MATH42041/62041 : Noncommutative Algebra, January 2011Solutions.

A1(a) : The nilradical of R is the sum of all the nilpotent ideals of R .

(b) An ideal I of a ring R is prime if, whenever AB I for ideals A, B of R, either A I or B I.
(c) An element in a ring R is strongly nilpotent for all sequences

0
= ,
1
=
0
r
1

0
,
2
=
1
r
2

1
, . . .
(where the r
j
are arbitrary elements of R) we have
r
= 0 for all r 0.
(d) ann
R
(S) = r R : rs = 0 s S.
5 marks
A2: (a) The Artin-Wedderburn Theorem: The following are equivalent:
(i) R is a left artinian ring with N(R) = 0
(ii) R

= M
n
1
(D
1
) M
n
r
(D
r
) is a direct sum of matrix rings over division rings.
(iii) R is a nite direct sum of simple left modules.
(b) As R has no nilpotent elements, certainly N(R) = 0 and so R

= M
n
1
(D
1
) M
n
r
(D
r
) as above.
If r > 1 then the element (1, 0, ..., 0) would be a nontrivial idempotent. So r = 1. If n
1
> 1 then any strictly
upper triangular element of R would be nilpotent. Hence n
1
= 1 and R is a division ring. 6 marks
A3: (a) Let L = ann
R
(M) and a, b L, m M and r R. Then r(a b)m = r(am) r(bm) = 0, so
L is a left ideal. On the other hand (ar)m = a(rm) = 0 as rm M and a ann(M). So L is an ideal.
(b) Let K I be an ideal. Then KM = (KR + I)/I = (K + I)/I = 0 and so K ann
R
(M). On the
other hand L = ann
R
(M) ann
R
([1 + I]) = I. So L is the largest such ideal K.
5 marks
A4(a): If G = g
1
, ..., g
n
, then kG is the k-vector space with k-basis g
1
, ..., g
n
and multiplication dened
by (

i
g
i
)(

j

j
g
j
) =

k

k
g
k
, where
k
=

g
i
g
j
=g
k

j
.
(b) Maschkes Theorem states: If k is a eld of characteristic zero and G is a nite group, then kG is a
semisimple artinian ring, (and hence isomorphic to a nite direct sum of matrix rings over division rings).
4 marks
1
Section B:
B5 (a): A nitely generated module M over a PID R can be decomposed as a direct sum
M = R
(n)
R/(a
1
) R/(a
2
) R/(a
t
), where a
i
[a
i+1
1 i < t.
Moreover n, t and (up to multiplication by units) the a
j
are uniquely determined by M.
3 marks
(b): Recall that K = C[x](x + 1, 1, 1) + C[x](1, x + 1, 1) + C[x](2, 2, x + 4).
We now do column and row operations (corresponding to changes in the basis of C[x]
(3)
respectively of
the relations) to get the following generating sets for N:
( x + 1, 1, 1 )
( 1, x + 1, 1 )
( 2, 2, x + 4 )

( 0, x
2
2x, x 2 )
( 1, x + 1, 1 )
( 0, 4 2x, x + 2 )
=
( 0, x(x + 2), (x + 2) )
( 1, x + 1, 1 )
( 0, 2(x + 2), x + 2 )

( 0, (x + 2)(x + 2), 0 )
( 1, x + 1, 1 )
( 0, 2(x + 2), x + 2 )

( 0, (x + 2)
2
0 )
( 1, 0, 0 )
( 0, 0, (x + 2) )

( 1, 0, 0 )
( 0, (x + 2), 0 )
( 0, 0, (x + 2)
2
)
In other words,
M

=
C[x] C[x] C[x]
(C[x] C[x](x + 2) C[x](x + 2)
2
)
=
C[x]
(x + 2)

C[x]
(x + 2)
2
.
10 marks
(c) Note that as a C-vector space, M = C
(3)
. If we regard x as a linear transformation of that vector
space C
(3)
with the original basis, then it acts by the given matrix . This just means we have found a
C-basis with respect to which has JCF
_
_
2 0 0
0 2 0
0 1 2
_
_
or, if you prefer,
_
_
2 0 0
0 2 1
0 0 2
_
_
.
3 marks
(d): Euclids algorithm gives 4 = (3 +i) + (1 i) and 3 +i = (2i + 1)(1 i). So the GCD is (1 i).
4 marks
2
B6 (a): Proof:
Step I: Set N

(R) =

all prime ideals P of R. Then we claim that N

(R) is the set of all strongly

nilpotent elements in R.
Proof of Step I: If is not in N

(R) then is not in some prime ideal P. So, R , P. Hence

there exists r
1
R such that
1
= r
1
, P. Now we can repeat this process and nd r
2
R such
that
2
=
1
r
2

1
, P. By induction we obtain an innite such chain and so is not strongly nilpotent.
Consequently N

(R) the strongly nilpotent elements of R.

Conversely, suppose that is not strongly nilpotent and pick the corresponding chain of nonzero
elements
o = ,
1
= r
1
,
2
=
1
r
2

1
,
3
=
2
r
3

2
, .
Now let 1 = ideals I : I o = . It is immediate that Zorns Lemma applies, so 1 has a maximal element;
say I. We claim that I is prime. If not, then we can nd ideals A, B I such that AB I. But this means
that A
i
and B
j
for some i, j 0. Notice that if A
i
then certainly A
i+1
and hence A
i+m
for all m. Thus, if = maxi, j then A B

. But now
+1
=

r
+1

AB I; a contradiction.
Thus I is indeed prime and hence, as , I this implies that , N

(R). This in turn says that

N

(R) the strongly nilpotent elements of R and completes the proof of Step 1.
7 marks
Step II: N(R) = the strongly nilpotent elements of R.
Proof of Step II: Clearly any N(R) is strongly nilpotent, since (RR)
n
= 0 for some n. Thus
holds. So, suppose that N(R) the strongly nilpotent elements of R.
We consider R = R/N(R). On the one hand N(R) = 0 by the hint. On the other hand, any strongly
nilpotent element of R certainly remains strongly nilpotent in R and so N

(R) ,= 0. So, pick a nonzero

strongly nilpotent element R. As N(R) = 0, clearly R(R)R = (RR)
2
,= 0 and so we can nd r R
such that
1
= r
1
,= 0. But now (R
1
R)
2
,= 0 and so we can repeat the game to nd
2
=
1
r
2

1
,= 0.
Inducting on this procedure we nd an innite sequence of nonzero elements
n
=
n1
r
n

n1
and hence
is not strongly nilpotent. This contradiction proves Step II.
Obviously the theorem follows from the two steps.
7 marks
(b) S is artinian since it is nite. If J =
_
6Z Z
0 3Z
_
then certainly J
2
=
_
36Z 3Z
0 9Z
_
I and so
J = J/I N(S/I). Now consider the map
: S Z
6
Z
2

= Z
2
Z
3
Z
2
given by
_
a b
0 c
_
([a + 6Z, c + 3Z]).
This is clearly a ring homomorphism (I do not think this needs proof) that is onto with kernel J. Hence,
by the Isomorphism Theorems S/J

= S/J

= Z
2
Z
3
Z
2
is semiprime. In particular, J N(S). Thus
J = N(S) with N(S)

= Z
2
Z
3
Z
2
.
6 marks
3
B7 (a): A left R-module M is noetherian if any ascending chain of submodules 0 = M
0
M
1
M
2

is eventually stationary.
2 marks
(b) Theorem: Let M be a left module over a ring R. Then the following are equivalent:
(i) M is noetherian;
(ii) Every set of submodules of M contains a maximal element.
(iii) M and all its submodules are nitely generated.
Proof: (i) (ii). Let o be a nonempty set of submodules of M. Suppose o does not have a maximal
member. Choose N
1
o. Since N
1
is not a maximal member of o, we can choose N
2
o such that
N
1
N
2
. Continuing in this way, we can construct an ascending chain N
1
N
2
N
3
. . . of submodules
of M with innitely many distinct terms. This is a contradiction. So (ii) holds.
(ii) (iii). Let N be a submodule of M. Suppose that N is not f.g. Choose x
1
N and let N
1
= Rx
1
.
Then N
1
N. Choose x
2
N N
1
and let N
2
= Rx
1
+Rx
2
. Then N
1
N
2
N. We can continue in this
way and let N
m
=
m

i=1
Rx
i
with x
m
N N
m1
(m = 2, 3, . . .). We can always nd such an x
m
because
N is not f.g. Moreover, by construction, N
n
N
n1
. Thus if o = N
m
: m N, then o does not have a
maximal member. This is a contradiction and so N is nitely generated.
(iii) (i). Let N
1
N
2
N
3
. . . be an ascending chain of submodules of M. Let N =

_
k=1
N
k
. Then
N is a submodule of M and so N is f.g. So N = Rx
1
+Rx
2
+ +Rx
n
for some n N, x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
N.
For each i = 1, 2, . . . , n, we have x
i
N
k
i
for some k
i
. Let m = max (k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
n
). Then x
i
N
m
since
N
k
i
N
m
(i = 1, 2, . . . , n). Hence
N = Rx
1
+Rx
2
+ +Rx
n
N
m
N.
Therefore N
m
= N and so N
k
= N when k m. Hence M is noetherian .
12 marks
(c) The only result from the course that we need is that a sum of noetherian modules is noetherian.
Note that as left R-submodules of R/I are the same as R/I-submodules, both R/I and R/J are left
R-modules. The natural map of left R-modules : R R/I R/J given by m ([m + I], [m + J]) has
kernel ker() = I J = 0. Hence by the First Isomorphism Theorem
R = R/ker()

= Im() R/I R/J.
As R/I R/J is noetherian as a (left or right) R-module , so is R

= Im().
6 marks
4
B8 (a): Inside the endomorphism ring T = End
C
(C[x]), let x denote multiplication by x and the
linear operator given by dierentiation: f =
df
dx
for f C[x]. Then
A
1
= A
1
(C) =
_
_
_
=
n

j=0
f
i
(x)
j
: f
j
(x) C[x]
_
_
_
End
C
(C[x])
is the set of all linear dierential operators with coecients in C[x].
Leibnizs Rule: As operators
m
x
n
= x
n

m
+
n1
x
n1

m1
+
n2
x
n2

m2
+ where the
j
C
and the sum terminates once n j or mj hits zero.
4 marks
(b): By denition the x
n

m
span A
1
. If they are not a basis then, as operators, 0 =

m
j=n
f
j

j
in A
1
for some f
j
C[x] such that f
n
,= 0 ,= f
m
. But now, as

=
d

dx

we see that

x
n
= 0 if > n and so
0 =
_
_
m

j=n
f
j

j
_
_
x
n
= f
n
(x)n! ,= 0,
a contradiction. So x
n

m
is a basis.
4 marks
Pick nonzero elements =

n
i=0
f
i

i
and =

m
j=0
g
j

j
A
1
. We pick n, m such that f
n
,= 0 ,= g
m
.
By the Leibniz Rule,

i
g(x) = g(x)
i
+ (terms of order < i in ).
Thus = f
n
g
m

n+m
+ (terms of order < n +m in ). By the last paragraph this expression is nonzero
and hence ,= 0.
3 marks
(c): First, let f(x) C[x] 0 have degree n. Then
n
f = (n!)f
n
= is a non-zero scalar. Thus,
for any other g C[x], we nd that g =
1
g
n
f A
1
f. Hence C[x] is a simple left A
1
-module.
Now let C[x, x
1
] C[x]. Write =

n
m

i
x
i
, where
m
,= 0 (and of course m > 0). First
x
m
C[x] and so A
1
C[x] by the last paragraph. Thus C[x] is the unique simple submodule of
C[x, x
1
]. On the other hand, (
1
m
x
m1
) = x
1
mod C[x] and so x
1
A
1
. Finally, for any t 0
x
t
=
t1
x
1
(up to a scalar multiple) and so x
t
A
1
. Hence C[x, x
1
] = A
1
, as required to
prove that M = C[x, x
1
]/C[x] is simple.
For the last part we notice that (by the above proof) M = C[x, x
1
]/C[x] is generated by the coset
[x
1
] and so M

= A
1
/ann([x
1
]). Clearly ann([x
1
]) A
1
x. Conversely, if ann([x
1
[), then by
Leibnizs Rule, we can write =

i
()x
i
, where each
i
C[]. Hence
0
() modulo A
1
x. But
if
0
=

n
j=0

j
with
n
,= 0 then
0
x
1
= x
1n
(plus higher order terms) and so [x
1
] ,= 0, a
contradiction. Hence
0
= 0 and ann(x
1
) = A
1
x.
9 marks
5