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Main points: Covers Chapter 3 (First Week of Development: Ovulation to Implantation), Chapter 4 (Se on! Week of Development: "ilaminar #erm Dis ), an! Chapter $ (%hir! Week of Development: %rilaminar #erm Dis )
Main points: 1. This slide is one of those -ta*e.home message/ types. !t is crucial for everyone to understand that development happens fast and early in pregnancy even before omen realize they are pregnant. 2. 0uring the embryonic period 1&.2 ee*s( see slide3" the primordia of each organ system is established" and it is at this time that each organ is most sensitive to the induction of a birth defect. !t does not mean that the rest of gestation 1 ee* 4 to birth3 can be ignored from a birth defects standpoint" ho ever. For e5ample" the brain continues to develop even postnatally and remains sensitive to insult from many factors" including drugs li*e alcohol 1alcohol e5posure during gestation is the leading cause of mental retardation3" but the baby is less li*ely to have a ma#or structural defect induced after the eighth ee*. Therefore" since most omen do not go to their first prenatal visit until the eighth ee* 1i.e." after the period of greatest sensitivity3" it is imperative that birth defects prevention programs begin prior to conception! &. )nother issue is calculating embryonic age. 6n this slide and throughout the te5t" embryonic age is calculated from fertilization. 7ost physicians calculate the age as gestational or menstrual age and use the Last 8ormal 7enstrual 9eriod 1L8793 as the starting point. This practice is very inaccurate since only +', of omen ovulate ithin a :.day period around the midpoint of their cycle. Some actually ovulate ithin &.; days of the end of their last menstrual period. !n any case" since fertilization is supposed to occur at the midpoint of the cycle" the L879 method
begins 2 ee*s prior to actual fertilization. Therefore" converting fertilization age to L879 age re<uires adding 2 ee*s.
autoimmune diseases li*e systemic lupus erythematosus" the process may not function properly" possibly resulting in infertility. ;. The trophoblast is the invading tissue" and it differentiates into t o cell types: the syncytiotrophoblast" hich forms a syncytium and is actively invasive and secretes hormones li*e human chorionic gonadotropin 1h=G3" the basis for pregnancy tests( and the cytotrophoblast" hich provides a proliferative pool of cells that move into the syncytiotrophoblast. +. The invasion of the blastocyst is similar to gro th of a tumor and can sometimes become unregulated. The result is formation of a hydatidiform mole. 1See ne5t slide.3
1. The ne5t series of slides provides some information about assisted reproductive technologies 1in vitro fertilization3. They are relevant because 1, of all births in the Cnited States arise from these procedures" and there are significant complications ith these pregnancies.
Slide 1;: )dverse outcomes from )DT Slide 1+: Graph of adverse outcomes from )DT
Main points: 1. There is an increase in lo birth eight" very lo birth eight" and premature births among )DT babies. 7ost of this is due to the fact that the techni<ues often result in multiple birth pregnancies" hich are al ays high ris*.
Main points: 1. Bven in singleton )DT pregnancies" there is an increased ris* for lo birth eight" possibly suggesting that something inherent in the procedures is having an adverse effect.
Slide 14: =ross sections through implantation sites. The slide is used for a demonstration of
both early placental and embryonic development. Main points (pla enta): 1. Trophoblast cells contribute to the fetal portion of the placenta. 2. 6n the ninth day" spaces 1lacunae3 form in the invading syncytiotrophoblast.
&. Eithin a fe days" these spaces fill ith maternal blood as the syncytiotrophoblast erodes uterine vessels. ;. )s the spaces fill ith blood" finger.li*e pro#ections of syncytiotrophoblast covering a core of cytotrophoblast pro#ect into the blood.filled regions. These represent primary villi" and most form on the embryonic pole. +. )nother layer" the e5traembryonic mesoderm" forms around the embryo and yol* sac and inside the cytotrophoblast. !nitially" this layer is solid" but soon spaces appear causing a separation into t o layers: e5traembryonic splanchnopleuric mesoderm 1splanchnic or visceral layer3 around the yol* sac and embryo" and e5traembryonic somatopleuric mesoderm 1somatic or parietal layer3 lining the inside of the cytotrophoblast. 1)ll of these terms are potentially confusing. Therefore" it is perhaps best to refer to these layers as visceral and parietal because these are the terms that ill be used later for all other layers that relate to organ systems. For e5ample" the layer on the e5ternal surface of an organ is the visceral layer Fvisceral pleura" visceral peritoneum" etc.G" hereas the layer along the body cavity or all is called the parietal layer Fparietal pleura" parietal peritoneum" etc.G. Similarly" the mesoderm layer that lies ad#acent to the embryo and yol* sac is the visceral layer" hile the layer ad#acent to the trophoblast is the parietal layer3. The parietal layer eventually is referred to as the chorionic plate or chorion" and the space bet een the layers is called the chorionic cavity. >oth layers are continuous at the connecting stal* and ill be important for forming blood vessels.
Slide 2': !llustration of sagittal section of the embryo and membranes that summarizes events
of the second ee* Main points: 1. )t the end of the second ee*" e are li*e a chic* embryo ith the embryonic disc 16reo coo*ie3 sitting on top of a yol* sac. 2. The second ee* can be called the A ee* of t o@s.A 1See slide.3 )lso" there are three cavities formed: amniotic" yol* sac" and chorionic.
of the embryonic disc 16reo coo*ie3 at the beginning of the third ee*
Main points: 1. T o features appear in the epiblast: 13 the primitive strea*" a shallo groove at the caudal end of the embryo( and 23 the oropharyngeal membrane" a disc.shaped region of tightly adhering epiblast and hypoblast cells. This is the primitive membrane bet een the oral cavity and the pharyn5. !t ill eventually degenerate by programmed cell death to create an opening into the pharyngeal portion of the gut. 2. These t o features demonstrate that the head 1cranial3 and tail 1caudal3 ends of the embryo have been established.
Main points: 1. Bstablishment of the cranial.caudal a5is re<uires molecular signals from t o regions. First" the anterior visceral endoderm 1)JB3" consisting of hypoblast cells at the cranial end of the embryonic disc" e5presses head.forming genes. These signals are reinforced by those from a region 1a shallo circular depression3 at the cranial end of the primitive strea* called the node. The main head.inducing gene from this region is goosecoid 1a transcription factor3. 2. 6ther signals from the node specify dorsal and ventral regions of the embryo by interacting ith bone morphogenetic protein 1>793. This protein is secreted as a gro th factor in all regions and cells at this stage of development. !f this protein is not inhibited" then mesoderm becomes -ventralized/ to form intermediate mesoderm 1urogenital system3 and lateral plate mesoderm 1limbs and ventral body all3. !f it is inhibited" then mesoderm becomes -dorsalized/ and forms para5ial mesoderm 1somites FvertebraeG3 and notochord. Genes e5pressed in the node inhibit >79s. Goosecoid upregulates chordin 1a gro th factor3" hile noggin" follistatin" and nodal 1all gro th factors3 are secreted by the node" and all of these proteins inhibit >79s.
ins Main points: 1. !n frogs" overe5pression of goosecoid causes double.headed tadpoles. 9erhaps one ay for this type of con#oined t ins to form is by the same mechanism" hereby too much signaling from goosecoid induces additional head regions.
Main points: 1. 8ot only does the early embryo *no its head from its tail" it also *no s its left from its right. 2. First fibroblast gro th factor 1FGF3 is secreted by cells in the node. This causes the gro th factor nodal to be secreted by the node and then concentrated to the left side by the action of cilia on cells in the node. The ciliated cells establish a polarized beat to the left side by some un*no n mechanism 1maybe electrical3. &. =oncentration of nodal on the left initiates a cascade of gene e5pression on that side" culminating in e5pression of the transcription factor 9!TK2( the master gene for establishing left.sidedness.
;. 7echanisms to establish the right side are not clear but may involve e5pression of snail.
Main points: 1. Gastrulation is the process of ma*ing the three germ layers from the epiblast by cell migration. !t transforms the embryonic disc from a bilaminar structure 16reo coo*ie ithout the icing3 to a trilaminar structure 16reo coo*ie ith the icing3. 2. Gastrulation begins hen cells of the epiblast proliferate and migrate to ard the primitive strea* 1arro s3.
of the embryonic disc and a cross section through the primitive strea* sho ing the process of gastrulation Main points: 1. =ells of the epiblast move to ard the strea*" turn in ard" detach from their epiblast neighbors" and migrate beneath the remaining epiblast cells to establish t o ne cell layers. 2. Some of the first cells to migrate into the strea* displace the hypoblast cells" such that the hypoblast layer ill be completely replaced ith a ne set of cells. Thus" the hypoblast does not contribute any cells to the embryo@s development( all of them arise from the epiblast. &. )dditional cells assume an intermediate position bet een the ventral cells" replacing the hypoblast and cells that remain in the epiblast. This middle 1icing3 layer ma*es the embryo trilaminar.
of the embryonic disc sho ing direction of migrating cells and a sagittal section through the midline sho ing prenotochordal and notochordal cells
Main points: 1. =ells move in through all regions of the primitive strea*" including the node. )s they move through the strea*" their fates are specified. For e5ample" cells moving through the most cranial aspect of the primitive node ill form prechordal and notochordal cells( #ust lateral to this region" cells ill form heart cell precursors and so on. 2. Some cells move through the cranial aspect of the node and migrate in the midline directly to ard the oropharyngeal membrane. These cells ill form prechordal and notochordal cells that ill be critical for inducing the brain and establishing the midline.
Slide 24: Sagittal 1)3 and cross sections 1> and =3 sho
ing notochord development Main points: 1. Sagittal section sho ing midline location of the prechordal and notochordal cells and the cut lines for > and =. 2. )s cells that ill form the notochord move through the node" they first intercalate themselves into the hypoblast to form the notochordal plate 1>3. &. )s differentiation continues" these cells detach from the hypoblast and form a continuous line of cells called the notochord. This structure is critical for establishing the midline and the a5is of the embryo. !t eventually forms the nucleus pulposus of each intervertebral disc.
Slide &': =ross section through the trilaminar embryonic disc sho
Main points: 1. The result of gastrulation is formation of a trilaminar 16reo coo*ie complete ith icing3 embryo" and the three layers are called the germ layers because they ill -germinate/ all of the tissues and organs of the embryo. 2. The three layers include ectoderm" formed from cells that remain in the epiblast( mesoderm" formed from cells that migrate in through the primitive strea* to form the middle germ layer" including the prechordal plate and notochord( and endoderm" formed by cells migrating through the strea* and displacing the hypoblast cells. &. Gastrulation progresses in a cranial to caudal direction. Thus" the head region becomes trilaminar first" then the nec*" thora5" and so on do n the body a5is. The process starts at the beginning of the third ee* and continues until near the end of the fourth ee*. ;. Bctoderm basically represents tissues that come in contact ith the outside orld" such as the s*in" brain and spinal cord" and eyes and ears. +. 7esoderm forms the heart and urogenital system and the tissues that hold everything together 1most bones and connective tissue3. ?. Bndoderm is related to the gut and its derivatives.