THE NATURE of HEAT As we know, heat is a form of energy.

In the form of infrared radiation, heat from the sun travels through space at the speed of 186,000 miles per second. Upon arriving on earth, much of the radiant heat is a sor ed y different kinds of matter and is converted into heat that we can feel !sensi le heat". #hen you sit in the sun for a period of time on a clear spring day, you may find that your clothing and other o $ects around you ecome warm. %imilarly, when you walk arefoot across a each on a summer day, you may find the sand so hot that it urns your feet. In oth cases, radiant heat from the sun has een a sor ed y matter, and has een converted into heat that you can feel. In this chapter, we will study the effect of heat upon matter. &'A( A)* (&' +,(I,) ,- +,.'/U.'% &ave you ever tried to drill a hole through a piece of metal0 1oth the drill and the metal ecome very hot. Around 1800, an 'nglish scientist named /ount 2umford noted that, when a drill was used to ore a cannon, the it of the drill and the cannon oth ecame very hot. (o keep the metals cool, he placed a cylinder of water around the end of the cannon. As the oring continued, the water ecame warmer and eventually oiled. %ince the it of the drill and the cannon were cold at the start, 2umford concluded that the heat produced pro a ly came from the friction created y the particles of the metal of the it ru ing against the particles of the metal of the cannon.

-urther, he theori3ed that the motions of the particles in the metals themselves !atoms or molecules" generated the heat. 2ecall that various forms of energy can e converted into other forms4 #hen electrical energy passes through a thin wire, as in a toaster, the wire ecomes hot !electrical energy to heat energy". #hen you ru your hands together, heat is produced from the friction etween the ru ed surfaces !mechanical energy to heat energy". In general, when any form of energy is a sor ed y matter, the energy is changed to heat. (his may e e5plained y the kinetic6 molecular theory4 (he energy e5cites the molecules in the matter, causing them to move faster and to collide more fre7uently. As more collisions take place, more heat is8 produced. (he effect of heat energy on the motion of molecules can demonstrated y using a sealed tu e containing a little mercury with some glass eads floating on the surface of the mercury. At ordinary temperatures, the glass eads merely float on the surface of the mercury. &owever, when the tu e of mercury is heated, the glass eads, ounce up and down in a violent ut random fashion. As still more heat is supplied to the sealed tu e, particles of mercury egin to move more swiftly. (he glass eads are repeatedly struck y many mercury particles at the same time8 conse7uently, the glass eads egin to move randomly themselves. (hus, 2umford9s theory that heat is related to the motions of molecules appears to e correct. According to the kinetic6molecular theory, heat energy ac7uired y a ody is transformed into increased kinetic

energy of the molecules of the ody. #e o serve this increased kinetic energy whenever a solid, a li7uid, or a gas e5pands on heating. A further increase in kinetic energy will eventually cause the particles of a solid or li7uid to ecome a gas. 2ecall that when an ice cu e !a solid" is heated, it melts and ecomes li7uid water. #hen the water is heated, it vapori3es and ecomes gaseous water. According to the kinetic6molecular theory, as increasing amounts of heat are supplied to a piece of ice, the water molecules move more rapidly until they gain sufficient energy to overcome the attractive forces holding them together. (his permits the ice to li7uefy and ecome water. %imilarly, as still more energy is received, the water molecules move at even greater speeds. (he attractive forces in the li7uid are weakened and the water is converted into gaseous water. ':;A)%I,) ,- %,.I*% <our la oratory e5perience with the all and ring apparatus indicated the effect of heat on volume. (he increase in si3e is not due to an increase in the si3e of the particles that make up the solid all, ut rather to an increase in the average distance etween the particles. #hen an o $ect is heated, its particles vi rate faster, collide more violently, and conse7uently move farther apart, there y increasing the volume of the o $ect. #hen the o $ect is cooled, the opposite change occurs and the volume of the o $ect decreases. (his decrease in volume is calledcontraction.

(he e5pansion of solids y heating may cause serious practical pro lems. -or e5ample, the e5pansion of railroad tracks, ridges, or the concrete in a road ed can create dangerous situations. (hus, allowance for the e5pansion of solids daring hot weather must he made in the construction of rails, ridges, and roads. -or e5ample, when rails arc laid, gaps etween the ends of the rails provide for e5pansion. If this were not done, consider what would happen to the railroad tracks on a very hot day. (he metal would e5pand, making the tracks end and uckle, which might cause an oncoming train to e derailed. In ridge construction, e5pansion $oints allow for changes in the length of the ridge. /oncrete road eds are uilt with spaces etween the sections of concrete to allow for e5pansion. (he contraction of solids, y cooling, may also present pro lems. (hus telephone and electrical wires are strung loosely to prevent their snapping as contraction takes place during the colder times of the year. UNEQUAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS (hrough e5tensive studies, scientists have found that different metals e5pand at different rates when they are heated. -or e5ample, when a piece of iron and a piece of aluminum of e7ual si3e are heated together, we find that the aluminum e5pands more than twice as much as the iron. #hen two strips of different metals are fastened together, they form a compound ar, or imetallic strip, which is employed in, useful devices such as thermostats and metallic thermometers. In these devices the two different

metals, usually rass and steel, are welded together. #hen the ar is heated, it ends ecause the rass e5pands more than the iron and ecomes longer than the iron. (hus, the rass strip will e on the outside of the end. As it cools, the ar returns to its original shape. (he thermostat is a device containing a compound liar that regulates the heating systems of our homes. #hen the temperature in the house falls elow the setting on the thermostat, the compound ar, which contracts as it cools, closes the circuit, turning on the heat. As the room is warmed, the compound ar in the thermostat e5pands, ends, and there y reaks the circuit, shutting off the heat. (he imetallic thermometer is often used as an oven thermometer to indicate the temperature within an oven, or within a piece of meat that is cooking. EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS .i7uids, like solids, e5pand when heated. In the la oratory e5perience we demonstrated that when water is heated, it e5pands. #hen the same water is cooled to its original temperature, the water contracts to its original volume. +any other li7uids, such as alcohol and mercury, ehave in the same way. At lower temperatures, however, the ehavior of water is an e5ception to this rule. As water is cooled from 100= / to >= /, it contracts6like other li7uids do. &owever, when water is cooled elow >= /, the water e5pands6unlike other li7uids. #ater continues to e5pand until it reaches 0= /, its free3ing point. It has een found, as

shown in that the spaces etween the water molecules in ice are larger than the spaces etween the water molecules in li7uid water. Ice is therefore said to have an open structure. (hus, as ice is formed, the need for increased space etween the molecules causes the volume of the ice to e greater than that of the water from which it was formed. !(his e5pansion in volume egins as li7uid water is cooled elow >= /." %ince the volume of ice is greater than the volume of water from which the ice is formed, the density of ice is less than the density of water. !2ecall that density e7uals weight divided y volume." (his is why ice floats on water. .ike solids, different li7uids e5pand at different rates. As we will see later, the e5pansion of li7uids is used in alcohol and mercury thermometers. (he e5pansion of li7uids must e considered in certain heating systems. In a hot6water heating system, allowances must e made for the e5pansion of heated water. As the furnace heats the water in the heating system, the water e5pands. If the e5pansion continues, pressure would uild up in the pipes and could damage the entire system. (o avoid this difficulty, an e5pansion tank is provided. '5cess heated water enters the e5pansion tank and there y reduces the pressure in the system. ':;A)%I,) ,- ?A%'% /ases, like solids and li7uids, e5pand when heated. ,ur la oratory e5perience indicated that, as air is warmed, it e5pands. %cientists have made similar o servations with

other gases which indicate that gases confined in an elastic container e5pand when they are heated and contract when they are cooled. (he e5pansion of gases y heat must e considered y automo ile tire. manufacturers, since tires may urst if allowed to remain in the sun indefinitely. A less serious ha3ard caused y e5panding gases is that ottles of soda may crack or even e5plode if they are e5 posed to heat for a considera le length of time. ;roducts such as whipped cream, shaving cream, deodorants, and insect repellents are now supplied in aerosol cans. (hese cans contain the product itself and a gas that forces the product out of the can when the valve, is open. #hen the product is used up, the can still contains unused gas. If this can is thrown into incinerator, the gas ecomes heated, e5pands, and may cause the can to e5plode. %uch aerosol cans should e discarded in a manner that does not involve heating. *ifferent solids and li7uids e5pand at different rates when heated. ?ases, however, generally e5pand at the same rate when heated to the same temperature, at a given pressure. ('+;'2A(U2' &eat and temperature are two terms that are often confused. #e know that the temperature of a small sample

of molten iron is considera ly higher that the temperature of the water in the ocean. &owever, the total heat in a sample of molten iron is much less than the total heat of the water in the ocean. %cientist now accept 2umford@s theory that heat is related to the motions of particles in matter. (hus, heat depends on the total kinetic energy of the particles in a ody. 2ecall the e7uation relating kinetic energy with mass and velocity4 A.'. B C m vD. (hus, the total kinetic energy of the particles in a ody depends on the num er of particles !mass" and the velocity of these particles. 1ecause the water in the ocean is colder than the sample of molten iron, the velocity of the particles in the water is less than the velocity of the particles in the molten iron. &owever, the much larger 7uantity !mass0 of water compensates for the smaller velocity of the particles and thus the particles of water in the ocean possess greater kinetic energy. (his means that there is more heat in the water in the ocean than in a small sample of molten iron. 1ut why is the temperature of molten iron higher0 (emperature, unlike heat, depends on the average kinetic energy of the particles, that is, the kinetic energy per particle. (o find this average, we divide the total kinetic energy y the num er of particles. (hus, the large mass of ocean water has a smaller average kinetic energy per particle and conse7uently has a lower temperature than a small sample of molten iron.

MEASURING TEMPERATURE Instruments designed to measure temperature are called thermometers. +ost thermometers are ased on the principle that matter, on heating, e5pands and, on cooling, contracts. In general, matter e5pands and contacts regularly. (his means that the amount of e5pansion or contraction in length are generally e7ual for the same increase or decrease in temperature. (his regular e5pansion and contraction has made it possi le to construct three different types of thermometers4 gas !air", li7uid !mercury and alcohol", and solid ! imetallic" thermometers. (he gas !air" thermometer In this thermometer, the glass ul contains air. #hen the ul is warmed, the air in the ul e5pands and forces some of the colored water out of the tu e. (his changes the level of the li7uid in the tu e. 1y placing a suita le scale alongside the tu e, temperature changes can e measured. Air thermometers of this type, while interesting, are not very accurate ecause the volume of a gas is also influenced y the air pressure around it. !)ote that the flask contains a tu e open at oth ends. #hy0". .IEUI* (&'2+,+'('2% (hermometers containing li7uids such as mercury and alcohol are useful and accurate ecause these li7uids usually e5pand and contract uniformly !regularly".

+ercury thermometers are made y filling a thin glass tu e with mercury at a temperature greater than the ma5imum to e measured. (he tu e is then cut and sealed at the top. #hen the mercury cools, it contracts, leaving a partial vacuum a ove the mercury. !.i7uids e5pand and contract to a much greater e5tent than do solids. (hus, in the given temperature range, the glass tu e is scarcely affected y the temperature change." (he partial vacuum eliminates the effect of air resistance to the e5pansion of the mercury. (he scale of the. thermometer is generally fi5ed y locating the oiling and free3ing points of water on the scale. (he distance etween the oiling and free3ing points is then divided into units depending on the temperature scale used. (his will e discussed in the ne5t section. %ince mercury free3es at 6FG= /, it cannot e used to measure very low temperatures. &owever, mercury oils at FHI= /, which means that a mercury thermometer can e used to measure temperatures a ove the oiling point of water. ,n the other hand, alcohol free3es at 611>= /. Accordingly, alcohol thermometers are used to measure low temperatures. &owever, since alcohol oils at I8= /, alcohol thermometers cannot e used to measure high temperatures. SOLID (BIMETALLIC) 2ecall that a imetallic strip ehaves as it does ecause different metals e5pand at different rates. 1ecause most metals melt only at very high temperatures, a thermometer that uses a imetallic strip can measure temperatures as high as 1000= /. (he dial thermometer, used in most

homes as an oven thermometer, is an e5ample of a imetallic thermometer. A curved imetallic strip, with the faster6e5panding metal on the outside of the end, is attached to a pointer. Upon heating, the imetallic strip moves, causing the pointer to indicate the temperature on a circular scale. ,ther metallic thermometers, called resistance thermometers, use the principle that the resistance of a wire changes with temperature. %uch thermometers also measure high temperatures. THE FAHRENHEIT AND CELSIUS TEMPERATURE SCALES (emperature markings on thermometers are indicated in -ahrenheit degrees or /elsius degrees. (he -ahrenheit and /elsius scales are named after their originators, Gabriel Fahrenheit and Anders Celsius. !(he /elsius scale is also called the centigrade scale." 1oth -ahrenheit and /elsius scales are cali rated y using the oiling and free3ing points of water. (he -ahrenheit scale is used in the 'nglish system of measurement and the /elsius scale in the metric system. In the -ahrenheit scale, the free3ing point of water is FD.= -, and the oiling point of water is D1D= -. (he remainder of the scale etween these two points is marked off into 180 e7ual divisions !D1D 6 FD B 180" . In the /elsius scale, the free3ing point of water is 0= / and the oiling point of water is 100= /. (he remainder of the scale etween these points is divided into 100 e7ual divisions !100 6 0 B 100". )ote that there are 180 divisions etween the free3ing and oiling points of water in the -ahrenheit

scale and 100 divisions etween these points in the /elsius scale. (hus, each /elsius division ! degree " is GJH as large as -ahrenheit division. (his relationship, together with the fact that there are FD -ahrenheit divisions etween 0 =- and FD= -, makes it possi le to convert one scale into the other y using the following formulas4 = / B HJG!= - K FD" (&' A'.MI) %/A.' /onfined gases, like most solids and li7uids, e5pand and contract uniformly. -or this statement to e true, however, a gas must e heated or cooled in such a way that the pressure remains constant. ! 2ecall that the air thermometer is inaccurate ecause it is affected y surrounding air pressure." If we start at 0= /, we find that, for every /elsius degree rise in temperature, the volume of a gas increases DIF of its original volume ! provided the pressure does not change". %imilarly, if we again start from 0= /, we find that for every /elsius degree drop in temperature, the volume decreases DIF of its original volume. At 6DIF= /, the volume of a gas would shrink to 3ero and all molecular motion would cease. (his, in turn, means that the gas would contain no heat. !Actually, gases generally li7uefy efore this temperature is reached." %cientists refer to 6DIF=/ as a solute 3ero, a temperature that has never een attained, although some scientists have come very close to this point. = - B GJH =/ L FD

A solute 3ero, 6DIF=/, is also called 0 Aelvin ! 0 A ". (he Aelvin scale, named after its originator, .ord Kelvin, is ased on a solute temperatures. %ince the Aelvin scale egins with a solute 3ero !6DIF= /", we use the following formula to convert the /elsius scale to the Aelvin scale4 degrees Aelvin B degrees /elsius L DIF degrees (his formula may e written as A B = / L DIF .et us find the free3ing point of water !0= /" in the Aelvin scale4 AB0 L DIFBDIF A (hus, 0= / is e7uivalent to DIF A. )ow, let us find the oiling point of water4 L DIF B FIF A (hus, 100= / is e7uivalent to FIF A. TRANSFER of HEAT #hen a metal spoon is placed in a owl of hot soup, the entire spoon soon ecomes hot ecause the heat travels from the soup to the owl6shaped part of the spoon, and then to the handle. #hen ice is placed in warm water, the ice soon melts. 1oth of these e5amples show that heat travels from one ody to another. ?enerally, when o $ects are at different temperatures, heat is transferred from the warmer o $ect to the cooler o $ect until oth o $ects are at the same temperature. &eat transfer can occur through one of three methods4 conduction, convection, or radiation. /,)*U/(I,) A B100

#hen one end of a metal rod is held in a flame, the entire rod will ecome hot enough to urn the hand. (he heat from the flame reaches the hand y traveling through the rod. %u stances that allow heat to travel through them are called conductors. In general, as we learned efore, metals are good conductors. &owever, some metals conduct heat more readily than others. (his can e demonstrated y inserting rods of aluminum, copper, iron, nickel, and rass into a rass sphere or disk and then attaching a small all of wa5 to the end of each rod. #hen the center of the rass disk is heated, the wa5 at the tip of each metal melts in the order in which the different metals conduct heat. (he wa5 at the tip of the copper melts first and the wa5 at the tip of the iron melts last. /onduction in most materials can e e5plained y the kinetic6molecular theory. #hen one end of a rod is heated, the molecules in that end of the rod vi rate faster and strike other near y molecules, causing them to vi rate faster. In this manner, the increased molecular motion is transferred from one end of the rod to the other, permitting the heat to travel through the rod. %u stances that do not readily allow heat to pass through them are called insulators. ?ases and li7uids are generally poor conductors of heat ecause their molecules are farther apart than are the molecules in solids. (herefore, neigh oring molecules in a gas or in a li7uid are less affected y the increased motions of heated molecules, and conse7uently heat is not conducted rapidly.

%u stances like wood or plastic are poor conductors of heat, so they are used to make handles for metallic o $ects that are to e heated. (he clothing we wear is also a poor conductor of heat, ena ling us to retain ody warmth. ;orous material is generally non6conducting ecause it contains layers of trapped air which do not permit heat transfer. /,)M'/(I,) Although gases and li7uids are poor conductors of heat, heat is transferred through them y the process of convection. /onvection is the transfer of heat due to the motion of the li7uid or gas itself. -or e5ample, when a eaker of water is heated the water layer closest to the heat source is warmed slowly y conduction. As the water ecomes warmer, it e5pands, ecomes less dense, and rises. (his rings heat to the upper layer. At the same time, cooler water from the upper portion of the eaker moves down, takes the place of the rising water, and ecomes heated itself. #hen warm enough, this water rises and carries heat upward. As these processes continue, heat that enters the ottom of the eaker is distri uted throughout the eaker until all the water is at the same temperature. (he moving water in such a case is said to have set up a convection current. &eat is also transferred through gases y convection. It is y this means, in part, that a stove or a radiator heats a room. &eat from the radiator warms the air a ove it, causing the air to e5pand, ecome less dense, and rise. (he cooler air that moves in to take the place of the warmed air

is also soon warmed. As this air rises, a convection current is esta lished. (he convection current continues to distri ute heat throughout the room until the entire room is warmed. (he formation of a convection current in air is demonstrated with a convection o5 apparatus. -irst the candle is lighted, then smoking touch paper is placed over the chimney, opposite the candle. (he smoke, coloring the air, can e seen to move down this chimney, across the o5, and out through the other chimney. (his occurs ecause the air over the candle is heated, ecomes less dense, and rises, leaving a partial vacuum. /ooler, more dense air from the first chimney moves in to fill the partial vacuum. (his cycle continues as long as heat is given off y the urning candle. RADIATION #e know that light energy and heat energy travel from the sun to the earth through space, which is an almost perfect vacuum. (hese forms of energy, traveling without the aid of molecular collisions, are transferred from the sun to the earth y radiation, that is, y means of rays, or waves. <ou can understand this method of heat transfer y standing a short distance from an open fire or y placing your hand a little to one side of, ut not touching, a hot radiator. %ince neither source of heat is eing touched, you cannot receive heat y conduction. %ince warm air rises vertically from the heat source, the heat cannot reach you y convection. (he heat that is transferred to you from the fire or radiator reaches you y radiation.

(he heat radiated y one ody ! the sun, for e5ample" is most rapidly a sor ed y other odies that are lack in color and rough in te5ture. In warm climates, white clothing which reflects the radiant heat of the sun is cooler than dark clothing which 7uickly a sor s the radiant heat. %imilarly, odies that are rough and dark tend to radiate heat etter than shiny smooth odies. (his is why steam radiators are often dark and have a roughened surface. It is for the same reason that coal urning stoves are lack. 1odies that are shiny and smooth do not a sor heat readily. Instead, these odies reflect heat. (hus, aluminum used for roofing keeps homes cool in the summer and warm in the winter. (his principle is utili3ed in the thermos !vacuum" ottle, which is so constructed as to permit li7uids to retain their temperatures for a long time. A thermos ottle is dou le walled, with a partial vacuum etween the walls to prevent heat transfer y conduction or convection. A cork stopper also prevents heat transfer y conduction. (he inner glass walls are silvered to reflect radiant heat ack into the li7uid, there y minimi3ing heat loss y radiation. (hus, a hot li7uid remains hot ecause heat is lost very slowly. A cold li7uid remains cold in thermos ottles ecause outside heat enters very slowly y conduction, convection, or radiation. MEASURING HEAT #e learned that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a su stance. (his is the same as saying that temperature represents the average intensity of the motion of the molecules, or the

degree of hotness of a su stance. Average kinetic energy means the total kinetic energy divided y the total num er of particles. 2ecall that the ocean contains much more heat than does a small amount of molten iron. &owever, since the ocean contains many more particles than the molten iron, the temperature of the ocean !that is, the total kinetic energy divided y the total num er of particles" is lower than that of the molten iron. (emperature, therefore, does not tell us the 7uantity of heat present. (he 7uantity of heat represents the total kinetic energy contained by allof the particles of the su stance. In the metric system, we measure the 7uantity of heat y a unit called the calorie. (he calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 /elsius degree. In the 'nglish system, heat is measured y a unit called the 1ritish (hermal Unit !1(U". A 1(U is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 -ahrenheit degree. (he amount of heat energy present in a su stance cannot e measured directly with simple measuring devices. Instead, it is measured y o serving its effect on a given 7uantity of water in a device called a calor !"#"r$ ,ne type of calorimeter, consists of two polished metal cups surrounded y air, a poor conductor of heat$ An insulating cover, holding a thermometer, makes up the top of the calorimeter. (he polished cups reflect heat, thus maintaining the temperature of the li7uid in the container. (o determine the amount of heat energy a sor ed !or lost" y a given 7uantity of water, we multiply the weight of the

water in grams y the change in temperature of the water in /elsius degrees. (hus4 amount of heat B weight of water : change in temperature In a calorimeter, when D0 grams of water at D0=/ are heated to a temperature of F0=/, how much heat is a sor ed0 (he temperature change B the final temperature 6 the initial temperature B F0=/ 6 D0=/ B 10 /elsius degrees. %u stituting, amount of heat B D0 grams : 10 /= B D00 calories #e conclude that D00 calories have een a sor ed. !#e assume that no heat has escaped from the calorimeter." HEAT EXCHANGE IN %ATER In a calorimeter, when a 7uantity of water at a given temperature is mi5ed with a 7uantity of water at a different temperature, the amount of heat lost y the NhotN water is e7ual to the amount of heat gained y the NcoldN water. %uppose we mi5 100 grams of water at G0= / with 100 grams of water at >0= / and find that the final temperature of the mi5ture is 6H= /. .et us calculate the num er of calories lost. y the hot water and gained y the cold water. (he temperature of the hot water dropped from G0= / to 6H= /, a decrease of DH /elsius degrees. %ince we egan with 100 grams of hot water that underwent a temperature change of DH= /, we determine the amount of heat lost4

amount of heat B temperature !calories"

weight of water : change in !grams" !/elsius degrees"

amount of heat B 100 grams : DH= / amount of heat B DH00 calories (he minus sign in the answer indicates that DH00 calories of heat have een lost. (he temperature of the cold water increased from >0= / to 6H= /, an increase of DH /elsius degrees. %ince we egan with 100 grams ofcold water that underwent a temperature change of DH& C' we determine the amount of heat gained( amount of heat B weight of water : change in temperature !calories" !grams" !/elsius degrees" amount of heat B 100 grams : DH= / amount of heat B DH00 calories )ote that the amount of heat lost y the hot water !DH00 calories" is the same as the amount of heat gained y the cold water !DH00 calories". #e assume that the heat e5change was NperfectN and that no heat escaped from the calorimeter. (he 7uantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a su stance 1 /elsius degree is called the specific heat of the su stance. -or water, the specific heat is 1. (his

means that 1 calorie of heat will raise the tem perature of 1 gram of water 1= /. #ater is the only su stance for which this is true. ,ther su stances vary in the 7uantity of heat needed to raise 1 gram of the su stance 1 /elsius degree. /onse7uently the formula amount of heat Bweight of water : change in temperature applies only to water. CALORIES AND FOOD <our ody re7uires energy in order to per form its daily tasks. +ost of this energy comes from energy6rich foods such as car ohydrates and fats. (his energy is released when the ody utili3es these foods. Using special calo rimeters, scientists have measured the energy content, or the num er of calories present, in fi5ed 7uantities of certain foods. -or e5ample, a slice of white read contains a out 60 000 calories8 a typical chocolate ar may contain a out F00 000 calories. )utritionists use a special kind of notation when discussing the calorie content of foods. (hey define a food /alorie ! written with a capital letter" as 1000 calories. ,n a calorie ta le, therefore, we would read that a slice of white read contains a out 60 /alories and that a chocolate ar contains a out F00 /alories. (his information #ork ookN, 1G61 comes from N;hysical %cience

T)" H *#or+ of H"a# Aristotle and the ?reeks had their idea of fire as one of the > ;rimal 'lements. 'ven the ancients reali3ed that heat and light were not alike as aspects of fire, though. After the fire had gone out and the light gone, the heat of the kettle and its contents remained. -irst modern chemist to study heat was Ooseph 1lack !1ID8 6 1IGG". 1lack tried to e5plain heat in terms of a fluid. &e e5plained how a kettle of water placed over a fire increased in temperature ut a kettle filled with water and ice placed over a fire did not change in temperature till all the ice was melted. &e said that until the ice was saturated with the heat6fluid and thus ecame melted could its temperature rise. .avoisier accepted this theory and gave the name for this heat6fluid PcaloricQ from the .atin word for heat. Another idea competed with the caloric theory. %cientist knew that kinetic energy of motion plus the stored energy called potential energy was given the name mechanical energy and that friction was a part of the conservation of these energies. (hey knew friction could warm up an o $ect so may e the invisi le motion of invisi le particles was what we call heat. %ummed up8 friction was converting mechanical energy into heat. (he

pro lem was this idea of really small particles of matter !i.e., atoms and molecules". /ount 2umford !really 1en$amin (hompson 6 a spy for the 1ritish authorities during the 2evolutionary #ar" was to supervise the oring of cannon for 1avarian army. Using a horse to work a treadmill he reali3ed that the solid lock of rass grew hot as the orer cut its way in. 2umford calculated that if the caloric theory were correct the heat released during the oring would have melted the entire lock of metal first. &e pointed out that heat was produced without fire, without light, without chemical com ustion. It came $ust out of motion. Oohn *alton comes along with his ideas of atoms and the kinetic energy idea of heat egan to gain favor. An 'nglish physicist, Oames ;rescott Ooule !18186188G" was attempting to find the mechanical e7uivalent of heat. In the end he found that a given amount of energy of whatever form always yielded that same amount of heat !at >.18 $oules per calorie". (he relationship of the motion of atoms to temperature and heat was placed on firm theoretical asis a out 1860 y the %cottish physicist Oames /lerk +a5well.

S,"c f c H"a#

(he a ility of water to sta ili3e temperature depends on its relatively high specific heat. (he *,"c f c )"a# of a su stance is defined at the amount of heat that must e a sor ed or lost for 1 g of that su stance to change its temperature y 1R /. (he specific heat of water is 1.00 calJg R/. /ompared with most other su stances, water has an unusually high specific heat. -or e5ample, ethyl alcohol, the type in alcoholic everages, has a specific heat of 0.6 calJg R/. 1ecause of the high specific heat of water relative to other materials, water will change its temperature less when it a sor s or loses a given amount of heat. (he reason you can urn your finger y touching the metal handle of a pot on the stove when the water in the pot is still lukewarm is that the specific heat of water is ten times greater than that of iron. In other words, it will take only 0.1 cal to raise the temperature of 1 g of iron 1R/. %pecific heat can e thought of as a measure of how well a su stance resists changing its temperature when it a sor s or releases heat. #ater resists changing its temperature8 when it does change its temperature, it a sor s or loses a relatively large 7uantity of heat for each degree of change. #e can trace water@s high specific heat, like many of its other properties, to hydrogen onding. &eat must e a sor ed in order to reak hydrogen onds, and heat is released when hydrogen onds form. A calorie of heat causes a relatively small change in the temperature ecause must of the heat energy is used to disrupt hydrogen onds efore the water molecules can egin moving faster. And

when the temperature of water drops slightly, many additional hydrogen onds form, releasing a considera le amount of energy in the form of heat. #hat is the relevance of water@s high specific heat to life on 'arth0 1y warming up only a few degrees, a large ody of water can a sor and store a huge amount of heat from the sun in the daytime and during summer. At night and during winter, the gradual cooling water can warm the air. (his is the reason coastal areas generally have milder climates than inland regions. (he high specific heat of water also makes ocean temperatures 7uite sta le, creating a favora le environment for marine life. (hus, ecause of its high specific heat, the water that covers most of planet 'arth keeps temperature fluctuations within limits that permit life. Also, ecause organisms are made primarily of water, they are more a le to resist changes in their own temperatures than if they were made of a li7uid with a lower specific heat. #ater is one of the few su stances that are less dense as a solid than as a li7uid. #hile other materials contract when they solidify, water e5pands. (he cause of this e5otic ehavior is, once again, hydrogen onding. At temperatures a ove >R /, water ehaves like other li7uids, e5panding as it warms and contracting as it cools. #ater egins to free3e when its molecules are no longer moving vigorously enough to reak their hydrogen onds. As the temperature reaches 0R /, the water ecomes locked into a crystalline lattice, each water molecule onded to the ma5imum of four partners. (he hydrogen onds keep the

molecules far enough apart to make ice a out 10S less dense than li7uid water at >R /. #hen ice a sor s enough heat for its temperature to increase to a ove 0R /, hydrogen onds etween molecules are disrupted. As the crystal collapses, the ice melts, and molecules are free to slip closer together. #ater reaches it greatest density at >R / and then egins to e5pand as the molecules move faster. (he a ility of ice to float ecause of the e5pansion of water as it solidifies is an important factor in the fitness of the environment. If ice sank, then eventually all ponds, lakes, and even the oceans would free3e solid, making life as we know it impossi le on 'arth. *uring summer, only the upper few inches of the ocean would thaw. Instead, when a deep ody of water cools, the floating ice insulates the li7uid water elow, preventing it from free3ing and allowing life to e5ist under the fro3en surface. M"#al S,"c f c T)"r!al El"c#r cal D"n* #+ H"a# Cond-c# . #+ Cond-c# . #+ c, cal/0& C 1rass Iron )ickel /opper Aluminum 0.0G 0.11 0.106 0.0GF 0.D1I 1 2a##/c! 3 1.0G 0.80F 0.G0H F.G8 D.FI 0/c!4 8.H I.8I 8.G 8.GH D.I 11.D 1>.6 60.I FI.I
5E6/7!

.ead

0.0F0H

0.FHD

11.D

H"a# and T"!,"ra#-r" T"ac) n0 No#"* 1" &eat flows from hot to cold areas due to a temperature difference only. e5ample4 A small hot lock of a material is placed ne5t to a larger, cooler lock. &eat flows from the small hot lock to the larger lock till e7uili rium is reached. D" )ote the difference etween the heat content and temperature. A lake may e cooler in temperature than a liter flask of water ut the lake has a much greater heat content due to the vast num er of particles and their associated motion. F" &uman perception of heat and temperature is not ade7uate for scientific work. %o we must investigate tools that provide the accuracy and repeata ility we need. >" -or temperature we will e using thermometers. (here are other devices that allow you to measure temperature. H" -or heat we will e working with simple calorimeters. #e will look at these devices when we look at the transfer of heat.

(hermometers and (emperature %cales comparisons charts

see

thermometers B instruments to measure temperature see drawing4 see drawing4 see drawing4 gas !air" thermometers li7uid !&g and alcohol" solid ! imetallic"

M"rc-r+ #)"r!o!"#"r 66 fill thin glass tu e with &g at a temp. greater than the ma5imum to e measured8 tu e is cut and sealed8 the &g cools and contracts leaving a partial vacuum a ove the &g !eliminates effects of air resistance on e5pansion of &g"8 then cali rate thermometer &g free3es at 6FG= / so it cannot e used for low temperatures !use alcohol which free3es at 611>= /" can use &g for high temperature oils at FHI= / !alcohol cannot e used for high temperature work due to its low oiling point 6 I8= /" use alcohol thermometers in schools unless e5treme accuracy is needed due to safety factor. (he alcohol may e inaccurate y 1 6 D degrees ut this may not e a pro lem if you are looking at changes in temp.

Cal 8ra# on 1oth /elsius !Anders /elsius" and -ahrenheit !?a riel -ahrenheit" scales are esta lished y using the oiling and free3ing point of water at 1 atmosphere of pressure. step 1 66 esta lish a mi5ture of ice and water in e7uili rium !0= /" mark point of li7uid in thermometer at 0= / esta lish a mi5ture of steam and water at e7uili rium ! oth at a pressure of 1 atm." steam condensing and water vapori3ing" la el this point of li7uid as 100 =/ step D 66 divide the interval etween 0= / and 100= / into 100 e7ual parts, each representing a change in temperature of 1= /. using this scale you can e5tend your marks elow 0 =/ and a ove 100 =/ as far as ,you wish. (he -ahrenheit scale la els the free3ing point at FD= !his la el for the temperature he could achieve with an ice and water mi5ture and la eled the oiling point temperature of water at D1D = which was a num er chosen for convenience apparently creating 180 divisions.

<ou might ask your self a out the amount of heat energy need to cause a 1 degree change in temperature on a /elsius scale compared to that needed on a -ahrenheit scale. !more heat needed to cause change of 1 degree on /elsius scale." 3EL9IN *cal" #e know that gases decrease in volume 1JDIF of its original volume for each degree drop in temperature. (hus at 6DIF= / the volume of gas would shrink to 3ero and the gas would have no molecular motion. #e know this is impossi le !particles have 3ero6 point energy". (o la el these very low temperatures a scale called the a solute or Aelvin scale is often used. It designates 6DIF= / at the 3ero point, and is called called a solute 3ero. '5trapolation to a solute 3ero4 A good research pro$ect for students or a 7uick review of graphing can e done y using the method to calculate a solute 3ero. Use a capillary tu e with a trapped u le of air etween light machine oil. +easure the length of the u le after placing it in different temperature mi5tures. ;lot the length versus temperature. %ince it is not easy to o tain very cold temperatures, the linear series of points that you did o tain should allow you to e5trapolate, !e5tend a curve eyond the known data points following the apparent pattern of the curve" until it intersects the temperature a5is. %ee actual plotT

Tran*f"r of H"a# 8+ Cond-c# on' Con."c# on' Rad a# on Cond-c# on is a conse7uence of the kinetic ehavior of matter. -aster vi rating particles collide with less energetic neigh ors and transfer some of their kinetic energy to the slower moving particle. (hrough successive molecular collisions energy travels through a material without the average position of the particles eing changed. (here must e a temperature differential !one end of some o $ect at a higher temperature than the other" for heat to e conducted. ?ases are poor conductors of heat !compared to li7uids and solids" ecause the molecules are relatively far apart and collisions are infre7uent. +etals have the greatest a ility to conduct heat !for the same reason as their high electrical conductivity". (his is due to a significant num er of electrons eing a le to move a out freely instead of eing ound permanently to particular atoms. T)"r!al cond-c# . #+ of a material is a measure of its a ility to conduct heat. '5ample4 wood and metal !see class discussion" Con."c# on involves the actual motion of a hot fluid from one place to another, displacing a colder fluid in its path and setting up a convection current. /onvection is the chief mechanism of heat transfer in fluids.

)atural convection occurs when the uoyancy of heated fluids leads to motion. &eated fluids !gas or li7uid" e5pand and ecomes less dense than surrounding cooler fluids. It then rises. Rad a# on is defined as the energy that is transmitted y electromagnetic waves and re7uires no material medium for passage. All o $ects radiate electromagnetic waves with the higher the temperature of an o $ect the shorter the predominating wavelength of its radiation. '5ample4 see glass lined thermos ottle in heat packet in class. (ransfer of &eat /onduction 66 place iron rod in fire 66 the end you are holding ecomes warm due to conduction /onvection 66 stove heats room y convection 2adiation 66 heat the earth receives from the sun is radiation )atural direction of heat flow is from hot odies to cold ones. Cond-c# on 66 conduction is a conse7uence of kinetic ehavior of matter faster vi rating particle collide with less energetic neigh or and transfer some of their kinetic energy the slower moving particle

e5ample4 place hand on wood and metal sample at same temperature. (he metal will seem cooler ecause it conducts the heat away much faster than the wood Con."c# on 66 actual motion of hot fluid from one place to another, displacing cold fluid in its path setting up a convection current B chief mechanism of heat transfer in fluids in most instances natural convection 6 the uoyancy of heated fluids leads to motion 6 heated fluid !gas or li7uid" e5pands and ecomes less dense than surrounding cooler fluids and rises Rad a# on 66 energy that is transmitted y electromagnetic waves and re7uires no material medium for passage all o $ects radiate electromagnetic waves ut the higher the temperature of an o $ect the shorter the predominate wavelength of its radiation (here are many e5amples you can use to demonstrate these three ideas ut discussing a glass lined thermos ottle will allow you discuss them as well as &igh specific heat capacity material demonstrates relatively small change in temperature for a given change in internal energy content add 1 calorie of heat to 1 gram of water, helium, ice, gold temperature rises4 water 1 =/

helium 1.F =/ ice gold D =/ FF =/

Calor !"#r+( 1" Use D polystyrene cups !one within the other" 66 the polystyrene will not a sor very much heat. D" <ou may find if difficult for the students to e patient when working with the calorimeters. <our step6 y6step procedure must e very simple and clear. (his type la is also a very dangerous time for your thermometers. F" %everal la s have een included in the packet involving the use of the calorimeters and thermometers4 a" the heat of reactions and heat of solutions la s deal with endothermic and e5othermic reactions !and you can incorporate the use of the mole as review" " the specific heat capacity la is an e5cellent demonstration of the principle of heat e5change as well as specific heat capacity of different metals and li7uids. 1" for etter results with this la try to use as much metal as possi le and as little fluid as possi le and still cover the metal in the cups. *rain the metal samples 7uickly after removing them from the oiling water. (his is a good time to have the students watch the oiling process which will e one of the final topics in this unit. D" the math may e a it difficult for you at first.

T)"r!al E:,an* on of 2a#"r 1" -rom 0= / to >= / the volume of water in a sample decreases !the greatest density is at >= /" D" #e know that ice floats !less dense" so that a ody of water in winter free3es from the top down. (he ice is a poor conductor of heat so that the initial layer of ice that free3es impedes further free3ing allowing fish and plant life to live through the winter. F" (he spaces etween molecules in ice are greater than the same spaces in li7uids. >" Ice has what is called an O,"n S#r-c#-r" 66U each water molecule can participate in > onds with other water molecules, while other solid molecules can have as many as a do3en onds with surrounding molecules resulting in a more compact su stance. H" As stated the density of the water increases from 0 =/ to > =/. .arge clusters of water molecules reak into smaller clusters that occupy less space in the aggregate as the temperature rises to > =/. ,nly a ove > =/ does the normal thermal e5pansion show a decreasing density with increasing temperature. A ove >= / , the normal thermal e5pansion of materials is seen. &ere as the temperature rises the density decreases.

H"a# and T"!,"ra#-r"

HEAT &eat is a form of internal energy which is transferred from one o $ect to another due to a difference in temperature etween the o $ects. &eat is the total energy of motion of all particles !the total kinetic energies of all the particles." TEMPERATURE (he temperature of a ody of matter is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the random motion of its particles. (emperature is the kinetic energy divided y the num er of particles. (emperature is that property of a su stance which determines whether it is in thermal e7uili rium with another o $ect. T)"r!al Cond-c# . #+ 6 a measure of the a ility of a su stance to conduct heat THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM (his is the situation in which no heat moves from one o $ect to another. CALORIE A 1H= /alorie is the amount of heat energy needed to change the temperature of of 1 gram of water y 1= / !from 1>.H= / to 1H.H= / at 1 atmosphere of pressure". 1 calorie B >.18H Ooules and 1 kilocalorie B 1000 calories. SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACIT; (his is the amount of heat !in calories or Ooules" that must e added or removed from a unit mass of that su stance to change its temperature y one degree. *ifferent su stances have different capacities ecause they a sor and release heat at different rates.

%ATER #ater has a specific heat capacity of 1.00 calJg =/ or >.18H OoulesJg =/. (he %I unit would e >18H OJkg =/. PRINCIPLE OF HEAT EXCHANGE (he heat lost y an o $ect must e7ual the heat gained y the o $ect to which the heat is transferred. (here must e a temperature difference for heat to e transferred. E !heat energy" B m !mass" 5 At !temp." 5 cp !specific heat capacity" !calJOoules" !g" !=/" !calJg =/" or !OouleJg =/" ;ro lems4 1" &ow much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature of 100 grams of water from 0 degrees to F0= /0 D" A calorimeter contains F00 grams of water at 10= /. After a food sample is urned in the calorimeter the water temperature changes to 1H= /. &ow much heat was given off y the food sample0 LATENT HEAT .atent heat is the heat re7uired to ring a out a change in state. HEAT OF FUSION (he heat of fusion is the amount of heat that must e supplied to change a unit mass of the su stance at its melting point from solid to li7uid. (he heat of fusion of water is 80 calories per gram !80 kcalJkg".

HEAT OF 9APORI<ATION (he heat of vapori3ation is the amount of heat that must e supplied to change a unit mass of the su stance at its oiling point from li7uid to gas or vapor state. -or water this is H>0 calJg or H>0 kcalJkg. HEAT OF SUBLIMATION (he heat of su limation is the heat needed to change a solid to a gas. HEAT OF CONDENSATION (he heat of condensation is the reverse of the heat of vapori3ation, it is the heat given off when a gas condenses to a li7uid.

Fo-r S#a#"* of Ma##"r Ma##"r is defined as any material that has mass, occupies volume, and e5hi its inertia !resistance to movement". Sol d* definite shape and volume, resist deformation very close spacing of particles that make up the solid these particles appear to vi rate a out fi5ed points particles vi rate faster at higher temperatures, slower at lower temperatures Cr+*#all n" *ol d* particles are arranged in regular, repeated patterns 6 said to have Nlon0=ran0" ord"rN to their structure 6e5ample would e )a/l !ta le salt" A!or,)o-* *ol d* solids that lack the definite arrangement in crystals are Vamorphous9 which means Vwithout form9. /an e thought of as li7uids whose stiffness is due to e5aggerated viscosity. (hese solids are

said to have N*)or# ran0" ord"rN. '5amples are pitch, glass, plastics. ;olymers are fle5i le and some will change their structure when undergoing a physical change !e5amples are ru er ands, %aran #arp, .ucite, *)A, fats, cellulose, glycogen. Oello is a natural glucose polymer. L >- d* definite volume, resist compression, will flow, takes the shape of its container greater spacing etween molecules, li7uid particles appear to travel in straight line paths etween collisions ut appear to rotate or vi rate a out moving points Ga*"* &ave no definite shape or volume, takes the shape and volume of its container can e compressed or dispersed, the particles vi rate very rapidly, are relatively far far apart, and there are no forces holding them together Pla*!a very high temperature ioni3ed gas !as high as 100 million degrees in some fusion reactors". (hese plasmas have no fi5ed volume or shape, most are mi5tures that are not easily containa le. (hey all have particles that are electrically charged and of low density. (he +ilky #ay is a huge plasma. 'nergy *efinitions 'nergy4 having the a ility to do work !move matter" #ork4 a push or pull over some distance !force 5 distance"

-orce4 a push or a pull ;otential 'nergy4 the energy a ody possesses y virtue of its position, composition, and or condition stored energy or energy of position ;.'. B mass 5 gravity 5 height e5amples4 water ehind a dam, stretchedJcompressed spring, e5plosives Ainetic 'nergy4 the energy of motion !conserved in every elastic collision" A.'. B 1JD mass 5 velocityD heat energy flows from hot o $ects to cooler ones through transfer of A.'. when particles collide +omentum4 mass time velocity !momentum is conserved in every collision where there is no friction" .inear momentum of a moving ody is a measure of its tendency to continue in motion at a constant velocity. (he conservation of linear momentum states that in the a sence of forces from outside the system the total momentum of colliding particles cannot change ut the distri ution of the total momentum may change. +omentum is redistri uted in a collision. Intermolecular -orces4 potential energy forces that hold molecules together and in correct position in solids potential energy forces that hold molecules together in li7uids the kinetic energy of the molecules in solids and li7uids

cannot overcome intermolecular forces holding the molecules together !so they do not fly apart" gas molecules have enough kinetic energy to reak free from intermolecular forces or to keep such forces from forming Ainetic K +olecular (heory of ?ases gases are made up of molecules that are in continuous motion an increase in the temperature increases the speed of the molecules, thus increasing the kinetic energy of the su stance All gases are compressi le ?ases display diffusion !random movement of molecules from one area to another with a net change in concentration K rate varies with temperature and molecular mass" ?ases can e li7uefied !called li7uefaction" /losed %ystem /riteria In using the a ove information we look at pressure, temperature, and volume in a closed system. 1. In a closed system nothing escapes or is allowed in !unless we choose to allow it" D. all molecules are in motion !have A.'." F. molecules e5ert a uniform pressure on all surface areas of the walls of the container >. ;ressure B forceJarea !see e5amples given in class"

Atmospheric pressure is the cumulative effect of the force generated y the weight of the atmosphere. ?iven values that must e used in pro lems include4 1>.I l JinD, 101.F k;a, 1 atmosphere, I60 mm of &g, 1 0FF.6 gJcmD 6. +olecules e5ert pressure on other molecules inside container as they collide, push, and ounce off other molecules I. (he pressure a gas e5erts on the walls of its container is the sum of the forces acting on the walls !e7uals the fre7uency of collisions with the walls of the container plus the force of each molecule as it pushes against the wall" due to the random collision of limitless num ers of these moving molecules.
H.

/ollisions that occur etween molecules are perfectly elastic, the particles ounce off each other and e5change energy, ut there is no loss of energy W elastic atomic collisions4 atoms !molecules" ounce ack as farJfast as it would have had it not collided !no change in the total kinetic energy of the two particles efore and after the collision" W inelastic collisions4 the normal order in which the o $ects lose energy and slow down +omentum is conserved in every collision where there is no friction, energy is conserved only in elastic collisions. ?as .aws

1.

O... ?ay6.ussac@s .aw If the volume remains constant, the pressure is directly proportional to the a solute temperature4 ;1 J (1 B ;D J (D

; X (
D.

1oyle@s .aw If the temperature remains constant, the volume of a gas varies inversely with the pressure4 ;1 M1 B ;D MD

M X 1J;
F.

/harles@ .aw If the pressure is kept constant, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its a solute temperature4 M1 J ( 1 B MD J ( D

M X (

-or each degree increase in temperature, the volume increases 1JDIF of its original volume >. /om ined gas law4 ;1 M1 J (1 B ;D MD J (D H. Ideal ?as .aw4 ;M B n2( ,verall conclusions4 (he temperature of a gas increases when it is compressed ecause the average energy of its molecules increases. (he molecules re ound from the inward moving piston, traveling faster than efore hitting the piston.

+olecules re ounding from fi5ed walls have unchanged speeds. (he temperature of a gas decreases when its volume is e5panded ecause the average energy of its molecules decreases. (he molecules re ounding from outward moving piston move slower than efore.

?as .aw ;ro lems4 1" An insulated system is known to have a temperature of 100.0= / at a pressure of >.00 atm. If the a solute temperature is cut in half, what will e the new4 YYYYYYYYYYY atm, YYYYYYYYYYk;a, YYYYYYYYYYYYYY= /, YYYYYYYYYYYYYYY A D" (he volume is given as DI.0 .. If the pressure goes from F.00 atm. to G.00 atm., what is the new4 YYYYYYYYYYY., YYYYYYYYYYYYY k;a F" (he volume is given as H.00 .. If the a solute temperature goes from DIF to 81G A, what is the the new YYYYYYYYYY. !if new temperature was 800. A, what is the new volume in liters0" >" (he temperature is given as DH.0= /. If the volume is decreased from 100. m. to 10.0 m., what is the new4 YYYYYYYYYYYYA, YYYYYYYYYYYY= /

T)o-0)# %or1 == H"a# ? Ga* La2* 1. *evise a way to remove car on dio5ide !car onation" from soda pop. (his must e done 7uantitatively. &ow does temperature affect the solu ility of gases eing dissolved in li7uids under pressure0 D. '5plain what happens to a marshmallow when it is toasted. #hy does this happen0 #hat would happen to a fro3en marshmallow0 #hy does a marshmallow float0 F. -ind the pressure you e5ert when standing on oth feet, on one foot, and lying flat on your ack. >. '5plain why a toy alloon filled with hydrogen partially deflates overnight. H. Using a steel all and pieces of old pottery or modeling clay, devise an e5periment that would demonstrate potential energy, kinetic energy, and momentum !all of which are involved with mass and velocity". 6. %uppose you had two identical sections of glass plate efore you, one heated a ove ody temperature and the other cooled y ice. #hat happens when you reathe on the two of them and why0 +ay e try this at home first. I. *evise an e5periment to show the concept of diffusion, another to show cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension, and one to show uoyancy and ;ascal9s .aw. 8. /hanging ice to water re7uires 80 calories per gram of ice, ut changing water to steam re7uires a out H>0 calories

per gram of water. #hat does this tell you a out the intermolecular forces in ice and water, oth 7ualitatively and 7uantitatively0 Also e5plain why the chemical change of splitting or forming water re7uires a out H times as many calories as the physical change of state. C)"! cal Pro,"r# "* of Ma##"r /hemical properties are those properties of a su stance that can e determined y a chemical test. /hemical properties are seen y the material9s tendency to change, either alone or y interaction with other su stances, and in doing so form different materials. 1.does the su stance support com ustion4 e5amples are ,D and /lD D. does the su stance urn !com usti ility" F. how does the su stance react with acids !does it dissolve, evolve gases, e5plode, do nothing" >. how does the su stance react with o5ygen ! urn, form new compounds" H. what is its reaction with electricity !usually it will e separated into simpler components" e5amples4 alcohol urns, iron rust, wood decays, sodium e5plodes in water

P)+* cal Pro,"r# "* of !a##"r

;hysical properties are those properties used in identifying su stances when we use our senses. (hese do not re7uire chemical analysis. 1. color 6 reaction of eye and rain in recogni3ing com inations of certain wavelengths of visi le light. D. hardness 6 a measure of the a ility of a su stance to resist a rasion !see +ows %cale of &ardness" F. density 6 the mass divided y its volume !often reported as specific gravity which is a unitless relationship etween the density of the su stance and the density of water" >. te5ture 6 how o $ect feels to touch8 usually rough or smooth H. magnetic attraction 6 is the material attracted to a magnet or can it e magneti3ed !must contain -e, /o. )i, or steel" 6. solu ility 6 the amount of a su stance which will dissolve in a known amount of solvent at a given temperature I. taste 6 reaction of taste uds to stimuli along with the rain9s recognition of the pattern 8. light transmission 6 is the su stance transparent, translucent, or opa7ue

G. viscosity 6 a measure of the internal resistance !friction" to flow in a li7uid !molasses and tar would have high viscosities" 10. refractive inde5 amount a ray of light is ent as it passes through a su stance !technically the ratio of the speed of light in that su stance to the speed of light in a vacuum" 11. specific heat capacity 6 the amount of heat energy !calories or Ooules" re7uired to change the temperature of 1 gram of a su stance y 1 =/ 1D. atomic radius 6 the distance from the center of an atom9s nucleus to the outermost or ital electron 1F. oiling point 6 the temperature at which the li7uid9s vapor pressure e7uals atmospheric pressure during the oiling of a pure su stance the temperature remains constant as long as oth li7uid and vapor are present 1>. melting6free3ing point 6 temperature at which solid6 li7uid phase is in e7uili rium 6 during melting of pure solid the temperature remains constant8 when all solid is melted and only li7uid is present, further heating results in a steady increase in temperature to the oiling point 1H. odor 6 olfactory nerves are stimulated y certain molecule and send messages to the rain which remem ers the pattern 16. e5pansion 6 contraction coefficients 6 materials e5pand or contract a known amount when heated or cooled

/ollapsing /an *emo area of surface of /oke can B 0.0F1 mD pressure on this area B F.1 ' F ) !a out 680 l " 1 atm B 1.0 ' H )JmD

if we can reduce pressure y as little as IHS there would e a H00 l difference etween pressure inside and outside the can 1" D" F" >" when can is inverted in water ath 6 the water seals the opening and cools the can as can cools vapor condenses 6 reduction of pressure inside can can is sufficiently weak and water sufficiently viscous that can collapses efore it fills with water must use all aluminum can

P)+* cal C)an0"* n S#a#" a change in the physical properties of a su stance without a change in the chemical composition the arrangement of molecules may e changed ut the molecular make6up remains the same

these changes deal with intermolecular forces which increase or decrease during the change. ;ro lems4 1. ID grams of ice L H1 8>0 calories yield ID grams of water vapor. &ow many calories must e removed from water vapor to condense it ack to ice0 D. If 1 gram of water at room temperature evaporates, a out 600 calories are taken from the surroundings to convert the li7uid to a gas. &ow many calories are Vneeded9 to change 1001 grams of gas to a li7uid0 F. If H0 grams of water vapor loses F6 000 calories in turning to ice, how many calories would 1 gram of water vapor have to lose to e turned ack to ice0

ice !0= /" L heat F6 g

water vapor !100= /" F6 g ice !0= /" L heat F6 g DH GD0 cal heat energy 1F6 600 cal D&D L ,D

DH GD0 cal

water vapor !100= /" Z F6 g D &D L released >g D&D, ,D FD g L energy Z D&D,

F6 g Z

F6 g

1F6 600 cal

>g

FD g

C)"! cal C)an0"* n S#a#" !;hase" (he molecular make6up !the specific arrangement of atoms" is changed, resulting in new su stances eing formed and energy changes occurring. ':,(&'2+I/ 6 any chemical change that releases energy is ":o#)"r! c #)" a!o-n# of )"a# r"l"a*"d * 0r"a#"r #)an #)" a!o-n# of )"a# -*"d #o *#ar# #)" r"ac# on 8ond !a1 n0 * ":o#)"r! c ("n"r0+ * r"l"a*"d n#o *-rro-nd n0*) e5ample4 o5idation Z wooden splint urning ! heat, light, gases like /,D and &D, eing given off with car on and ashes left over" other e5amples4 urning &D in ,D, ody reactions, dissolving metals in strong acids, mi5ing acid and water, homogeni3ation, plaster of ;aris in water, sugar dehydration ')*,(&'2+I/ 6 any chemical change that a sor s energy is "ndo#)"r! c "n"r0+ con# n-"* #o 8" a8*or8"d a* lon0 a* #)" r"ac# on con# n-"* 8ond 8r"a1 n0 * "ndo#)"r! c ("n"r0+ * a8*or8"d fro! *-rro-nd n0*) e5ample4 electrolysis Z splitting some compound

!usually water" y running an electric current through it other e5amples4 photosynthesis, pasteuri3ation, canning vegeta les %ugar dehydration demo here (he chemical change involving splitting or forming water takes a out H times as many calories as the physical change of state. (he reason is that atoms !or molecules" are onded together in a compound8 the stronger the ond the more energy holding the parts together, thus more energy re7uired to reak these onds. A physical change needs far less energy to overcome intermolecular forces holding groups of molecules together. +uch more energy is needed to reak onds within molecules than to overcome the forces etween molecules. physical change 66 strength of intermolecular forces increased or decreased chemical change 66 energy a sor ed 66 overcome energy released 66 strengthened ;ro lems4 (ell whether each of the following is a chemical or physical change and further descri e each chemical change as onds formed or roken onds roken or intermolecular forces onds formed or intermolecular forces

endothermic or e5othermic and the physical changes as a sor ing or releasing energy. dry ice su limates /,D L &D, L sunlight Z glucose air in heated tire e5pands urning coal water fro3en into ice acid dissolves metal

Endo#)"r! c .* E:o#)"r! c R"ac# on* All chemical reactions involve ond reaking and ond making. 1ond reaking is endothermic !energy is a sor ed from surroundings" 1ond making is e5othermic !energy is released into surroundings" Imagine stretching a ru er and until it reaks. <ou must do work to stretch the and ecause the tension in the and opposes your efforts. <ou lose energy8 the and gains it. %omething similar happens when onds reak in a chemical reaction. (he energy re7uired to reak the onds is a sor ed from the surroundings. 'nergy is a sor ed or released when the heat capacities of the products and reactants differ. Usually this is

small. 2emem er that heat capacity is est thought of with a penny and specific heat est thought of as copper metal. )eutrali3ation reactions are usually e5othermic ut when you add aking soda to vinegar it is slightly endothermic. (he neutrali3ation reaction actually does release heat4 &/D&F,D L )a&/,F Z /,D L )a/D&F,D !a7" L &D, (his is ecause there is net ond formation. (he products collectively have lower energy than the reactants. 1ut evaporation of the li7uid occurs as the car on dio5ide escapes from solution. 'vaporation a sor s heat, cooling the li7uid. !(he e5pansion of the car on dio5ide gas u les as they are released also helps to cool the surroundings y Ooule6(homson cooling". (he net result is an endothermic reaction. +i5ing a strong acid with water is e5othermic. 1reaking a chemical ond re7uires energy !remem er that stretching a spring until it reaks re7uires energy". -orming a chemical ond will release energy. %o in a reaction that releases heat !e5othermic" there must e net ond formation. .ets looks at &/l dissolved in water4 &/l Z &L !a7" L /l16 !a7" <ou would think at first this would e a heat a sor ing !endothermic" process, ecause it looks like the ond etween & and /l is roken. 1ut there is another reaction hiding here. (he hydrogen ion reacts with water to form a comple5 of the form4 &F,[!&D,"Ln where n is a num er

etween 1 and G. It is much easier $ust to write &L !a7". 1ecause the hydrogen ion is so tiny, a large amount of charge is concentrated in a very small area, and the polar water molecules are strongly attracted to it. (his NhydrationN of the hydrogen ion involves the formation of a covalent ond to one of the waters and a large num er of strong hydrogen onds, so it@s a strongly e5othermic process. (his causes the mi5ing of a strong acid with water to e strongly e5othermic overall. E:o#)"r! c ,roc"**"* Endo#)"r! c ,roc"**"* making ice cu es melting ice cu es formation of snow in clouds conversion of frost to water vapor condensation of rain from evaporation of water water vapor a candle flame forming a cation from an atom in the gas phase mi5ing sodium sulfite and aking read leach rusting iron cooking an egg urning sugar producing sugar y photosynthesis forming ion pairs separating ion pairs com ining atoms to make a splitting a gas molecule apart gas molecule mi5ing strong acids and mi5ing water and ammonium water nitrate nuclear fission melting solid salts

H"a# n0 C-r." Infor!a# on4 (his graph will aid in understanding the following information. P)a*" C)an0" D a0ra! Sol d = Ga* P)a*" C)an0" (his change involves *-8l !a# on which is the direct change of a solid to a gas !deposition is the opposite". '5amples include4 moth alls !naphthalene", paradichloro en3ene, camphor, iodine crystals, and /,D fire e5tinguishers !advantages4 does not conduct electricity, colder than water, replaces ,D since /,D is heavier and settles on ground area and the /,D does not com ust", will su lime away reducing cleanup 6 disadvantages include difficulty in keeping container pressuri3ed over time, fact that you cannot use on living things due to e5treme cold, and cost".

L >- d = Sol d P)a*" C)an0" (his discussion deals with !"l# n0=fr""@ n0 ,o n#. A complete discussion of this concept using ice and heat units will e completed in class. %ee class discussion of ice cu e. (he addition of 1 calorie of heat to the ice cu e at 0= / does not cause a change in the temperature of the ice cu e though 1 calorie would change the temperature of 1 gram of water at 0= /.

It will take 80 calories $ust to melt the ice cu e. (hat heat that is consumed in melting the solid is converted into potential energy. -reely moving molecules in li7uids, with respect to intermolecular attraction, possess more energy than similar molecules ound rigidly in solids at the same temperature. 2emem er that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy only while heat content is a measure of the total kinetic energy plus potential energy possessed y that ody. %ee class e5amples of the heat energy needed to change ice at any temperature to steam at any temperature. (he melting6free3ing point is defined as the temperature at which the solid and li7uid phases are in e7uili rium. (his is the temperature at which a change of state etween the solid and li7uid phase can occur. %ome of the solid will e melting and some of the li7uid will e free3ing. #hen a solid is heated to its melting point, its atoms or molecules ac7uire enough energy to shift the onds holding them together so they form separate clusters. (his clustering in li7uids is confirmed with :6ray studies ut the clusters are constantly shifting their arrangement unlike the permanent arrangement in solids. #hen heat is added to a solid the temperature of the solid will increase till it reaches the melting6free3ing point. It will remain there until all the solid has melted and only

then can the temperature of the li7uid rise according to its specific heat. #ater molecules at 0= / contain more energy than the ice molecules at 0= / , not in the form of a faster more rapid motion ut in the form of an a ility to resist the attractive forces tending to pull them together. +elting points also depend on pressure !though not as much as oiling points." Ice is strange in that its melting point decreases with increasing pressure. Almost all other materials show increasing melting points with greater pressures. (he pressure an ice skater e5erts on the ice due to the small area of the skate lade is usually enough to melt the ice creating a thin film of water that acts as a lu ricant. ,n unusually cold days the pressure may not e enough to melt the ice and thus skating would e impossi le. L >- d = Ga* P)a*" C)an0" (he change from a gas to la li7uid is cond"n*a# on. (his is due to cooling andJor a pressure change. In li7uids, the energy of the particles is raised y adding heat. #hen some molecules have enough A.'. they reak away from the li7uid surface and ecome vapor. If the temperature falls, there is a decrease in the energy of the moving molecules and the li7uid may eventually free3e to the solid phase.

;rocess of E9APORATION4 +olecules that have enough energy of motion !A.'." reak free from intermolecular forces and escape into the air as vapor. %ome may return to the li7uid is their energy is lost to other atoms. (he li7uid surface left ehind is cooled. In evaporation the molecules that escape are the ones with the greatest velocity !heat" thus the average velocity and A.'. of the remaining particles is reduced. (his results in cooling effects. &eat must e a sor ed from the surroundings to continue the evaporation process. Adding heat increases evaporation ecause the 9APOR PRESSURE is increased. (his is the pressure e5erted y the vapor !gas" of a su stance when it is in e7uili rium with li7uid or solid phase. (he system is in e7uili rium when the rate of evaporation e7uals the rate of condensation. (he temperature at which the li7uid9s vapor pressure is e7ual to outside !atmospheric" pressure is that li7uid9s BOILING POINT. At this temperature the pressure of the vapor escaping from li7uid e7uals the outside pressure. #hen the vapor pressure e7uals outside pressure u les of vapor form and push through to the surface. As they move into the gas phase we say this is oiling. /onduction of heat creates the gas, which rises ecause it is less dense than the li7uid, as it strives for e7uili rium.

(he oiling point varies with atmospheric pressure. In mountains, the oiling point is elow 100=/ ecause the pressure of the atmosphere is less. /ooking re7uires longer times at high altitudes ecause of low oiling point ;ressure cookers make food cook more rapidly ecause the foods can e heated a ove the normal oiling point without actually oiling. In#"r!ol"c-lar Forc"* and La#"n# H"a# if we heat a mi5ture of ice and water, we find that no matter how much heat is transferred to the mi5ture, the temperature remains at 0= / until the last of the ice is melted. ,nly after all the ice is melted is heat converted into kinetic energy, and only then can the temperature of the water egin to rise. '5periment shows that 80 calories of heat must e a sor ed from the outside world in order that 1 gram of ice might e melted, and that no temperature rise takes place in the process. (he ice at 0= / is changed to water at 0= /. 1ut if the heat gained y the ice is not converted into molecular kinetic energy, what does happen to it0 If the .aw of /onservation of 'nergy is valid, we know it cannot simply disappear. (he water molecules in ice are ound together y strong attractive forces that keep the su stance a rigid solid. In order to convert the ice to li7uid water !in which the molecules, as in all li7uids, are free of mutual onds to the

e5tent of eing a le to slip and slide over, under, and eside each other" those forces must e countered. As the ice melts, the energy of heat is consumed in countering those intermolecular forces. (he water molecules contain more energy than the ice molecules at the same temperature, not in the form of a more rapid motion or vi ration ut in the form of an a ility to resist the attractive forces tending to pull them rigidly together. (he .aw of /onservation of 'nergy re7uires that the energy change in free3ing e the reverse of the energy change in melting. If li7uid water at 0= / is allowed to lose heat to the outside world, the capacity to resist the attractive forces is lost, little y little. +ore and more of the molecules lock rigidly into place, and the water free3es. (he amount of heat lost to the outside world in this process of free3ing is 80 calories for each gram of ice formed. In short, 1 gram of ice at 0= /, a sor ing 80 calories, melts to 1 gram of water at 0= /8 and 1 gram of water at 0= / giving off 80 calories, free3es to 1 gram of ice at 0= /. (he heat consumed in melting ice or any solid, is converted into a sort of potential energy of molecules. Oust as a rock at the top of a cliff has, y virtue of its position with respect to gravitational attraction more energy than a similar rock at the ottom of the cliff, so do freely moving molecules in li7uids, y virtue of their position with respect to intermolecular attraction, possess more energy than similar molecules ound rigidly in solids.

It is the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules that together make up the internal energy that represents the heat content. It is kinetic energy only that is measured y the temperature. 1y changing the potential energy only, as in melting or free3ing, the total heat content is changed without changing the temperature. In converting a gram of li7uid water at 100= / to a gram of steam at 100= / what remains of the intermolecular attractions must e completely neutrali3ed. ,nly then are molecules capa le of displaying the typical properties of gases 66 that is, virtually independent motion. In the earlier process of melting, only a minor portion of the intermolecular attractive force was countered, and the ma$or portion remains to e dealt with. (he latent heat of vapori3ation of water !the amount of heat re7uired to convert 1 gram of water at 100= / to 1 gram of steam at 100= /" is H>0 calories, almost seven times the earlier 80 calories needed in changing ice to water. (he energy content of steam is thus surprisingly high. 100 grams of water at 100= / can e made to yield 10 000 calories as it cools to the free3ing point. 100 grams of steam at 100= / can e made to give up H> 000 calories merely y condensing it to water. (he water produced can then give up another 10 000 calories if it is cooled to the free3ing point. It is for this reason that steam engines are so useful and hot water engines would never do as a su stitute. If we oil water in a kettle its temperature remains at 100= /, no matter how fast we oil it, ut we have to keep

adding heat to keep it oiling. &eat is a sor ed y the molecules as they escape their li7uid state and ecome a gas. (he amount of heat needed to pull apart li7uid molecules is called heat of vapori3ation !caloriesJgram". (he heat of vapori3ation which a molecule must a sor efore it can ecome a gas molecule is released y it when it cools again to li7uid, as heat of condensation. .i7uids with low oiling points, such as alcohol or ether, chill the hand as the molecules pick up their heat of vapori3ation and ecome a gas. (he same is true for a glass of water, it will e cooler than room temperature. (he kinetic molecular theory states that the kinetic energy depends on heat energy, which can e measured as temperature. A thermometer in oiling water and a thermometer in the vapor $ust a ove the oiling surface will read the same8 100= / at sea level. (herefore the average kinetic energy of the li7uid molecules must e the same as the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules a ove it. An average molecule in the li7uid state will e moving as fast as an average molecule in the gaseous state. ?as particles move in a straight line until they collide with another it of matter, then they ound away in some other direction ut always in a straight line, and without losing any of their energy to friction in the collision. (he particles have perfect resilience. &owever, they will change their kinetic energies in the familiar way of all normal matter, as, for instance, do illiard alls. A slow6moving particle hit from ehind y a fast one is speeded up, while the fast one is slowed down, ut the sum total of their kinetic energies

remains the same. In the world of normal matter, perfect elasticity is unknown, as there is friction etween surfaces. (wo illiard alls when they collide will change each other9s speed and direction of motion, and they will also roll to a stop in a short time. (he ultimate particles of matter lose not a it of their energies in collisions. (hey simply e5change speeds. If two particles collide, their total heat efore and after is the same, ut the originally slower particle after the collision is traveling faster and is therefore hotter, while the formerly speedier particle is now cooler and moving more slowly that it was. &eat and molecular motion, according to the theory, are two ways of speaking a out the same thing.

&eatJ(emperature ;ro lems4 1. %uppose a piece of iron !mass B D1.H0 g at a temperature of 100.= /" is dropped into an insulated container of water !mass of water B 1FD g and the temperature efore adding iron was D0.0= /". #hat will e the final temperature of the system !at thermal e7uili rium"0 (he specific heat of iron is 0.11F calJg= /. D. If D00. grams of water is to e heated from D>.0= / to 100.0= / to make a cup of tea, how much heat must e added0 F. #hich is more effective in cooling a drink, 10 grams of water at 0= / or 10 grams of ice at 0= /0 '5plain your answer 7uantitatively.

>. A F.00 kg lead ar at 100.0= / is placed in >.00 kg of water at D0.0= /. (he final temperature of the lead ar would e YYYYYYYYYYY. !cp of lead is 0.0F0H calJg= /" H. A 0.60 kg copper kettle holds 1.I0 kg of water at F0.0= /. A 0.10 kg iron all at 1D0.0= / is dropped into the water. #hat is the final temperature of the water0 !cp of copper B 0.FII OJg= / and iron is 0.>>8 OJg= /" 6. A piece of iron with a mass of D0.H0 grams at a temperature of 100.0= / is dropped into 1>0.00 grams of water at >0.0= /. #hat will e the final temperature of the system. (he cp of iron is 0.>H OJg= /" I. A sample of mercury metal is heated from DH.H= / to HD.H= /. In the process, 18I cal of heat are a sor ed. #hat mass of mercury was in the sample0 (he specific heat of mercury is 0.0FF calJ g= / 8. A lock of aluminum weighing 1>0. g is cooled from G8.>= / to 6D.D= / with the release of 1080 cal of heat. -rom these data, calculate the specific heat of aluminum. G. A cu e of gold weighing 1GD.> g is heated from F0.0= / to some higher temperature, with the a sorption of DD6 cal of heat. (he specific heat of gold is 0.0F0 calJ g= /. #hat was the final temperature of the gold0 10. A total of H>.0 cal of heat are a sor ed as H8.F g of lead is heated from 1D.0= / to >D.0= /. -rom these data, what is the specific heat of lead0

11. A piece of er ium metal weighing 100.0 g and heated to GH.0= / is dropped into D00.0 g of water initially at D0.0= /. (he final temperature of the mi5ture is D1.H= /. #hat is the specific heat of er ium metal0 1D. A lock of rhenium metal !specific heat B 0.0FDG calJ g= /" is heated to 88.D= / and then dropped into 100.0 g of water initially at D6.>= /. (he final temperature of the mi5ture is FD.>= /. #hat was the mass of the lock of rhenium0 1F. #hen DH8.6 g of en3ene vapor is condensed to a li7uid at its oiling point, FF 8IH cal of heat are released. #hat is the heat of vapori3ation for en3ene0 1>. A sample of ethyl alcohol is converted from a li7uid to a vapor with no temperature change. In the process F0 6>0 cal of heat are a sor ed. #hat mass of ethyl alcohol was in the sample0 (he heat of vapori3ation of ethyl alcohol is D10. calJg. 1H. (he heat of com ustion of methane is D1D.8 kcal per mole. &ow much heat will e produced in the com ustion of 100.0 g of methane0 16. (he heat of com ustion of toluene is GF>.D kcal per mole. &ow much heat will e released during the com ustion of DH0.0 g of toluene0 (he formula for toluene is /6&H/&F 1I. /opper has a density of 8.G> gJcmF and a specific heat of 0.0G0 calJg= /. A cu e of copper is heated from 10.H= /

to D1>= /. (he cu e of copper has dimensions of H.00 cm. &ow much heat would the copper cu e a sor 0 18. (he specific heat of water is >.18H OJg= / !1.00 calJg= /". A piece of a pure metal with a mass of D>.0 g at a temperature of >H.0= / is added to HH m. of water at 60.0= /. (he final e7uili rium temperature of the mi5ture is GH.>= /. -ind the specific heat of the pure metal in oth calJg= / and OJg= /. 1G. (he specific heat of ice is D.0F OJg= /. &ow much heat is needed to convert HH0. g of ice at K1H.0= / to 10.0= /0 D0. #hat is the total amount of heat needed !in calories and $oules" to convert D.DH kg of ice at 0.0= / to steam at D00.0= /. D1. (he specific heat of silicon is 0.0HI calJg= / and the density of silicon is >.> gJcmF. (he volume of a cylinder formula is given as p rD.. (he addition of 6000. calories raises the temperature of the silicon cylinder HH.H= /. -ind the radius of the cylinder. (he length of the cylinder is given as 6.00 cm. DD. A piece of metal with a mass of IH.H g is heated to 8>.H= / and added to 100.0 m. of water at H.0= /. (he final temperature of the mi5ture is IH.0= /. -ind the specific heat of the metal. DF. ?ranite has a specific heat of 800. OJg= /. #hat mass of granite is needed to store 1.H0 ' 6 O of heat if the temperature of the granite is to e increased y 1H.H= /0

D>. A HH kg lock of granite has an original temperature of 1H.0= /. #hat will e the final temperature of this granite if >.H ' > kO of heat energy are added to the granite0

(he a ove curve attempts to demonstrate the addition of 100 calories of heat energy per minute to 1 gram of water. A thorough class discussion will attempt to identify the amount of time needed for each change to occur.

Anowledge of specific heat capacity, latent heat of fusion and vapori3ation is needed to determine these values.

(he a ove chart shows a graph of the contraction of an air u le in a capillary tu e filled with oil. As the tu e was cooled the length of the air u le was measured and plotted as dots. #hen it could no longer e cooled to a lower temperature the graph line was e5trapolated to find A solute \ero !a temperature uno taina le in the actual world".

S)or# An*2"r Q-"*# on* *irections4 Answer each 7uestion fully. Use complete sentences. %kip two lines of note ook paper !dou le dou le space if typed" etween each 7uestion. Use only the front of paper.

'5plain la#"n# )"a# !use water as an e5ample". ?ive 7uantitative e5amples and clearly e5plain how intermolecular forces are involved during these changes. D. *iscuss how *,"c f c )"a# ca,ac #+ might e used to identify an unknown metal sample. F. /ompare and contrast "ndo#)"r! c and ":o#)"r! c c)"! cal r"ac# on*$ >. /ompare and contrast 1 n"# c and ,o#"n# al "n"r0+' using as many practical e5amples as possi le. H. Using e5amples, e5plain fully "la*# c and n"la*# c coll * on*$ (ry to include some of the pro lems these concepts cause in science classes. Include!o!"n#-! in your discussion. 6. *escri e how a li7uid #)"r!o!"#"r is made and how it could e cal 8ra#"d without another thermometer I. '5plain how c)"! cal and ,)+* cal ,ro,"r# "* might e used to identify an unknown su stance. ;ick one common su stance and give physicalJchemical details for it. 8. *iscuss the way in which 0a* ":"r#* ,r"**-r" on the walls of its container. G. '5plain the 3 n"# c=Mol"c-lar T)"or+ of Ga*"* as it relates to ordinary life. Include e5amples of 1oyle@s .aw and /harles@ .aw in your e5planation. 10. /ompare n#"r!ol"c-lar forc"* 2 #) c)"! cal 8ond* within molecules. 11. *iscuss a#!o*,)"r c ,r"**-r" and how it relates to gas laws, oiling points, and vapor pressures. 1D. '5plain how cond-c# on' con."c# on' and rad a# on might occur when using our
1.

calorimeters. /ompare our calorimeters with good (hermos ottles. 1F. '5plain fully !"l# n0=fr""@ n0 ,o n# #)"or+$ 1>. '5plain fully 8o l n0 ,o n# #)"or+ and related phenomena such as elevation changes, pressure cookers, super heating, and vapor pressure. Mol"c-lar Mo# on D"!on*#ra#or (his demonstration tool allows us to model a variety of atomic ehavior. (he following are notes !these will save the student having to make them during the demonstration and will allow them to study the modeling etter. G"n"ral o8*"r.a# on* 1" some molecules move faster than others, with constant random motion D" molecules collide with each other and the walls F" near elastic collisions >" rarity of F ody collisions H" generally there is a large amount of space etween the molecules 6" random motion in straight lines etween collisions I" pressure e5erted on whatever they hit D ff-* on 6 as the particles move across the arrier they demonstrate diffusion4 !movement of molecules from one area to another with a net change in concentration" T"!,"ra#-r"

1" related to average speed of molecules D" would D different gases at same temperature have same average speeds0 F" o serve different speeds of different gas particles 6U #"!,"ra#-r" r"la#"* #o a."ra0" 3$E$ of !ol"c-l"* >" increase vi ration rate4 average speed increases, fre7uency of collisions increases, mean free path decreases S ! lar # "* 2 #) r"al 2orld 1" model and real gases involve particles in continual, random motion, with straight line paths etween collisions D" particles in model occupy only a small fraction of total volume F" changes in amount of movement is associated with change in temperature >" re ounding forces of particles produce pressure in oth model and real gases D ** ! lar # "* 2 #) r"al 2orld 1" model uses particles appro5imately ten million times the diameter of the particles in real gases D" distance etween collisions in real gases much greater than the distance traveled y plastic alls in relation to si3e F" the speeds of the alls in the model are at most a few miles per hour while gas molecules travel at speeds of hundreds of miles per hour >" real gas molecules collide elastically while our

model will run down due to friction is energy is not applied H" real gases are three dimensional, model is two dimensional 6" most gas molecules are not spherical I" spaces etween particles in model taken up y air, in gases empty spaces occupies the space etween molecules L >- d* and Sol d* attractive forces etween gas molecules are called van der #aal forces 6 positive charge of nucleus is not completely shielded y electron cloud so at short distances the nucleus may e attracted to electron cloud of another atom 6 these gas molecules may come together, slow down, and allow attractive forces to form Bo+l"A* La2 C)arl"*A La2

2elative &umidity #hen molecules from the vapor a ove a li7uid surface impinge on the surface, they may e trapped there, so that a constant two6way traffic of molecules to and from the li7uid occurs. If the density of the vapor a ove the li7uid is sufficiently great, as many molecules return as leave it at any time, a situation that is descri ed y saying

that the region is *a#-ra#"d with the su stance. (he higher the temperature, the greater the ma5imum vapor density4 at 0= / the density of water vapor at saturation is H gJmF, at D0= / it is 1I gJmF, at 100= / it is HG8 gJmF, and at F00= / it is all the way up to >H.6 kgJmF. If for any reason !such as a sudden drop in temperature" the vapor density e5ceeds the saturation value, condensation will e more rapid than evaporation until e7uili rium is reesta lished. It is for this reason that on a hot day moisture condenses on the outside of a glass that contains a cold drink. (he r"la# ." )-! d #+ of a volume of air descri es its degree of saturation with water vapor. 2elative humidities of 0, H0S, and 100S mean respectively that no water vapor is present, that the air contains half as much moisture as the ma5imum possi le, and that the air is saturated. ,n a hot day the evaporation of sweat from the skin is the chief means y which the human ody dissipates heat, and a high relative humidity is uncomforta le ecause it impedes the process. A low relative humidity is also undesira le ecause it leads to the drying of the skin and mucous mem ranes. (he regulation of relative humidity is as important a function of a heating or of an air6 conditioning system as the regulation of temperature. #e know that heating air decreases its relative humidity and cooling air increases its relative humidity. -or instance, etween 10= / and D0= / the saturated vapor density !which corresponds to 100S relative humidity" $ust a out dou les. (his means that if outside air at 10= / whose relative humidity is say, I0S is taken inside a house

and heated to D0= /, the relative humidity indoors will only e FHS since the actual vapor density stays the same. A way to humidify heated air in winter is clearly desira le. If the outside air is at F0= / with I0S relative humidity, then cooling it down to D>= / is enough to ring it to saturation, which is 100S relative humidity8 further cooling will cause water to condense out. An air6conditioning system therefore should incorporate means to remove water vapor from the air eing cooled. 2elative humidity is water vapor density relative to saturation density. /hanging the temperature of a ody of air also changes its relative humiditiy. Pr nc ,l" of H"a# E:c)an0" = T)" Coff""=Cr"a! Pro8l"! )ewton9s law of cooling4 (he rate of heat conduction is proportional to the temperature difference etween an o $ect and its surroundings. (he %tefan61olt3mann law of radiation4 (he rate of heat lost y radiation is proportional to the fourth power of the a solute temperature. (he historic pro lem4 Ah, you see, there is this usiness man who likes a large amount of cream in his coffee, and he wants the resultant mi5ture as hot as possi le. !Alas, there is no microwave oven availa le".

&e has $ust prepared his oiling coffee when he is called y the oss for a 7uick conference of ten minutes duration. (he oss tolerates no coffee in his presence. #hat to do0 (o keep the coffee as hot as possi le should he add the cream now or wait until after the conference0 #hich do you #) n1 he should do0 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY Using eakers for the coffee cups and water for the coffee and cream, design an e5periment to test the pro lem. Use the computer and temperature pro e to measure the temperature over time. &ow would you set up a graph!s" to help prove the est solution. For!-la* A.'. B C m vD ;.'. B m g h E B mass 5 * t 5 cp E B mass 5 &f E B mass 5 &v A B = / L DIF = / B A 6 DIF 1 calorie B >.18H $oules

;ressure B -orce area

T"!,"ra#-r" Scal" Co!,ar *on* Fa)r"n)" # C"l* -* 3"l. n 1oiling p. of water 1ody (emperature -ree3ing p. water /oincidence p. A solute \ero D1D= G8.6= FD= 6 >0= 6 >60= 100= FI= 0= 6 >0= 6 DIF.16= FIF F10 DIF DFF 0

H"a# of Sol-# on R"ac# on* La8 /hemical and physical changes are usually accompanied y the li eration or a sorption of energy. If energy is evolved, the reaction is said to e EXOTHERMIC. If the energy is a sor ed, the reaction is ENDOTHERMIC. &eat is a form of energy. (he calorie or $oule is the unit used to e5press heats of reaction. (he calorie is defined as the amount of heat re7uired to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water one /elsius degree. -or conversions, 1 calorie B >.18H $oules. 'nergy may e transformed from one kind to another within an isolated !or closed" system ut the total energy does not change. If the change in energy of a system can e measured and if this change is due solely to a chemical reaction, then the energy change must e e7ual to that of the chemical reaction itself. In this e5periment a simple calorimeter will e used and the change in energy of the system will e measured y o serving the temperature of a given weight of water efore and after the reaction occurs. (he specific heat capacity of water !i.e., the energy re7uired to raise the temperature 1o / of 1 gram of the material" is very nearly 1.00 calJgo/ for temperatures etween 0o / and 100o /. (hus, if a calorimeter contained 100 grams of water at DF.0o / initially and after the reaction took place there were still 100. grams of water and the temperature was now F0.0o /, the energy li erated in the reaction would e

E !cal" B mass !g" 5 *t !o/" 5 cp !calJgo/" I00. cal B 100. g 5 I.00o / 5 1.00 calJgo/

(his calculation assumes that no energy was re7uired to raise the temperature of the calorimeter itself and that no energy was lost, or gained, y the calorimeter during the e5periment. Accurate calorimeters are very e5pensive and very tedious to operate. In this e5periment a simple calorimeter will e made y placing one styrofoam !polystyrene" cup inside another and covering the inner cup with a piece of card oard to minimi3e heat loss or gain from the surface of the li7uid. '5panded polystyrene is a good insulator and has a very high specific heat capacity. ;rocedure4 1. +easure as accurately as possi le with a graduated cylinder IH.0 m. of water and transfer the water to the inner styrofoam cup. 2ecord the temperature of the water. D. +ass accurately, a 7uantity of )a,& etween two and three grams. F. Add the )a,& to the water, continually swishing the cup gently, and with constant o servation of the temperature until it remains constant for a out 1H6D0 seconds. 2ecord this temperature. >. 2epeat using )&>),F.

H. After completing all data collection for this e5periment, move on to the second e5periment.

*ata (a le4 mass of IH.0 m. of water mass of )a,& initial temperature of water final temperature of solution mass of IH.0 m. of water mass of )&>),F initial temperature of water final temperature of solution Euestions4 1. Is the dissolution of the )a,& in water an e5othermic or endothermic process0 #hat a out the ammonium nitrate0 D. Assuming 1 m. of water has a mass of 1 gram and the specific heat of the dilute solution is the same as water, calculate the num er of calories involved in the dissolution of the different materials. !use actual mass of &D," ] of cal B IH g 5 *t 5 1.00 calJgo/ ] of $oules B IH g 5 *t 5 >.18H OJgR/ )a,& YYYYYYYYYYYYYY cal )a,& YYYYYYYYYYYYYYY O )&>),F YYYYYYYYYYYYYY cal )&>),F YYYYYYYYYYYYYY O F. &ow many moles of each su stance were dissolved0 YYYYYY YYYYYY YYYYYY YYYYYY YYYYYY YYYYYY YYYYYY YYYYYY

] of moles B grams dissolved ^ 1 mole of su stance ^ formula mass )a,& )&>),F YYYYYYYYYYYY mole YYYYYYYYYYYYY mole

>. /alculate the num er of calories !and $oules" that would e involved if one mole of the su stance were dissolved in water. ] of cal or O B a ove" mole )a,& calJmole ] of cal or O !see 7uestion D ] of moles !see 7uestion F a ove" YYYYYYYYYYYY OJmol

YYYYYYYYYYYYYY )a,&

)&>),F YYYYYYYYYYYYYY calJmole )&>),F YYYYYYYYYYYY OJmol H. /alculate the $oulesJgram a sor ed or released when the sodium hydro5ide and ammonium nitrate was dissolved in water.

Endo#)"r! c and E:o#)"r! c R"ac# on* %ome chemical reactions a sor energy and are called endothermic reactions. +any chemical reactions give off energy. /hemical reactions that release energy are called exothermic reactions. <ou will study one endothermic reaction and one e5othermic reaction in this e5periment.

<ou will study the reaction etween citric acid solution and aking soda. An e7uation for the reaction is &F/6&H,I !a7" L F )a&/,F !s" F /,D !g" L F &D, !l" L )aF/6&H,I !a7" <ou will study the reaction etween magnesium metal and hydrochloric acid. An e7uation for this reaction +g !s" L D &/l !a7" &D !g" L +g/lD !a7" OBBECTI9ES In this e5periment, you will _ o serve two chemical reactions _ determine the change in temperature, *t, for each of the reactions _ identify endothermic and e5othermic reaction PROCEDURE 1. , tain and wear goggles.

C #r c Ac d Pl-* Ba1 n0 Soda D. +ass your calorimeter. +easure out F0.0 m. of citric acid solution in the graduated cylinder and place it in the calorimeter. +ass the calorimeter with acid solution and record so that the mass of the acid can e calculated. ;lace the thermometer into the citric acid solution and record the temperature after 1H seconds with no change in the reading.

F. #eigh out 10.0 g of solid aking soda on a piece of weighing paper. >. Add the aking soda to the citric acid solution. %tir the solution to ensure a good mi5ing. /ontinue to watch the temperature carefully. 2ecord the lowest or highest temperature that is reached. H. *ispose of the reaction products into the plastic waste cups. H+droc)lor c Ac d Pl-* Ma0n"* -! 6. +easure out F0.0 m. of &/l solution into the clean graduated cylinder and transfer into a cleaned calorimeter. CAUTION( Handle this acid with care. It can cause painful burns if it comes in contact with your skin or gets into your eyes. +ass and record to find the mass of the acid solution. ;lace the thermometer into the &/l solution and record the temperature after 1H seconds with no change in the reading. I. ?et appro5imately 0.1 grams of magnesium. 2ecord actual mass of magnesium used. 8. Add the +g to the &/l solution. _ %tir the solution to ensure good mi5ing. CAUTION( Do not breathe the vapors! _ /ollect data until a minimum or ma5imum temperature has een reached.

G.

*ispose of the reaction products into the plastic waste cups.

*A(A 1. D. F. >. H. 6. I. +ass of calorimeter4 YYYYYY g +ass of citric acid and calorimeter4 YYYYYY g original temperature of citric acid solution4 YYYYYY =/ final temperature of citric acidJ aking soda4 YYYYYY =/ mass of hydrochloric acid and calorimeter4 YYYYYY g original temperature of hydrochloric acid4 YYYYYY =/ final temperature of &/lJ+g mi5ture4 YYYYYY =/ YYYYYY

H. actual mass of +g used4 g OBSER9ATIONS PROCESSING THE DATA

1. /alculate the temperature change, *t, for each reaction y su tracting the minimum temperature from the ma5imum temperature !*t B tma5 K t min". D. (ell which reaction is endothermic. (ell which reaction is e5othermic. '5plain. F. -or each reaction, descri e three ways you could tell a chemical reaction was happening. EXTENSIONS 1. *etermine the energy effect, in $oules per gram of )a&/,F and in $oules per mole D. *etermine the energy effect, in $oules per gram of +g and in $oules per mole

Q-an# #+ of H"a# La8 (he principle of heat e5change is often demonstrated y heating a metal sample in oiling water, then adding the metal to a known 7uantity of water. (he temperature of the water is measured efore and after adding the metal sample. (he heat lost y the metal is gained y the water. (he following e7uation can then e used4 !!"#al : D#!"#al : c, !"#al C !2a#"r : D#2a#"r : c, 2a#"r ;rocedure4 Immediately egin oiling water in the eaker. ;lace precisely 100.0 m. of water in the styrofoam cup !a cup within a cup" and the determine the mass and

temperature of that water. 2ecord these measurements. +ass the dry metal samples. 2ecord. &eat the metal samples in the eaker. &eat the samples in oiling water until the temperature remains constant for F6> minutes to insure that the samples are heated evenly throughout. DO NOT RUSH THIS IMPORTANT STEP$ 2ecord the temperature of the oiling water !we are assuming the metal samples are at the same temperature". Using the string pick up the mesh containing the metal samples. &olding it immediately a ove the oiling li7uid, allow it to drain FOR A FRACTION ,- A %'/,)*. Immediately place it in the water the styrofoam cups as 7uickly and safely as possi le. (his step should not allow the samples to cool. As you read the thermometer swish the water gently for a few moments. R"cord #)" ) 0)"*# #"!,"ra#-r" r"ac)"d 8+ #)" 2a#"r. *ata4 sample material .. ...................... mass of metal sample .... . ............ specific heat capacity !metal" ........... mass of 100.0 m. of water................ initial temp. of water !in cup" .......... initial temp. of metal ! oiling water"... final temp. of waterJsamples !in cup" .... D. 2epeat a ove e5periment with 100.0 m. of permanent antifree3e. 2emem er that the samples must e thoroughly reheated in oiling water efore eing added to the antifree3e.

*ata4 mass of 100.0 m. of antifree3e ............ specific heat capacity !antifree3e" ...... initial temp. of antifree3e !in cup" ..... initial temp. of metal ! oiling water"... final temp. of antifree3eJsamples !cup".. F. 2epeat original procedure using 100.0 m. of the H0JH0 mi5ture of water and antifree3e. *ata4 mass of 100.0 m. of H0JH0 mi5ture ......... specific heat capacity !H0JH0 mi5ture"... initial temp. of mi5ture !in cup" ... .... initial temp. of metal ! oiling water"... final temp. of H0JH0 mi5Jsamples !cup"... %afety Awareness4 1e careful with the oiling water and the hot metal samples. (hermometers must e allowed to slowly ad$ust to changes in temperature. (his is especially true in going from oiling temperatures to room temperatures. 1e certain to return the pure antifree3e to the proper container as well as returning the H0JH0 mi5ture to its original container. Analysis4 1. #hy use oiling water as the method of heating the metal samples each time. #hy not $ust hold the samples over a urner0 D. .ist the materials used in this la in order, from lowest to highest, in specific heat capacities0

F. &ow does the 7uantity of heat transferred depend on specific heat, mass, and initial temperature0 >. .ist the li7uids, from lowest to highest, ased on the amount of change in temperature. /an this e e5plained0 H. &ow did the heat lost y the metal samples in each run compare0 .ist this and e5plain. 6. #hich of the li7uids would e the most effective coolant in a car9s radiator. #hy0 I. %hould one run 100S coolant !antifree3e" in a car9s radiator in the summer0 #hy0 8. &ow would your results differ if you ran the e5periment again with a different metal0 G. '5plain riefly how specific heat capacities could e used to identify an unknown metal or li7uid0 10. ?iven a true H0JH0 mi5ture of ethylene glycol and water and without using the la scales, how could you calculate the mass of the mi5ture. !(he given density of pure ethylene glycol is 1.11HI gJcmF" /alculations4 1. /alculate the specific heat capacity of water. Use the specific heat capacity for your metal. %ee the chart on the oard for densities and specific heat capacities. !!"#al : D#!"#al : c, !"#al C !2a#"r : D#2a#"r : Dc, 2a#"rE /alculate the percentage error etween that of the actual value for water and what you found. S error B theoretical value 6 e5perimental value8 5 100

S theoretical value

D. /alculate the specific heat capacity of the metal you used. (his time you must use the actual vale for water. !!"#al : D#!"#al : D c, !"#al E C !2a#"r : D#2a#"r : c, 2a#"r /alculate the percentage error for the metal. F. /alculate the specific heat capacity of the pure antifree3e. Use the actual value for the metal. (he anti here indicates antifree3e. !!"#al : D#!"#al : c, !"#al C !an# fr""@" : D#an# fr""@" : Dc, an# fr""@"E /alculate the percentage error for the pure ethylene glycol. Additives may have changed the value. >. /alculate the specific heat capacity of the H0JH0 mi5ture. Use the actual value for the metal. (he H0JH0 here indicates the mi5ture. Attempt to calculate the actual ratio of antifree3e to water. !!"#al :D#!"#al : c, !"#al C !FG/FG : D#FG/FG : Dc, FG/FGE

.a #rite6up4 As usual you may su stitute your notecard for the procedure and data ta le. <ou may leave out the e7uipment listing and safety rule section. 1e prepared for an e5tensive calculation and result section.

2emem er to answer all the 7uestions in the discussion section.

H"a# of Co!8-*# on of Candl" %a: CONTENT4 (his la deals with heat transfer, com ustion of candle wa5, heat loss within a system, and physicalJchemical changes that occur as a result of energy transformations. (ransfer of heat is seen in weather studies !i.e., within thunderstorms the release of heat of condensation helps to power the cell", in a sorption of solar radiation at the surface of the earth and re6release of that energy to the atmosphere !?reenhouse heating", and in iological systems when food is urned to provide energy for the organisms use. 'nergy is an important consideration in all physical and chemical changes. (his e5periment has you look at the energy involved in the chemical change of candle wa5. #e will e using $oules instead of calories !1 cal B >.18H $oules or 1 $oule B 0.DFG0 calories." OBBECTI9E4 In this la heat energy from a urning candle is directed to a /oke can filled with water. (he elevation in the temperature of the water as the candle urns indicates

heat is eing transferred. %tudents should readily o serve the principle of heat e5change. %tudents must attempt to design the procedure and e7uipment such that heat is neither gained nor lost to the environment. (he student then must calculate the heat of com ustion of candle wa5 !i.e., the amount of heat energy released per gram of wa5 consumed." 2emem er the principle of heat e5change4 the heat lost y some o $ect should e e7ual to the heat gained y the o $ect to which the heat is transferred. .ook over the general set6up. An aluminum /oke can filled with water is suspended over the urning candle. &ow can we determine the amount of heat lost y the candle as it urns and how can e eliminate heat loss to the environment or gain from the environment0 +ake a drawing of the e5perimental setup. (ry to incorporate into your design and e5perimental procedure factors that will eliminate heat lossJgain from the environment. !hint4 %imple insulation of the system is not enough. Use your knowledge of heat transfer mechanisms, specific heats, temperature differences, etc. to design a system that will not product a high percent error." After the la group decides on the factors they wish to control and decides how to uild their apparatus, the group should confirm what information they wish to collect and in what order. PROCEDURE(

I. Attach candle to notecard ase !with heated wa5" and record mass of candleJcard. 2ecord. II. 2ecord mass of empty can !with rod inserted". Add 1H0 m. of very cold water. 2ecord mass of can and water. /alculate amount of water used. III. 2ecord room temperature.

IM. *esign insulating system. 2emem er that o5ygen must get to the flame. M. ;rior to lighting candle, record temperature of water in can. MI. #ith constant stirring as candle urns, heat water to a temperature as many degrees a ove room temperature as it was elow room temperature prior to heating.

MII.

;ut out candle flame as gently as possi le. 2ecord final temperature !reali3e that the temperature may in fact continue to go up after the flame is put out. /alculate change in temperature.

MIII. +ass candleJcard. 2ecord. /alculate change in mass of candle.

%ample *ata (a le4 mass of candle and ase efore urning4 mass of candle and ase after urning4 mass of empty can4 mass of can and water4 room temperature4 temperature of water efore heating4 temperature of water after heating4 CALCULATIONS( 1. Using the specific heat of water, calculate the amount of heat transferred in oth calories and $oules.

D. /alculate the heat of com ustion of candle wa5 in oth calJg and OJg. F. Actual values for paraffin wa5 is a out >D kOJg. /alculate percent error with your value. Q-"*# on*( 1. In what way did your insulation help control heat loss or gain0 D. Assuming some heat is always going to e gained from the room and that some heat will pro a ly e lost, how can you have the two changes cancel each other out0 #hat purpose would e served y starting with cold water an e7ual num er of degrees elow room

F.

temperature as the num er of degrees a ove room temperature finally reached0 >. (o do the calculations, it was assumed that all the $oules released y the urning was went totally into the water and that no e5traneous $oules of energy were a sor ed y the water. #hat factors in this e5periment could have validated those assumptions. #hat factors might have led to errors in the final results0 #hat further modifications in your procedure and e5perimental design would you now make to reduce error.

H.

;ro lem4 A given irthday candle has a mass of 0.8> g. (he mass remaining after 1 minute of urning B 0.II g. #hat would e the urnout time for that candle. '5plain why your answer might not e e5actly the same as the actual urnout time. ;ro lem4 A H.00 gram sample of motor oil is urned in a calorimeter. (he calorimeter contained ID0. m. of water initially at D1.>= /. After the oil was urned, the water temperature was measured at FF.G= /. #hat was the heat of com ustion of the motor oil in OJg0

'5tended ;ro lem4 <ou are given a lock of wa5 that has a mass of 1H0. grams !molar mass B >H0". (he melting point is GH.0= /, the specific heat of the solid is 0.80 OJg= /, the specific heat of the li7uid is 1.D OJg= /, the heat of fusion is 60. OJg. (he was is heated on a stove that provides 6.0 ' F O of heat per minute. (he room temperature is DH = /. a" how many $oules of heat are re7uired to heat the wa5 to melting0 " how long will this take0 c" how many $oules of heat are re7uired to melt the wa5 and how long will this take0 d" how many $oules of heat are re7uired to heat the li7uid wa5 to D>H= / and how long will it take0 e" make a graph of the data. #hat do the slopes of the solid heating and li7uid heating indicate a out the relative specific heats0 f" at D>H= / the wa5 will urst into flame and completely react with the air to produce /,D and &D,. (he heat of com ustion is 1D00 kOJmole. &ow many $oules of heat are produced with the wa5 urns0 Is this enough to melt and heat to urning another lock of wa5 of the same si3e0 2efer to the *ata (a le elow to answer 7uestions4

S-8*#anc" water !l" water !s" ethanol aluminum copper silver granite

S,"c f c H"a# !O J g= /" >.18H D.06 D.>H 0.8GH 0.F8I 0.DFF 0.80F

H"a# of F-* on !O J g" FF> FF> 10G FI6 D0H 88 6

H"a# of 9a,or @a# on !O J g" DD60 DD60 8IG 11FI1 >ID6 DF00 6

1. &ow much heat is re7uired to melt a sample of HH0 grams of copper0 D. &ow much heat is a sor ed as a GH.0 gram sample of water is heated from 10.H= / to >8.D= /0 F. &ow much heat is a sor ed y DH grams of ethanol as it evaporates0 >. A GH0. kg granite wall inside a solar house is used to a sor heat during the day. *uring the day it reaches a temperature of D>.0= / . At night, it will cool off to 1I.0= /. &ow much heat will e released y the wall0 &ow much heat would e released if the wall was made of D0. kg of aluminum filled with 180 kg of water and had the same temperature change0

CHARLESH LA% LABORATOR; EXERCISE

(his law states that as the temperature of a gas changes its volume will vary proportionally. (he pressure acting on the system must remain constant as well as the amount of gas !air in this la " must remain the same. M1 J ( 1 B MD J ( D MD B !M1(D " J (1 MD B unknown, can e found y formula and e5perimentally ,1O'/(IM'%4 1. to o serve the change in volume of a gas when its temp. is changed D. to practice la oratory techni7ues involving gases F. to perform a la with a S error less than DS %A-'(< ;2'/AU(I,)%4 1. &andling e5tremely hot glassware and working with oiling water re7uires attention given to e7uipment and instructions. D. Use of the 1unsen urner re7uires careful lighting and one la group mem er assigned to watch the urner at all times. F. /lean dry e7uipment will always provide etter results and perform in a safe manner. ;2,/'*U2'4 1. ;lace stopper !with glass tu ing already inserted" into the DH0 m. 'rlenmeyer flask firmly and as level as possi le. Using tape mark the flask where the stopper e5tends.. (his should e even around the neck of the flask.

D. Attach the universal clamp to the neck of the flask and also to the ring stand. (he flask should e5tend down as far as possi le in an >00J600 m. eaker sitting on wire gau3e ring attached to the ring stand. Add water to the eaker so that it fills the eaker to appro5imately 1 inch elow the lip of the flask. ), water should oil or splash out of the eaker. Use oiling chips. F. &eat the empty flask using this water ath arrangement till the water has een oiling for 8610 minutes. 2ecord the temperature of the water. (his should now also e the temperature of the air inside the flask. >. *isconnect the clamp from the ring stand. ;lace your finger over the end of the glass tu ing in the stopper and transfer the entire flask and clamp to the standing water in the sink. (his must e done so that no air enters or escapes from the flask. ,nly remove your finger when the entire flask is su merged. H. Aeep the flask completely su merged for appro5imately 8610 minutes. 2ecord the temp of the water in the sink. (his should e the temperature of the water and air inside the flask. 6. (he most critical step in attempting to reduce the S error comes at this point. /ontinue to su merge the end of the flask with the stopper ut raise the ase of the flask. .ook inside the flask and attempt to have the water level inside the flask correspond to the water level of the water in the sink. (his sounds more difficult that it really is. 1y keeping the water levels inside and out of the flask e5actly the same

the atmospheric pressure inside and outside the flask will e thesame !held constant" and we can eliminate it from our calculations. I. ;lace your finger over the end of the glass tu ing !maintaining the same level of water inside and out" and then lift out the entire flask and clamp. 2emove and dry the clamp with paper towels. Car"f-ll+ ,o-r #)" 2a#"r n* d" #)" fla*1 n#o a dr+ 0rad-a#"d c+l nd"r and r"cord #)" a!o-n#. 8. -ill the flask with water up to the mark made earlier !the neck where the stopper had e5tended". Again pour this water into a dry graduated cylinder !this may take several full cylinders, $ust accumulate the volume". (he final volume !MD" can e found y using the formula or y simply su tracting the amount left in the flask after cooling from the original total amount !M". %A+;.' *A(A (A1.' (emp. of water ath B (1 YYYYYYYYYYYR / (emp. of water in sink B (D YYYYYYYYYYYR / Molume of water in flask after cooling YYYYYYYYYY m. (otal volume of water in flask !M1" YYYYYYYYYYYm. -inal volume of air in flask ! y su traction4 B MD" YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYm. /A./U.A(I,)%4 1. -ind MD using /harles9 .aw4

D. ;erform graphing e5ample as shown in class4 value of a solute value found4 YYYYYYYYYYYR / F. ;erform the following percentage calculations4 ;'2/')(A?' '22,24 S error B ^e5perimental K theoretical result^J theoretical result 5 100 B

;'2/')(A?' *I--'2')/'4 !for MD" S difference B ^difference of two values^ J larger of two values 5 100 B

EU'%(I,)%4 1. '5plain what your la group could have done to reduce your error. D. #hyJhow did we eliminate the need to measure the atmospheric pressure inside the flask after cooling. F. -ind e5amples of /harles9 .aw in our daily lives. Answer %pace4

En"r0+ Con#"n# of Food* 'nergy content is an important property of food. (he energy your ody needs for running, talking, and thinking

comes from the food you eat. 'nergy content is the amount of heat produced y the urning of 1 gram of a su stance, and is measured in $oules per gram !OJg". <ou can determine energy content y urning a portion of food and capturing the heat released to a known mass of water in a calorimeter. If you measure the initial and final temperatures, the energy released can e calculated using the e7uation E B *t_m_cp where E B heat energy a sor ed !in O", *t B change in temperature !in =/", m B mass !in g", and c pB specific heat capacity !>.18H OJg=/ for water". *ividing the resulting energy value y grams of food urned gives the energy content !in OJg". ;2,/'*U2' 1. , tain and wear gogglesJaprons. D. ?et a sample of food and a food holder. -ind and record the initial mass of the food sample and food holder. CAUTION( Do not eat or drink in the laboratory. >. %et up the apparatus. ;lace aluminum foil on the ta le top to catch any spills and also to reflect heat upward. [ *etermine and record the mass of an empty can. _ ;lace a out H0.0 m. of cold water into the can. _ *etermine and record the mass of the can plus water.

_ Use a rod to suspend the can a out D.H cm !1N" a ove the food sample. _ Use a utility clamp and stopper to suspend the thermometer in the water. (he thermometer should not touch the ottom of the can. H. 2ecord the initial temperature of the water. 6. 2emove the food sample from under the can and use a wooden splint to light it. Euickly place the urning food sample directly under the center of the can. Allow the water to e heated until the food sample stops urning. CAUTION( Keep hair and clothing away from an open flame. I. %tir the water until the temperature stops rising. 2ecord this final temperature. 8. *etermine the final mass of the food sample and food holder. G. 2epeat the procedure for a second food sample. Use a new H0.0 m. portion of cold water. 10. #hen you are done, place urned food, used matches, and partly6 urned wooden splints in the container supplied y the teacher.

*A(A

%ample 1 %ample D -ood used YYYYYYY YYYYYYg YYYYYYg YYYYYY YYYYYYg YYYYYY YYYYYYg YYYYYY=/ YYYYYY

YYYYYYY +ass of food and holder !initial" YYYYYY g +ass of food and holder !final" YYYYYY g +ass of empty can g +ass of can plus water g Initial water temperature YYYYYY =/ -inal water temperature =/ YYYYYY =/ ;2,/'%%I)? (&' *A(A

1. /alculate change in water temperature, *t, for each sample, y su tracting the initial temperature from the final temperature !*t B tfinal K tinitial". D. /alculate the mass !in g" of the water heated for each sample. %u tract the mass of the empty can from the mass of the can plus water. F. Use the results of %teps 1 and D to determine the heat energy gained y the water !in O". Use the e7uation E B *t_m_cp

where E B heat a sor ed !in O", *t B change in temperature !in =/", m B mass of the water heated !in g", and cp B specific heat capacity !>.18H OJg=/ for water". >. /alculate the mass !in g" of each food sample urned. %u tract the final mass from the initial mass. H. Use the results of %teps F and > to calculate the energy content !in OJg" of each food sample. 6. 2ecord your results and the results of other groups elow. %hare data with other groups. -ood (ype -ood (ype -ood (ype -ood (ype

YYYYYYYYYYYY YYYYYYYYYYYY YYYYYYYYYYYY YYYYYYYYYYYY YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYYOJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYYOJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYYOJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYYOJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYYOJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYYOJg Avg. YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg YYYYYYYYY OJg

I. #hich of the foods has the greatest energy content0 #hy do these foods have the greatest energy content0 H"a# of F-* on *uring melting, heat is a sor ed y the melting solid. In this e5periment, you will determine how much heat is needed to melt 1 g of ice. &eat has units of $oules !O". (he heat used to melt the ice will come from the cooling of warm water and will e measured with a calorimeter. A calorimeter is an insulated container fitted with a device for measuring temperature. OBBECTI9E4 *etermine the heat of fusion of ice !in OJg" PROCEDURE( 1. Use a alance to measure the mass of the calorimeter. 2ecord this mass in your data ta le. Using the large flask, o tain some hot water from the hot water faucet at the teacher@s desk and mi5 with tap water until the temperature of the water is a out F0 to FH =/. D. Use a 1006m. graduated cylinder to measure out 100.0 m. of this water into the calorimeter. +easure the mass of the calorimeter and the 100.0 m. of warm water. 2ecord this value in the data ta le. F. ;lace the thermometer into the warm water inside the cup to warm the instrument to the temperature of the water. (he thermometer must e in the warm water for at least 1H seconds efore ice is added.

>. , tain several pieces of ice out of the cooler. *rain the ice cu es while allowing them to still have a wet surface. Add the ice cu es to the warm water. H. ?ently stir the contents of the cup as the ice melts. (he temperature will stop dropping and level off when the ice has all melted. 'nd your data collection when the temperature stops dropping. 6. +easure and record the mass of the calorimeter and water !original water L ice melt". DATA mass of calorimeter YYYYYY g mass of calorimeter and warm water YYYYYY g mass of warm water YYYYYYYg mass of calorimeter and all waterJice YYYYYY g mass of ice added YYYYYYYg initial water temperature YYYYYYY=/ final water temperature !minimum" PROCESSING THE DATA 1. /alculate the change in water temperature, *t !tma5 K tmin". D. /alculate the heat !in O" lost y the water melting the ice using the e7uation E B m _ `t _ >.18H OJg=/ !ma5imum" YYYYYYY=/

where E B heat !in $oules", m B mass of warm water !in g", and `t B change in temperature !in =/"

F. /alculate the heat needed to melt 1 g of ice !OJg".

>. An accepted value for the heat of fusion of ice is FF> OJg. /alculate your percent error4

H. #hat assumption did we make a out heat lost y the water in the calorimeter as compared to heat gained y the melting ice0

':(')%I,) *esign an e5periment to find out if an ice cu e taken from a free3er and immediately placed into a calorimeter needs the same amount of energy per gram for melting as does an ice cu e that has een outside the free3er for ten minutes.

(hermochemistry is the study of heat changes that take place in a change of state or a chemical reaction 6 heat energy is either a sor ed or released. If a process releases energy in the form of heat, the process is called e5othermic. A process that a sor s heat is called endothermic.

&eat is defined as the energy transferred from one o $ect to another due to a difference in temperature. #e do not o serve or measure heat directly 6 we measure the temperature change that accompanies heat transfer. In a chemical reaction it is often not possi le to measure the temperature of the reactants or products themselves. Instead, we measure the temperature change of thesurroundings.

(he difference etween the system and the surroundings is a key concept in thermochemistry. (he system consists of the reactants and the products of the reaction. (he solvent, the container, the atmosphere a out the reaction !in other words, the rest of the universe" are considered the surroundings. &eat may e transferred from the system to the surroundings !the temperature of the surroundings will increase" or from the surroundings to the system !the temperature of the surroundings will decrease".

#hen a system releases heat to the surroundings during a reaction, the temperature of the surroundings increases and the reaction container feels warm to the touch. (his is an e5othermic reaction. &eat flows out of the system. An e5ample of an e5othermic reaction is the com ustion of propane !/F&8" in a ar ecue grill to produce car on dio5ide, water, and heat. )ote that heat appear in the product side of the e7uation4

/F&8 !g" L H ,D !g" Z F/,D !g" L >&D, !g" L heat

#hen a system a sor s heat from the surroundings during a reaction, the temperature of the surroundings decreases and the reaction container feels cold to the touch. (his in an endothermic reaction. &eat flows into the system. A familiar e5ample of an endothermic process is the melting of ice. %olid water !ice" needs heat energy to reak the forces holding the molecules together in the solid state.

(he heat a sor ed y water in turning it to steam has een used to reak apart the forces !i.e., hydrogen onding" etween water molecules in the li7uid phase. (he amount of heat that must e a sor ed to vapori3e a specific 7uantity of li7uid !usually one gram or one mole" is called the heat of vapori3ation. In a similar manner, heat is also re7uired to melt ice. (he amount of heat that must e

a sor ed to melt a specific 7uantity of solid is called the heat of fusion.

(he amount of heat transferred in these processes depends on the difference in the energy stored in each su stance. (his stored energy is called the heat content or enthalpy, and is represented y the sym ol &.. (he enthalpy change ! `&" for a physical process or a chemical reaction is defined as the heat change that occurs at a constant pressure. (his is convenient, ecause most of the reactions that are carried out in the la are in flasks or containers that are open to the atmosphere K that is, they take place at a constant pressure e7ual to the arometric pressure.

'7uation 1 shows the e7uality etween the change in enthalpy !`&" of a system and the amount of heat transferred, sym oli3ed y 7p, for a reaction carried out at a constant pressure. `& B 7p '7uation 1

(he amount of heat !7p" transferred to a su stance or o $ect depends on three factors4 the mass !m" of the o $ect, its specific heat !cp" and the resulting temperature change !`t" 7p B m _ `t _ cp '7uation D

(he specific heat !cp" of a su stance reflects its a ility to a sor heat energy and is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a su stance y one degree /elsius. (he specific heat of water is e7ual to >.18H OJgR/. In most la oratory situations, the temperature change is measured not for the system itself !the reactants and products" ut for the surroundings !the solution and reaction vessel". (he amount of heat released y the system must e e7ual to the amount of heat a sor ed y the surroundings. (he sign convention in '7uation F reveals that the heat change occurs in the opposite direction. 7!system" B 6 7!surroundings"

-or an e5othermic reaction, the heat released y the system results in a temperature increase for the surroundings !`t is positive" and the heat a sor ed y the surroundings will e a positive 7uantity. (he heat released y the system must have the reverse sign K it must e a negative 7uantity. According to this convention, the enthalpy change for an e5othermic reaction is always a negative value. -or an endothermic reaction, in contrast, the heat a sor ed y the system results in a temperature decrease for the surroundings !`t" is negative" and the heat released y the soundings will e a negative 7uantity. (he heat a sor ed y the system must have the opposite sign 6 it must e a positive 7uantity. According to this convention, the enthalpy change for an endothermic reaction is always a positive value.

(he energy or enthalpy change associated with the process of a solute dissolving in a solvent is called the heat of solution !`&soln". In the case of an ionic compound dissolving in water, the overall energy change is the net result of two processes 6 the energy re7uired to reak the attractive forces !ionic onds" etween the ions in the crystal lattice, and the energy released when the dissociated !free" ions form ion6dipole attractive forces with the water molecules.

&eats of solution and other enthalpy changes are generally measured in an insulated vessel called a calorimeter that reduces or prevents heat loss to the atmosphere outside the reaction vessel. (he process of a solute dissolving in water may either release heat into the a7ueous solution or a sor heat from the solution, the amount of heat e5change etween the calorimeter and the outside surroundings should e minimal. #hen using a calorimeter, the reagents eing studied are mi5ed directly in the calorimeter and the temperature is recorded oth efore and after the reaction ahs occurred. (he amount of heat change occurring in the calorimeter may e calculated using the e7uation4 7p B m _ `t _ cp (he specific heat of the solution is generally assumed to e the same as that of the water, namely >.18H OJgR/.

(he mass of grams of solute is usually the independent varia le and will e varied in different trials. (he temperature change that is produced depends on the mass of the solute and is thus the dependent varia le in a calorimetry e5periment.

/alorimeter /onstant

All chemical reactions involve changes in energy as a result of ond reaking and ond formation during the chemical change. (his energy change is an important parameter when studying chemical reactions and is normally measured in an insulated vessel called a calorimeter. #hen using a calorimeter, the chemical reagents eing studied are mi5ed directly in the calorimeter with the temperature recorded oth efore and after the reaction. If the mass of the material is also recorded, then the change in the energy occurring in the calorimeter can e calculated y the relationship4

`7 B m _ `t _ cp

where `7 is the change in energy, m is the mass of the solution, `t is the temperature change of the solution, and cp is the specific heat of the solution. %ince most reactions

are carried out in dilute water solutions, the specific heat of the solution is assumed to e the same as that of water !1.00 calJg=/ or >.18H OJg=/".

(he underlying principle utili3ed in calorimetry is the law of /onservation of 'nergy. (he asic premise of this principle is that Penergy can neither e created nor destroyed ut may e converted from one form to another.Q In other words, the heat lost !or gained" y the chemical reaction is e7ual to the heat gained !or lost" y the solution in the calorimeter.

In this e5periment we are going to simply mi5 hot and cold water, determine the change in the temperature, and compare the total amount of energy lost with the total amount of energy gained. If the .aw of /onservation of 'nergy is valid, then

`7hot water B `7cold water

where `7hot water is the energy lost y the hot water and the `7cold water is the energy gained y the cold water. Unfortunately, no system is perfect and some of the energy transferred is a sor ed y the calorimeter. (herefore, the

actual relationship for the .aw of /onservation of 'nergy in this e5periment should e4

`7hot water B `7cold water L `7calorimeter

(he purpose of this e5periment is to verify the .aw of /onservation of 'nergy and to determine the amount of energy a sor ed or lost y the calorimeter called the calorimeter constant. /alorimeter constants are uni7ue to each calorimeter and must e determined e5perimentally. they are usually e5press in calories or Ooules per degree /elsius. (hat is, calorimeter constants represent the amount of energy a sor ed or lost y the calorimeter for every one degree change in the temperature. (he e7uation to e used4

calorimeter constant B ^ `7 hot water 6 `7 cold water ^ YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY `t

(he change in energy of oth the hot and cold water is calculated from the mass of the water, the specific heat of water, and the difference in the temperature of the water in

each calorimeter efore and after mi5ing. 1y measuring these values, the calorimeter constant can e determined and utili3ed in each su se7uent e5periment which uses the calorimeters.

;rocedure4 ;1. .a el the two calorimeters Pcold waterQ and Pwarm waterQ. +ass each. Add 8 m. of the cold tap water to the calorimeter la eled for cold water and find its mass. Add 8 m. of the warm tap water to the calorimeter la eled for the warm water and find its mass.

;D. %tir the water in the calorimeter fre7uently and when the temperature has een constant over several five6second intervals, record the temperature in each calorimeter to the nearest 0.1 =/. ;our the cold water into the warm water and record the resulting temperature of the mi5ture.

;F. (horoughly dry each of the calorimeters, re6weigh, and repeat the e5periment another time.

/alculations and Euestions4 E1a. /alculate the mass of the water in each calorimeter.

E1 . /alculate the changes in temperature, `tcold and `twarm of the water in each calorimeter y su tracting the final temperature, tfinalfrom the initial temperature of oth the cold and warm water. `tcold B tcold 6 tfinal

`twarm B twarm 6 tfinal

ED. /alculate the energy gained y the cold water y multiplying the mass of the cold water !E1a" y the specific heat capacity of water !cpB 1.00 calJg=/", y the change in temperature of the cold water !E1 ".

`7 cold water B mcold _ `tcold _ cp

EF. 2epeat for the warm water.

`7 hot water B mwarm _`twarm _ cp

E>a. /alculate the a solute difference etween the energy lost y the warm water !ED", and the energy gained y the cold water !EF".

E> . /alculate the calorimeter constant in calJ=/ y dividing the a solute difference in energy !E>a" y the temperature change in the warm water !E1 ".

calorimeter constant B ^ `7warm 6 `7cold ^ YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY `twarm

E>c. 2epeat the e5periment and calculate the average calorimeter constant in calJ =/. 2ecord your average value on the chalk oard. (hen repeat the e5periment with %tyrofoam cups and record your values on the oard.

EH. (he .aw of /onservation of 'nergy states that Penergy can neither e created nor destroyed ut may e converted from one form to anotherQ. According to your calculations, has energy een conserved0 (hat is, is the heat lost y the warm water e7ual to the heat gained y the cold water0 '5plain your answer in terms of your calculated results.

(ips4 1" It is important that the calorimeter e completely dry form one trial to the ne5t. A dry calorimeter should have almost e5actly the same mass at the start of each trial. /overs are not needed for the pink micro6scale calorimeters. -or this e5periment they will not e used on the %tyrofoam cups since e7uili rium is esta lished in $ust a few seconds.

D"

H"a# of Sol-# on

(he energy change associated with the process in which a solute dissolves in a solvent is called the heat of solution. (his energy change in the net result of two processes, the energy re7uired to reak the solute6solute onds, the crystal lattice energy, and the energy released when the solute particles ond with the solvent molecules, the heat of hydration. -or e5ample, the heat of solution for A/l in water can e considered the sum of the two heat effects.

(he crystal lattice energy of A/l, the energy necessary to reak apart the A/l crystal lattice and form free ions is represented y e7uation 14

a1b B L 16I.6 kcal

A/l !s" Z A1L !g"

L /l16 !g"

`&

(he heat of hydration of A/l, the energy released when the free ions are hydrated, is represented y e7uation D.

aDb /l16 !a7"

A1L !g" L /l16 !g" Z A1L !a7" L `& B 616F.H kcal

In this e5ample, the overall reaction is endothermic, and the heat of solution is positive since more energy is re7uired in step 1 than is released in step D.

,verall reaction4 A/l !s" Z A1L !a7" L /l16 !a7" `& B L >.1 kcal

(he purpose of this e5periment is to determine the heat of solution for some selected compounds from the energy change associated with their solution process.

Proc"d-r"(

;1. +ass a small, clean dry massing pan to the nearest 0.01 g. Add 1.00 to 1.DH grams of the solid to e studied to the massing pan and re6mass to the nearest 0.01 g.

;D. +ass a clean, dry calorimeter to the nearest 0.01 g. Add roughly 1H m. of tap water to the calorimeter and re6 mass. %tir and record the initial temperature of the water in the calorimeter to the nearest 0.1 =/.

;F. Add the solid to e studied to the calorimeter. %tir the mi5ture until the solid is completely dissolved and the temperature remains constant over several readings. 2ecord the final temperature.

;>. 2inse and dry oth the thermometer and calorimeter, repeating the e5periment with the same solid.

;H. 2epeat e5periment with the second solid.

Q-"*# on* and Calc-la# on*(

E1a. /alculate the mass of the solid, msolid, y su tracting the mass of the empty massing pan from the mass of massing pan plus solid.

E1 . /alculate the num er of moles, n, of your assigned solid dissolved in each of your trials y dividing the mass of solid dissolved, msolid, y its formula mass in gJmol.

E1c. /alculate the mass of the water, mwater, y su tracting the mass of the empty calorimeter from the mass of the calorimeter plus water.

E1d. /alculate the total mass of the reactants, mtotal, y adding the mass of the water, mwater, to the mass of dissolved slat, msolid.

ED. /alculate the change in temperature, `t, y su tracting the initial temperature of the water, tinitial, from the final temperature of the solution, tfinal.

EFa. /alculate the heat re7uired or li erated when your assigned solid dissolved in water, `7water, from the total mass of water plus salt !E1 ", the specific heat capacity for water !cp B 1.00 calJg=/", and the change in temperature !ED".

`7water B mtotal _ `t _ cp

EF . /alculate the energy a sor ed or released y the calorimeter, `7cal, using the calorimeter constant and the change in temperature of the water !ED"

`7cal B calorimeter constant _ `t

EFc. /alculate the total energy a sor ed or released y the solution process, `7soln, from the sum of the change in energy of the water !EFa", plus the change in energy of the calorimeter !EF ".

`7soln B `7water L `7cal

E>a. /alculate the heat of solution, `&soln , in calJmol y dividing the amount of heat li erated or a sor ed when the salt dissolves !EFc" y the num er of moles of salt dissolved !E1a".

`&soln B `7soln J n

E> . /onvert each of the heats of reaction in calJmol into kcalJmol y dividing each `&soln value y 1000 calJkcal.

EH. /alculate the average heat of solution, `&avg, in kcalJmol y averaging the heats of solution !E> " for all your trials.

E6. /alculate the percent error etween your average heat of solution, `&avg, and the theoretical value, `&theor.

S error B ^ `&avg 6 `&theor ^ _ 100 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY `&theor

(heoretical heat of solution, `&theor !kcalJmol"4)a,& B 610.6 e5othermic, )&>),F B 6.1 endothermic, endothermic *ata4 &eat of %olution .a YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY A),F B 8.0 )ame4

-ormula of solid studied4 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY -ormula mass4 YYYYYYYYYYYY gJmol

Tr al I5 ;1 mass of massing pan empty

Tr al IJ

Tr al I4

;D mass of pan L solid

E1a mass of solid, msolid E1 ] moles of solid, n ;D mass of calorimeter empty

;D mass of calorimeter L water E1c mass of water, mwater E1d total mass reactants, mtotal ;D initial temp. tinitial water,

;F final temp. of water, tfinal ED change in temp., `t EFa energy lostJgained y water, `7water EF energy a sor edJreleased y calorimeter, `7cal EFc energy

a sor edJreleased y dissolving salt, `7soln E> &eat of solution, `&soln EH average heat of solution, `&avg E6 theoretical heat of solution, `&theor E6 percent error

As an ionic compound dissolves in water, the entropy increases. (he ions in the solid phase are arranged in a regular geometric pattern. -or e5ample, sodium chloride crystals have a cu ic structure. In water, however, the ions are separated from one another and are scattered randomly throughout their container giving the solution a much higher entropy.

%pecific &eat of a %u stance

#hen a hot o $ect is added to cold water in a calorimeter, the heat lost y the hot o $ect, `7 hot o $ect is e7ual to the heat gained y the cold water, `7 cold water and the calorimeter,

`7 calorimenter as predicted y the .aw of /onservation of 'nergy.

`7 hot o $ect B `7 cold water L `7 calorimeter

or

a m _ `t _ cp bhot o $ect B !calorimeter constant _ `t"calorimeter L a m _ `t _ cp bcold water

(he purpose of this e5periment is to compare the energy lost y a hot o $ect with the energy gained y cold water and a calorimeter and to determine the specific heat of the hot o $ect.

;rocedure4

;1. &eat a out F00 m. of tap water in a >00 m. eaker using a hot, lue flame. +ass the test tu e and then fill it a out one6half full of the material to e studied, and re6 mass to the nearest 0.01 g. ;lace the test tu e containing the material in the warm water. As soon as the water oils, reduce the flame so that the water arely oils.

;D. +ass a dry calorimeter, add 1H m. of cold tap water, and re6mass. 2ecord the temperature of oth the water in the calorimeter and the temperature of the material in the test tu e to the nearest 0.1 =/. (he temperature of the material in the test tu e can e measured y pressing the thermometer against the material until the temperature is constant over several five6second intervals.

;F. #hen the temperature of the material is constant, 7uickly pour the hot material into the cold water in the calorimeter. %tir the mi5ture and record the temperature to the nearest 0.1=/ when it is constant over several five6second intervals.

;>. *rain the water from the material studied and return it to the collection point designated y the teacher. *ry the calorimeter and repeat the e5periment with another material.

/alculations and Euestions4

E1a. /alculate the mass of the material in the test tu e.

E1 . /alculate the mass of the water in the calorimeter.

E1c. /alculate the change in the temperature of oth the water and calorimeter, `twater, y su tracting the initial temperature of the cold water from the final temperature of the water after the hot material was added to it, tfinal.

E1d. /alculate the temperature change of the hot material in the test tu e, `tmaterial, y su tracting the initial temperature of the material while it was still in the oiling water from the final temperature of the mi5ture.

EDa. /alculate the change in the energy of the water, `7water , from its mass !E1 ", the specific heat of water !1.00 calJg=/", and the change in its temperature !E1c".

`7 water B mwater _ `twater _ cp water

ED . /alculate the change in the energy of the calorimeter !`7 cal" from the calorimeter constant and the change in temperature of the water !E1c".

`7 cal B calorimeter constant _ `twater

EDc. /alculate the total energy lost y the hot material, `7 material, from the energy gained y oth the cold water !EDa" and the calorimeter !ED ".

`7 material B `7 water L `7 cal

EF. /alculate the specific heat of the material studied, c p material, from the energy lost y the hot material !EDc", the mass of the material !E1a", and the temperature change of the material !EDd".

`7 material B mmaterial _ `tmaterial _ cp material

!solve for cp"

)ote4 if multiple trials of the same material are used, average the results you have for the different trials at this time.

E>. /alculate the percent error y comparing your value for the material !EF or average of all EFs" with the accepted value found of the chalk oard.

S error B ^ cp 6 cp theoretical ^ 5 100 YYYYYYYYYYYYYYY cp theoretical

;rocedure D

Using the final specific heat of the metal found a ove, repeat the e5periment replacing the water in the calorimeter with ethylene glycol !antifree3e" and then a H0JH0 mi5ture of ethylene glycol and water !prepared for you y the teacher". %olve for the specific heat of the ethylene glycol !which is known to e 0.HI1 calJg=/" and for the mi5ture !which is assumed to e 0.I8H calJg=/, the difference etween 1.00 and 0.HI1 since the mi5ture was ased on H0S y mass of water and ethylene glycol". /omplete the calculations for this section y doing S error calculations.

Analysis Euestions4 1. #hy use oiling water as the method for heating the metal samples each time0 #hy not $ust hold the samples over a urner0 D. Using the three li7uids, list their calculated specific heat capacities, in order from lowest to highest. )e5t give the change in temperatures e5perienced y each li7uid. Assuming the metal samples transferred the same amount of heat to the three li7uids !can this e checked0", is the ranking of the different changes in temperature correct0 F. &ow did the heat lost y the metal samples in each e5periment compare0 ?ive values and e5plain their validity. >. #hich of the li7uids would e the most effective coolant !during the summer" in a car@s radiator. #hy0 #hich li7uid is the most effective coolant for year round usage0 #hy0 H. '5plain how specific heat capacities e used to identify an unknown metal.

6. ?iven a true H0JH0 mi5ture of the ethylene glycol and water, calculate the mass of the mi5ture !given the density of pure ethylene glycol as 1.11HI gJcmF"

#rite6up ;rocedure4 1. Include all collected data in a ta le !use the ;] and E]s to help identify" including all appropriate units and significant figures. D. %how all calculations re7uired. Include the appropriate formula, fill in all data with units, and solve. /ircle the final answer to all calculations !remem er units and sig figs". F. Answer all analysis 7uestions fully.