A) E&er"da" communication 8) Literar" communication #he language of e&er"da" communication is different from the language of literar" communication. #he language of e&er" da" communication is called common &erbal eCchange. 'n opposition to this there is the special use of language in literature. #he language in literature or literar" language is the special language or the special use of language. A distinction is also made bet+een the literar" and non0 literar" language. #he eCamples of non0literar" language are an essa" on science a lecture on philosoph" or commentar" on athletes. 'n all these there is the communicati&e &alue of language i.e. something is being con&e"ed and some information is being passed on but the language of literature does not purel" ser&e the communicati&e purpose. 't is not al+a"s used to communicate something. #he communicati&e &alue in the literar" language is reduced to a minimum. #he literar" language instead ha&ing communicati&e &alue embodies aesthetic and poetic &alue. #he commonl" ac,no+ledged fact regarding literar" language is that it differs from the dail" use of language +hich is called Lcommon &erbal eCchangeL. And it is as +ell distinct from Inon0literar" language1. #he non0literar" language has greater communicati&e &alueJ it is denotati&e in nature and has a one0to0one relationship bet+een the +ord and its meaning. #he language of literature does not necessaril" ser&e the communicati&e purpose. 't ser&es the aesthetic and eCpressi&e purposes +hich are the main features of literar" language.

#hese features are not applicable E emplo"ed in the e&er"da" usage of language or non0literar" language. #hus +e ma" safel" identif" the characteristic features of the language of literature in the follo+ing4 1- Literary language is non-utilitarian Literar" language is non0utilitarian and it does not ser&e the immediate purpose of con&e"ing bare information li,e the e&er"da" language. A single +ord or eCpression in the language of literature has different la"ers of meaning and can be interpreted from a number of different angles and points of &ie+. 2- Literary language is symbolic #he s"mbolic use of language is found onl" in the literar" language and does not eCist in the dail" communication +hich is straightfor+ard and direct. 8" being s"mbolic the literar" language becomes indirect implicit and imagistic. 3- Literary language has supra-literal meanings #he linguistic items such as +ords phrases clauses and sentences ha&e supra0literal meanings +hich are understood through the conteCt in a literar" +or,. #he" sa" more than the" seem to sa". #he meaning of a +ord in literature cannot be ta,en literall" as in the case of e&er"da" language. Ho+e&er it carries another meaning be"ond the literal one. 4- Literary language is de-automatized: Mu,aNo&s,O (*3<)) propounds a distinction bet+een e&er"da" language and literar" language. #he former is constructed spontaneousl" +ithout thin,ing about the +ords phrases and sentences. 'n other +ords there is the automatic use of linguistic elements in dail" usage of language. He calls it an automati>ed language. Hn the other hand the latter is de0 automati>ed. #hat means the poets and +riters are conscious and a+are of +ords phrases and sentences the" use. #he" tr" their best to put the right +ord in its right place. 'n fact the &iolation of the accepted norms of language is called de0 automati>ation. #he more an act is automati>ed the less consciousl" it is eCecuted +hereas the more it is foregrounded the more completel" conscious does it become.

HbDecti&el" spea,ing automati>ation schemati>es an e&ent and de0automati>ation means the &iolation of the scheme. 5- Literary language is connotative #he language of science is denotati&e because there is a referential and literal use of language. !or eCample in science one plus one ma,es t+oJ but in the literar" use of language one plus one ma" not ma,e t+o because in literature there is no referential and literal sense of language. 't is connotati&e and assumes a number of associati&e meanings other than their literal meanings. 6- Literary language has cultural loads Literar" language is &er" rich in culture and associati&e meanings. #hat means it has cultural loads +hereas the scientific language full" discards the cultural loads. Hence it sometimes becomes &er" difficult to translate a piece of literature from one language into another. 7- The literary language is ambiguous Sometimes the literar" language is not precise but ambiguous and &ague. #hat is +h" there ma" be &arious interpretations of a single literar" teCt. An" literar" teCt is open ended semanticall". #hat is in the interpretation of a literar" piece one can use oneLs o+n personal eCperience bac,ground and thought. 8- Literary language involves creativity #he language of literature abounds in creati&it". #he literar" author ma,es creati&e use of language. He creates ne+ +ords eCpressions and some combinations of +ords in order to suit the meaning +hich heEshe +ants to con&e". 8" doing so the +riter further eCtends the language boundar" and contributes to the enrichment of the traditional means of eCpression. 8" doing that as #raugott and Pratt (*3=)) point out the +riter is also able to produce and understand utterances +hich ha&e ne&er been heard before but are possible +ithin the s"stem of a language. 9- Literary language is expressive and aesthetic A literar" +riter ma,es the language of literature aesthetic and eCpressi&e because of the use of different SDs to create a beaut" in the language. #he aesthetic use of language ma,es

the readers appreciate literature. #he readers do not read literature for the sa,e of getting ,no+ledge but for the sa,e of appreciation. 'n literature there is also the eCpressi&e use of language through +hich a +riter eCpresses his feeling emotion and sentiment. ECpressi&e use of language gi&es an emoti&e &alue to literature. 10- Literary language is foregrounded Literar" language usuall" does not follo+ the set standard or the eCisting pattern of a language. #hat means there is a de&iation from the norms in literature. De&iation in a language ta,es place +hen the selectional restrictions are &iolated. Bhen a +riter de&iates from the linguistic norms he creates anomalous and non0linguistic eCpression in his language. Mu,aNo&s,O (*3<)) calls this ,ind of +riting LforegroundingL +hich is against bac,ground. 't means bringing to attention or ma,ing something ne+. E&er" language has its linguistic bac,ground and the users of that language follo+ that bac,ground. 8ut a literar" +riter uses a language against its bac,ground as a result of +hich his language becomes foregrounded. 11- Literary language is figurative and ornamental #he different use of SDs such as simile metaphor meton"m" h"perbole assonance consonance etc. ma,es the language of literature figurati&e and ornamental. #his beaut" of language +hich a literar" +riter uses attracts readers. #he abo&e0mentioned merits ma,e the language of literature different from the other usages of language. #he reason be"ond this lies in the use of different linguistic terms b" +hich literar" language becomes distinct. #hese terms are called st"listic de&ices st"listic means st"listic mar,ers tropes figures of speech and so on. All these terms are used indiscriminatel" and are set against those means +hich are con&entionall" called neutral means. 9eutral means commonl" ha&e some ac,no+ledged grammatical and leCical meanings. Bhereas st"listic de&ices and +ith that the ac,no+ledged meanings contain st"listic meanings +hich o&erla" the ac,no+ledged ones and sho+ the eCclusi&eness of a +riter. 'n this regard ;r"stal and Da&" (*3=:) mention that each +riter

has hisEher o+n idios"ncratic st"le. #his st"le can be recogni>ed b" a specific combination of language media and SDs +hich in their interaction characteri>e the indi&idual uniAueness and present another ne+ s"stem to the language. #his ne+ s"stem originall" is deri&ed from the literar" norms and the general principles of the gi&en period. #he talented +riter ma,es some adaptation of the canon of the language b" +hich he ma,es the readers feel the +a" he +ants them to feel. #hus according to Galperin (*3<<) an SD can be defined as a deliberate and conscious intensification of some t"pical structures or semantic propert" of language unit (neutral or means) promoted to a generali>ed status and thus becoming a generati&e model. #his means SDs are an abstract pattern or let one sa" a mould into +hich an" content can be poured. #he" are language tools +hich are used b" the literar" +riters to create st"le. #he" ma,e the +or,s of literature beautiful and attracti&e and the readers highl" appreciate it. 0)0 St +istics; its de$initions and sco'e 0)0)( De$initions o$ st +istics #he st"listicians defined st"listics in different +a"s. Some of these definitions are4 (I) St"listics is the scientific stud" of st"le. 'n linguistics it is the scientific stud" of language. #he term st"listics has P tics as a suffiC +hich means the scientific stud". St"listics is scientific because there is obDecti&it" precision and eCplicitness +hen +e stud" the literar" language. 't is also an empirical s"stematic and anal"tical stud". Bhen +e sa" st"listics the Auestion arises +hat is then st"leQ #he term st"le is not eas" to be defined precisel". According to Spencer (*3/?) st"le is a highl" compleC phenomenon and can be &ie+ed from man" different points of &ie+. #he term st"le has a multiplicit" of definitions. St"le is commonl" defined as a manner of +riting but man" linguists ha&e defined st"le as choice bet+een alternati&e eCpressions. Some other scholars ha&e defined st"le as de&iant from the norm.

#here is no den"ing the fact that st"le forms the content or the subDect matter of st"listics as the language is the subDect matter of linguistics. (II) St"listics ma" also be defined as the stud" of the use of language in literature or the literar" uses and functions of language. As +e ,no+ that language is a means of communication our feeling emotion and thought are eCpressed through language. Language is used for different purposes. 't is used in con&ersation religious discourse la+ sports mass media and in education. Language is also used in literature. #he use of language in literature is different from other uses of language. 't ma" be pointed out that in literature there is the special use of language. Bhen the poets or the +riters use language in literature the" modif" it. #he" ma,e &arious changes in the language s"stem. #he" also create ne+ eCpressions and ne+ combinations of +ords. All these things ma,e the language special and the stud" of such t"pes of language is called st"listics. 't ma" be clarified here that st"listics is not simpl" the stud" of literature. 't is also not simpl" the stud" of language. 't is the stud" of the use of language in literature. Hr in other +ords it is the stud" of literar" language or literar" functions of language. (III) St"listics is an area of applied linguistics. 'n st"listics the ,no+ledge of linguistics is applied to the stud" of literature. Linguistics pro&ides the theoretical ,no+ledge for the stud" of the structure of language. Bhen some linguistic ,no+ledge is applied to the stud" and anal"sis of the structure of literar" language it is called st"listics. #he application of linguistics and applied linguistics refers to the follo+ing4 A0 #he use of the disco&eries and the theoretical ,no+ledge of linguistics. 80 #he use of linguistic frame of reference. ;0 #he use of terminologies of linguistics to ser&e the purpose of another area of the stud". 'n st"listics the disco&eries and methods of linguistics are applied to the stud" of literature. #he linguistic frame of reference and linguistic terminologies are also used +hile ma,ing the st"listic stud" of literature. Literature is one of the

most important areas +here the application of linguistics can be possible. (I9) St"listics is also defined as the linguistic stud" of literature. Here the literature is studied from the linguistic point of &ie+ and linguistic stud" of literature is made at &arious le&els of linguistics such as phonolog" morpholog" s"ntaC and semantics. A: Phonology. At the phonological le&el +e anal">e literature in terms of sounds contained in a poem. A beautiful poem ma" compromise a beautiful combination of sounds because in poetr" there is a grand unit" of some structure at the phonological le&el therefore +e eCplore the beaut" of sound in literature and +e concentrate on the phonological cohesion of the poems. B0 Morphology Literature can also be anal">ed at the morphological le&el. At this le&el +e are concerned +ith the structure of +ords. Be pa" our attention to ho+ the +riters ha&e made their selection of +ords ho+ the" ha&e created ne+ +ords and eCpressions and ho+ the" ha&e combined certain +ords. C- Syntax and Grammar At this le&el +e stud" the literar" construction of sentences. Be pa" our attention to the creati&it" of a language. 8" using the eCisting sources the poets and literar" +riters create no&el eCpression and sentences +hich attract the readers. Poets and +riters de&iate from the norms +hile using +ords phrases and sentences. Sometimes the" do not follo+ the rules of grammatical categories and hence the" de&iate from the norm. - S!mant"#$ Literature can also be studied at the le&el of semantics. Here +e tr" to find out the &iolation of the selectional rules and certain t"pes of semantic de&iations such as 5the oat was merry, I bro e the sun...7 etc. #he stud" of literature at all the le&els of linguistics is called the linguistic stud" of literature and such studies are nothing but st"listics. 0)0)0 Sco'e o$ st +istics 'n st"listics there are t+o elements in&ol&edJ one element is linguistics and the other one is literature. Linguistics as an

element pro&ides tools and methodolog"J and literature unfolds the st"le of the +riter. 8" using linguistic methods and tools st"listics describes the st"le of the +riter +hich is contained in literature. St"listics disco&ers features of the st"le +hich are bound in the +or, of literature. 't is under the scope of st"listics that it must find out +hat are the st"listics features in the +or, of literature. As +e ,no+ that st"le is created b" the use of language in literature. 't is therefore the scope of st"listics to stud" the use of language in literature and to disco&er the phenomenon of st"le and find out the features of st"le. St"listics therefore consists of this formula (LA;SF<SA4 LAF Linguistic Anal"sis SF F St"le !eatures SAF St"listics Anal"sis #he st"listic anal"sis comprises t+o things4 *) Linguistic anal"sis of the piece of literature. () Disco&ering the st"le features in that piece of literature. Mere linguistic anal"sis cannot be called st"listic anal"sis. 'n st"listic anal"sis first of all +e ma,e the linguistic anal"sis of literature either at a phonological le&el or morphological le&el. After +e ha&e made the linguistic anal"sis then +e tr" to find out the st"le features in that piece of literature. St"le features are those distincti&e features of st"le or the use of language +hich are found in literature. 'n a nutshell the scope of st"listics can be summari>ed as follo+s4 (0 St"listics is the scientific stud" of st"le. 00 St"listics is the stud" of the use of language in literature. 30 St"listics is the stud" of the function of language in literature. 50 St"listics is the application of the theoretical ,no+ledge of linguistics to literature. #hat is +h" st"listics is considered as a branch of applied linguistics. 60 St"listics is the linguistic stud" of literature. 'n st"listics literature is studied and anal">ed from the linguistic point of &ie+ at the &arious le&el of linguistics such as phonolog" morpholog" s"ntaC etc.

=0 A st"listics approach to literature forms the scientific point of &ie+. #hat is to sa" there is obDecti&it" precision and eCplicitness in this approach. #his approach is also empirical anal"tical and s"stematic. 0)3 St +istics and +ite#a# c#iticism #he linguists agree on the idea that st"listics and literar" criticism are the t+o approaches to stud" literature. Ho+e&er the maDor difference bet+een them is that st"listics is the modern approach to stud" literature and literar" criticism is the traditional or old approach to the stud" of literature. #he" tr" to displa" some other differences bet+een st"listics and literar" criticism as follo+s4 0)3)( St +istics St"listics is basicall" the linguistic approach to the stud" of literature because st"listics is based on linguistics. Bhen +e stud" literature from the linguistic point of &ie+ +e do the follo+ingJ A: Be appl" the theoretical ,no+ledge of linguistics to the stud" of literature. 2: Be ma,e the linguistic frame of reference. C: Be ma,e use of the terminologies of linguistics +hile stud"ing literature) 'n st"listics +e are mainl" concerned +ith the anal"sis of the st"le of the literar" +riter and st"le is created b" the use of language. #herefore st"listics is concerned +ith literar" use of language. ;ommonl" in literature there is special use of language. E&er" +riter has his uniAue use of a language. #he literar" language is highl" ornamental s"mbolic and full of figures of speech. 'n addition to this literar" language also de&iates from the norms and in this +a" it becomes a language +hich is highl" foregrounded. All these aspects of literar" language are ta,en care of in st"listics. St"listics is also a scientific approach to the stud" of literature because this approach is obDecti&e s"stematic and obser&ational. #he follo+ing are the characteristics of the st"listic approach to literature4

*0 #his approach is obDecti&e because it studies the language of literature obDecti&el". (0 't is a scientific and practical approach because in this approach the data is handled practicall" and its methods are scientific. :0 't is obser&ational because +e obser&e the linguistic data +hile ma,ing the stud". 't is not based on imagination in +hich data cannot be obser&ed. ?0 't is a s"stematic approach because the anal"sis of literar" language is made s"stematic. @0 't is a data0oriented approach because in this approach +e focus our attention on data of the teCt. And on the basis of the anal"sis of the data of the teCt results and conclusion are dra+n. 'n this approach +e do not consider the life personalit" age and the societ" in +hich the literar" +riter li&es. #hese are not important things for st"listics anal"sis of literature. #he important thing is the teCt +hich the literar" +riter has +ritten. #his teCt ma" comprise poem short stor" no&el pla" etc. 0)3)0 Lite#a# c#iticism Literar" criticism as said earlier is a traditional approach to the stud" of literature. 't is also called an old and classical approach to the stud" of literature. Literar" criticism is primaril" based on the impressions +hich critics gather +hen the" go through the literature. #his approach is based on the personal li,ing and disli,ing of the critic. #hat is +h" literar" criticism is called impressionistic criticism because the literar" critic is guided b" his impression. 'n literar" criticism not much attention is paid to language used b" the poets and +riters. 't deals +ith the other aspects of literature such as stor" plot characters heroes heroines climaC traged" comed" etc. Moreo&er literar" critics +hile ma,ing the stud" of literature also deal +ith the life and personalit" of the author. He also focuses his attention on the period and the societ" in +hich the +riter li&ed. Literar" criticism therefore is an entirel" different approach to the stud" of literature. #his approach has the follo+ing features4

*0 Literar" criticism is impressionistic because the literar" critic is &er" much guided b" the impression +hich he forms +hile stud"ing literature. (0 't is a subDecti&e approach because in this approach the personal li,ing and disli,ing of the critics matters a lot. 'f the critic li,es a poet or an" piece of literature he +ill appreciate it too much but if he disli,es a poet or a piece of literature he +ill comment on it badl". :0 't is the approach in +hich literar" teCt is not gi&en the central position because apart from stud"ing literar" teCt the critic pa"s attention to the life and personalit" of the poets and +riters. He also discusses the period and the age in +hich the poetE+riter li&ed. ?0 't does not concentrate full" on language. 't discusses matter other than the language such as theme stor" climaC and characters presented in literature. @0 't is not a scientific approach to the stud" of literature because the scientific methods to anal">e the literature are not follo+ed in this approach +hile stud"ing literature. /0 #his approach ma,es too much generali>ation and its findings are not dra+n on the basis of the anal"sis of the literar" teCt. 'n this approach the critic indulges in eCaggeration and the" use &er" pompous language +hich is full of &erbosit". #hus +e find that there are a lot of differences bet+een st"listics and literar" criticism. 8oth approaches share the idea the" stud" literature but the" are entirel" different in man" +a"s. 0)5 St +e its de$inition 05)( The te#m st +e #he term st"le has been deri&ed from the Latin +ord 5stilus7 +hich means the +riting instrument of the 6oman. St"le is generall" characteri>ed as an author1s manner of +riting. 8ut it is not eas" to define the term st"le because there are problems in defining st"le. 0)5)0 P#o%+ems in de$inin. st +e