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A Students Guide to Preparing and Delivering Effective Presentations

Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

T e concept of communication It is undeniable that the world around you is about communication. So, what is communication? Communication is always a two-way process, involving creation and exchange of meaning. It has at one end the initiator of the message and, at the other end, the receiver, who must be prepared to listen and understand the message, in order to ma e communication possible. Communication is the process of conveying the wishes, ideas, and feelings of one person to another. It also means the correct reception of all these, as closely as possible to the way in which they were meant. !ven if it is a two-way process, the responsibility for the effectiveness of communication is the sender"s, who has the duty to chec with the receiver if the message has been correctly heard and understood. !" Categories of communication #ccording to the number of people involved in the act of communication, we can divide experiences of communicating into four categories. a$ #ntrapersonal communication is communication within and to yourself %e communicate within ourselves, we convey the message and we are also the person receiving the communication when, for instance, we reflect on our tomorrow"s plans and intentions. b$ #nterpersonal communication is communication between people. &eople interact face to face, for example a teacher and a student during an oral exam. c$ Group communication is communication within and between groups of people.

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(roups of people can be small groups and large groups. #s they have different purposes, they also behave differently )for instance, a regular group of students behaves differently from a group of people gathered for a conference$. d$ $ass communication is communication used by or transmitted to very large numbers of people, much bigger than what we can call a group )the Internet, media, telephony$. %" &unctions' needs and purposes of communication Communication has functions such as* to warn, to inform, to advise, to entertain, to explain, to describe. %e perform the act of communication to a certain end, having in mind needs we want to satisfy. to co-operate )the most important need and purpose of communication$, to exchange information, to survive )e.g. a freshman student, in his first university year, trying to rent a room, get a place in a hostel or find the best bus routes to his faculty$, to form and maintain relationships with other people around us )e.g. the Internet$, to persuade other people to thin or act as we want them to )e.g. imagine a teacher giving advice about how students should study for their session$, to gain power and manipulate )politics$.

(" T e communication process +ow do we communicate? %hat happens when we communicate? ,he communication process contains several stages* there is always a source of the message )#, the transmitter$. ,he transmitter encodes the message,
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chooses a medium or channel of transmission, a destination of the message )., the receiver$, which decodes it. ,he responsibility for the accuracy of the meaning is the sender"s. +e has to thin about* how to encode the message, what channel of communication to use, how to personali/e communication to fit the needs of the audience which would be the best vehicle for the message-email, face to face, notes. ,he message has an impact on the receiver. +e listens, compares, analyses, 0udges, reacts, thin s up an answer as a reaction. %hen encoding and decoding the message, the two ends of the communication process, the sender and the receiver are influenced by social status, beliefs, age, sex, culture, personal experiences. ,hese filters can flaw, bloc or even interrupt communication.
reaction

A )Sender$ )2eceiver$

encodes

$essage
)channel and vehicle for the message$

decodes

1ilters

1ilters - social status - age - education - beliefs - culture - personal

- social status - age - education - beliefs - culture - personal experiences experiences

3ne of the strongest filters that can foul the communication path is assumptions )people with strong regional accents are considered to be less credible than those spea ing with middle-class accents4 people with a low voice are given more credit than people with a s5uea y one4 people who use the space around them purposefully seem to have more authority$.
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,o give a clearer example, let"s imagine a good friend of yours comes to Clu0 and wants to visit you. +e calls you and as s you if he could wal to your flat. 7ou as your friend where he is and then you tell him you are within wal ing distance. 7ou hear the hesitation in his voice and chec again the place where he is. 7ou reali/e you assumed he meant .abes .olyai street, instead of the .abes .olyai 8niversity and you misinformed him. *" )arriers to effective communication ,o understand this issue, it is enough to thin bac and remember situations when, even if you tried hard to put your message forth, you were misunderstood. %hy did that happen? ,here are so many reasons why people can"t really communicate. ,he spea er and the listener may have similar reasons* they have incomplete communication s ills, e.g. they are good listeners but poor spea ers or vice versa, they cannot relate to and empathise with people, they do not now enough about the sub0ect, they give incomplete information, on purpose or by mista e.

a" +anguage ,semantic barriers-. Sometimes language can be a barrier because of which the message cannot be understood. ,his can be caused by* foreign accent, dialect )&eople from ,ransylvania understand with difficulty those from the south of 2omania, who spea very fast$, 0argon )It is used by people sharing a common experience* medical, scientific, young generation, technical 0argons. Sometimes, it is used deliberately to convey the impression of privileged nowledge$, words with ambiguous meaning )!.g. the so-called false friends* to be infatuated means to be in love$. insufficient information.
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b" Ps/c ological aspects" ,here might be personality or emotional problems, which prevent the communicator from giving a clear message and the listener from hearing it. ,here may be* a personality clash between the two parties, when the spea er is very aggressive, and the listener very passive, or vice versa, shyness, aggressiveness, emotional words, words which express emotion, which provo e both the communicator"s and the listener"s attitudes, opinions, and pre0udices )e.g. when you call a blac person a :nigger;, instead of an :#fro-#merican;$.

c" P /sical situations 8nder certain circumstances, physical situations can also interfere with the communication process. ,hese situations are* illness or physical disability )deafness, a very wea and low voice$, poor timing, interruptions, distance from the person receiving the communication, inade5uate space, noisy environment )rooms with improper acoustics where courses are delivered, might prevent correct communication and understanding between the teacher and the students$.

0" T/pes of communication #ccording to the channel we use there are three types of communication* verbal non-verbal symbolic.

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,he conveying of a clear message depends on both verbal=non-verbal communication, as the spea er establishes both a conscious and a subconscious rapport with his audience. 1. ,he verbal communication consists of the words we use to transmit the message. It is important but not essential as, according to statistics, only 1>? of the effectiveness of the presentation is due to it. .y words you can manipulate, convince, influence your audience. ,his channel of communication is addressed to the audience"s mind. ,he non-verbal and the symbolic channels of communication are related to the presenter"s delivery s ills )@>? of the effectiveness$. 8ltimately, the success of the presentation is provided by the presentation style, rather than the content of the speech. '. ,he non-verbal communication is a range of non-verbal signals )the way you use your voice to emphasi/e certain words, the animation and what you express with your face, the way you move your body and the gestures you ma e, charisma,$ organi/ed into* body language. It tells a lot about people"s feelings, attitudes and intentions )gesture, ga/e, facial expression, posture, body contact and body proximity, touch$, paralanguage )pitch of voice-how high or low your voice is, pace of speech - how fast you spea $.

,he non-verbal communication modifies and underlines the verbal message. It existed before the verbal transmission of messages, being a primary code of communication. ,his type of language is based on culture, and it presents cultural differences. ,hin about how different the correct behaviors are in the Aapanese culture, the #merican one, the standards in the Biddle !ast. Issues such as gestures, the way you use your space - outward moving gestures or not, being the initiator of the discussion, eye contact or lac of eye contact, vary culturally. ,his type of communication is difficult to manipulate, as it can betray feelings or attitudes such as your lac of interest or enthusiasm. In case the body language transmits a message that conflicts with the verbal one, the spea er loses credibility. ,he nonverbal communication is addressed to the audience"s heart.
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-. T e s/mbolic communication is related to the way you dress, it is addressed to the audience"s eyes, and it is easy to manipulate. !xample. %hen running for a certain important position, candidates who have charisma, a well-controlled body language and dress appropriately )symbolic language$ have more chances when they present their ideas on ,D. ,he candidates who lac all these count on their verbal messages, and prefer to spea on the radio, rather than appear on television. 1 at ave /ou learnt2 1. #nswer the 5uestions. a. %hat is communication? b. +ow can we divide communication by the number of people involved? c. %hat are the functions, needs and purposes of communication? (ive examples for each of them. d. Eescribe the stages of the communication process. e. +ow can we classify communication according to the channels used? f. %hat are communication filters or barriers? '. #naly/e a friend"s communication acts for half an hour. %ere the messages meant to inform, persuade, advise? -. 2ead the following fragments. Fist the types of communication from the point of view of the number of people involved and the channel chosen. What are you doing here? she cried, grabbing Marys arm and pulling her away. I turned the wrong corner and couldnt find the way bac to my room, e!plained Mary. "nd then I heard someone crying. #ou heard nothing of the sort$ snapped Mrs. Medloc . %ow come along bac to your nursery or youll be punished$ Mary felt herself being pushed and pulled up one corridor and down another. &hen she was showed through the doorway of her room.

%ow, you stay where youre told or youll find yourself loc ed up. Ive got enough to do here without loo ing after you too. 'nce Mrs. Medloc had slammed the door, Mary threw herself down on the bed, red with rage. (ritting her teeth, she insisted, &here was someone crying$ &here was$ "nd Im going to find out who or what it is$ )1rances +odgson .urnett, &he )ecret (arden, p. 9'*. &he purser loo ed at the an!ious frowning face of Mr. +otibol and he smiled, nowing ,uite well what the man was driving at. Well, you see, the captain has a little conference with the navigating officer, and they study the weather and a lot of other things, and they ma e their estimate. Mr. +otibol nodded, pondering this answer for a moment. &hen he said, -o you thin the captain new there was bad weather coming today? I couldnt tell you, the purser replied. .e was loo ing into the small blac eyes of the other man, seeing the two single little spar s of e!citement dancing in their centres. I really couldnt tell you, Mr. +otibol. I wouldnt now. If this gets any worse it might be worth buying some of the low numbers. What do you thin ? &he whispering was more urgent, more an!ious now. )2oald Eahl, /ompletely une!pected &ales, p. <'$.

Spea3ing v +istening Communication is a two-way process. %hile one half is involved in spea ing, the other half is listening and trying to understand the message. !ffective communication exists between two people when the receiver interprets and understands the sender"s message in the same way the sender intended it. !" +istening v reading ,he audience is made of listeners, not readers. ,wo obvious conse5uences of this fact are the speed with which you deliver the speech and the constant clarification process - signalling, recapping, summari/ing. ,he listener"s thoughts are distracted by a lot of things. # reader can reread a sentence, a paragraph or even an entire chapter. If your mind wonders, you can ta e a brea and then return to your boo and ma e an effort to focus again. Fisteners only have one chance to understand what you are saying. 2eaders can vary the speed of their reading and, if the material is complex or unfamiliar, they can stop, refer to a dictionary, discuss with other people. Fisteners can"t vary the pace of the spea er"s delivery. 2eaders can anticipate and read in order to see the general idea, and then read again what is relevant. Euring a presentation, only the spea er can see the general idea and have a complete picture. ,he main responsibility for the message belongs to the spea er. ,he person or the people receiving the communication are also responsible for the message to get across effectively. #s we have said, two people are involved in the dialogue* the spea er and the listener. ,herefore, we should give the s ills involved in listening the attention they deserve.
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%e ta e it for granted that we listen all the time. %e may thin we listen to what people say, we listen to the radio or ,v but how much do we really hear? Fistening is not simple. Bost of us have very poorly developed listening s ills. %e live in a visual world, which absorbs us in its images and we forget to listen. #nother cause for not listening properly is the stress and pressure we face daily. 1inally, lac of interest leads to lac of communication. ,rue listening rarely occurs. 3ne person cannot give simultaneous undivided attention, assess and frame a reply to what is being said. Eouble attention is not possible. %hen two people meet to discuss one sub0ect, if they do not focus on communication correctly, what they really discuss is two different sub0ects put forward by each one. ,he listening speed is twice as fast as the spea ing one, and the implications are ma0or. ,here is a real distinction between merely hearing the words and really listening for the message. %hen we listen effectively, we understand what the spea er is thin ing by empathy, as if we were standing in his shoes, seeing through his eyes and listening through his ears. ,o listen effectively means being actively involved in the communication process, and not 0ust listening passively. %" Difficulties b/ t e spea3er4t e listener a. the spea er"s voice is too low or monotonous, the message he sends is be too complex or too simple, he may be experiencing a mind blan , there is a contradiction between the body language and verbal one, he is too focused on the reactions of the listener, he lac s credibility, confidence and structure.

b. the listener is distracted and does not listen, he anticipates what is going to be said and switches off, he listens mainly to find an opening to get the floor,

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he frames the answer while listening, he evaluates and ma es 0udgments about the spea er or the message, he does not as for clarification.

(" T e t ree basic listening modes 1. #ggressive or combative listening happens when we are more interested in promoting our own point of view than in the message itself4 we listen to find opportunities of ta ing the floor or attac ing wea points and destroying arguments. '. In passive or attentive listening we are interested in hearing and understanding the other person"s point of view, but we remain passive and do not chec if what we are hearing is correct. -. #ctive or reflective listening is the most useful and important listening s ill. In active listening we are also interested in understanding what the message means, and we are active in chec ing out our understanding. ,his verification or feedbac process is what distinguishes active listening and ma es it effective. *" Steps t at can en ance listening stop tal ing, remove distractions4 give the spea er all your attention, be patient4 don"t interrupt the spea er4 let him finish before you spea , if you disagree with what the other person is saying, try to get a full understanding of that point of view before you spea . 2epeat or paraphrase the other person"s idea to ma e sure that you have understood it completely, if you don"t agree with the expressed point, do not plan what you are going to say or else you will not be able to pay attention to the whole message,

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if you are confused and don"t understand the issue, as the spea er to rephrase it, as 5uestions to clarify but also to encourage the spea er, have patience and listen to the main ideas as well as to the supporting examples or facts, try to thin about the message, not the delivery, be empathic and non0udgmental4 don"t argue or critici/e, don"t respond to 0ust the meaning of the words4 loo for the feelings or intent beyond the words, observe non-verbal clues4 use eye contact and listening body language4 face and lean toward the spea er and nod your head, as it is appropriate4 try not to loo critical, do not hurry to immediately answer 5uestions* some people 0ust li e to as 5uestions and are not interested in the answer.

0" +istening tips5 bod/ and verbal language ,he point about active listening is that the listener focuses on ma ing the communication effective and he doesn"t replace the message with one of his own. #ctive listening does not mean to be silent, it means that you ta e an active part in the conversation. Some rules for active listening behaviour* loo at the person to whom you are tal ing. ),ip* if you find it difficult to loo at someone"s eyes, try loo ing at the bridge of their nose$, smile naturally and sincerely, enough to show that you are interested, nod encouragingly, showing that you follow he spea er, ma e affirmative noises* 0h, 0hu, Mmm, use verbal prompts* ;1eally? It must have been interesting.
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1 at ave /ou learnt2 1. #nswer the 5uestions a. %hy are listening s ills as important as spea ing s ills? b. %hat are the differences between listeners and readers? c. %hy isn"t the message very clear sometime? d. Hame three listening modes. %hat are the main features of each of them? e. %hat is active listening? f. %hat can you do to enhance the listening process and become an active listener? '. #naly/e you own way of listening. #re you a good listener? Eo you try to empathi/e with the spea er? %hich listening mode matches your listening s ills?

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6no7ing t e Audience # writer suggested that the spea er should thin about the audience in terms of a group of travellers he has to ta e to the destination. ,he more you now about their expectations, hopes and wants, the more effective the trip. ,o stage a good presentation, it"s vital to concentrate on the basic characteristics of your audience. !" )asic c aracteristics of t e audience %ho will be attending the presentation - occupation, level of education, area of speciali/ation, special interests, age, sex, income, nationality? ,he answer to this 5uestion will help you choose the best way to explain and exemplify your ideas )thin about the differences in the delivery of a presentation in front of a Aapanese audience and an Italian one$. %hat is their level of importance=seniority )position in the organi/ation, critical listeners and influencers$? Importance according to the level of seniority is based on culture. ,hus, the Aapanese companies have their own specific rules regarding seniority. %ill people be attending the presentation by their own choice? ,his can influence the attention level of the audience. ,he spea er can feel from their attitude when they have a natural interest in the presentation, and are present of their own free will. Is their initial attitude li ely to be pro, neutral or anti? %hen attending a presentation about salary cuts, the union leaders will be anti, while the employers will be pro.
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+ow well informed are they? %ill they have any bac ground nowledge? ,he spea er can build on what they already now, avoiding the waste of time. +e will start from the common bac ground, otherwise the explanations can irritate in that they are vague or too detailed. %ill they understand any 0argon you normally use? %hat are their expectations from you? 1ulfilling their expectations means having a motivated audience. ,he listeners are receptive if the presentation answers their 5uestions. ,he message of the presentation remains the same but the spea er can ma e it relevant to the needs of the audience. 1or the technical students, you can safely spea about the latest discoveries, state-of-the art electronic devices, interesting web sites. #s for the graduates, you can spea about recognition of wor effort, 0ob satisfaction, security of employment, hiring companies and their re5uirements.

,he more you focus on these factors, the more you tailor your presentation accordingly, the more effective it is. %" 8nderstanding t e concentration span of t e audience #udiences can concentrate on a spea er only for a limited period of time, after which their attention diminishes. ,he concentration span depends on certain factors* how much initial interest the audience has on the sub0ect, the moment of the day when the presentation ta es place* people will be more attentive in the morning and less attentive after lunch, or vice versa,
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depending on each person"s biorhythm )the period following lunch is called :the graveyard slot;$, the attention they are ready to give to the spea er, after assessing him, the need to now about the sub0ect.

,he pattern of their concentration is the following* initially, the interest will be average to high, after 1> minutes it will fall and remain on a low plateau, until the sentence announcing the end of the presentation. ,he best length for a single spea er is '> to 6> minutes, depending on the complexity of the topic. #fter that, another spea er should ta e the floor. (" Tec ni9ues to boost up t e attention of t e audience a" C anging position ,he spea er should try to change his position from sitting to standing and vice versa or simply move from the lectern closer to the listeners. b" As3ing 9uestions general 5uestions answered by a show of hands*

!x. Who installed a new computer system last year? 2ut up your hand$ direct 5uestions

3!. Mr. )mith, what did you do when the insurance company refused to pay for the damages? c" #nvolving t e audience in action ,he spea er can do that by as ing them to calculate, solve a problem, as an application to what has been said, to move to a demonstration table and observe a model, as a volunteer to write on the flip chart or help with the visuals.
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*" :t er tec ni9ues for involving /our audience a" A convincing deliver/ ,he verbal and non-verbal messages must coincide, or else you might seem deceitful and hypocritical. b" ;ecaps and summaries" In writing, recaps and summaries are unnecessary, but in presenting, listeners lose the main path more easily. c" ; etorical 9uestions 2hetorical 5uestions are excellent attention grabbers and signposts to what follows next. 3!. )o, how does the impedance affect the flow of the electric current2 7ou can also anticipate the attention of your audience by saying* !x. #ou may be as ing yourself .ow many inds of waves are there? d" Emotional impact 7ou must establish a personal lin to the listeners" needs. #s a presenter, you have to convert facts into relevant advantages to them and demonstrate how your solution can solve their problem. ,he listeners will be ready to buy ideas when they recognise these ideas can solve their problem &A !x. It is a portable computer, a laptop 4fact*. It is easy to carry )advantage$. C&A 3!. "s it is portable )cause$, you can ta e it with you )effect$ and thus sort out your problems, at any time and any place )advantage$. e" Appeal to t e senses

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#ppeal to all the senses because people perceive reality through different filters. !x. /an you see how much this new schedule will ease your wor ? .ow do you feel about this new opportunity? .ow does it sound to you? f" Avoid <argon and abbreviations ,hese can be misleading or incomprehensible. If you want to use them by all means, ma e sure the audience understands them. #lways put the abbreviations down on the blac board and explain them. g" Vague and precise language .ridging the communication gap is of particular importance when giving a presentation. %hat fouls the channels of communication is the assumption that the interlocutor is using the same words to mean the same things. 8ndefined nouns

!x. We will provide transport, if necessary. +ow? .y what means? 8ndefined verbs

!x. We want you to come to 5ondon. +ow? %ho will pay for it? 8ndefined comparisons

!x" 'ur new product is bigger and better. ,han what? 8nsubstantiated rules

!x. We have to do it that way. %hy? %ho said so? %hat if I"ll try it differently?
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8nattributed 5uotes

!x. "ll the research showsI4 &here was a study that came out last year.. %ho were the researchers? %ho carried out the study?

1 at ave /ou learnt2 7ou will deliver the presentations in front of your colleagues. 7ou should now some facts about them. #nswer the 5uestions* a. %hat are your colleagues" expectations about you? b. %hat are their interests? %hat topics would they li e you to present? d. %ill they be present from their choice? +ow will it affect their mood? e. %hat is their level of !nglish? f. +ow do you intend to maintain the concentration of the audience? g. %hich of the techni5ues listed in unit ID seem more appropriate to this purpose?

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St/les of Deliver/ !ach spea er will develop his own delivery style, depending on his personality. %hen choosing the way to address to the listener, the spea er will have to ta e into consideration issues such as* type of message to be delivered, audience or listeners he will spea to, spea ing situation.

.asically, there are four delivery styles* extemporaneous, impromptu, memori/ed, read from the manuscript deliveries. !" T e e=temporaneous deliver/ #s it is announced, prepared and practiced in advance, you have time to* search the net )the students" favorite source of info$ or any other source, and collect materials, divide it into ey messages and supporting messages, establish a structure, plan the introduction, middle and conclusion, prepare the script or notes, add visuals, practice the presentation before giving it thin of possible J and #.

7ou can use the whole script, note cards or 0ust visuals, with the main ideas to be presented. 7ou will spea in a natural, conversational style. 7ou are allowed to loo at your notes with 5uic glances, but mere reading is out of 5uestion. #s the presentation is not memori/ed, it has flexibility, which allows the spea er to behave naturally, and eep eye contact with the audience. 7ou can memori/e difficult passages, but when hearing them, the audience shouldn"t notice and feel they are memori/ed.
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%" T e impromptu deliver/ ,his type of presentation is based on a spontaneous speech, when you have very little or no time at all to prepare it in advance. Such presentations may occur at your wor place or in classroom situations, when, without warning, you are as ed to spea about a certain topic. ,his delivery is considered to be the most difficult style, as the lac of preparation ma es the presenter"s tas more difficult, and sometimes presentations lose clarity, effectiveness, and sound unstructured. 3nly very few presenters are natural born talents, and can, without any previous warning cover any topic in an effective way. If possible, try to anticipate the issues to be approached in the future meetings, and thin of possible brief presentation. If you cannot anticipate, here are some techni5ues to cope with the situation* do not apologi/e but admit you are not prepared, switch topic, develop what has been said before, draw conclusions or summari/e, restate the problem using other words and some original ideas, if possible. 7our previous presenting experience, accumulated in extemporaneous deliveries will also be helpful. In time, you will be able to improvise and spea about any topic, in a clear and confident way. (" T e memori>ed deliver/ ,his delivery is based on the spea er"s memory. In general, it is used by very shy people, who fear public spea ing. # script memori/ed and delivered word for word focuses the spea er more inwards than outwards. %hen it is obvious that the spea er concentrates more on remembering the wording than on communicating the information, the impact on the audience is negative. ,he spea er loses part of his credibility and people start wondering if he memori/ed the speech because of his nervousness or because he has insufficient nowledge about it. ,here are some disadvantages in this style* the presentation lac s flexibility and naturalness, and you might forget the
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text, finding yourself facing a mind blan in front of the audience. #s mentioned before, if you really need to memori/e the presentation to feel more confident, at least memori/e only the most difficult passages. ,his will wor as a safety net, give you confidence, and, at the same time allow you to be creative. *" T e manuscript reading ,he manuscript reading' or the presentation written out in full and then read aloud to the audience is used in very formal situations, such as* professional or academic conference, when the wording is really important and the message complex, or technical, diplomatic situations.

7ou might feel more secure when reading the material, but it will be really difficult for you to watch the reaction of the audience, analy/e it and ad0ust your delivery to their reaction. 3ther disadvantages* your contact with the audience is limited, as you cannot eep eye, and your body language is restricted, too.

1 at ave /ou learnt2 1. #naly/e the four delivery styles and then list the advantages=disadvantages for each of them. Advantages E=temporaneous deliver/
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Disadvantages

#mpromptu deliver/ $emori>ed deliver/ $anuscript reading '. In your opinion, which will the style of the students" technical presentations? (ive arguments. -. If you were to choose a style, which one would it be? (ive arguments.

6. Batch the following circumstances to a delivery style. a presentation delivered by a technical expert to freshmen technical students, an academic meeting, a diplomatic situation, when the choice of words is very important, a student"s presentation, a presentation with a very nervous spea er.

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T e ? and A Session !" 1 en and 7 / ans7er 9uestions ,he J and # session is the part of the presentation when the listeners as 5uestions and the spea er responds. ,he circumstances when the spea er does not have to answer the listeners" 5uestions are very rare. ,he moment of answering 5uestions is feared, because you have to rely on your talent of improvising and be alert, otherwise you may be caught unprepared. Spea ers fre5uently imagine that the audience will be hostile, better prepared, ready to challenge and ma e them loo ridiculous. %hat if the 5uestion is irrelevant? %hat if it is hostile? %hat if I don"t now the answer? %hat if I mishear it? %hat if the audience is better prepared?

If you want to be a credible spea er, 5uestions cannot be avoided. ,o become more confident, you can put this into a completely different light* 5uestions addressed to you mean that you have engaged the audience into active listening. ,here are several reasons for which it is better to ta e 5uestions from the audience. 1irst, by ta ing 5uestions you can build a positive rapport with the audience, show that you care, and are interested in their needs and wants. Second, if you answer the 5uestions, you can clarify and avoid ambiguous, vague meanings or misunderstandings on the spot, and transmit the message faster and more directly. ,hird, listening and answering the 5uestions is a good method of controlling the level of understanding of the message, and getting an immediate feedbac . ,his allows the spea er to ad0ust the presentation accordingly.

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2egarding the moment we choose to answer 5uestions, there are only two such moments, either during or immediately after the presentation. 1rom the presenter"s point of view, there are certain disadvantages in allowing 5uestions during the presentation. 5uestions which are, sometimes, irrelevant, will interrupt the flow and structure of the speech. ,he presenter can find himself answering 5uestions about superfluous issues, the answer may be contained later on in your tal , it is very difficult to observe time limits while answering 5uestions. ,he presentation may remain unfinished, or the presenter will have to spea at a faster pace to finish it.

#llowing 5uestions at any time is rather improper and difficult with large and formal groups, but it wor s with smaller groups, though. Juestions addressed any time are also recommended when the presentation is instructional, about how a product wor s, and you need to have continuous feedbac . ,here is also an efficient strategy of allowing 5uestions during the presentation. It suggests a compromise, which will assure the audience that you are interested in their 5uestions, and you will answer them. #t the same time, it will give you the opportunity to choose what 5uestions to answer, and what 5uestions to put on hold. to answer* 5uestions that are meant to clarify meaning , to put on hold* 5uestions meant to give additional information.

%" ;e earsing 9uestions and ans7ers ,he 5uestion-answer session should also be rehearsed. #n intelligent presenter will admit that 5uestions can be predicted, and anticipated. &racticing has several advantages. It helps you* handle the unexpected by anticipation )if something unexpected may appear, it willK$, field difficult 5uestions,
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find and correct wea nesses in your argument, expose ambiguity and unclear meanings, prepare additional data, for listeners who re5uest it.

%hen you are deeply involved in delivering a presentation, it is possible to miss some details, not to be fully logical, and provide too many or not enough details. ,his pitfall can be avoided on condition you rehearse your tal in front of colleagues or friends. %hen 5uestions are addressed to you, analy/e them and find out why they had been addressed* lac of clarity, too many details, illogic arguments. ,he answers will help you correct the mista es. ,ype of 5uestion 2eason for as ing it - as ing you to repeat information -loss of interest for certain parts during already delivered the presentation - as ing for more details -the information is not clear enough, and it does not entirely support the message

-5uestions anticipating the development -the listeners are interested and got the of the presentation correct message

(" Preparing t e ans7ers a. Bany spea ers find it difficult to answer the 5uestions because they fail to listen to them first. 2emember these points* %hile the 5uestioner is still spea ing, most listeners start preparing the answer. #s you cannot give your undivided attention to different lines of thought, you should wait until the spea er finishes his idea and, while doing this, listen to him. Start wor ing the answer out only when the 5uestion is complete )see 5istening s ills$. If you do not understand it, as the spea er to repeat the 5uestion.

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Ba e notes of the main points, especially if the listener has several 5uestions to as . Sometimes the 5uestions as ed refer to a topic that is interesting only for a limited number of people. #s a conse5uence, the answer will be understood by the same limited group. %hat you can do is rephrase the 5uestion to ma e it accessible to all the audience, and address the answer to everyone. #lso, by repeating the 5uestion, you get enough time to thin about your answer. Eo not repeat 0ust what you said before4 answer with extra statistics or facts, if possible. ,o avoid addressing your answers to a limited number of people, who might monopoli/e the dialogue, eep eye contact with other people from the audience while answering the 5uestion. !ye contact can help you to continue the dialogue or interrupt it, if you want to focus on something else.

b. Some 5uestions and answers don"ts don"t be defensive4 be calm and polite, don"t use a confrontational tone, don"t rush to answer the 5uestion4 ma e a pause to thin about the best answer, don"t bluff - in case you don"t now the answer, admit it, don"t embarrass the 5uestioner* :I have already answer that, what a pity you were not attentive;, don"t interrupt the spea er, don"t show your irritation.

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*" Strategies in case /ou dont 3no7 t e ans7er %hat happens when you don"t now the answer? Hever bluff or excuse yourself. Simply admit you cannot answer the 5uestion and promise to give the info later, after some research. 7ou can use one of these* :I dont now, but I can chec and get bac to you. Im afraid I cant answer the ,uestion. Its difficult to say.

7ou can also use the people from the audience, as they might have more experience related to the area in 5uestion. Eon"t do it more than once, as in the long run you might loo ridiculous and incompetent. 2erhaps someone else can answer that. ec3lers

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+ec lers are people more interested in attracting other people"s attention on them than in the presentation. #s you cannot ignore these persons, here are some suggestions about how to behave* before answering, as the hec ler to identify himself, in order to brea the concentration of the audience, rephrase the statement so that it does not contradict you position, interrupt eye-contact to discourage the dialogue. maximi/e the audience"s support by remaining calm

A" @o7 to ans7er difficult 9uestions ,he difficult 5uestions are the rude ones, with a vague content. ,here are procedures to deal with this type, too. ,he first reaction to a rude 5uestion is aggressiveness )given by extra adrenaline$, so try to thin rationally and remove the emotional charge.
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,he success of the situation depends on how calm you remain. If the audience perceives you as having control, they will support you and eep the same calm attitude. a. T e yes6no 7 either6or 9uestions ,he yes-no 5uestions seem to be aggressive. Eo not limit your answer to yes or no, respond in your own words. 8ust answer yes or no. /an we implement the new e,uipment or cant we? b" T e 7hat if 9uestions It is a waste of time to answer them, as there is too much supposition and uncertainty in them for a correct answer. c. T e off the record 9uestions ,hese 5uestions may be tric y, so answer all the 5uestions on the record. 8seful p rases ,hey are cliches that help you gain time, organi/e your thoughts and answer. :I am glad that you as ed me that &his is a good ,uestion We have spent some time on that problem but what I thin is more important to consider now is9

B" Encouraging 9uestions tell the audience about your J and # policy, as them to 0ot down the 5uestions during the tal , give them time to prepare their 5uestions

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1 at ave /ou learnt2 #nswer the 5uestions* a. %hy is it appropriate to ta e 5uestions? b. %hy do spea ers fear 5uestions? c. %hen can you ta e 5uestions? d. Fist some advantages=disadvantages of ta ing 5uestions at different moments. e. %hat are the advantages of rehearsing 5uestions? f. %hat do different types of 5uestions signal about the presentation? g. Hame some types of difficult 5uestions. h. !xplain some strategies of dealing with hec lers.

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Practising and ;e earsing !" 1 / practise2 If you thin that practising is a waste of time, bear in mind the following* 2ractice ma es the difference between a mediocre and a memorable tal . .eing a spontaneous ex5uisite spea er is very rare. ,here is an anecdote referring to %inston Churchill, one of the best orators ever. +e claimed he was a spontaneous spea er but there were rumours he spent many solid hours rehearsing, to be a spontaneous spea er, who did not need any practice at all. If you thin there are shortcuts to success you are wrong. If you are not a natural-born spea er and you would li e to be li e your colleague, who wraps the audience around his finger, you"d better as yourself how much effort, hard wor and practice is behind his art. #s absolute beginners in presenting, students probably need at least four to five solid hours of practice. .y not practising, you change the presentation into a first rehearsal. If your approach is a negative one, you could find many excuses for not practising. Some say that by practising, you become artificial, the presentation lac s spontaneity. ,his is totally wrong, and this can be proved by the excellent results obtained by the students who chose to rehearse the presentation many times before delivering it. 2ehearsing helps you* become familiar with the material, the structure of the presentation and flow of ideas, remember the ideas more easily, in case you experience the mind blan syndrome, observe the wea points in your presentation, ad0ust the material from the point of view of time limits - lengthen or shorten it, feel more confident and less nervous, because you were in the real situation of delivering the presentation, even if you did it in front of an empty room, observe your voice and body position and control them.
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%" @o7 to practise ,here are two steps you could cover* practising aloud )alone$, rehearsing aloud )with friends$

a" Practising aloud" Euring the first step, you will tal out loud, even if it happens in front of a n empty room. 7ou will notice how much more confidence you have and how easy it is to deliver the presentation after that. ,here are always rough spots, difficult passages, :dry; technical paragraphs in each presentation. Eo not get discouraged. Leep trying to spea without loo ing at your cards. If you stumble, carry on to the end. %henever you practise the presentation, go through the entire text, from beginning to end. %hile doing it with the script in front of you, underline the difficult passages. %hen you are ready, practise only those passages. ,hen practise the whole text again. Students who, when getting across such a passage stop, rehearse it and start again from the beginning get tired of it, and do not have a general image about the text. #lso, when they deliver the presentation, one can easily see the difference between the introduction=ending and the middle where the difficult passages are. ,he latter seems confusing and is delivered with difficulty. In order to have a general picture about the topic, thin of it as if it were a se5uence of ideas. ,his way, you can memori/e the structure and order of main ideas. ,his first stage* ma es you more creative4 helps you assess the structure of the presentation, helps you find issues that may bring 5uestions from the listeners.

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!ven if you are alone in the room, in order to have feedbac , practise in front of a full-length mirror, standing. #lso, try to record your voice to be able to ma e later critical observations, in terms of volume, clarity, and speed. Eo not forget to allow meaningful pauses when necessary )e.g. : -id you now that9?; - pauseKKK$. &retend to have eye contact and, as !nglish is not your mother tongue, chec the words which are not clear to you and monitor your grammar mista es. b" ;e earsing 7it feed bac3 1eedbac given by colleagues is even better. 1irst, you will tell your friends about the ob0ectives you established, what the audience expects to find in your presentation, what their needs and wants are. ,hey will comment on your presentation. Fisten to their comments critically4 do not ma e excuses for what they see as mista es and examine their observations ob0ectively. #lways chec time to now how to alter your presentation. 3verrunning allotted time is a lac of courtesy and respect. 7ou can write the timing on your cards so that, when delivering the tal , you can now how much time you"ve got left, especially if you have the habit to digress. 1inally, try to give your tal without loo ing at your cards. If you stumble, carry on to he end. Disualise the presentation as a se5uence of ideas. &robably you now the sub0ect, so what you should rehearse is the structure and order of the main points. Eress rehearsal might not seem really important. 2ehearse wearing the same clothes you are going to wear at the presentation. 7ou can also repeat the body language, gestures, even body stance. %atch your fingers fiddling with the buttons, scarves. ,o avoid doing that, empty your poc ets. 1 at ave /ou learnt2 &ractise the whole presentation alone but standing, recording your voice, and in front of a mirror. %rite down all your critical observations regarding the text, voice, body language. Eo the same, but this time with a colleague ready to give you feedbac . #s him to write down his observations. Compare the two assessments. 7ou will see how ob0ective you are regarding your own wor .
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)od/ and S/mbolic +anguage !" )od/ language &eople ta e people at face value. .y becoming more sensitive, more observant, we can use body language as a powerful and silent tool to enhance communication. ,here are more than C>>,>>> forms of body language. ,hey can help people communicate even when the interlocutors are silent4 they can help a spea er understand if the silence of the listeners is due to confusion or to deep involvement in the message. ,he contradiction between body language and verbal communication can warn you about people lying or not telling the complete truth. %hen you spea in front of an audience made of foreigners, it can help you cross cultural borders. .ody language is a primary communication code. (estures can deliver a message more effectively than words* they can be dangerous, informing, entertaining, etc. #xtell and (estures )1@@1$ identify the smile as the ultimate gesture. It is universal, rarely misunderstood, releases endorphins to ma e you happy, and may get you out of difficult situations. .ody language can easily betray you, so try to eep it under control. Eon"t allow your body language to reveal that you feel unease4 continue to loo confident and pleasant. #s we cross cultural barriers, the same gestures can have different meanings. 1or instance, in most societies, nodding means agreement, and approval. In different parts of (reece, .ulgaria, ,ur ey, 7ugoslavia, this means :no; %hile the Italians move their arms freely, in Aapan it is considered impolite to gesture with broad movements of the arms. +ere are some examples* a. In 1@@', &resident (eorge .ush made a state visit to #ustralia. +e greeted the people lined up along the roadside to welcome him, raising fingers in the form of :D;, with the bac of his hand towards the onloo ers. # local paper wrote that the #merican &resident had insulted the #ustralians. b. In 1@C9, Dice &resident %alter Bondale was invited to spea to the Aapanese Eiet. +alf of the audience closed their eyes, fact that irritated him, as he thought they were sleeping. Bondale expressed his dissatisfaction with the situation to the 8.S. ambassador. ,he ambassador told him they had closed their eyes in order to digest the speech.

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&ersonal space varies according to different cultures. %hen tal ing, the Fatin people stand closer than people from #nglo-Saxon cultures. #lso, the way a spea er uses the space can give us clues about what he feels* fear, power, self-control. !ye contact, and feedbac behaviour are usually maintained and active but with some cultures, passive body language and avoiding eye contact is a sign of respect. Interruptions and turn ta ing could distinguish a 2omanian listener from a foreigner. In 2omania it is common for several people to be tal ing at the same time. Fong silences are felt as aw ward with most of the cultures. In other parts of the world, periods of long silence and little conversation are welcome.

In the following we will refer to some of these non - verbal clues. a- Gestures Leep your gestures natural. ,he style of your presentation is collo5uial, so you should gesture as if you were spea ing to a friend. 7ou should eep your arms relaxed at your sides, ready to move to underline some parts of the speech or demonstrate, where necessary. don"t play with your eys or scratch your nose, don"t gesture too much, don"t finish your sentences by using gestures instead of words. don"t use dominance gestures* hands on hips, loo ing down on somebody with lowered lids

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b- Posture' stance ,he way you hold yourself, the stance is not the same as the height. I am sure you now people who, although being short, seem to be tall because of the body stance. Leep your head up and your shoulders bac . #lso, your bac should be straight, without being stiff or unnatural. ,his will give you confidence, and help you breathe better. Ho matter how difficult the situation is, eep a positive, confident stance. c$ Voice" ,he speed with which you use your voice and you move tell a lot about how confident and powerful you are. # low, slow voice indicates more confidence than a fast s5uea y one. d- Space ,he space also indicates power or lac of power. Bove purposefully and avoid hopping from one foot to the other, roc ing to and fro, standing on the side of the shoes. +ectic gestures and aimless wal ing along the isle of the room will not leave a good impression. e- E/e contact 2emember how many things you can do by using eye contact* continue or interrupt a dialogue with hostile people. (ood eye contact indicates credibility. It should last for 9-1> seconds to one individual. &rolonged eye contact could indicate a dominance behaviour. Eon"t scan the room from side to side. #lso, avoid loo ing at the ceiling, floor, as you will seem terrified. If you loo to one individual, people near him will feel you are tal ing to them, too. It is better to loo people straight in the eyes, but, if you cannot, loo at the bridge of the nose. ,he impression will be you are eeping eye contact. #s a rule of correct presentations is :%ever e!cuse yourself$ don"t loo apologetic, too. %" S/mbolic language ,he symbolic language is the way you dress or the loo you choose to have on the occasion of the presentation. #ppearances count and presentations are also about the way the presenter is dressed* many listeners 0udge spea ers at
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face value. In 2omanian and in many other languages there are proverbs referring to how superficially people can be 0udged. ,he way you want to loo during the presentation is about the message you want to transmit to the listeners. ,here is a diversity of clothes you could put on to be correctly dressed for such an event, but there are some general rules* usually, the presentations are formal events, so dress low ey, but not conservatively, matching your clothes to the re5uirements of the environment will increase your credibility, be a little more formal than you expect the audience to be, women should use cosmetics carefully and avoid dramatic ma e-up, minimi/e accessories, pay attention to cultural norms )oriental v. occidental cultures$, always chec hair, /ip, buttons, if you now that you li e to play with ob0ects in your poc ets, empty them, bring han y for running nose, water for dry throat.

1 at ave /ou learnt2 1. #nswer the 5uestions* a. %hat ind of language is body language? b. %hy is it important? c. 3bserve public spea ers. %hat non-verbal clues can help you understand them?

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d. 3bserve people from different subcultures* the rural v the urban one. %hat is different in their body language? '. %hen being as ed something, people can react differently* if they try to remember something, they will direct their eyes towards the upper left corner. If they try to hide the truth, they will direct their eyes towards the lower right corner. #pply this exercise to see if it wor s. -. Imagine you are the presenter of a formal speech. +ow would you dress? ,hin about the clothes you would li e to wear.

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Developing Confidence and a Presentation Voice It is said that the spea er who pretends not to experience any symptoms of nervousness while delivering a speech is a liar. 3ften, when as ed to list ten worst fears, people considered as number one public spea ing, ahead of death, losing the 0ob or heights. Hervousness, anxiety characteri/e especially those people who have a negative way of approaching things. Hegative thin ing is a negative programming of the mind or self-fulfilling prophecies. .eing calm is not always a good way of mastering the stress of the presentation. # little bit of nervousness is not bad. Calmness becomes counterproductive for an enthusiastic approach of the delivery, as it ma es the spea er underestimate the challenges of the situation. ,he spea er loses energy and alertness. ,he best way to treat nervousness is to let it out, analy/e and master it. !" Steps in covering nervousness a. ,he first step is to recogni/e the symptoms that 5ualify you as a nervous spea er. Eo you recogni/e these? sha ing nees, and palpitating heart, spea ing 5uic ly, blin ing, sweating, pacing purposeless, mechanical gestures - pulling at ear, scratching, being unable to swallow, dry mouth or too much saliva, wet palms, feeling alternatively very hot or cold, mind blan s, being unable to focus on audience or notes, shortness of breath or shallow breathing, high pitched or trembling voice.

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#fter identifying them, you must stop denying and ac nowledge their presence. It will help you cope with the situation. b. ,he second step is to find the cause of your worst fears. %hat causes them? %here do they come from? having a mind blan and forgetting what you want to say, critical listeners, even hostile, as ing difficult 5uestions, being considered unprepared and getting a low grade, letting down your teacher, colleagues and even yourself.

%" @ints for mastering nervousness ,here are two types of strategies you can apply in mastering nervousness* a general strategy and particular ones. a. T e general strateg/ implies preparation and a reflection on your performance. analy/e positively your outcome, learn from your mista es. %hat could you have done better? convert panic into alertness by controlling nerves and facing fears, practice until you feel confident, visualise your success, eliminate negative thin ing and expect to perform well,.

b" Particular strategies use eye contact to stop blin ing, breathe regularly to calm down,

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if your hands are trembling, don"t hold your notes in your hand, put them on the table, come early and chit - chat to the audience, if you sweat, dress thin, if your mouth is dry, put the tongue on your teeth and bite it to get saliva, if you have a tight throat, yawn to relax it.

(" &inding /our voice Dery few people are really aware of the 5ualities of their voices. #ll our life we hear our voice through the bone of the 0aw, while everyone else hears it straight from our mouth. +earing yourself on tape for the first time can be a shoc . #n effective spea er nows that the :presentation; voice can be used for a variety of purposes* to maintain the attention of the audience, to underline certain passages. ,he :presentation; voice should be clear )clear pronunciation of plosives such as p, b, t, d, , g, especially at the end of words$ and modulated. It should also be audible and powerful. ,he spea er should spea with a full voice, proving the same energy at the beginning and the end of his speech. a" Voice energ/ # full voice does not mean a loud voice but one with resonance. Spea ers with soft voices can be heard only on condition the audience strains to do this. # soft voice is the result of improper, shallow breathing. .reathing from the top of your lungs will put a strain on your throat muscles. 8sing and filling only the top half of you lungs ma es you breathless and you can run out of air in the middle of a sentence. ,he deeper you breathe, the more air you will have to sustain your voice and pro0ect it to all your listeners. # good exercise for breathing correctly is breathe in )inhale$, count to ten, and breathe out )exhale$. 1illing your lungs will enable you to*

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finish long sentences without interruptions, calm down, ta e the strain off your larynx, so that you will be able to pro0ect your voice correctly.

b" @o7 to be understood" # clear message is given by good diction and correct pronunciation of each sound and letter. ,he accent and personality needn"t change because of this attention given to the way we pronounce the words. It 0ust minimi/es the ris of being misunderstood. 3ne of the causes of bad diction is swallowing sounds. 7ou should pronounce* (ood morning; instead of :(morning. 5ittle; instead of :lile #nother cause is the fact that many people spea with their teeth together, hardly moving the lips. c" Adding variet/" !ven if your words are colorful, inspiring and stimulating, if your voice is monotonous you now what happens* people will start a conversation with the person next to them or fall asleep altogether. Some spea ers have a voice that is naturally coloured, others have to wor on it to ma e it sound more interesting. 7ou can enliven your voice by adding volume, speed, pitch and by pauses )time lapse between words$ Do not forget. spea in a conversational voice, vary your voice, change pace, pause,
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spea clearly, do not rush.

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1 at ave /ou learnt2 1. &ractice the following HF& )neurolinguistic programming$ exercise to relax* 2emember a moment in your past when you felt confident and calm, 2emember the bac ground - where you were, the people

present, Introduce yourself in the picture, ,ry to remember the positive feelings you had then.

If you practice the exercise often enough, it will be easy to recreate that atmosphere and feelings of confidence before each presentation. '. &ractice the following diction improving exercise* &eter the private detective has perfect pitch. ,iny tots and tiny teenagers get tric y trips to ,ottenham. Ling Long calls for cups of tea at twenty past two. (iggling girls gather glorious gladioli in gorgeous gardens. ,heodore ,hic thumb thrusts his thic thumb through a thorny thic et with thirty three thousand thistles. She sells sea-shells on the sea shore. ,he shells she sells are sea-shells.

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