Fatigue Failure

Crack initiation, propagation and final rupture in a bolt subjected to repeated bending
Crack initiation at the thread root at A
Beach marks showing the nature of crack propagation
Final rupture occurs over a limited area C, characterizing a very small load required to cause it
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Crack initiation locations and propagation directions under various kinds of loading conditions
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Design of Machine Elements
Crack initiation at the root of keyway at B
Crack propagation occurs over a time period from B to C
Final failure over the small area at C due to sudden rupture
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FATIGUE FAILURE OF A PIN HAVING GREASE HOLES WITH ASYMMETRY RESULTING IN STRESS CONCENTRATION
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Connecting rod failed by fatigue failure
Flash line of forging
The crack got initiated at the flash line of forging.
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Fatigue failure of a steam engine connecting rod due to PURE TENSION load.
Radial direction of crack propagation
No surface crack. Crack may initiate anywhere that is the weakest or unknown source of weakness.
The crack propagated radially outward until some time after which the sudden rupture occurred.
CEME Design of Machine Elements
In this rod, the crack initiated due to forging flake slightly below the centre line.
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Scope of this Topic: Approach to Fatigue Failure in Analysis and Design
Fatigue life methods Fatigue strength and endurance limit Endurance limit modifying factors Stress concentration and notch sensitivity Fluctuating stresses Combination of loading modes Variable, fluctuating stresses, cumulative fatigue damage
Design of Machine Elements 7
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Fatigue Life Methods: Objective is to predict the failure in number of cycles N to failure for a specific type of loading
Low cycle fatigue (LCF) : 1 N 103 ; High cycle fatigue (HCF) : N > 103
Stress life methods Based on stress levels only Least accurate of the three, particularly for LCF It is the most traditional because easiest to implement for a wide range of applications Has ample supporting data Represents high cycle fatigue adequately Strain life methods Involves more detailed analysis of plastic deformation at localized regions Good for LCF Some uncertainties may exist in results because several idealizations get compounded Hence normally not used in regular practice but only for completeness and special occasions Linear elastic fracture mechanics methods (LEFM) Assumes that crack is already present and detected The crack location is them employed to predict crack growth and sudden rupture with respect to the stress nature and intensity Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction with computer codes and periodic inspection
Stress Life Method: Determination of the strength of materials under action of fatigue loads
R. R. Moore high-speed rotating beam machine. Pure bending by means of weights and no transverse shear. The specimen shown is very carefully machined and polished with a final polishing in the axial direction to void circumferential scratches. Number of revolutions of the specimen required for failure are recorded. Next, the test is repeated for a lower load, and so on. The results are plotted in the S-N diagram, which is either semi-log or log-log.
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Specimen preparation for R. R. Moore Method

The specimen can be machined on lathe using formed tool of radius 7 inch 9 8 and workpiece of length
7 3 inch 10
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How to apply pure reversed bending without transverse shear?
M b = Fx F ( x a )
M b = Fx Fx + Fa = Fa
SFD
Mb BMD
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The S-N Diagram for steel (UNS G41300), normalized, Sut=812 MPa.
Endurance Limit, It is the stress at which the component can sustain infinite number of cycles
Endurance limit, not applicable for nonferrous metals and alloys

The plot in the S-N diagram never becomes horizontal for non-ferrous metals and alloys Hence there is no endurance limit for nonferrous metals and alloys Fatigue strength (Se) is used instead which is specified, normally, as fatigue strength at 5*108 cycles
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For different aluminium alloys (which is non-ferrous)
For non-ferrous metals and alloys, as can be seen here, the S-N diagram never becomes horizontal and hence they do not have endurance limit. Hence, a stress at a specific number of cycles, normally at 5*108 cycles, must be used as fatigue strength
Quick Estimation of Endurance Limit

Instead of referring to experimental data-bank each time, it should be possible to quickly estimate the value of endurance limit using some kind of formula TO enable that, data has been generated for different types of steels, for endurance limit with respect to the ultimate tensile strength This plot seemed to closely follow a combination of two straight lines, of which the second being almost horizontal at Sut=1460 MPa
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Endurance limit:
0.504 Sut S = 740 MPa

' e
for for
Sut 1460 MPa Sut > 1460 MPa
S e' = Endurance limit obtained in reverse bending S e = Endurance limit in the actual loading conditions
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Endurance limit Endurance strength

Endurance limit (Se) is only for rotational bending of round bar Endurance strength (Se) is for all other types of loading, geometry and operating conditions
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Endurance limit modifying factors
S e = k a kb k c k d k e S
k a = aS
b ut
' e
k a = surface condition modification factor

Surface finish Ground Machined or Cold-rolled Hot rolled As forged
a (MPa) 1.58 4.45 56.10 271.00
B -0.086 -0.265 -0.719 -0.995

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Size factor, kb
kb = size modifying factor For rotating circular CS bars in bending and torsion only : (d / 7.62 )0.107 = 1.24d 0.107 if 2.79 d 51 mm kb = if 51 d 254 mm 0.859 0.000837d For axial loading no size effect, kb = 1.
What about bars that are : 1) Non - rotating circular, rectangular, I - section, channel section etc.?
Kb for non-conforming situations: effective dimension is used
Case 1 : Non - rotating circular CS bars A0.95 =
[ d 4
2 e
(0.95d e ) = 0.0766d e2 K (1), for rotating circular CS bars

2
A0.95 = 0.01046d 2 K (2), for non - rotating circular CS bars Equation (1) and (2) d e = 0.37 d
Case 2 : Non - rotating rectangular cross - section bars A0.95 =
[ d 4
2 e

2
A0.95 = 0.05hb K (2), for non - rotating rectangular CS bars Equating (1) and (2) d e = 0.808 hb
Case 3 : Non - rotating I cross - section bars : A0.95 = A0.95
[ d 4
2 e

2
axis 1 1 0.10at f , = 0.05ba, t f > 0.025a axis 2 2
K (2), for I - CS bars
Equating (1) and (2), the equivalent d e can be obtained.

Case 4 : Non - rotating Channel CS bars : A0.95 = A0.95
[ d 4
2 e

2
axis 1 1 0.05ab, = 0.052 xa + 0.1t f (b x ), axis 2 2
K (2), for Channel - CS bars
Equating (1) and (2), the equivalent d e can be obtained.

Load modification factor, kc
1, bending kc = 0.85, axial 0.59, torsion

Actually the kc is dependent on the Sut of the material. Tables 7-7 to 7-10 (page no. 378) in Shigleys MED give the details. The above values are average values.
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Temperature modifying factor, kd

( ) ( ) ( ) (
where 70 TF 1000o F
k d = 0.975 + 0.432 10 3 TF 0.115 10 5 TF2 + 0.104 10 8 TF3 0.595 10 12 TF4
Reliability factor, ke ke = 1 0.08 za

R 50% 90% 95% 99%
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za 0 1.288 1.645 2.326
R 99.9% 99.99% 99.999% 99.9999%

za 3.031 3.719 4.265 4.753

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Miscellaneous effects factor, kf

Accounts for
Corrosion Coating failure Spraying,Frettage Corrosion, Cyclic freq
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Stress concentration
The single most influential factor leading to high possibility of crack initiation Stress concentration can be due to Function of geometry (sudden change in size/diameter; holes in the structure etc. and surface texture (surface presence of disintegrations etc.)
finish,
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What is Kt?
Kt=Theoretical stress concentration factor
Maximum stress Kt = Nominal stress
P Nominal stress = (w d )t max = K t nom K t = Determined through experiments or numerical simulation such as FEM
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w d
What is Kt?:
Determination from FEA
Determination of Kt through FEM
Kt =
Maximum stress Nominal stress

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Actual stress concentration factor, Kf

Also called as fatigue strength reduction factor
K f = 1 + q(K t 1) q = notch sensitivity value (0~1) K t = Theoretical stress concentration factor (or geometric factor, from tables)
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Notch Sensitivity plot for normal stress
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Notch Sensitivity plot for shear stress
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How to estimate Kf
Kf = 1+q(Kt -1). When q=0, the material has no sensitivity to notches, and hence Kf=1. When q=1, or when notch radius is large for which q is almost equal to 1, the material has full notch sensitivity, and hence Kf = Kt.. Remember, Kt Kf and hence more conservative design results. In most practical cases the notch sensitivity is partial rendering 0<q<1. Hence use Kf = 1+q(Kt -1). For all grades of cast iron, use q=0.20. Use the different graphs as given to obtain q for bending/axial and torsional loading.
How to estimate Kf
Contd.
Whenever the graphs do not give values of q for certain combinations of data, use either Neuber equation or Heywood equation.
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How to estimate Kf
Contd.
Use the Neuber equation when the notch is circular/cylindrical.

q= 1 a 1+ r where and K f = 1 + q (K t 1)
a = f ( Sut ), this function is given in the Shigley's book.

r = notch radius
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How to estimate Kf
Contd.
Use Heywood equation when the notch is NOT circular/cylindrical but is a tranverse hole or shoulder or groove.
Kt Kf = 2(K t 1) a 1+ Kt r where a values are given in the Table 7 - 8 in Shigley's book. r = hole size/shoulder size/groove size
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How to apply Kf
If there is no notch, there is also no notch sensitivity, q=0, and Kf=1. Hence m= m0 and a= a0. In other words no stress concentration needs to be applied. When there is notch, 0<q<1, Kf>1, and:
If localized plastic strain at the notch is to be avoided, then apply Kf to both mean and range stresses. m= Kf m0 and a= Kf a0. If localized plastic strain is not a concern or can not be avoided by incorporating Kf, then apply Kf only to the range stress. m= m0 and a= Kf a0.
Maximum stress = max Minimum stress = min Mean stress = m =
max + min
2 max + min Range stress = a = 2

Design of Machine Elements 38
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Mean stress is always signed Range stress is not signed
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Four specific types of cyclic loading identified in mechanical systems:
Reversed (completely reversed) mean stress is zero; equal reversals on both sides Repeated minimum stress is zero; mean stress equal to the range stress Fluctuating maximum, minimum and mean stress are all non-zero and arbitrary Alternating minimum stress is zero; mean stress is always compressive and is equal in magnitude to range stress
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Pictorial depiction of various types of cyclic loading
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Two important of those four types of cyclic (fatigue) loading
Completely reversed cyclic loading

The mean load is zero Normally has a well defined mathematical variation such harmonic, square etc. Used for testing and measurement of endurance limit of a given material
Fluctuating loading
The mean load is not zero The actual loading may not readily be given by a mathematical function but needs to be approximated More critical and realistic than completely reversed loading
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Fig. 7.27
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Different fatigue failure models:
1 + = K Soderberg line S e S yt n 1 + = K Modified Goodman line S e Sut n

2
n a n m + = 1 K Gerber line S e S ut n a n m = 1 K ASME Elliptic line + S S e yt a m 1 + = K Langer line (only for checking S yt S yt n for static yielding)
Master Fatigue Diagram
min R= max
a A= m
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Combination of loading modes
Different types of cyclic loads may be applied in combination, for example, bending, axial and torsional on machine componens When the loads and in-phase, the maximum values of loads occurs at the same time and so are the minimum values. Hence in such cases, we can estimate the maximum and minimum von-Mises stress values and then estimate the mean and range von-Mises stresses. Then fatigue criterion may be applied. Use kc =1 and Kf for each stress component separately by multiplying with Kf in combined loading situation.
Cumulative Fatigue Damage: Miners Rule

Instead of a single cyclic loading applied continuously without any discontinuity, if cyclic loads are applied discontinuously over different periods of time, then how to estimate the cumulative total damage at any given point of time? We use Palmgren-Miners rule or simply called as Miners rule to estimate the Cumulative fatigue damage Failure occurs when
ni N =c i where ni is the number of cycles applied at stress level i N i is the number of cycle to failure at stress level i
0.7 < c < 2.2

Fatigue Failure

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Fatigue Failure

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Crack initiation, propagation and final rupture in a bolt subjected to repeated bending

Crack initiation at the thread root at A

Beach marks showing the nature of crack propagation

Design of Machine Elements

Crack initiation at the root of keyway at B

Crack propagation occurs over a time period from B to C

Final failure over the small area at C due to sudden rupture

Design of Machine Elements

Design of Machine Elements

Connecting rod failed by fatigue failure

Flash line of forging

The crack got initiated at the flash line of forging.

Design of Machine Elements

Radial direction of crack propagation

Scope of this Topic: Approach to Fatigue Failure in Analysis and Design

Design of Machine Elements

Specimen preparation for R. R. Moore Method

How to apply pure reversed bending without transverse shear?

Endurance limit, not applicable for nonferrous metals and alloys

For different aluminium alloys (which is non-ferrous)

Quick Estimation of Endurance Limit

0.504 Sut S = 740 MPa

Sut 1460 MPa Sut > 1460 MPa

Design of Machine Elements

Endurance limit Endurance strength

Design of Machine Elements

Endurance limit modifying factors

k a = surface condition modification factor

a (MPa) 1.58 4.45 56.10 271.00

B -0.086 -0.265 -0.719 -0.995

Kb for non-conforming situations: effective dimension is used

Case 1 : Non - rotating circular CS bars A0.95 =

(0.95d e ) = 0.0766d e2 K (1), for rotating circular CS bars

Kb for non-conforming situations: effective dimension is used

Case 2 : Non - rotating rectangular cross - section bars A0.95 =

(0.95d e ) = 0.0766d e2 K (1), for rotating circular CS bars

Kb for non-conforming situations: effective dimension is used

Case 3 : Non - rotating I cross - section bars : A0.95 = A0.95

(0.95d e ) = 0.0766d e2 K (1), for rotating circular CS bars

axis 1 1 0.10at f , = 0.05ba, t f > 0.025a axis 2 2

K (2), for I - CS bars

Equating (1) and (2), the equivalent d e can be obtained.

Kb for non-conforming situations: effective dimension is used

Case 4 : Non - rotating Channel CS bars : A0.95 = A0.95

(0.95d e ) = 0.0766d e2 K (1), for rotating circular CS bars

axis 1 1 0.05ab, = 0.052 xa + 0.1t f (b x ), axis 2 2

K (2), for Channel - CS bars

Equating (1) and (2), the equivalent d e can be obtained.

Load modification factor, kc

1, bending kc = 0.85, axial 0.59, torsion

Design of Machine Elements

Temperature modifying factor, kd

k d = 0.975 + 0.432 10 3 TF 0.115 10 5 TF2 + 0.104 10 8 TF3 0.595 10 12 TF4

Reliability factor, ke ke = 1 0.08 za

za 0 1.288 1.645 2.326

R 99.9% 99.99% 99.999% 99.9999%

za 3.031 3.719 4.265 4.753

Miscellaneous effects factor, kf

Design of Machine Elements

Determination from FEA

Determination of Kt through FEM

Maximum stress Nominal stress

Design of Machine Elements

Actual stress concentration factor, Kf