Youngs modulus - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Youngs modulus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Youngs modulus, also known as the Tensile modulus or elastic modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of an elastic isotropic material and is a quantity used to characterize materials. It is defined as the ratio of the stress along an axis over the strain along that axis in the range of stress in which Hookes law holds.[1] In solid mechanics, the slope of the stress-strain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. The tangent modulus of the initial, linear portion of a stress-strain curve is called Youngs modulus. It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material. In anisotropic materials, Youngs modulus may have different values depending on the direction of the applied force with respect to the materials structure. Youngs modulus is the most common elastic modulus, sometimes called the modulus of elasticity, but there are other elastic moduli measured, too, such as the bulk modulus and the shear modulus. It is named after Thomas Young, the 19th century British scientist. However, the concept was developed in 1727 by Leonhard Euler, and the first experiments that used the concept of Youngs modulus in its current form were performed by the Italian scientist Giordano Riccati in 1782, pre-dating Youngs work by 25 years.[2] A material whose Youngs modulus is very high is rigid. Do not confuse: rigidity and strength: the strength of material is characterized by its yield strength and / or its tensile strength; rigidity and stiffness: the beam stiffness (for example) depends on its Youngs modulus but also on the ratio of its section at its length. The rigidity characterises the materials, the stiffness regards products and constructions: a massive mechanical plastic part can be much stiffer than a steel spring; rigidity and hardness: the hardness of a material defines its relative resistance that its surface opposes to the penetration of a harder body.

Contents
1 Units 2 Usage 2.1 Linear versus non-linear 2.2 Directional materials 3 Calculation 3.1 Force exerted by stretched or contracted material 3.2 Elastic potential energy 3.3 Relation among elastic constants 4 Approximate values 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

Units
Youngs modulus is the ratio of stress (which has units of pressure) to strain (which is dimensionless), and so Youngs modulus has units of pressure. Its SI unit is therefore the pascal (Pa or N/m2 or m1kgs2). The practical units used are megapascals (MPa or N/mm2) or gigapascals (GPa or kN/mm2). In United States customary units, it is expressed as pounds (force) per square inch (psi). The abbreviation ksi refers to thousands of psi. Youngs modulus is frequently denoted by E, and less commonly by Y.[citation needed]

Usage
The Youngs modulus enables the calculation of the change in the dimension of a bar made of an isotropic elastic material under tensile

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or compressive loads. For instance, it predicts how much a material sample extends under tension or shortens under compression. Youngs modulus is used in order to predict the deflection that will occur in a statically determinate beam when a load is applied at a point in between the beams supports. Some calculations also require the use of other material properties, such as the shear modulus, density, or Poissons ratio.

Linear versus non-linear

The Youngs modulus represents the factor of proportionality in Hookes law, relating the stress and the strain ; but this law is only valid under the assumption of an elastic or linear response. Any real material will eventually fail and break when stretched over a very large distance or with a very large force ; however, all materials exhibit Hookean behavior for small enough strains or stresses. If the range over which Hookes law is valid is large enough compared to the typical stress that one expects to apply to the material, the material is said to be linear ; if the typical stress one would apply is outside the linear range, then the material is said to be non-linear. Steel, carbon fiber and glass among others are usually considered linear materials, while other materials such as rubber and soils are non-linear. However, this is not an absolute classification : if very small stresses or strains are applied to a non-linear material, the response will be linear, but if very high stress or strain is applied to a linear material, the linear theory will not be enough. For example, as the linear theory implies reversibility, it would be absurd to use the linear theory to describe the failure of a steel bridge under a high load ; although steel is a linear material for most applications, it is not for this one.

Directional materials
Youngs modulus is not always the same in all orientations of a material. Most metals and ceramics, along with many other materials, are isotropic, and their mechanical properties are the same in all orientations. However, metals and ceramics can be treated with certain impurities, and metals can be mechanically worked to make their grain structures directional. These materials then become anisotropic, and Youngs modulus will change depending on the direction of the force vector. Anisotropy can be seen in many composites as well. For example, carbon fiber has much higher Youngs modulus (is much stiffer) when force is loaded parallel to the fibers (along the grain). Other such materials include wood and reinforced concrete. Engineers can use this directional phenomenon to their advantage in creating structures.

Calculation
Youngs modulus, E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the extensional strain in the elastic (initial, linear) portion of the stress-strain curve:

where E is the Youngs modulus (modulus of elasticity) F is the force exerted on an object under tension; A0 is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is applied; L is the amount by which the length of the object changes; L0 is the original length of the object.

Force exerted by stretched or contracted material

The Youngs modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it exerts under specific strain.

where F is the force exerted by the material when contracted or stretched by L. Hookes law can be derived from this formula, which describes the stiffness of an ideal spring:

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where it comes in saturation and

Elastic potential energy

The elastic potential energy stored is given by the integral of this expression with respect to L:

where Ue is the elastic potential energy. The elastic potential energy per unit volume is given by: , where is the strain in the material.M

This formula can also be expressed as the integral of Hookes law:

Relation among elastic constants

For homogeneous isotropic materials simple relations exist between elastic constants (Youngs modulus E, shear modulus G, bulk modulus K, and Poissons ratio ) that allow calculating them all as long as two are known:

Approximate values
Youngs modulus can vary somewhat due to differences in sample composition and test method. The rate of deformation has the greatest impact on the data collected, especially in polymers. The values here are approximate and only meant for relative comparison. Approximate Youngs modulus for various materials Material Rubber (small strain) PTFE (Teflon) Low density polyethylene[4] HDPE Polypropylene Bacteriophage capsids[5] Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Polystyrene Nylon Diatom frustules (largely silicic acid)
[6]

GPa 0.010.1[3] 0.5

[3]

lbf/in (psi) 1,450-14,503 75,000 16,000-65,000 116,000 218,000-290,000 150,000435,000 290,000-390,000 440,000-510,000 290,000580,000 50,000400,000 580,000 1.31E6 1.60E6
Influences of selected glass component additions on Youngs modulus of a specific base glass

0.11 - 0.45 0.8 1.5-2[3] 13 2-2.7[3] 3-3.5[3] 24 0.352.77 4 9 11

[3]

Medium-density fiberboard (MDF)[7] Pine wood (along grain)[citation needed] Oak wood (along grain)

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Human Cortical Bone[8] Aromatic peptide nanotubes High-strength concrete Hemp fiber [11] Magnesium metal (Mg) Flax fiber [12] Aluminum Stinging nettle fiber [13] Glass (see chart) Aramid
[14] [9][10]

14 19-27 30[3] 35 45
[3]

2.03E6 2.76E6 - 3.92E6 4.35E6 5.08E6 6.53E6 8.41E6 10.0E6 12.6E6 7.25E6-13.1E6

58 69
[3]

87 5090[3]

70.5112.4 10.2E6 - 16.3E6 70 83 100125[3] 96-120[3] 110.3 10.2E6 12.0E6 14.5E6-18.1E6 13.9E6-17.4E6 16.0E6[3]

Mother-of-pearl (nacre, largely calcium carbonate) [15] Tooth enamel (largely calcium phosphate)[16] Brass Bronze Titanium (Ti) Titanium alloys Copper (Cu) Glass-reinforced plastic (70/30 by weight fibre/matrix, unidirectional, along grain)
[citation needed]

105120[3] 15.0E6 17.5E6 117 4045 17.2 30-50[18] 181 130-185 17.0E6 5.80E6 6.50E6 2.49E6 4.35E6 - 7.25E6 26.3E6 18.9E6 - 26.8E6

Glass-reinforced polyester matrix [17] Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (50/50 fibre/matrix, biaxial fabric) Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (70/30 fibre/matrix, unidirectional, along grain)[19] Silicon Single crystal, different directions
[20][21]

Wrought iron Steel (ASTM-A36) polycrystalline Yttrium iron garnet (YIG)[22] single-crystal Yttrium iron garnet (YIG)[23] Aromatic peptide nanospheres Beryllium (Be) Molybdenum (Mo) Tungsten (W) Sapphire (Al2O3) along C-axis[citation needed] Silicon carbide (SiC) Osmium (Os) Tungsten carbide (WC)
[24]

190210[3] 27.6E6 - 30.5E6 200[3] 193 200 230-275 287 329 400410 435 450[3] 550
[3]

29.0E6 28.0E6 29.0E6 33.4E6 - 39.9E6 41.6E6 47.7E6 58.0E6 - 59.5E6 63.1E6 65.3E6 79.8E6

450650[3] 65.3E6 - 94.3E6

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Single-walled carbon nanotube[25][26] Graphene Diamond (C)[27] Carbyne (C)[28]

1,000+ 1,000 1,220 32,700

145E6+ 145E6 150E6 175E6 5,388E6 5,402E6

See also
Deflection Deformation Hardness Hookes law Shear modulus Bulk Modulus Bending stiffness Impulse excitation technique Toughness Yield (engineering) List of materials properties

References
1. ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006) "modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus), E (http://goldbook.iupac.org /M03966.html)". 2. ^ The Rational Mechanics of Flexible or Elastic Bodies, 16381788: Introduction to Leonhardi Euleri Opera Omnia, vol. X and XI, Seriei Secundae. Orell Fussli. 3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s "Elastic Properties and Young Modulus for some Materials" (http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com /young-modulus-d_417.html). The Engineering ToolBox. Retrieved 2012-01-06. 4. ^ "Overview of materials for Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), Molded" (http://www.matweb.com/search /datasheet.aspx?MatGUID=557b96c10e0843dbb1e830ceedeb35b0) . Matweb. Retrieved Feb 7, 2013. 5. ^ Ivanovska IL, de Pablo PJ, Sgalari G, MacKintosh FC, Carrascosa JL, Schmidt CF, Wuite GJL (2004). "Bacteriophage capsids: Tough nanoshells with complex elastic properties" (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC419652). Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 101 (20): 76005. Bibcode:2004PNAS..101.7600I (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PNAS..101.7600I). doi:10.1073/pnas.0308198101 (http://dx.doi.org /10.1073%2Fpnas.0308198101). PMC 419652 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC419652). PMID 15133147 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15133147). 6. ^ Subhash G, Yao S, Bellinger B, Gretz MR. (2005). "Investigation of mechanical properties of diatom frustules using nanoindentation". J Nanosci Nanotechnol. 5 (1): 506. doi:10.1166/jnn.2005.006 (http://dx.doi.org /10.1166%2Fjnn.2005.006). PMID 15762160 (//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15762160). 7. ^ Material Properties Data: Medium Density Fiberboard (MDF) (http://www.makeitfrom.com/data/?material=MDF) 8. ^ Rho, JY (1993). "Youngs modulus of trabecular and cortical bone material: ultrasonic and microtensile measurements". Journal of Biomechanics 26 (2): 111119. 9. ^ Kol, N. et al. (June 8, 2005). "Self-Assembled Peptide Nanotubes Are Uniquely Rigid Bioinspired Supramolecular Structures". Nano Letters 5 (7): 13431346. Bibcode:2005NanoL...5.1343K 10. (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005NanoL...5.1343K). doi:10.1021/nl0505896 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1021%2Fnl0505896). ^ Niu, L. et al. (June 6, 2007). "Using the Bending Beam Model to Estimate the Elasticity of Diphenylalanine Nanotubes". Langmuir 23 (14): 74437446. doi:10.1021/la7010106 (http://dx.doi.org /10.1021%2Fla7010106). ^ Nabi Saheb, D.; Jog, JP. (1999). "Natural fibre polymer composites: a review". Advances in Polymer Technology 18 (4): 351363. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2329(199924)18:4<351::AIDADV6>3.0.CO;2-X (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002 %2F%28SICI%291098-2329%28199924%2918%3A4%3C351 %3A%3AAID-ADV6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-X). ^ Bodros, E. (2002). "Analysis of the flax fibres tensile behaviour and analysis of the tensile stiffness increase". Composite Part A 33 (7): 939948. doi:10.1016/S1359-835X(02)00040-4 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS1359-835X%2802%2900040-4). ^ Bodros, E.; Baley, C. (15 May 2008). "Study of the tensile properties of stinging nettle fibres (Urtica dioica)". Materials Letters 62 (14): 21432145. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2007.11.034 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.matlet.2007.11.034). ^ DuPont (2001). Kevlar Technical Guide. p. 9. ^ A. P. Jackson,J. F. V. Vincent and R. M. Turner (1988). "The Mechanical Design of Nacre" (http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/234/1277 /415.abstract). Proceedings of the Royal Society B 234 (1277): 415440. Bibcode:1988RSPSB.234..415J (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988RSPSB.234..415J). doi:10.1098/rspb.1988.0056 (http://dx.doi.org /10.1098%2Frspb.1988.0056). ^ M. Staines, W. H. Robinson and J. A. A. Hood (1981). "Spherical indentation of tooth enamel" (http://www.springerlink.com/content /w125706571032231/). Journal of Materials Science. ^ Polyester Matrix Composite reinforced by glass fibers (Fiberglass) (http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki /doku.php?id=polyester_matrix_composite_reinforced_by_glass_fi bers_fiberglass). [SubsTech] (2008-05-17). Retrieved on 2011-03-30. ^ E-G-nu.htm "Composites Design and Manufacture (BEng) MATS 324" (http://www.tech.plym.ac.uk/sme/MATS324

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12.

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/MATS324A2). 19. ^ Epoxy Matrix Composite reinforced by 70% carbon fibers [SubsTech] (http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki /doku.php?id=epoxy_matrix_composite_reinforced_by_70_carbon _fibers). Substech.com (2006-11-06). Retrieved on 2011-03-30. 20. ^ Physical properties of Silicon (Si) (http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM /Semicond/Si). Ioffe Institute Database. Retrieved on 2011-05-27. 21. ^ E.J. Boyd et al. (February 2012). "Measurement of the Anisotropy of Youngs Modulus in Single-Crystal Silicon". Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems 21 (1): 243249. doi:10.1109/JMEMS.2011.2174415 (http://dx.doi.org /10.1109%2FJMEMS.2011.2174415). 22. ^ Chou, H. M.; Case, E. D. (November 1988). "Characterization of some mechanical properties of polycrystalline yttrium iron garnet (YIG) by non-destructive methods". Journal of Materials Science Letters 7 (11): 12171220. doi:10.1007/BF00722341 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00722341). 23. ^ YIG properties (http://www.isowave.com/pdf/materials /Yttrium_Iron_Garnet.pdf)

24. ^ Adler-Abramovich, L. et al. (December 17, 2010). "SelfAssembled Organic Nanostructures with Metallic-Like Stiffness". Angewandte Chemie International Edition 49 (51): 99399942. doi:10.1002/anie.201002037 (http://dx.doi.org /10.1002%2Fanie.201002037). 25. ^ L. Forro et al. "Electronic and mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes" (http://ipn2.epfl.ch/CHBU/papers/ourpapers /Forro_NT99.pdf). 26. ^ Y.H.Yang et al.; Li, W. Z. (2011). "Radial elasticity of singlewalled carbon nanotube measured by atomic force microscopy". Applied Physics Letters 98 (4): 041901. Bibcode:2011ApPhL..98d1901Y (http://adsabs.harvard.edu /abs/2011ApPhL..98d1901Y). doi:10.1063/1.3546170 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3546170). 27. ^ Spear and Dismukes (1994). Synthetic Diamond Emerging CVD Science and Technology. Wiley, NY. ISBN 978-0-471-53589-8. 28. ^ Owano, Nancy (Aug 20, 2013). "Carbyne is stronger than any known material" (http://phys.org/news/2013-08-carbyne-strongermaterial.html). phys.org.

Further reading
ASTM E 111, "Standard Test Method for Youngs Modulus, Tangent Modulus, and Chord Modulus," [1] (http://www.astm.org /Standards/E111.htm) The ASM Handbook (various volumes) contains Youngs Modulus for various materials and information on calculations. Online version (http://products.asminternational.org/hbk/index.jsp) (subscription required)

External links
Matweb: free database of engineering properties for over 63,000 materials (http://www.matweb.com) Youngs Modulus for groups of materials, and their cost (http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/interactive_charts/stiffnesscost/NS6Chart.html)
Conversion formulas Homogeneous isotropic linear elastic materials have their elastic properties uniquely determined by any two moduli among these, thus given any two, any other of the elastic moduli can be calculated according to these formulas.

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