MA American Studies 2nd Year Course: American Presidency Course Instructor: Associate Professor Octavian Roske Group members:

Cristina A e!andru Andreea "atarus #aura Piciorus $ovember 22nd% 2&'( Presidentia #eaders)ip and Po itica Parties: Repub ican A*enda ")e $e+ American ,emocracy - Morris P. /iorina "e!t - Part I - Cristina A e!andru In the summer of 2008, the Democrats and the Republicans organized national conventions in order to choose their presidential nominees. During these conventions, the candidates among whom we can mention 0arack Obama for the Democratic Part ! and Sara) Pa in, the vice"president nominee for the Republicans, gave speeches which attracted the public#s attention, over $0 million people watching each convention on %&. 'owever, the three television networ(s gave the conventions onl one hour per night during a four da span because the public was not interested in watching the evolution of these conventions since the results were alread (nown. %herefore, the conventions were lac(ing an element of surprise and were viewed as long info"commercials. In contrast with the 2008 conventions were those from )*+2, when the rivalr between the candidates on the Democratic side ! senator 1stes 2efauver and governor Ad ai Stevenson attracted the public#s attention. ,n the Republican side, the battle was given between senator Robert "aft and -eneral ,+i*)t 1isen)o+er who won before a second balloting was necessar . %herefore, the conventions of )*+2 were popular because the candidates were not (nown in advance and the campaigns too( shape more slowl . Po itica Parties Political parties are considered /the central institutions of democratic governments0 and also /the wor(ing mechanisms of liberal democrac 0. )

 Political parties are created in order to organize political life through their activities. %he presiding officer is in charge with establishing the political agenda of the part who won the ma1orit of seats in the most recent election, namel the ma1orit part . Part of the ma1orit part are the committee chairs who establish committee agendas and hire the committee staff. Political parties are responsible with verif ing if the government#s branches are well organized. In order to maintain their reputation and gain public support, part members need to sta united and to achieve a stable level of performance. Political parties struggle to gain the battle for public support b anal zing the problems that occur and b providing solutions for resolving them. Parties are responsible with providing strong candidates for elections, candidates who will maintain and even improve the part #s reputation. Political parties don#t alwa s perform the activities that would simplif the electoral s stem or benefit the public because the are concerned onl with gaining power. 2hen a political part is strong enough to control the elected officials, it ma abuse its power and force the officials to follow the part #s desires and ignore the voters# needs and re3uests. In case of a divided *overnment, the parties that are in opposition are concerned with 3uestioning the solutions and propositions of the governing part . 4ven though most of the times parties intend to promote candidates able to win the elections because of their integrit and intelligence, there are times when popularit comes first so, in these cases, potential candidates are chosen not for their political s(ills, but for the fact that the are alread (nown b the public. 5cholars believe that political parties cannot be replaced b alternative institutions since there are no other institutions that can perform the specific functions of political parties. %hroughout the 6merican histor , the political parties have been in charge with organizing the elections. %he political s stem is characterized b changes . groups of people are li(el to support the Democrats for a certain period of time and then change their beliefs and switch their 2

support from the Democrats to the Republicans. 5cholars have identified several election eras or part s stems in the 6merican political histor . these part s stems have four characteristics that remain stable7 ). %he two ma1or contestants for national power are the same, in spite of the e8istence of minor parties. 2. In a part s stem, there is one part that is bound to win most elections, namel the ma1orit part . $. 4ach part s stem is focused on one or two ma1or issues that are debated during the elections and after them. 9. 4ach part is supported b groups of people from specific geographic areas. %he changes that ma occur in a part s stem are called rea i*nments. :ritical elections happen when a part s stem ends and another one begins. Sources: http7;;en.wi(ipedia.org;wi(i;Republican<Part <=28>nited<5tates=2* http7;;en.wi(ipedia.org;wi(i;4stes<?efauver http7;;www.huffingtonpost.com;news;sarah"palin; http7;;bioguide.congress.gov;scripts;biodispla .pl@inde8A(000099 http7;;www.infoplease.com;enc clopedia;)ushistbio.html http7;;en.wi(ipedia.org;wi(i;6dlai<5tevenson<II http7;;www.whitehouse.gov; "e!t - Part II - Andreea "3t3ru4 ")e Party5Systems in American 6istory '. ")e /irst Party System 78effersonian9

'istorians believe that the fist part s stem began in the earl )B*0s and emerged from a series of controversies that began to divide :ongress and Geor*e :as)in*tonCs own cabinet7 one group of officials, lo al to A e!ander 6ami ton D%reasur 5ecretar E wanted to use the power of the federal government to encourage manufacturing interests, to support the creation of a national ban( and favor closer ties with -reat Fritain Dat that time, the worldCs dominant economic powerE, while another group of officials coalesced around ")omas 8efferson D5ecretar of 5tateE and the hoped to (eep the >nited 5tates a predominantl agricultural countr , focusing on a foreign polic more favorable towards Grance than -reat Fritain.

 %he first group came to be (nown under the name of /Gederalists0, while the second group was referred to as the /Democratic"Republicans0. F the ear of )8)H, the Gederalist Part was no longer a significant force in the national government. 'istorians claim the Gederalists were on the wrong side of the issues, supporting commercial and manufacturing interests at a time when most voters identified with agriculture. 6dditionall , the part suffered from wea( leadership after 6le8ander 'amilton was (illed in a duel in )809. %herefore, the >nited 5tates became at that time a one"part nation and ever important politician considered himself a Democratic"Republican. 2. ")e Second Party System 78acksonian ,emocracy9

Parties are generall held together b the fear of the opposition and with the Gederalist Part out of concern the Democratic"Republicans were suffering a division with the )829 and )828 election and the opposing policies gave rise to the second part s stem. %hus, the officials supporting Andre+ 8ackson were called the /Democrats0 and the ones opposing them were called the /2higs0. %he dividing line between these two groups was the use of the federal government to promote national economic development b financing /internal improvements0 Droads, bridges, canalsE and b using tariffs to protect industries form foreign competition7 the 2higs favored such policies while the Democrats disagreed and pleaded for a more active role of the presidential power. 'owever, the issue of slaver was out of the congressional agenda and did not separate the parties, although the both contained active opponents and supporters. %hose officials who publicl opposed slaver turned to third parties7 the #iberty Party D)890 and )899E and the /ree Soi Party D)898 and )8+2E. Foth the Democrats and the 2higs were built on mass participation and developed national nominating conventions and established national committees that coordinated presidential campaigns ! these institutions are still used toda . %he Democrats were the dominant part of the second part s stem. (. ")e ")ird Party System 7Civi :ar and Reconstruction9

In spite of their attempts, the Democrats and the 2higs could not (eep slaver out of the congressional agenda for too long. In )8+9, the 2ansas5$ebraska Act was passed and the political stage divided between those in favor Dthe DemocratsE and those against it Dnow coalesced under the name of /Republicans0E. 9

 %here are two sub"periods in this third part s stem7 the first one when the Republicans dominated the presidenc and the :ongress and the second one when economic issues too( central stage with the Civi :ar and the Reconstruction of the 5outh when Democrats started to dominate the 6ouse of Representatives. F the ear )8BH, parties reached such a high level of organization that the were referred to as mac)ines. %he end of the third part s stem was brought b the depression that hit the countr in the earl )8*0s and the voters blamed the Democrats Dcontrolling presidenc and both houses of :ongress at that momentE for the economic crisis. %he Democratic Part ceased to be competitive and Republicans too( the lead, especiall in Iorthern states.

;.

")e /ourt) Party System 7Industria Repub ican9

2hile the >nited 5tates was emerging as an industrialized nation, the agricultural protest gave rise to the Popu ist Party that managed to seriousl challenge the ma1or parties of the time. 6dditionall , another significant political force was shaped b the Pro*ressives, a loose aggregation of politicians, political activists and intellectuals who promoted political reforms in an effort to clean up elections and government. <. %he fourth part s stem was brought to an end b the Great ,epression of the )*$0s. ")e /ift) Party System 7$e+ ,ea 9

6long with the -reat Depression, the Republicans lost control of the 'ouse of Representatives and the )*$2 elections brought a Democratic 5enate and made /rank in ,. Rooseve t president. %he $e+ ,ea instituted a class"based part s stem7 the Democratic Part became the part of the /common0 people, whereas the Republican Part became the part of the affluent. %owards the end of this part s stem in the )*H0Cs, the Republicans managed to dominate the presidenc . =. ")e Contemporary Party System

 2hat changed in the contemporar part s stem is the issue agenda. 6fter the Iew Deal that focused more on economic issues, other matters or cultural issues have ta(en central stage Dhealthcare, crime, abortion, ga rights, affirmative action to name but a fewE. %he two ma1or parties put together p atforms, as statements of their positions on the ma1or issues of the da and the have increasingl unified ideologies. %here is a balance of strength between parties on account of the realignments and of the ticket5sp ittin*, since voters select candidates from different parties at the same election Dfor instance, a Republican presidential candidate and a Democratic candidate for the 'ouse of RepresentativesE. Sources: http7;;www.histor .com;topics;american"civil"war

http7;;www.britannica.com;4Fchec(ed;topic;2)8$H+;Gree"5oil"Part http7;;www.britannica.com;4Fchec(ed;topic;$$*$82;Jibert "Part http7;;www.princeton.edu;Kachane ;tmve;wi(i)00(;docs;?ansas"Iebras(a<6ct.html http7;;www.english.illinois.edu;maps;depression;about.htm http7;;www.britannica.com;4Fchec(ed;topic;9))$$);Iew"Deal http7;;www.britannica.com;4Fchec(ed;topic;9*$B22;Reconstruction http7;;en.wi(ipedia.org;wi(i;Gran(lin<D.<Roosevelt http7;;en.wi(ipedia.org;wi(i;-eorge<2ashington

"e!t 5 part III 5 Piciorus #aura "+o5Party and Mu ti5Party Systems: American Parties in Comparative Perspective %he natural state of affairs in 6merica is the two"part s stem ! two significant parties compete for office. %hese two parties have dominated elections for national office, but some third parties have risen from time to time, although the later disappeared or became assimilated b one of the ma1or parties. 5ome relevant e8amples are the Progressive Part , -reen Part , and the Populist Part , of which the latter is significant as the t pe of third part which was later absorbed, in this case b the Democrats in )8*0s. %hese third parties are seen as a reaction to a particular problem at the time of their rise, and the are considered to fade when that problem no longer e8ists.

Lulti"part s stems are characteristic to the ma1orit of democracies around the world. In these cases, the votes are spread and no single part wins control of the government, which means that other minorit parties form coalitions and the government is based on combined parliamentar ma1orit . 2hat ma(es a difference in understanding this two"part ! multi"part problem is the electoral s stem, which is the wa in which a countr Cs constitution or its laws translate popular votes into control of public affairs. %he electoral s stem in the >5 is the 5L5P s stem ! single member, simple pluralit . %his s stem is characteristic of the 6nglo"6merican democracies, which includes former colonies of the Fritish 4mpire. %he structure is as follows7 elections ta(e place within geographic units and the candidate who wins the most votes wins the election. %he s stem is also called /first past the post0, which means that there is onl one winner in the contest. ,ther world democracies are based on PR" proportional representation s stem, in which the parties receive a share of seats in parliament that is proportional to the popular vote the receive. In a 5L5P s stem, ordinar citizens realize that there is virtuall no use in wasting a vote on small part representatives, because such a part rarel has a chance to come first in electoral votes. 6 proof of this is the fact that independent or third"part candidates face a decline in popular votes as 4lection Da approaches. In PR s stems, there is no single winner in the elections, as parties win seats in proportion to its votes, so part leaders maintain their organizations separate. &oters do not abandon smaller parties, because onl the parties with the smallest amount of votes are left behind . %hird parties in 5L5P s stems might persist if the votes are geographicall concentrated, or more specificall , regionall concentrated, if the number of votes received in the area places them first or second in the electoral run. ,ther factors that come to the disadvantage of third parties are7 automatic ballot access Dif the have not won in the previous elections, the must go to some lengths to secure their presence in the ballotEM less media coverage, both in television and newspapersM televised debates, that are usuall reserved for the ma1or"part candidates. %he strength of modern political parties in 6merica is a matter closel investigated b scholars. People have changed their conceptions of what a part is. >suall , political parties are well" defined organizations. In the >5, their e8istence is /nebulous0. %here are three distinct notions b which 6mericans understand parties7 ). %he part is the electorate ! there is a ps chological affiliation between voters and their part Cs candidates. 2. %he part is government ! the winning candidates who bear inscribed the label of their part and the other candidates for public office, state, local and national officeholders. $. %he part organization ! formal machiner of the part 7 leaders, committees, staff,ward, precinct wor(ers. %he percentage of 6mericans who had a part identification declined between )*H9 to )*B9. B

Lost people identif themselves as independents who ma or ma not lean towards a part . Recent studies have shown that there is evidence that parties have recuperated their losses in recent ears, as a decline in tic(et"splitting and part defection has been noted. %here is no final conclusion on the issue of part organizations decline or growth. Iational organizations were not true part organizations, but temporar alliances of state parties and local machines that 1oined their forces to wor( for the election of a president. 5tate and local part organizations were at their pea( around )*00s, when the Progressive movement arose. %he decline of 6merican part organizations came as a result of some public policies instituted b the Progressives. %wo principal resources part organizations depended upon were control of patronage and control of nominations for the office. %he control of patronage was eliminated graduall b the regular e8pansions of the public sectors of civil service protection and unionization of the public sector. 6lso, the >5 5upreme :ourt ruled most forms of patronage as unconstitutional, because the penalized public emplo ees for their beliefs and associations. %he control of nominations was destabilized b the Progressive reform of direct primar . %he >nited 5tates is the onl world democrac that relies on open, popular elections to decide nominations. Political reforms do not e8plain entirel wh the 6merican parties have wea(ened. 5ome other factors are the communication revolution and the increase in mobilit . Internet based fund" raisers, emails, advertising, informative websites e8plain that traditional parties have lost ground. In the case of social, economic, residential mobilit , better educated voters needed less guidance from parties to ma(e sense of politics and choose their affiliation. 6lso, as the econom was booming in the aftermath of 22II, less people needed parties to help them get 1obs. Iational committees were the wea(est level of part organization, throughout the larger part of their )+0 ears histor , up until the moment when Republican 2illiam Froc(, chairman of the Republican Iational :ommittee from )*BH to )*82 revolutionized the s stem and opened the wa to modern part politics. 'is model strateg included the hiring of political operatives, e8perts on polling, fund"raising, campaigning and media. %his model was later adopted b Democrats also, and b 20)0 these national committees were closel involved in candidate recruitment and all other necessar elements of the campaign. Iowada s, these national committees are active and receive considerable funds. :ompetition between parties has become less civil, since these powerful structures wor( ver hard to assure their candidateCs success, often disregarding common sense and fair pla . Part organizations have become large campaign"consulting firms. Despite their efforts, the contribute onl a fraction of the resources devoted to electioneering, as candidates create personal organizations. In the case of interest groups, political theorists have developed the theor that the balance of power between interest groups and parties is negativel correlated. Parties tr to s nthesize narrow interests to ma(e the broad appeals necessar to win elections, and can also provide resources and deliver the vote, as a result freeing the candidates from dependence on interest 8

groups and their resources or reprisals. 6nother competitor for the parties is the media, which places under debate the merit of parties or interest groups in conve ing voter preference to elected officials. %o sum up, modern 6merican political life is rather uns stematic, due to the change in the influence political parties have and the competition between them, interest groups and the media in determining who is the best e3uipped to manage the development and outcome of electoral campaigns. %he parties have been democratized, but the do not fail to dominate the structure of governance and elections. %he Democratic and Republican parties must adapt to the Iew 6merican Democrac in order to survive. 5ources7 http7;;www.princeton.edu;Kachane ;tmve;wi(i)00(;docs;%wo"part <s stem.html http7;;www.greenpart .org; http7;;www*.georgetown.edu;facult ;(ingch;4lectoral<5 stems.htm http7;;www.britannica.com;4Fchec(ed;topic;)+)H9H9;electoral"s stem http7;;www.princeton.edu;Kachane ;tmve;wi(i)00(;docs;Pluralit <voting<s stem.html http7;;en.wi(ipedia.org;wi(i;Defection http7;;www.besthistor sites.net;inde8.php;american"histor ;)*00;progressive"era http7;;www.gwu.edu;Kerpapers;teachinger;glossar ;progressive"era.cfm http7;;www.thefreedictionar .com;patronage http7;;en.wi(ipedia.org;wi(i;5upreme<:ourt<of<the<>nited<5tates http7;;en.wi(ipedia.org;wi(i;Republican<Iational<:ommittee http7;;en.wi(ipedia.org;wi(i;Fill<Froc( G ossary: 0rock% :i iam is a former Republican >nited 5tates senator from %ennessee, having served from )*B) to )*BB. 2hile in the 5enate, Froc( was a darling of the conservative movement but was less than overwhelmingl popular at home. 6fter leaving the 5enate, Froc( became the new chairman of the Republican Iational :ommittee, a position he held from )*BB to )*8). Civi :ar ! In the spring of )8H), decades of simmering tensions between the northern and southern >nited 5tates over issues including states# rights versus federal authorit , westward e8pansion and slaver e8ploded into the 6merican :ivil 2ar D)8H)"H+E. %he election of the anti" slaver Republican 6braham Jincoln as president in )8H0 caused seven southern states to secede from the >nion to form the :onfederate 5tates of 6mericaM four more 1oined them after the first shots of the :ivil 2ar were fired. Gour ears of brutal conflict were mar(ed b historic battles at Full Run DLanassasE, 6ntietam, :hancellorsville, -ett sburg and &ic(sburg, among others. %he 2ar Fetween the 5tates, as the :ivil 2ar was also (nown, pitted neighbor against neighbor and in some cases, brother against brother. F the time it ended in :onfederate surrender in )8H+, the :ivil 2ar proved to be the costliest war ever fought on 6merican soil, with some H20,000 of 2.9 million soldiers (illed, millions more in1ured and the population and territor of the 5outh devastated. Contro of patrona*e7 %he support or encouragement of a patron, as for an institution or cause. 5upport or encouragement proffered in a condescending manner. %he power to distribute or appoint people to governmental or political positions. %he act of distributing or appointing *

people to such positions. Critica e ection - 4lection that mar(s the emergence of a new, lasting alignment of partisan support within the electorate. ,irect primary7 functions as a preliminar election whereb voters decide their part Cs candidates. In an indirect primar , voters elect delegates. ,ivided *overnment ! -overnment in which one part holds the presidenc but does not control both houses of :ongress. 1isen)o+er% ,+i*)t " was the $9th President of the >nited 5tates from )*+$ until )*H). 'e was a five"star general in the >nited 5tates 6rm during 2orld 2ar II and served as 5upreme :ommander of the 6llied Gorces in 4uropeM he had responsibilit for planning and supervising the invasion of Iorth 6frica in ,peration %orch in )*92!9$ and the successful invasion of Grance and -erman in )*99!9+ from the 2estern Gront. In )*+), he became the first supreme commander of I6%,. 1 ectora system7 Lethod and rules of counting votes to determine the outcome of elections. 2inners ma be determined b a pluralit , a ma1orit Dmore than +0= of the voteE, an e8traordinar ma1orit Da percentage of the vote greater than +0=E, or unanimit . :andidates for public office ma be elected directl or indirectl . 6 countr Cs electoral s stem is the method used to calculate the number of elected positions in government that individuals and parties are awarded after elections. /ree Soi Party " D)898!+9E, minor but influential political part in the pre":ivil 2ar period of 6merican histor that opposed the e8tension of slaver into the western territories. Gearful of e8panding slave power within the national government, Representative David 2ilmot of Penns lvania in )89H introduced into :ongress his famous 2ilmot Proviso, calling for the prohibition of slaver in the vast southwestern lands that had been newl ac3uired from Le8ico. %he 2ilmot concept, which failed in :ongress, was a direct ideological antecedent to the Gree" 5oil Part . Disappointed b the ambivalent position of the 2hig Part toward slaver , /:onscience0 2higs held a convention in 6ugust )898 at Fuffalo, I.N. %here the were 1oined b delegates from )B states drawn from the Jibert Part and the antislaver faction of the Iew Nor( Democrats, (nown as /Farnburners.0. %he Gree"5oilersC historic slogan calling for /free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men0 attracted small farmers, debtors, village merchants, and household and mill wor(ers, who resented the prospect of blac("labour competitionO whether slave or freeOin the territories. Great ,epression " was an economic slump in Iorth 6merica, 4urope, and other industrialized areas of the world that began in )*2* and lasted until about )*$*. It was the longest and most severe depression ever e8perienced b the industrialized 2estern world. %hough the >.5. econom had gone into depression si8 months earlier, the -reat Depression ma be said to have begun with a catastrophic collapse of stoc("mar(et prices on the Iew Nor( 5toc( 48change in ,ctober )*2*. During the ne8t three ears stoc( prices in the >nited 5tates continued to fall, until b late )*$2 the had dropped to onl about 20 percent of their value in )*2*. Fesides ruining man thousands of individual investors, this precipitous decline in the value of assets greatl strained ban(s and other financial institutions, particularl those holding stoc(s in their portfolios. Lan ban(s were conse3uentl forced into insolvenc M b )*$$, )),000 of the >nited 5tates# 2+,000 ban(s had failed. %he failure of so man ban(s, combined with a general and nationwide loss of confidence in the econom , led to much"reduced levels of spending and demand and hence of production, thus aggravating the downward spiral. %he result was drasticall falling output and drasticall rising unemplo mentM b )*$2, >.5. manufacturing )0

output had fallen to +9 percent of its )*2* level, and unemplo ment had risen to between )2 and )+ million wor(ers, or 2+"$0 percent of the wor( force. Green Party7 a national 6merican political part founded in )*89 as a voluntar association of state green parties. 2ith its founding, the -reen Part of the >nited 5tates became the primar national -reen organization in the >nited 5tates, eclipsing the -reens;-reen Part >56, which emphasized non"electoral movement building. %he -reen Part of the >nited 5tates of 6merica is founded on the Gour Pillars of the -reen Part 7 4cological 2isdom, 5ocial and 4conomic Pustice, -rassroots Democrac , and Ionviolence and Peace. It emphasizes environmentalism, non"hierarchical participator democrac , social 1ustice, respect for diversit , peace, and nonviolence. 6ami ton% A e!ander - was a Gounding Gather of the >nited 5tates,Q)R chief of staff to -eneral 2ashington, one of the most influential interpreters and promoters of the :onstitution, the founder of the nation#s financial s stem, and the founder of the first 6merican political part . 6s 5ecretar of the %reasur , 'amilton was the primar author of the economic policies of the -eorge 2ashington administration, especiall the funding of the state debts b the Gederal government, the establishment of a national ban(, a s stem of tariffs, and friendl trade relations with Fritain. 'e became the leader of the Gederalist Part , created largel in support of his views, and was opposed b the Democratic"Republican Part , led b %homas Pefferson and Pames Ladison. 6ouse of Representatives 5 forms one of the two branches of the >.5. :ongress. %he 'ouse comprises 9$+ members who are elected to two" ear terms. %he >.5. :onstitution vests the 'ouse with the sole power of introducing bills for raising revenue, ma(ing it one of the most influential components of the >.5. government. Interest *roups7 refers to virtuall an voluntar association that see(s to publicl promote and create advantages for its cause. It applies to a vast ara of diverse organizations. %his includes corporations, charitable organizations, civil rights groups, neighborhood associations, professional and trade associations 8ackson% Andre+ - was the seventh President of the >nited 5tates D)82*!)8$BE. Fased in frontier %ennessee, Pac(son was a politician and arm general who defeated the :ree( Indians at the Fattle of 'orseshoe Fend D)8)9E, and the Fritish at the Fattle of Iew ,rleans D)8)+E. 6 polarizing figure who dominated the 5econd Part 5 stem in the )820s and )8$0s, as president he dismantled the 5econd Fan( of the >nited 5tates and initiated forced relocation and resettlement of Iative 6merican tribes from the 5outheast to west of the Lississippi River. 'is enthusiastic followers created the modern Democratic Part . %he )8$0!)8+0 period later became (nown as the era of Pac(sonian democrac . 8efferson% ")omas 5 was an 6merican Gounding Gather, the principal author of the Declaration of Independence D)BBHE and the third President of the >nited 5tates D)80)!)80*E. 'e was a spo(esman for democrac and the rights of man with worldwide influence. 6t the beginning of the 6merican Revolution, he served in the :ontinental :ongress, representing &irginia and then served as a wartime -overnor of &irginia D)BB*!)B8)E. Pust after the war ended, from mid")B89 Pefferson served as a diplomat, stationed in Paris. In La )B8+, he became the >nited 5tates Linister to Grance. Pefferson was the first >nited 5tates 5ecretar of 5tate D)B*0!)B*$E serving under President -eorge 2ashington. 2ith his close friend Pames Ladison he organized the Democratic"Republican Part , and subse3uentl resigned from 2ashington#s cabinet. 2ansas5$ebraska Act 7'><;9 5 created the territories of ?ansas and Iebras(a, opened new lands, repealed the Lissouri :ompromise of )820, and allowed settlers in those territories to ))

determine if the would allow slaver within their boundaries. %he initial purpose of the ?ansas! Iebras(a 6ct was to create opportunities for a Lideastern %ranscontinental Railroad. It became problematic when popular sovereignt was written into the proposal. %he act was designed b Democratic 5en. 5tephen 6. Douglas of Illinois. %he act established that settlers could vote to decide whether to allow slaver , in the name of popular sovereignt or rule of the people. Douglas hoped that would ease relations between the Iorth and the 5outh, because the 5outh could e8pand slaver to new territories but the Iorth still had the right to abolish slaver in its states. Instead, opponents denounced the law as a concession to the slave power of the 5outh. %he new Republican Part , which was created in opposition to the act, aimed to stop the e8pansion of slaver and soon emerged as the dominant force throughout the Iorth. 2efauver% 1stes 5 was an 6merican politician from %ennessee. 6 member of the Democratic Part , he served in the >.5. 'ouse of Representatives from )*$* to )*9* and in the 5enate from )*9* to his death in )*H$. #iberty Party 5 >.5. political part D)890!98E created b abolitionists who believed in political action to further antislaver goals. In opposition to 2illiam Jlo d -arrison and his followers Dwho scorned political activit as both futile and sinful in the battle to end slaver E, a group of abolitionists met in 2arsaw, Iew Nor(, to organize the Jibert Part . Mac)ine ! a highl organized part under the control of a boss and based on patronage adn control of government activities. Lachines were common in man cities in the late )* th and earl 20th centuries. Missouri Compromise 7'>2&9 " between the pro"slaver and anti"slaver factions in the >nited 5tates :ongress, involving primaril the regulation of slaver in the western territories. It prohibited slaver in the former Jouisiana %erritor north of the parallel $HS$0T north e8cept within the boundaries of the proposed state of Lissouri. $e+ ,ea " the domestic program of the administration of >.5. President Gran(lin D. Roosevelt between )*$$ and )*$*, which too( action to bring about immediate economic relief as well as reforms in industr , agriculture, finance, waterpower, labour, and housing, vastl increasing the scope of the federal governmentCs activities. %he term was ta(en from RooseveltCs speech accepting the Democratic nomination for the presidenc on Pul 2, )*$2. Reacting to the ineffectiveness of the administration of President 'erbert 'oover in meeting the ravages of the -reat Depression, 6merican voters the following Iovember overwhelmingl voted in favour of the Democratic promise of a /new deal0 for the /forgotten man.0 ,pposed to the traditional 6merican political philosoph of laissez"faire, the Iew Deal generall embraced the concept of a government"regulated econom aimed at achieving a balance between conflicting economic interests. Obama% 0arack " is the 99th and current President of the >nited 5tates, the first 6frican 6merican to hold the office. Forn in 'onolulu, 'awaii, ,bama is a graduate of :olumbia >niversit and 'arvard Jaw 5chool, where he was president of the Harvard Law Review. 'e was a communit organizer in :hicago before earning his law degree. 'e wor(ed as a civil rights attorne in :hicago and taught constitutional law at the >niversit of :hicago Jaw 5chool from )**2 to 2009. 'e served three terms representing the )$th District in the Illinois 5enate from )**B to 2009, running unsuccessfull for the >nited 5tates 'ouse of Representatives in 2000. Pa in% Sara) " is an 6merican politician, commentator and author who served as the ninth -overnor of 6las(a, from 200H to 200*. 6s the Republican Part nominee for &ice President in the 2008 presidential election alongside 6rizona 5enator Pohn Lc:ain, she was the first 6las(an on the national tic(et of a ma1or part and first Republican woman nominated for the vice )2

presidenc . Party defection7 the act of giving up allegiance to one state in e8change for another, in a wa which is considered illegitimate b the first state. It involves abandoning a cause or doctrine to which one is bound b some tie, as of allegiance or dut . P atforms ! 5tatements of political parties highlighting their positions on ma1or issues of the da . Po itica parties ! -roups of li(e"minded people who band together in an attempt to ta(e control of government. Parties represent the primar connection between ordinar citizens and the public officials the elect. Popu ist Party ! sought to represent the interests of farmers and laborers in the )8*0s, advocating increased currenc issue, free coinage of gold and silver, public ownership of railroads, and a graduated federal income ta8. PR5 proportiona representation system7 a class of voting s stems that attempt to ma(e the percentage of offices awarded to candidates reflect as closel as possible the percentage of votes that the received in the election. It is the most widel used set of electoral s stems in the world, and its variants can be found at some level of government in almost ever countr Dincluding the >nited 5tates, where some cit councils are elected using forms of PRE. Pro*ressive movement7 Progressivism is the term applied to a variet of responses to the economic and social problems rapid industrialization introduced to 6merica. Progressivism began as a social movement and grew into a political movement. %he earl progressives re1ected 5ocial Darwinism. In other words, the were people who believed that the problems societ faced Dpovert , violence, greed, racism, class warfareE could best be addressed b providing good education, a safe environment, and an efficient wor(place. Pro*ressive Party ! faded 3uic(l after the elections of )*)2, but over the course the ensuing centur , the progressivesC vision of a new democrac , one released from the constraints of the past and reorganized to pursue great national purposes, transformed the scope, structure, and operations of 6merican government. %oda , progressivism is as controversial as ever. Lan of the progressivesC prescriptions turned out to have conse3uences that were unintended and counterproductive, and even in their decades of greatest achievement, their reforms tended to finesse obstacles the could not completel overcome. Rea i*nment ! 5hift occurring when the pattern of group support for political parties changes in a significant and lasting wa . Reconstruction ! the period D)8H+!BBE that followed the 6merican :ivil 2ar and during which attempts were made to redress the ine3uities of slaver and its political, social, and economic legac and to solve the problems arising from the readmission to the >nion of the )) states that had seceded at or before the outbrea( of war. Jong portra ed b man historians as a time when vindictive Radical Republicans fastened blac( supremac upon the defeated :onfederac , Reconstruction has since the late 20th centur been viewed more s mpatheticall as a laudable e8periment in interracial democrac . Reconstruction witnessed far"reaching changes in 6mericaCs political life. 6t the national level, new laws and constitutional amendments permanentl altered the federal s stem and the definition of 6merican citizenship. In the 5outh, a politicall mobilized blac( communit 1oined with white allies to bring the Republican Part to power, and with it a redefinition of the responsibilities of government. Repub ican $ationa Committee7 is a >.5. political committee that provides national leadership for the Republican Part of the >nited 5tates. It is responsible for developing and promoting the Republican political platform, as well as coordinating fundraising and election strateg . It is also )$

responsible for organizing and running the Republican Iational :onvention. 5imilar committees e8ist in ever >.5. state and most >.5. counties, although in some states part organization is structured b congressional district, allied campaign organizations being governed b a national committee. Reince Priebus is the current RI: :hairman. Rooseve t% /rank in ,. ! commonl (nown b his initials, /,R, $2nd President of the >nited 5tates D)*$$!)*9+E, served for )2 ears and four terms until his death in )*9+, the onl president ever to do so, and a central figure in world events during the mid"20th centur , leading the >nited 5tates during a time of worldwide economic depression and total war. 6 dominant leader of the Democratic Part and the onl 6merican president elected to more than two terms, he built a Iew Deal :oalition that realigned 6merican politics after )*$2, as his domestic policies defined 6merican liberalism for the middle third of the 20th centur . In his first hundred da s in office, which began Larch 9, )*$$, Roosevelt spearheaded ma1or legislation and issued a profusion of e8ecutive orders that instituted the Iew DealOa variet of programs designed to produce relief Dgovernment 1obs for the unemplo edE, recover Deconomic growthE, and reform Dthrough regulation of 2all 5treet, ban(s and transportationE. %he econom improved rapidl from )*$$ to )*$B, but then relapsed into a deep recession. Senate " is a legislative chamber in the bicameral legislature of the >nited 5tates of 6merica, and together with the >.5. 'ouse of Representatives ma(es up the >.5. :ongress. %he composition and powers of the 5enate are established in 6rticle ,ne of the >.5. :onstitution. 4ach >.5. state is represented b two senators, regardless of population, who serve staggered si8" ear terms. %he chamber of the >nited 5tates 5enate is located in the north wing of the :apitol, in 2ashington, D.:., the national capital. %he 'ouse of Representatives convenes in the south wing of the same building. SMSP system - sin* e member% simp e5p ura ity 7 voting s stem in which the single winner is the person with the most votesM there is no re3uirement that the winner gain an absolute majority of votes. Stevenson% Ad ai " was an 6merican politician, noted for his intellectual demeanor, elo3uent orator , and promotion of liberal causes in the Democratic Part . 'e served as the $)st -overnor of Illinois, and received the Democratic Part #s nomination for president in )*+2 and )*+HM both times he was defeated b Republican Dwight D. 4isenhower. 'e sought the Democratic presidential nomination for a third time in the election of )*H0, but was defeated b 5enator Pohn G. ?enned of Lassachusetts. 6fter his election, President ?enned appointed 5tevenson as the 6mbassador to the >nited IationsM he served from )*H) to )*H+. "aft% Robert " was an 6merican politician, conservative statesman and presidential hopeful who served as a Republican 5enator from ,hio from )*$* until his death in )*+$. 6 member of the %aft political famil , he was the eldest son of 2illiam 'oward %aft, the 2Bth President of the >nited 5tates and tenth :hief Pustice of the >nited 5tates. ")e ,emocratic Party is one of the two ma1or contemporar political parties in the >nited 5tates along with the ounger Republican Part . %racing its origins bac( to the Democratic" Republican Part , the modern Democratic Part was founded around )828. It is the oldest political part in the world. It has elected )+ presidents. %he first was 6ndrew Pac(son, serving from )82* to )8$BM the most recent is the current president, Farac( ,bama, who has served since 200*. 5ince the )*$0s, the part has promoted a sociall liberal and progressive platform. ")e Repub ican Party% also commonl called the -,P Dfor U-rand ,ld Part UE, is one of the two ma1or contemporar political parties in the >nited 5tates, the other being the Democratic Part . Gounded b anti"slaver activists in )8+9, it dominated politics nationall for most of the )9

period from )8H0 to )*$2. %here have been )8 Republican presidents, the first being 6braham Jincoln, serving from )8H) to )8H+, and the most recent being -eorge 2. Fush, serving from 200) to 200*. %he most recent Republican presidential nominee was former Lassachusetts -overnor Litt Romne . "icket5sp ittin* ! when voters select candidates from different parties at the same election Dfor instance, a Republican presidential candidate and a Democratic candidate for the 'ouse of RepresentativesE. "+o5party system7 where two ma1or political parties dominate voting in nearl all elections at ever level of government. 6s a result, all, or nearl all, elected offices are members of one of the two ma1or parties. >nder a two"part s stem, one of the two parties t picall holds a ma1orit in the legislature and is usuall referred to as the majority party while the other is the minority party. ?S Supreme Court7 established in )B8*, through 6rticle $ of the :onstitution, as the highest federal court in the >nited 5tates. It has ultimate Dand largel discretionar E appellate 1urisdiction over all federal courts and over state court cases involving issues of federal law, plus original 1urisdiction over a small range of cases. In the legal s stem of the >nited 5tates, the 5upreme :ourt is the final interpreter of federal constitutional law, although it ma onl act within the conte8t of a case in which it has 1urisdiction. :as)in*ton% Geor*e - was the first President of the >nited 5tates D)B8*!)B*BE, the commander"in"chief of the :ontinental 6rm during the 6merican Revolutionar 2ar, and one of the Gounding Gathers of the >nited 5tates. 'e presided over the convention that drafted the >nited 5tates :onstitution, which replaced the 6rticles of :onfederation and which remains the supreme law of the land. 2ashington was elected President as the unanimous choice of the electors in )B88, and he served two terms in office. 'e oversaw the creation of a strong, well" financed national government that maintained neutralit in the wars raging in 4urope, suppressed rebellion, and won acceptance among 6mericans of all t pes. 'is leadership st le established man forms and rituals of government that have been used since, such as using a cabinet s stem and delivering an inaugural address.

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