FYBMS Environmental Management Notes.

Chapter 1 : BASICS OF ENVIRONMEN

The dictionary meaning of the term environment is surroundings - the region surrounding or circumstances in which anything exists, everything external to the organisms. Environment therefore, refers to the sum of total conditions that surround man at a given point in space and time. The term environment was introduced in Ecology by biologist Jacob an !er"ul #$%&'-$('') to denote these aspects of the world surroundings, with reference to organisms. The field of environment involves an understanding of the scientific principles, economic influences and political actions attending these aspects. Y!ES OF ENVIRONMEN The environmental can be divided into physical biological and cultural environment. *n the basis of the structure the environment may be divided into fundamental types + The ,biotic or -hysical environment consisting of air, water and soil.sediment. The /iotic or /iological environment consisting of flora, fauna and micro-organism al Environment is further subdivided into three broad categories0 , 1ithosphere #sphere of roc" .soil.sediment) / 2ydrosphere #sphere of water) 3 ,tmosphere #sphere of gas) The biotic components of the environment consist of plant#flora), animal#fauna), including man as an important component and micro-organism. Thus, the biological.biotic environment can be further subdivided into0 , 4lora . -lant Environment / 4auna .,nimal Environment 3 5icrobial Environment E"EMEN S OF #E ENVIRONMEN A. Bioti$ Components: The ,biotic components comprise the inorganic substances #carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc), and come mainly from the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. "ithosphere : The oceanic and the continental crust and the rigid upper portion of the mantle of the earth constitute the lithosphere. The economically useful elements #minerals ,metals, roc", fossil fuels), essential for man are basically from the lithosphere. The lithosphere occupies 678 of the total Earths surface. 1and formations li"e the mountains plateau and plain supply habitat for plants and animals. The type of the economy depends upon the topography of the area. -lains are suitable for agriculture and industrial activity.

Atmosphere : The multi-layered gaseous envelope surrounding the planet earth is atmosphere. The atmosphere is a significant component of the natural environment. ,ll the necessary gasses #oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon-dioxide, and water vapour), sources for the sustenance of all the life forms in the biosphere are components of atmosphere. The atmosphere filters the incoming ultra-violet #! ) radiation and protects the earths surface from abnormal features such as cancer . mutation in organisms. #%&rosphere:

This is the sphere of water consisting of surface, ground and ocean water. Seventy-one % of the Earths surface is in water. Glaciers and ice caps cover additional areas. Water plays an immense role in the sustaina le environment alance of the earth. Water is essential for the industry, transportation, power generation, food production and processing, and the manufacturing sectors of the modern world. !orever, "#% of the ody of the organism is constituted y water. The alance of water is maintained through circulation of water in the iosphere is maintained through circulation of water among the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere y characteristic path ways. The circulation along the characteristic pathways is $nown as the hydrological cycle. B Biotic Component
/iotic or living components of the environment consist of flora #plant), fauna #animal), and micro-organisms. The biotic components are the drivers of the energy flow and the material cycles in the biosphere. *n the basis of the relationship among nutrients, the biota can be divided into two groups + ,utotrophic or self-nourishing components #e.g. all green plants) and heterotrophic components #e.g. all animals). A'totrophi$ $omponents: 9reen plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria constitute the biotic ,utotrophic component of the ecosystems are able to fix light energy and manufacture food from simple inorganic substances li"e water and carbon dioxide by photosynthesis. This group of organisms is also "nown as producers. #eterotrophi$ Components: 4ungi, non-photosynthetic bacteria and other organisms and animals are the components of heterotrophic. 3onsumers are organism li"e herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores in the order of occurrence in the food chain. 2erbivores feed on plants, carnivores feed on animal and omnivores feed on both plants and animals. 2erbivores are also called as primary consumers and carnivores and omnivores are "nown as secondary and tertiary consumers, respectively. :ecomposers are also "nown as sapotrophs and consist mainly bacteria and fungi. They brea" down complex compounds of the dead organisms, absorb some of the decomposed or brea"down products and release inorganic nutrients into the environment, thus ma"ing them available again to the autotrophs. RE"A IONS#I! A (IFFEREN "EVE"S The biotic component is the functional "ingdom of nature, because it is based on the type of nutrition and is the energy source of all biota of the biosphere. The biotic components are arranged following a systematic pattern where all organisms are connected step-wise to each other in the ecosystem according to their food habits. The steps or levels of the

ecosystem are "nown as trophic levels. ,ll trophic levels are closely interrelated with each other from the view point of food transfer and supplements to the biosphere, which is further connected with the economic environment of humans. ;elationship among the different levels can be better understood by analysis of the functional aspects #material cycle and energy flow) of the ecosystem. #E CARBON CYC"E The carbon cycle is one of the important cycles at the global levels. 3arbon moves in the biosphere through various pathways. 2uman activities are ma"ing a significant impact on the global carbon cycle. The burning of fossil fuel, agro-industrial activity, deforestation etc. are increasing in the concentration in the atmosphere steadily. 4lows between the atmosphere and the oceans were balanced until the onset of the industrial age. The atmospheric 3*< enters the plants at the time of photosynthesis. This is a process by which plants prepare their own food in the presence of sunlight. The carbon from 3*< is retained inside the plant and the oxygen is released into the environment. ,nimals eat plants and so the stored carbon enters their bodies. This carbon is then released bac" into the atmosphere by respiration. =ometimes trees, plants and animals get buried in the earths crust, and then due to immense pressure and heat this organic matter after thousands of years gets turned into fossil fuels. These fossil fuels are ta"en out of the ground by man and are burned, again releasing carbon bac" into the atmosphere. #E NI RO)EN CYC"E >itrogen is the most abundant element in the atmosphere. ?t is a vital element for all the living systems. ?t is the primary nutrient for all green plants, but it must be modified before it can be utili@ed by most living systems. 4our processes participate in the cycling of nitrogen through biosphere >itrogen 4ixation ,mmonification >itrification :enitrification
NI RO)EN FI*A ION

4irst step in the > 3ycle ---is the conversion of nitrogen gas #><) into >26 or organic nitrogen. Three processes are responsible for the most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere0 ,tmospheric fixation by lighting ?ndustrial fixation by humans /iological fixation by certain microbes, alone or in a symbiotic relationship with plants.
AMMONIFICA ION

This is the biochemical process whereby nitrogen is released from nitrogen containing organic compounds. =oil bacteria decompose organic nitrogen forms in soil to the ammonium form. This process is referred to as ammonification.
NI RIFICA ION

>itrification is the conversion of >2' to >*6. This aerobic reaction is carried out by ,utotrophic bacteria.
(ENI RIFICA ION

This involves conversion of>*6 to >< gas in the presence of low oxygen levels. #E #Y(RO"O)ICA" CYC"E: Aater is essential to life. Aithout it the biosphere that exists on the surface of the earth would not be possible. >ic"named the BwaterC planet, earth is covered by one of our most precious resources. 2owever almost (68 is loc"ed in the ocean, toxic to humans and many plants and animals. The hydrologic cycle ta"es place in the hydrosphere, the region containing all the water in the atmosphere and on the surface of the earth. The cycle is the movement of the water through this hydrosphere. The components of the hydro cycle are0 3ondensation ?nfiltration ;un + off Evaporation -recipitation + his $%$le sho'l& ,e e-plaine& in &etail C"ASSIFICA ION OF ECOSYS EM Ecosystems are classified as $. >atural ecosystem <. ,rtificial #man-engineered) ecosystem NA .RA" ECOSYS EMS ?t operates by themselves under natural condition without any maDor interference by man. *n the basis of habitat, natural ecosystem are further divided as terrestrial, as forest grassland, desert, etc.and aEuatic. ,Euatic ecosystem are further distinguished as 4reshwater that may be lotic #running water as a spring, stream, river) or lentic #standing water as a la"e, pond, pool, puddle, ditch, swamp etc.) and marine, such deep as bodies as an ocean and shallow ones as a sea, estuary etc. AR IFICIA" /MAN0EN)INEERE(1 ECOSYS EMS This is maintained by man, by addition of energy and planned manipulation. 4or example croplands li"e wheat, rice fields etc. where man tries to control the biotic community as well as the physical-chemical environment, are artificial ecosystem. Ecosystems

>atural

5an + made

Terrestrial

,Euatic

5arine

4reshwater

1otic

1entic

#E CONCE! OF ECOBA"ANCE Ecological balance is the state of dynamic eEuilibrium within a community of organism. The ecological balance of an area can be evaluated assessing the consumptions of energy and raw material, generation of emission, waste and the cost. There are areas of eco-imbalance all over the world and this need to be addressed in a manner that mitigates the imbalances. REASONS FOR ECO"O)ICA" IMBA"ANCE $) 1ac" of cooperation, more competition There is lac" of co-operation among the maDor nation, to help in resolution of current environmental problems. The problems are not addressed in a realistic way. =ome of these nations, moreover, are the most offenders. ?nstead of co-operation, competition in the present practice. ,s a result, eco balance has been deteriorated drastically. <) !ncontrolled exploitation and utili@ation of resources !ncontrolled exploitation of non-renewable resources and over- utili@ation of resources for economic growth without considering ecological viability is another important reason for ecoimbalance. 6) Environmental pollution ?nefficient or bac"dated technologies are creating havoc with the pollutants leading to pollution loads in the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. therefore, normal functioning of the atmosphere is disrupted significantly, and causing global environmental problems li"e the green house effect, o@one holes, acid rains, global warming, climate change etc. ') ?nappropriate management of waste Aastes generated from industrial as well as agricultural activities are not managed properly. , huge amount of solid and ha@ardous waste are discarded or disposed to the environment without considering the health of the ecosystem. 5aDor cree"s have been used for dumping of the waste therefore causing imbalance in the oceanic environment. F) -opulation explosion -opulation growth is the mother of all environment degradation. *ver-populated areas are generally have the problem of deforestation, destruction of biodiversity, lac" of resources, regeneration, etc. conseEuently, changes in the landscape. Ecological states and environmental pollution ta"es place and at any cost ethics for business come into play. Therefore, the ecological balance is again disrupted.

NEE( FOR ENVIRONMEN A" S .(IES The urgent need to protect the environment ,in order to maintain the Euality of life, has now been identified globally. Environmental protection starts by creating awareness among people that it becomes a part of their style . the important features of the subDect are0 a) ?t is very important for each individual for self-fulfillment and social development. ?t helps in the maintenance of life and health, in self- preservation, and in the preservation of the human race. b) ?t helps to understand different food chains and the ecological balance in nature. c) ?t helps to understand and appreciates how the environment is used for ma"ing a living and for promoting a material culture d) ?t helps in appreciating and enDoying nature and society. e) ?t is concerned with the changing the environment in a systematic manner for the immediate as well as future welfare of man"ind. f) ?t directs attention toward problems of population explosion, exhaustion of natural resources and pollution of the environment, and throws light on the methods of solution. OB2EC IVES The obDectives of environmental education are to help social groups and individual to acEuire0 a) ,wareness 0 acEuire an awareness of the environment as a whole and it is allied problems and sensitivity b) Gnowledge 0gain a variety of experiences and acEuire a basic understanding of the environment and its associated problems . c) ,ttitude 0 acEuire a set of values and feeling of concern for the environment and the motivation for active participation in the environmental improvement and protection. d) ="ill 0 acEuire s"ill to identify and solve the environmental problems. e) Evaluation ability0 develop the ability to evaluate environmental measures and education programme in terms of ecological, economic, social, and aesthetic factors. f) -articipation0 to provide an opportunity to be actively involved at all levels of wor"ing towards the solution of environmental problems. 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

Chapter 3
CONSERVA ION OF NA .RA" RESO.RCES (e4inition. BConservation is the wise management of the biosphere #lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere) for the benefit of all life, including human beings, in such a way that the natural ecosystems are maintained as well as utili@ed in a planned manner. This would yield sustainable benefit to the present generation and also maintain its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of the future generations.C BReso'r$e means a source of supply or support generally held in reserve.C

The natural resources are the various life supporting components of the biosphere, which can be drawn and utili@ed by the organisms from their environment. These resources include energy, air, water, land #soil), minerals, microorganisms, plants, animals, forests, forest products, fuels, etc. hreat o4 the e$ologi$al $risis. ?n every ecosystem, the biotic and abiotic components are closely interrelated and through their interactions, they naturally manage to maintain the ecological balance. =imilarly, various organisms present in any given ecosystem live as components of their natural environment and abide by the laws of nature. ?n addition, for this reason, the natural, undisturbed ecosystems are able to maintain the eEuilibrium of nature. *n the other hand, man has created his own ecosystem. =ince man is the only animal who has understood the nature, he has always interfered and changed it as per as his needs and desire. ?n the process, he has destroyed the natural ecosystems. ?ndiscriminate and nonDudicious exploitation of nature and natural resources in an unplanned manner by man has disturbed the natures balance. This is creating a condition of e$ologi$al $risis all over the world. ?f this is not stopped with immediate effect, the present ecological crisis will lead to the point of no return resulting in total disintegration of the nature. The conseEuences will be disastrous and devastating not only for man but for the entire life on earth. Nee& 4or $onservation. Thus, it is obvious that if we want to save the human race as well as the enormous diversity of life on earth, we must at once adapt and implement some distinct measures for conservation of nature and natural resources. This is to insure planned, Dudicious and controlled use of life-sustaining natural systems. *ur late -rime 5inister =mt. ?ndira 9andhi while launching the Aorld 3onservation =trategy in ?ndia on & 5arch $(%7 emphasi@ed our ancient tradition of care, conservation and worship of trees and animals. ?n her, own words Bthe interest in conservation is not sentimental one but the rediscovery of a truth well-"nown to our sages. The ?ndian tradition teaches us that all forms of life, human, animal and plants are so closely lin"ed that disturbance in one gives rise to imbalance in the others.C Aims o4 $onservation. $. To maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems. <. To preserve biological diversity, and 6. To insure a continuous yield of useful plants, animals and materials by establishing a balanced cycle of harvest and renewal. 3onservation is aimed at helping social and economic development. RENE5AB"E AN( NON0RENE5AB"E RESO.RCES 5ore commonly, natural resources are classified as $. <. Ine-ha'sti,le i.e. wind, tidal energy, precipitation, etc. and E-ha'sti,le e.g. ground water, minerals, fuels, food, forests, etc.

Table showing renewable and non-renewable natural resources ?nexhaustible etc. >atural ;esources Exhaustible /iotic- #i) 3rops, forests, other ;enewable vegetations #ii) Aild and domestic animals. #iii) 5icroorganisms. ,biotic + Aater, soil, etc. 5etals + iron, @inc, copper, etc. >on4ossil fuels + coal, oil deposits, etc. ;enewable 5inerals and their salts + phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, etc. Aind, tidal energy, precipitation,

The e-ha'sti,le reso'r$es are further classified into two categories. a. Rene6a,le reso'r$es. The resources that can be regenerated artificially or naturally #such as from the biomass of living organisms) are called renewable resources. E.g. crops, forests and other vegetations, wild and domestic animals, microorganisms, water, land #soil), etc. b. Non 7 Rene6a,le reso'r$es. >on + renewable resources are those natural resources which cannot be regenerated or replaced after use or which lac" the ability for recycling. ;esources with a very long recycling time are also considered non + renewable e.g. fossil fuels #li"e coal, oil, natural gas) metals, minerals and ores, roc"s, etc. The nature and importance of some of the natural resources is considered here. ,. "an& /soil1. ?t is a renewable natural resource. =oil is the complex mixture of physical, chemical and biological components. ?t is an important abiotic factor of ecosystem as it provides water, nutrients and anchorage to plants #producers). The presence and nature of vegetation in any area largely depend on the Euality of soil and the various edaphic factors. (egra&ation o4 soil. 5isuse or improper use of soil results in degradation of soil. =uch soil becomes unsuitable for plant growth. :egradation of soil causes loss of vegetation and this, in turn, adversely affects climate and the environment. 2ence, conservation and proper management of soil is very important and essential. /. 5ater. Aater is a vitally important renewable natural resource. ,ll organisms need water for survival. ;ivers, la"es, ponds, and ground water are the reservoirs of fresh water while oceans are the huge reservoirs of marine water. ;ainwater is the natural source for the renewal.replenishment of the water in these reservoirs. :raught and floods are the two main natural factors responsible for the loss of natural water resources directly or indirectly. ?n addition, non-Dudicious use and undue wastage by man

also contribute towards the loss of available water. ?n addition, pollution of water renders it unsuitable for consumption as well as for existence of aEuatic flora and fauna. ;eduction in soil water or non-availability of water directly affects vegetation growth and disturbs the environment as a whole. Aater can be conserved by holding the rainwater in catchments areas by constructing dams and then regulating the water supply through canals. =imilarly, growing vegetation cover helps to retain soil water.

3. Forests. 4orests are the vast renewable natural resources. 4orests are of immense biological and ecological significance. 4or exampleH #i) They are the source of forest products li"e fuel, timber, lumber, food, medicinal plants, fodder, etc. #ii) They provide ideal habitat for wild life. #iii) They provide vegetation cover to the soil and thus chec" surface evaporation, increase water-retaining capacity of soil and prevent floods and soil erosion by soil binding. #iv) They help in recycling of moisture in the nature and regulate rainfall. ?ndiscriminate deforestation reduces rainfall, groundwater level and ma"es the land barren. This alters the climate of the region. ?n addition, it disturbs and destroys the wild life. 2ence, conservation of forest is essential. There should be proper balance between harvest of forest and its resources on the one hand and the afforestation on the other. (. 5il&li4e. ?n a broader sense, the term wildlife covers any or all organisms which are non-cultivated #e.g. wild plants) and non-domesticated #e.g. wild animals). ?t also includes microorganisms and all other lesser-"nown human beings. *ne important and essential characteristic feature of the wildlife is that they are very well adapted to their natural environmental conditions. 2ence, they grow and survive in their natural habitat without the care of human beings. Existence of wildlife at all levels of the food chains in any ecosystem is essential for maintaining the ecological balance of that ecosystem. ?n addition, it must be saved and preserved to maintain the diversity of life. 2owever, wildlife is often threatened with elimination from the region or e-tin$tion from the earth. Thus, to save the wildlife and preserve the diversity of life on earth, it is essential to ta"e definite steps towards conservation of wildlife. E. Foo&. Terrestrial agriculture is the main source of food for human beings. 2owever, the total land in the world under cultivation is not enough to provide adeEuate supply of food for the everincreasing human population. 2ence, this creates a condition of food crisis resulting in starvation, malnutrition, etc. To deal with this crisis, modern agricultural practices are used. This involves industriali@ation of agriculture and to supplement the agricultural products, the a8'a$'lt're #fish farming) and mari$'lt're #aEuaculture in oceans) are proving to be of immense value. ?n fact,

oceans have an unlimited potential as source of protein-rich food and raw material, if Dudiciously used. 4. Minerals. These are one of the non-renewable natural resources. *rganisms need various minerals for normal metabolism and healthy growth. /esides this, huge Euantities of minerals are constantly being used in industries and for technological and cultural purposes. The two main sources of minerals are0 #i) The earths crust and the parent roc"s for terrestrial minerals and #ii) The oceans for the marine minerals. The minerals largely used are of two types 0#a) Metalli$ minerals #e.g. iron, copper, silver, gold, aluminum, lead, @inc, etc.) and #b) Non0metalli$ minerals #e.g. coal, sand, petroleum products, salts, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.) 9. F'els an& the energ% $risis. Energy is the capacity to do wor". ?t is needed by all organisms for maintenance of life. =imilarly, energy is needed constantly and on very large scale for domestic, industrial and technological purposes. ?n fact, the progress of human civili@ation and the economic growth of every country largely depend on the resource and supply of energy. The more commonly used conventional source of energy is the various "inds of 4ossil 4'els. These in$l'&e petrole'm9 nat'ral gas #e.g. methane), coal, and s%n4'els #i.e. naturally occurring organic products which can be converted into synthetic petroleum) such as oil shale, tar sands, etc. These account for nearly (78 of the worlds production of $ommer$ial energ%, the remaining $78 coming from the hydroelectric and nuclear power resources. This will be clear from the following figures. *il - 6(.F8 2ydroelectric + &.I8 3oal - 67.68 >uclear power + 6.(8 >atural gas - $(.&8 2owever, all the fossil fuels are the e-ha'sti,le non0rene6a,le natural resources and shall be finished eventually. The reali@ation of this fact is creating the fear of unavoidable energ% $risis all over the world. 2ence, much before the crisis is reached, it is imperative to #i) ,dapt urgent measures to conserve and regulate the existing stoc" of non-renewable energy resources and #ii) To find some suitable inexhaustible and.or renewable alternative energy resources. ?n this regard, the following non0$onventional rene6a,le so'r$es of energy hold considerable potential and promise, if investigated and exploited properly. These are =olar energy #i) Aind energy #ii) Tidal #ocean) energy #iii) 9eothermal energy, etc. ?n addition, there are number of biomass-based renewable energ% s%stems. These include energy sources such as #i) 4ire wood

#ii) -etro plants #i.e. potential plant species, which can be the source of liEuid hydrocarbons to be used as a substitute for liEuid fuels. #iii) /iogas #iv) Electric energy, etc. ECO"O)ICA" CRISIS Environment is Bthe sum total of all conditions and influences that affect the development of life of organisms,C while ecology is Bthe overall study of the interactions and interrelationships of organisms and their environment.C ,ll natural ecosystems are capable of self-maintenance and are very delicately balanced. The over 'se, mis'se, and a,'se of natural resources by the modern man during the last couple of centuries have grossly disturbed the balance of most natural ecosystems of the world. Therefore, for the first time in his cultural history, man is faced with the most serious ecological problem i.e. the e$ologi$al $risis. RO"E OF MAN IN C#AN)IN) ENVIRONMEN The condition of ecological crisis is reached because of the degradation of the ecosystems. This is the outcome of the over exploitation of natural resources by man. This was inevitable in view of the population explosion, technological advancement, industriali@ation, profit oriented capitalism, unplanned urbani@ation, modern agricultural practices, deforestation, etc. the cumulative effect of all these activities of man, especially during $(th and <7th centuries, is the induction of undesirable changes in the environment #soil, water, air) ma"ing it less suitable for organisms. This is called environmental poll'tion, which ultimately is responsible for the present e$ologi$al $risis. =ome of the human activities responsible for changing environment and conseEuent ecological crisis are discussed here. Man an& Farming. ,griculture involves intervention and modification of natural ecosystems. The demand of various agricultural products has been constantly increasing because of the ever-increasing human population. Therefore, man has been trying to extract more and more from the available land. This involved heavy use of synthetic chemical fertili@ers, manipulation of soil conditions by tillage, control of soil moisture by irrigation and drainage, etc. *n the one hand, this helped to increase the agricultural production whileH on the other hand, these chemicals have caused considerable degradation of the environment over the years. 4or exampleH $. :eforestation over the years for clearing the land for agriculture has destroyed flora and fauna of large number of ecosystems all over the world. <. ?ntense cultivation without proper soil management leads to soil erosion, depletion of soil nutrients and desertification. 6. ?rrigation without proper drainage leads to water logging, salination and degradation of the Euality of soil. '. ?ndiscriminate use of chemical fertili@ers and crop protectants, especially of the nonbiodegradable types, results in their accumulation in harmful concentrations in soil, water, etc. They also accumulate in bodies of organisms causing various health problems.

In&'striali:ation: ?ndustries provide all the essential as well as luxurious modern amenities. Their role in improving life styles and standards of human societies cannot be denied. ?ndustries have become indispensable component of the modern age. 2owever, industries have adversely affected and changed the environment e.g. $. 1and for setting up industries is acEuired either by deforestation or by converting agricultural land. <. ?ndustries consume huge Euantities of raw materials and energy. This results in over exploitation of natural resources and disturbs natural cycles and balance of nature. 6. The various poisonous gases, smo"e, etc. released from industries pollute soil and water. Thus, industries are growth of industries is the main cause of unplanned urbani@ation leading to uneEual distribution of human population. ?n addition, greater the population, greater is the pollution of the given environment. Thus, while industries have become an essential component of modern life, they are also the main factor of degradation of environment and ecosystems. 2ence, industries may be described as the ;ne$essar% evils< of the modern age. e$hnologi$al gro6th. Technology is closely lin"ed with or is inseparable from science. The two are complementary to each other. The scientific "nowledge is used to develop a technology and then the technology used for the advancement of science and benefit of man"ind. The advancement in biotechnology during the past few decades has immensely helped in the field of cell and molecular biology, genetic engineering, medicines, medical application, etc. This has resulted in increasing longevity of life and reducing in death rate. 3onseEuently, the global human population continued to increase at alarming rate resulting in the present pop'lation e-plosion. This is especially true for our own country. Aith the population growth, all "inds of ecological problems also came up leading towards the ecological crisis. !oll'tion. B-ollution refers to any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristic of our environment #air, water, soil) that may or will adversely affect human or other species and life-supporting systems of our biosphere directly or indirectly.C , substance or factor whose presence can damage the usefulness of a resource is called the poll'tant. 1arge Euantities of various gaseous, liEuid and solid waste generated by industry and other human activities act as pollutants. These are grouped into two main categories0 $. Bio&egra&a,le poll'tants e.g. human and animal wastes, agro based residues and fertili@ers, etc. 2owever, these can be harmful if their input exceeds the decomposing capacity of the ecosystem. <. Non0,io&egra&a,le poll'tants e.g. heavy metals, :.:.T, pesticides, etc. These enter the food chains and they may be magnified to dangerous levels in higher tropic organisms.

The various categories of common pollutants may be listed as follows. $. (eposite& matter #e.g. soot, smo"e, tan, dust, grit) <. )ases #e.g. =*< , 3*, 3*<, >*, 2< =, ammonia, fluorine, chlorine, etc.) 6. Chemi$al $ompo'n&s #e.g. aldehydes, arsines, hydrogen, fluorides, phosphogens, detergents, etc.) '. Metals #e.g. -b, 4e, Jn, 2g, etc.) F. E$ologi$al poisons #e.g. various biocides) &. =ewage I. ;adioactive substances %. >oise (. 2eat. The pollution caused by these pollutants may be classified as air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution. ECO"O)ICA" IMBA"ANCE = I S CONSE>.ENCES The ecological imbalance is created due to the environmental pollution. This adversely affects soil, water, air as well as climatic conditions li"e temperature, rainfall, etc.

E44e$t on "an&. 1and pollution is the by-product of rapid and unplanned industrial progress and over population. The land is polluted with the dumping of solid wastes generated in the household and industrial units. The common soil pollutants are (omesti$ 6astes #e.g. "itchen garbage, household rubbish, bottles, tin cans, plastic materials, rags, waste paper, sewage, etc.) In&'strial 6astes #e.g. slag, fly-ash, lime sludge, metal scarps, plastics, chemical effluents, etc.) -ollutants washed down from the atmosphere -esticides and other biocides =ynthetic fertili@ers ,gricultural chemicals. Conse8'en$es o4 lan& poll'tion. $. 1oss of soil fertility due to the effect of acids, al"alies, insecticides, fungicides, etc. <. The essential soil organisms may be "illed. 6. =oil becomes toxic for plant growth. '. Kuality of agricultural soil is affected. E44e$t on 6ater. , vitally important factor li"e water is also polluted because of various human activities. The main sources of water pollution are <. :omestic sewage 6. ?ndustrial effluents '. 3hemicals #e.g. fertili@ers, pesticides, herbicides, etcH the surface runoffs from agricultural fields)

F. 5ineral oils, etc. The water pollutants may be classified as follows. a) Biologi$al + -athogens li"e viruses, bacteria, proto@oa, worms, etc. b) Chemi$al + #i) ?norganic + e.g. nitrates, phosphates, chlorides and fluorides. #ii) *rganic + e.g. pesticides, dyes, chlorocompounds, phenols, paints, plastics, etc. #iii1 2eavy metals + e.g. soluble heavy metal ions li"e 2g, -b, cadmium, 3u, Jn, and their organometallic compounds. c) !h%si$al + 2eat from industries. Conse8'en$es o4 6ater poll'tion. $. :ecrease in the percentage of dissolved oxygen thereby affecting aEuatic plants and animals. ?n addition, decomposition of organic waste in such water is done by anaerobic bacteria. This releases methane and other foul smelling gases. <. 3onsumption of water containing various aEuatic pathogens causes diseases in plants, animals and humans. 6. The nitrates and phosphates in polluted water cause algal blooms. These disrupt the balance of aEuatic eco system. '. Aater polluted with domestic sewage can spread diseases li"e cholera, typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea and number of other water borne diseases. E44e$t on air. The industries, automobiles, forest fires and domestic combustion are the maDor sources of air pollution. The air pollutants discharged from industries and power houses include gases li"e =*<, 3*, 3*<, 2<=, >*, >*<, etc. and traces of ethylene, acetylene and propylene. =mo"e, smog, -,> #peroxy acetyl nitrate) is also the air pollutants from industries. The air pollutants released from automobile exhausts include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons. The -3/s are released into atmosphere when synthetic rubber tyres rub against road. Conse8'en$es o4 air poll'tion. $. ?nhaling =*< causes various respiratory disordersH oxides of nitrogen can cause internal bleeding, pneumonia, cancer, etc. 3arbon monoxide is a highly poisonous and lethal gas. =imilarly, o@one and -,> also cause dry throat, cough, etc. <. 4umes of toxic metals are extremely harmful. 1ead damages brain of young children and in adultsH it affects blood, liver, "idney and nervous system. 5ercury vapours can cause s"in and neurological problems. :ust of coal, asbestos, etc. causes respiratory problems. 6. 9ases li"e =*<, >*<, *6, -,>, etc. cause inDury and damage to various economically important plants resulting in great economic loss. ?n general, air pollutants cause necrosis, premature leaf and fruit fall, affect various metabolic processes, etc. in different plants. '. 5osses and lichens are highly sensitive to air pollution by =*<. These plants are "illed even with slightest =*< pollution of air. 2ence, these act as ,ioin&i$ators of air pollution. E44e$t on atmospheri$ temperat're. ,ir pollution has adverse effects not only on plants and animals but also on the ecosystem as a whole. *ne of the most significant effects of air pollution is seen on the rise in glo,al temperat're. 2igher concentration of 3*< in atmosphere prevents the loss of heat by radiation. The 3*< layer acts li"e glass panels of the green house. ?t allows the sunrays to

filter through but prevents the heat from radiating out into space. The radiation thus trapped causes rise in temperature. This phenomenon is described as the )reen #o'se E44e$t. 3*< concentration in the atmosphere has increased in the recent past and it is estimated to increase further in near future. ?f this happens, the global temperature will also rise. Conse8'en$e o4 in$rease& temperat're. $. ;ise in global temperature will cause polar ice caps to melt. ,s a result, there will be rise in sea level and the low lying coastal areas will be submerged. <. This will also affect the drin"ing water. 6. The rise in temperature would affect regional climate and cause shift in climatic @ones. '. There will be appreciable decrease in the rainfall. F. ?t will also cause death of forests and other vegetations. &. Aith the loss of vegetation cover, the soil is exposed. This results in soil erosion, greater heating and evaporation from soil, etc. E44e$t on &iversit% o4 organisms. *rigin of new species and extinction of some of the existing species is a part of the natural process of organic evolution. 2owever, human activities are causing extinction at an unnatural or greater rate. :estruction or alteration of natural habitats, pollution of environment, degradation of ecosystem, hunting and poaching, over exploitation of economically important plant and animal species, etc pose great threat to the organisms, both plants and animals. The organisms of such ecosystem should adDust with the changed environment, migrate to some other region or else die. Thus, the original composition of the ecosystem is changed and the number of organisms is reduced. Conse8'en$es. ,s a conseEuence of above mentioned and some other factors, over the last few centuries many animal and plant species have become e-tin$t and many more are facing the danger of extinction /en&angere& spe$ies1. *nce a species becomes extinct, it is permanently lost from the world and cannot be retrieved e.g., 3heetah from ?ndia and :odo bird from 5auritius has become extinct. Ahatever has happened in the past, now it is our responsibility to prevent the numerous endangered species from becoming extinct. 5an alone can do this and help to preserve the diversity of life on earth. E44e$t on 4oo& $hains an& 6e,s. The reduction in number of species at any food level in the ecosystem, due to migration, excessive "illing or extinction, disturbs the food chains and food webs in that ecosystem. 4or exampleH over gra@ing or deforestation reduces.eliminates the vegetation #primary producers). ,s a result, the number of herbivores decreases #migration or death), this in turn, affects the carnivores in that region. Blooms. =ometimes, the pollution of water by compounds of nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc favours growth of certain algae and causes there over population. This is described as algal ,loom. This sudden increase in the population of a particular species in water affects the aEuatic ecosystem directly as well as indirectly. Over pop'lation o4 pest organisms.

Aith tremendous increase in the agricultural crops all over the world, most favourable conditions are created for the pest organisms. 3onseEuently, there is great increase in pest populations. To chec" these and protect the crop, heavy use of pesticides is in practice. The non-biodegradable chemicals in such pesticides pollute soil and water, and cause many serious health problems through bioaccumulation. Bioa$$'m'lation. >ormally, plants and animals have the ability to get rid of some poisons out of their systems. 2owever, certain toxic chemicals li"e pesticides, insecticides, methyl mercury, heavy metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, @inc, copper, etc. tend to accumulate and remain fro longer periods in the body of organisms. This is called ,ioa$$'m'lation. *nce bioaccumulated at any level of the food chain, their concentration goes on progressively increasing as they pass from organism to organism along the food chain. This is called ,iomagni4i$ations. Thus, these chemicals tend to accumulate in Euantities far higher than their concentration in the surrounding medium. The toxic meth%l mer$'r% present in pollute water can accumulate in fishes in concentration $777 times greater than its concentration in the water. 3onsumption of such fish caused 5inamata disease in Japan in $(F<. =imilarly, bioaccumulation of cadmium in liver, "idneys and pancreas caused a human disease called ?tai-?tai in Japan. ?t is a bone disease and leads to cancer of liver and lungs. The bioaccumulation of poisonous substances is found to be very high in ?ndia. This is especially true of pesticide chemicals. This is due to the consumption of crop and vegetables treated with insecticides, contaminated water and drin"s, etc. The fallouts of nuclear fission and various radioactive substances also enter and accumulate in organisms. These are passed on human through the food chains. This is harmful and causes various health ha@ards e.g. genetic misbalance, tumors, 1eu"emia, etc.

Chapter ?
Conservation :ef 0 =imply put, 3onservation means Aise 5anagement of our resources so that they remain and can be utili@ed for a greater amount of time. ?mmediately after the Earth =ummit #$((<) ?ndia has ta"en several steps in the direction of conservation of environment and development in harmony with environment. The >ational 3onservation =trategy and -olicy =tatement on Environment and :evelopment is a step in that direction. ?t envisages the need for laying down the guidelines that will help to weave environmental considerations into the fabric of national life and development process. ?t is an expression of commitment for reorienting policies and action in unison with environmental perspective. National Conservation Strateg% an& !oli$% Statement on Environment an& (evelopment. The guidelines state, Bthat the survival and well-being of a nation depends on sustainable development. ?t is a process of social and economic betterment that satisfies the needs and values of all interest groups without foreclosing future options. To this end, we must ensure that the demand on the environment from which we derive our sustenance, does not exceed its carrying capacity for the present as well as future generations. *ver the years, there has

been progressive pressure on the environment and the natural resources, the alarming conseEuences of which are becoming evident in increasing proportions. These conseEuences detract from the gains of development and worsen the standard of living of the poor who are directly dependent on natural resources. ?t is in this context that we need to give a new thrust towards conservation and sustainable developmentC. The tas" before us would be daunting if it were not for the many positive factors that are emerging0 peoples movement to conserve their own environment, role of Dudiciary, greater public and media concern for environmental issues and spread of environmental awareness among children and youth.

%t is up to us as State and &iti'ens to underta$e development process in $eeping with our heritage and the traditional conservation ethos in harmony with the environmental imperatives of this land.

!reservation -reservation is the best form of 3onservation, consisting of preventive measures and action designed to forestall and prevent the processes that lead to alterations in the environment.

Sustaina le (evelopment )romotion of Sustaina le (evelopment

There are two categories of natural resources- non renewable and renewable. The first category includes those which are of geological origin and any amount consumes is gone forever for all practical purposes. The renewable are used or harvested and are replaced.replenishes by natural forces. =ustainability means that the rate of harvest does not exceed the rate of increment.regeneration. The Economic =urvey ;eport says that a countrys environmental problems vary with its stage of development, technology and environment policies. Ahile some problems are associated with the lac" of economic development, others are aggravated by economic activities. ?t further gives glimpses of various factors that affect the environment and resources adversely. 4or example, while discussing the soil degradation, it says that most of the land in the country shows evidence of degradation, affecting the productive source of economy #out of the total geographical area of 6<( million hectares, $IF million hectares are degraded) and the 9overnments strategy towards preventing such degradation includes such measures as0 #a) Aater shed developmentH #b) Treatment of affected areasH #c) Transfer of technologyH #d) /iomass -roductionH #e) ;emote sensing for surveying affected areas. 1i"ewise, the document discusses about deforestation, biodiversity, solid waste disposal and their relationship with economy and environment. The purpose of Euoting this report and

discussing the relationship between economy and environment is firstly to underscore the point that today the country needs to be on a strong economic and ecological footing. =econdly, is to point out that 9overnments till recently have been dealing with ecological sustainability and economic development as two separate entities whereas these are interrelated. The ecosystem supports the economic growth and if the former is ignored, Economic growth cannot continue. There is another aspect to sustainability. =ustainable development has to ta"e into consideration not only inter generational eEuity i.e interest of future generation, but also eEuity among the nations of north and south. ?t may be reiterated that economic capital mostly consists of national environmental resources but for the last few decades the developing countries in particular. 2ave been facing depletion of this capital, thus landing themselves into economic crises. CER AIN S!ECIFIC (IREC IONS ENVIRONMEN O5AR(S S.S AINAB"E (EVE"O!MEN AN(

The 9overnment has underta"en certain important steps to prevent damage to the environment, these are0 A44orestation >ational ,fforestation and Eco-development /oard has been set up to promote afforestation. :uring $((6, it is claimed that two million hectares of land was brought under afforestation. The Eco Tas" 4orce has been constituted to wor" in environmentally degraded areas. This scheme has been specially conceived to use the services of ex-servicemen. The 9overnment is also hoping that once global funds become available to implement ,genda <$, new afforestation schemes can be initiated. Reg'lation !oll'ting In&'stries The 5inistry of Environment and 4orests has identified $I most polluting industries and as"ed them to install pollution control eEuipment or face punitive action including closure. The $I industries declared as most polluting are0 sugar, fertili@er, cement, distillery, aluminium, petrochemicals, thermal power, caustic soda, oil refineries, tanneries, copper smelters, @inc smelters, iron and steel, pulp and paper, dye and dye intermediates, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. !',li$ "ia,ilit% Ins'ran$e A$t9 1@@1 an& Environment relie4 F'n&s. ?n the wa"e of the *leum 9as 1ea" in which the =upreme 3ourt awarded compensation to the victims of the *leum 9as 1ea" from a :elhi -lant of the :elhi 3loth 5ills, the -ublic 1iability ?nsurance ,ct, $(($ was passed. The ,ct provides for -ublic 1iability ?nsurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to persons affected by accident occurring while handling any ha@ardous substance. The ,ct was amended in $((< to enlarge the meaning of the accident. The most important aspect of the amendment is the establishment of Environment ;elief 4und by the 3entral 9overnment.

5ater Cess The increase in the cess of those industries, which consume excess water for discharge of those effluents, which are in access of standards, has been stipulated. Vehi$le E-ha'st ,utomobiles are responsible for the greatest air and noise pollution in big cities. >ow lead free petrol is used in vehicles plying in big cities. The manufactures of automobiles have been told to stop manufacturing two stro"e engines. The compulsory pollution chec" on vehicles has seen introduced in :elhi and other big cities. The public buses would soon run on 3>9, which is eco-friendly. hermal !lants. *ur thermal power plants are great sources of pollution. They produce fly ash and other particulate materials in the surrounding areas. Ae have been tal"ing of ma"ing bric"s out of fly ash for almost a decade but not much success has been achieved. 5ost plants have been as"ed to install treatment plants but only some have adopted system for collection of dry fly ash for its utili@ation. Meas're For A,atement O4 !oll'tion In Rivers The 9overnment has come out with schemes for cleaning the 9anga, Lamuna and 9omti . 4or 9anga, this is stipulated as the second phase of the 9anga ,ction -lan. !nder the =cheme, sewage and industrial effluent treatment plants are to be installed in $F towns long these rivers. The :amodar river is yet another highly polluted river. , proDect for the cleaning that river is also in offing. The 9overnment of ?ndia is visuali@ing a plan for ma"ing pollution free $% under a comprehensive >ational ;iver ,ction -lan !roAe$t iger !nder the Aild 1ife -rotection ,ct hunting of all wild species other than vermin and those damaging the habitat of wild animals has been prohibited and a 3entral Joo ,uthority has been created. , review of -roDect Tiger was launched in $(I<. ?t revealed that in $(I<, there were about <&% tigers in reserves. ?n mid-eighties number rose to $$<$ in $I reserves and in $((6 the number was $6<I tigers in I( reserves. ,ccording to a review of the B-roDect Tiger $((6C, what has happened is that on account of shortage of prey and harsh environment conditions the tiger would disappear and unless suitable measures are ta"en urgently it might disappear forever from the =undarban, which is an ideal habitat for the tigers. :isappearance of the tiger would disturb the delicate ecosystem. Excessive felling of trees along the ban"s of the rivers has resulted in the shortage of food for the tigers. !',li$ !oli$% -resent system of decision ma"ing in many countries tends to separate economic, social and environmental factors at policy level and planning. This has great implications for sustainable development. Environmental policies have to be placed at the center of economic and political decision ma"ing if sustainable development is to be achieved. The responsibility for developing a sound public policy for environment protection and resource conservation lies with the 9overnment. The methods by which a public policy is formulated are0 #a) Through legislationH

#b) Through ordinance issued by the -resident of ?ndiaH #c) Through the decisions handed down by the =upreme 3ourt or 2igh 3ourts. ?n our country a significant step was underta"en when the courts as a fundamental right of citi@ens permitted environmental litigation. ,lso, the concept of -ublic ?nterest 1itigation #-?1) was introduced for the first time in the =upreme 3ourt Dudgment against a municipality. The Dudgment recogni@ed -?1 as a constitutional obligation of the 3ourts. ,s a result the courts have been admitting large number of environmental cases. =ome of the Dudges hearing such cases have given landmar" Dudgments and have been called as green Dudges. ,lso, some of the lawyers have been called as Environmental activists. The first landmar" Dudgment of the =upreme 3ourt was delivered in $(%F when on the basis of a -?1, the 3ourt directed the !.- 9overnment to stop limestone Euarrying in the sub-2imalayan hills of :ehradoon district.

G*+,-* W-.!%/G

E00E&TS +0 G*+,-* W-.!%/G

=cientists predict the effects of greenhouse gases by constructing models using computers to assess climatic changes. =cientists agree that0 #i) actual warming has been ta"ing place during the last $77 yearsH #ii) warming would further increase the temperature of the earth by 6-F73 if increase in 3*< doublesH #iii) if warming continues, coastal areas would see a rise in sea level. ?f temperature rises by further 6-F73, sea levels may rise by 7.F ft. to F.7 ft. because of melting of mountain glaciers and expansion of oceans. This would result in islands li"e 5aldives getting submerged. #O5 O COMBA )"OBA" 5ARMIN) ,t the Earth =ummit held at ;io :e Janeiro #$((<) $F6 nations signed the convention on climatic change and committed themselves to reduce emissions of 3* < and other greenhouse gases. Thus there is already agreement among nations that global warming is a serious problem and rather than to wait and watch, steps are being ta"en towards reducing consumption of fossil fuels by finding out alternative sources of renewable energy, better energy management system and reducing deforestation. 4ollowing steps have been suggested by experts0 $) 3leaning up of coal driven technology This can lead to lesser pollution. ,lso conversion of coal to gas is possible. This would further reduce pollution. <) 5ore use of natural gases than coal because natural gases contain only half the carbon of coal and no sulphur. 6) ;enewable sources of energy would ultimately tac"le the problem of 3* < emission and pollution. Aind power and solar energy are obvious choices. /ut there are other renewable sources li"e photo voltaic #photo voltaics convert sunlight directly into electricity). These sources produce little or no pollution and involve no safety ris"s. ') 5anufacturing fuel-efficient vehicles is another step. F) :eforestation ;eversal. This is a maDor step to reduce 3* < concentration. ?t is possible to reclaim more land to plant trees but reEuires more land to plant more trees but reEuires more help from social, political and financial institutions.

)REEN #O.SE )ASES Car,on &io-i&e /CO31 5ain greenhouse gas. ,rising from burning of fossil fuels. 1evels increase as a conseEuence of deforestation. Methane /C#B1 ,bout <78 of greenhouse effect is due to methane. ,rises #i) rice paddiesH #ii) wetlandsH #iii) #iv) burning of woodH #v) landfills Chloro4l'oro$ar,ons /CFCs1 ;esponsible for about $F8 of the greenhouse effect. Thousand times more effective #heat absorbing) than 3*< ;each the atmosphere #i) #ii) air conditioning #iii) foam pac"ing industries. Nitro's O-i&e /NO31 ;esponsible for F8 of greenhouse effect. ,rises from #i) coal #ii) biomass #iii) foam pac"ing industries. OCONE (E!"E ION *@one depletion is another global problem. *@one layer in the stratosphere forms a shield for earth against harmful ultraviolet radiation #! -/) from outer space. :epletion of o@one results in the formation of holes in its shield. ! -/ arising from sun would reach the earth if there are o@one holes. #arm4'l e44e$ts The sun emits light rays of varying wavelengths. These rays have varying effects on earths surface, on its living beings, on its ecosystem. The shorter the wavelength of rays, more damage these can do to plants and animals. !ltra violet #! ) rays are of short wave length. *@one layer.shield as mentioned above acts as a barrier to ! H without this shield, the ecological balance of earth would change, and life would be paralysed. Though most of the plants and animals have some "ind of protective mechanism from ! , a longer exposure to these rays result in their penetration to lower layer of body. This leads to s"in cancer and damage to eyes in human beings. ?n plants, the process of photosynthesis - the process by which plant manufacture their food + is affected. he iss'e The first of recent conventions on environmental issues was the convention on o@one layer protection. ienna convention as it is called, was held in ienna in $(%F. This was followed

from cattleH

from refrigerationH industryH

burningH burningH

by 5ontreal -rotocol. #$(%I) on substances that deplete o@one layer. ?t was signed by <' countries and by $(%% signatories rose to 6F. ?n $((7 delegates from IF countries and by IF countries met in 1ondon to sign an accord that strengthened the provision on 5ontreal Treaty. he O:one (epleting S',stan$es ?t was in $(I' that 5ario 5olina and =herwood ;owland of !niversity of 3alifornia found that chlorofluorocarbons #343s) destroy the o@one in the stratosphere. 343s are inert substances and can remain intact for years. There is another family of compounds, called 2alons, which contain bromine. These compounds are $77 times more potent in destroying o@one than 343s. ?t may be worth mentioning that 343s when first discovered proved useful substances especially to refrigeration industry because these are neither inflammable nor toxic. /esides refrigeration industry, these compounds are used as aerosol propellant, as solvents for grease or glues, as a component of foam pac"aging, etc. O:one hole *@one hole was first discovered by /ritish ,ntarctic =urvey in $(%6 over ,ntarctica. ?t was found that levels of o@one were dropping very fast, though a small percentage was being replenished during fall season. /ut, by $(%I o@one had dropped by F7 percent. ?t was also found that o@one levels were dropping in other parts of the world too. ,larmed over such declining levels of o@one, !nited >ation Environment -rogramme #!>E-) called a meeting of few developed nations to consider the issue of o@one depletion vis-M-vis 343s and phasing out use of o@one depleting compounds. ?nitially !=, resisted but later agreed to F78 reduction in the use of these compounds. This formed the basis of 5ontreal -rotocol #$(%I) on substances that deplete the o@one layer. Y!ES OF 5AS ES =olid wastes arise from0 #i) :omestic =ource + garbage. #ii) =ewage sludge. #iii) ,gricultural source + agricultural residues. #iv) 3onstruction sites + debris and unused material. #v) -ower stations + fly ash. #vi) 5ining and Euarrying. #vii) ?ndustry + both ha@ardous and non- ha@ardous wastes arise from industrial sources. 2a@ardous wastes are those wastes which are toxic and pose threat to humans as well as to environment. Examples of these wastes are pesticides, asbestos, polish, paints, stain removers, fluorescent lights, certain types of oils, solvents, etc. >on ha@ardous industrial wastes are substances li"e metal and glass pieces, plastic, rubber and sludge from waste treatment plants. #viii) ;adio-active wastes from nuclear installations. =o far as the radio-active wastes are concerned, there are international conventions relating to their disposal. 1egally no country can dump these in the sea. These have to be disposed off or rendered harmless through established procedures. Excepting certain industriali@ed countries, in other countries the wastes, garbage or rubbish is handled by agencies.municipal corporations. These are dumped or buried and no body

cares what happens to these wastes. 5ostly these wastes are burnt, though this practice is now discouraged in big cities. :umping wastes whether ha@ardous in this manner results in0 #i) health ris" to humans #ii) environmental damage in the form of damage to soil, water and air because of leaching by which chemical and other harmful materials percolate into soil and ground water. ,lso as these wastes decompose, there is foul smell as well as production of methane gas. IN E)RA E( SYS EM FOR 5AS E MANA)EMEN ,genda <$ addressed the problem of waste management stating that sound management of wastes is among the maDor environmental issues for maintaining the Euality of Earths environment and achieving sustainable development. ,ccordingly, waste managemtn is done through following systems. #i) 5inimum production of waste. #ii) 5aximi@ing reuse of waste and recycling. #iii) ,dopting environmentally sound waste disposal practices. #iv) Extending waste services. MANA)EMEN OF #ACAR(O.S 5AS ES Till $(I7s disposal of ha@ardous wastes did not attract much attention. >ot much concern was shown then about the ha@ardous wastes lea"ing form dumping grounds into the adDoining areas causing land and water pollution. =ince last decade increasing concern has been shown in regard to 2a@ardous Aaste 5anagement including its0 #i) 3ontrol of generation. #ii) =torage. #iii) Transport. #iv) ;euse. #v) ;ecycling. #vi) :isposal. 2a@ardous Aaste 5anagement reEuires not only national but international efforts and cooperation because transboundry shipment of these wastes has now come under scrutiny and is covered under /esel 3onvention. The !> 9eneral ,ssembly in a resolution dated :ec. <<, $(%' reEuested regional commissions to prevent the illegal traffic of ha@ardous wastes. 2uman ;esource :evelopment efforts should be intensified to train the people in various organi@ations to reorient current waste management practices to include waste reuse and recycling. !romoting Environmentall% So'n& 5aste (isposal :espite the fact that waste production is minimi@ed and wastes are reused and recycled, some wastes still remain. Even after treatment, waste still remains and has impact on environment. Treatment of municipal wastes li"e garbage and fecal material should be given priority. Efforts should be0 #i) To establish waste treatment and disposal Euality criteria and standards based on assimilative capacity of the receiving environment. #ii) To establish mechanism for monitoring waste-related pollution. arious options for waste disposal are0 #i) ;ecycling and reuse. #ii) 1andfills.

#iii) #iv)

3omposting. ?ncineration.

Landfills: ,s mentioned above, earlier almost all the wastes were dumped at so called landfills and burnt releasing smo"e and foul smell. These landfills are source of soil and water pollution. This dumping of waste is not environment friendly.

What is Reusing? The reuse of product means using same product over and over in its original form. 9lass bottles or 3ola bottles instead of cans are used again and again. Ahy not use glass material for beverages instead of cans or cardboard cartons. =imilarly it is a good practice to carry lunch in steel boxes instead of containers of plastic material which is not biodegradable and reusable. Composting 5unicipal solid wastes, garbage from "itchens, food processing industry and degradable wastes from slaughterhouse can be composted in composting plants and sold as fertili@er. 2ousehold garbage can be composted at bac"yard o serve as useful nutrient material for vegetation. Incineration: incineration is another method of disposal especially of garbage. ?t is disposal of waste through burning. ?t can reduce both the volume and the weight of the wastes. ?t can render toxic wastes into less toxic substances. The case of Japan using incinerators is mentioned above. (eserti4i$ation : :esertification is a widespread environmental problem that directly affects over $77 countries. ?t occurs when productive land in arid, semi-arid and.or sub-humid dryland regions is degraded by human activities and by climate variations li"e drought. :rylands cover around one third of the worlds land surface and are inhabited by more than one sixth of the worlds population. 9lobal climate changes accelerates the process of desertification as higher temperatures increase evaporation or if there is decrease in rainfall. 2uman activity is the primary cause of desertification. There are four basic activities tat are responsible for desertification0 *ver cultivation0 today the agricultural practices are more commercial than ever. There are a lot of higher levels of technological inputs, which most of the time do more damage than normal. 4armers feel the necessity to get more output for more gains. The use of improper methods and ever increasing demand for food has compounded the problem. The net result is a gradual decline in the productivity of once fertile soil and which after some time is abandoned by farmers and termed as useless. *nce abandoned natural forces Euic"ly ta"e over and the process of soil degradation sets in. :eforestation0 Ahen man reEuires land for agriculture the first thing he does is clear forest land, this leads to reduction in rainfall and also soil erosion of the top soil. This ends in the soil becoming useless after some years and the whole process is restarted.

?mproper irrigation0 the thirst to produce more and sell more agricultural produce has pushed farmers to use improper irrigation methods. These methods are not monitored properly and most of the time end up increasing the salinity of the soil rendering it useless. *ver gra@ing0 This is another activity that has degraded land severely in certain areas. ?t has led to degradation of soil. ,bout one third of the worlds ranges are severely degraded by over gra@ing, ma"ing this the largest cause for soil degradation. The first sign of improper range management is elimination of the most palatable grasses. ,s over gra@ing progresses, hungry animals strip the ground bare and their hooves pound the soil, hastening erosion. )lo,al A$tion !rogramme 4or &eserti4i$ation era&i$ation ?t has been estimated that the present global direct loss due to desertification amounts to about N'< billion per year. , worldwide programme to combat desertification effectively would lessen this loss considerably. The following are the steps that should be followed0 a) -reventive measures. b) 3orrective measures c) ;ehabilitation programme. Conse8'en$es: 9lobal food security will be unattainable if desertification is not stopped and reversed, as to provide for the worlds growing population and providing for adeEuate diets for all the worlds food production must increase by three times. :esertification reduces biological diversity, increases social strife and strains the resources of the country.

Chapter 4
IN RO(.C ION /usiness and industry including 5ultinational 3orporation #5>3s) play a crucial role in economic and social development of a country. ,ll economic activities either affect or are affected by natural environment resources-extraction, processing, manufacture, transport, consumption and final disposal of the product are related to environment protection. 5oreover economic activities affect the natural resources for future generations too. =tudy of the economic system therefore is crucial in so far as Euantity and Euality of natural resources is concerned. There are two important aspects of economic and environment lin"age0 #a) -romotion of sustainable developmentH #b) ?mplications on globalised economies. =ome of the resources are not renewable and those, which are renewable do not get renewed at the same pace at they are consumed. Ae have also sent that the production processes result in producing not only the desired product but also the waste. 2ow are the wastes going to be managedO ?t has therefore become imperative that resource conservation and environmental protection must become a part of overall management and Environmental 5anagement =ystem be adopted as a strategy for meeting the expectation of the society as well as sustainable growth. >ot only must this but E5= ta"e cogni@ance of nature, not infinitum but nature infinitum. The nature has been providing sustenance and protection to living creatures considering the fact that the world is now moving towards innovations and technology, which often denies legitimacy of environmental themes. To bring these under the ambit of the environmental consideration, the structure of the organi@ations will need to be changed to understand the ecological reality. ?n summary, it is fair to say that we have only begun to adopt E5= in a responsible way both in national and global perspectives, it is our hope that our relationships with nature and its nature would be perceived at every level, especially political and corporate, with a sense of urgency and acute sensitivity. Till $(I7s the slogan was limit to growth which means environmental management to aim at resource conservation at local, community or national level during $(%7s and $((7s the situation changed. The environmental issues became globalH through they originate at local or national level. ,dded to this, is the belief that new technology, free trade and product innovation, environmental protection and regeneration of ecosystem are possible. ,ccording to this school of thought environmental and resource management is a problem of efficiency in energy used, substitutions of non-renewable or recycling technologies. ?n this way, more could be produced but the Euestion is that the more production is achieved without increase in raw materials or resource based. ?f the resource based raw materials is finite can be increased production. Environmental Management S%stem Environmental aspects

?t means organi@ations activities, services and products which interact with the environment e.g. pac"aging is an aspect and the waste produced in the process of pac"aging is an impact. Environmental impa$ts , change in environment, wholly or partially resulting from an organi@ations activities, services or products #aspect) is referred to as Environmental ?mpact. !sually impacts are harmfulH sometimes impacts can be beneficial as for example conservation programmes protect wild life. Those responsible for E5=, must be able to identify both existing as well as potential impacts. 4or identifying impacts, following environmental aspects must be "nown. $. Emissions. <. Effluent discharge. 6. 3onsumption of reuse of material. '. >oise. Environmental poli$% ?t is a written statement that defines organi@ations mission, attitude and framewor" of actions towards environment. ,n environmental policy includes vision and core values of the organi@ations, compliance with legal and other reEuirements and commitment to environmental protection through actions li"e0 $. <. 6. '. F. -revention of pollution at source. ;eductions of waste. :esign and operational management. 5inimum use of energy. /ringing awareness to employees.

There can be more actions. Environmental Impa$t Assessment /EIA1 E?, refers to the review of potential impact of a proDect to be launched by an organi@ation it includes0 $. ,ssessment of existing environmental status. <. ,nalysis of various factors of Eco system li"e trees, ponds. 6. ,nalysis of adverse impact of the proDect to be started. '. ?mpact on people in neighbourhoods. Certi4i$ation ,o&% ?t is an independent organisation, which verifies that a companys E5= conforms to specific standard such as ?=*$'77$. =uch a body is called certifier. ?f the system conforms to standard, the company will be awarded certificate. ?t is advisable to select a certification body, which has been accredited by government agency or other impartial organi@ation with credibility. 5hat is Environmental A'&itD ?t as an obDective and documented verification of processes to obtain evidence to determine whether E5= of an organi@ation confirms to the criteria laid down by the organi@ation. ?t is a

detailed evaluation of organi@ations performance against set obDectives. The "eys words for E5= audit are0 :ocumented, -eriodic and *bDective. The report of audit has to be conveyed to the management. ?f an audit for ?=*$'77$ certification is carried out, it would provide the proof of following obDectives0 $. Evidence of conformity of E5=. <. Evidence of fulfilling legal.regulatory reEuirements. 6. -rovide opportunities for further improvement of E5=. E$o Management an& A'&it S$heme /EMAS1 ?t is an environmental audit scheme launched by the European !nion. ?t differs from ?=*$'77$ in following respects0 $. ?t reEuires an organi@ation to provide the audit report to the public. <. ?t applies to manufacturers. *rgani@ations can upgrade from ?=*$'77$ to E5,= through 3E>P ery few organi@ations, so far have registered for E5,=. ISO 1BEEE /Series1 0 #E BASIC !RINCI!"ES ?=* $'777 was approved by European commission through the recommendation of 3E> #committee de normali@ation) which is European !nions =tandardi@ation body. ?=* '77$ is derived from ?=* (777 but it is broader in scope than Euality standards because environmental issues are larger issues affecting the nations and the worlds resources and living conditions. 4urther, it reEuires organi@ations to be concerned with everything from raw material to end product as it reaches the consumer and its final disposal- a cradle to grave approach. ?=* $'77$ is not a guarantee of excellence in environmental issues. ,n organi@ation may li"e to be upgrade from ?=* $'77$ to E5,= which is open to public. ?=* $'777 enables an organi@ations E5= to0 $. 4ormulate and define policy and obDectives in this regard. <. To formulate a plan to implement the policy and obDectives. 6. To develop the capacities and support to achieve the implementation of policy obDectives. '. To monitor and evaluate environmental performances. F. To review the E5= for continued improvement. Environmental !oli$% , sound environmental policy reflects the commitment of management in matters relating to environmental issues. The policy has to be written as a document to be available to the concerned employees as well as external parties. The policy is formulated by the top management who are signatories of the policy document. Environmental -olicy should0 $. /e realistic ta"ing into considerations the constraints and resources of the company aw well as the extent of impact that the organi@ation has on the environment. Ahile discussing the impacts, the document should embody life-cycle analysis, resource conservation, waste reduction and product design. ?n fact, the concept of sustainable development should be a part of the document. ;hetorics would not serve any purpose in the process of documenting the policy. <. /e documented and available to all the employees and the eternal parties-sta"eholders and public. 6. /e clear about commitment for continued improvement of E5=.

'. /e in conformity with the laws and rules and regulations. ?n other words, it must ma"e a statement in regard of the compliance. F. 1ay down a framewor" of environmental obDectives. The obDectives ta"e into consideration the vision, mission, and the core values of the organi@ations. The obDectives are in fact indicators of performance. The indicators then become measurable. Examples of indicators are Euality of a. ;aw material used. b. Emissions. c. *ther wastes. d. Energy. e. ;ecycling of waste. The E5= ,uditor would be ta"ing into consideration the obDectives and all the above listed reEuirements while conducting the audit. !lanning: -lanning of E5= for audit reEuires that the system should be in form of written plan or manual giving details of wor" and procedures. Ahen the wor" involves handling of ha@ardous materials or any other procedure involving safety measures, it has to be carefully written as plan document. -lanning for E5= is an important function of an organi@ation in the sense that it ta"es into consideration a proper schedule, resources, targets, successes as well as li"ely failures, contingencies and alternatives to mitigate the crisis if it occurs. The plan includes environmental aspects and impacts, thought there may be overlap in policy and planning in this regard. -lanning ta"es into considerations, the processes, resources, responsibilities, s"ills, authority and coordination. Implementation: The next element of E5= specifications, ?=* $'77$ is its implementation. ,n organi@ation should have support and capabilities for achieving obDectives and targets set out in policy and plan. The process of implementation implies management s"ills. ?mplementation of ?=* $'77$ means0 $. 5anagement of human, financial and natural resources. <. 5otivation for action. 6. ;esponsibilities. '. :ocumentation F. 3ommunication with the organi@ation. &. *peration control. I. -reparedness of emergency. %. ;ecords and management of informations. =uccessful implementation of E5= would need commitment of all the employees. E5=, in fact encompasses many other areas of management, particularly organi@ational change in one area that is "ey to successful implementation of E5=. ?t is important that the traditional management culture is changed to environmental organi@ation culture which means discarding old practices and beliefs and learning new ones. Education and training provide the members of organi@ation with reEuisite environmental s"ills and "nowledge. Environmental awareness of the staff in general and environmental training for those involved in E5= brings benefits to the organi@ation and helps in implementation of E5=. *f

course for this to happen, commitment has to begin at the highest level of management. The top management has also to ensure that sufficient resources are provided for implementation of E5=. Monitoring an& eval'ation: E5= demands a mechanism for measuring performance and evaluation. ,fter monitoring and evaluation, an organi@ation can then review its action for improvements. Therefore a process has to be evolved that involves testing, and verification. =uch a process must be an ongoing process to identify environmental performance indicators that are verifiable. ,lso for regular monitoring, the companies must establish a system and procedure for determining compliance and conformance with laws and rules and regulations. 4or conformance to all the above regulations, a periodic audit of E5= should be conducted either by internal or external auditors who are trained and Eualified for the Dob. Revie6: ,n organi@ation that has initiated the process of formulating -olicy, -lanning, ?mplementation and 5onitoring of E5= has to adopt the last step namely, the ;eview of the system. ,t this ;eview stage, the organi@ation has to thin" in terms of continual improvement of environmental performances. ;eview is very important because it underta"es an in-depth analysis of all the issues of environmental concern. ;eviews must go beyond the stage of compliance. ?t must pay full attention to implementation of obDectives set out by the organi@ation. ?f the obDectives have not been achieved or not achievable, these must be changed or modified. ?ssues to be discussed in this process of review are0 $. =uitability of environmental policy. <. ;ecommendation of audit report. 6. >ew regulations. '. ?nterest of sta"eholders. F. -ublic awareness and pressures. The review findings must be documented especially its recommendations in regard to safety measures, preventive measures and impacts on public health and living conditions. ,ccidents and incidents may occur suddenly. They result from failures of eEuipments, human errors or flaws in E5= itself. These have to be identified and compliances be restored. 2uman errors are most significant because it is something that can be corrected on the basis of deep analysis as to why a particular person ma"es a particular mista"e. ,nyways, it is the management which is blamed if the machine fails or processes become hapha@ard or when people ma"e mista"e. The responsible management reviews the E5= in the light of what is stated in the last sentence. #E IN(IAN SCENE ?n ?ndia today many companies have been certified for ?=* $'77$. Japan has maximum number of companies certified for ?=* $'77$ compared to any other country in the world. )"OBA"ICA ION ?ndia opened up its economy in early $((7s. 9lobali@ed not only deals with movement of elements li"e physical capital, #machinery and eEuipment) technology and labour but also financial capital #foreign direct investment). There is more international trade today band this trend is rising. *ne maDor impact of global economy is on environment and resources. The international trade alters the volume of

production and consumption. ,s it is "nown, the consumption patterns of western countries are imitated by the developing countries #e.g. fast foods) and if this trend continues, its impacts on resources would be significant. ,nother trend is that poor countries are cash starved. They would tend to sell natural resources to earn foreign exchange. The issue that need immediate attention is whether liberali@ed trade leads to damage to environment. ,s mentioned above, global trade and environmental issues were "ept separate and even in the initial rounds of tal"s and negotiations of !ruguay ;ound of 9eneral ,greement on Tariffs Trade#9,TT) there was no attempt to resolve the issue of environment and trade. #!ruguay round led to setting cup of AT* in $((F to administer the agreements on ?nternational Trade). 2owever, the final !ruguay round did ta"e into account the environmental issues and ensued that AT* ta"es up these issues on priority basis. So4t e$hnlog% ,pplication of =oft Technology0 ?t has now been reali@ed worldwide that in the process of productivity and profit, tremendous damage is caused to the environment, if the technology procedures employed consumes large Euantities of natural resources and leave behind a mass of pollutants. /usinesses affect the environment in at least two ways, every wor"ing day they consume energy and other resources and create waste that must be disposed off. The truth is that no matter how environmentally responsible they may be few industrial factories will ever be truly good to the environment. The most one can hope for is that industrial units do the least damage in the pursuit of productivity and profits. *ne way to reduce environmental damage is by using soft technology. =oft technology means that technological procedure which is not harsh on the environment. =oft technology disturbs the eco-system to the least extent. ?t uses the minimum amount of natural resources. ?t gives time to nature to correct and replenish itself. ?t produces a low degree of pollutants. ?t ta"es steps to process the waste products, so they are converted to harmless products before they are discharged into the eco-system. =oft technology has certain drawbac"s as far as the company is concerned, soft technology is less efficient, it gives lower yield #productivity) and hence lower profits. ?t is also much more expensive as more steps are reEuired to be set up to safe guard the environment or to treat waste. ?t is increasingly felt that only technology that is suited and adapted to ?ndian conditions will succeed and be profitable. ?t has been experienced that foreign technologies made available to developing nations are those, which have become obsolete in their country of origin and are high-energy consumers or not environment friendly. There may be practical difficulties in the employment of soft technology. 4or example the substitute component may not be readily available at all times and as per specifications. Every company is saddled with pressures from government, environmentalists customers and others to change its products and processes to more eco-friendly types. ?n the coming years the distinction between a green and un green company may become a critical factor in the way a sta"e holder views the company. !ltimately the eco-friendly or green company alone will be able to remain competitive in the coming age.

Meas'res taFen ,% international $omm'nit% to6ar&s Environment Management IN RO(.C ION: 5ans awareness of resource depletion and degrading environment.ecosystem began after world war <. /ut nothing tangible was done to control damage afflicted to environment. This attitude however changed in sixties. The 9overnment in $(&7s especially in developed countries were undergoing a social changeH later such change also started in developing countries. The social change, raised aspirations and hopes of people for improvement in Euality of human life, which in turn opened up numerous issues relating to development, sustainable development, economic growth and consumerism. ,nd all the issues are lin"ed to environment. =oon people recogni@ed that environment was deteriorated and the natural resources were depleting due to developmental activities. 1iterature appeared that aimed at educating not only the people but also more so the policy ma"ers and the politicians about the matters of environmental concerns. -rotecting of environment and conservation of natural resources came to be reali@ed at national and international levels and a concern for ecology become a watchword. ,s the concerns for environmental problems increased, the governments institutionali@ed the national and local levels and new through legislation and regulations. >ew laws were enacted at national and local levels and new agencies established to ma"e sure the compliance of laws especially by business and industry. ?n the early decades industry, trade and business resisted efforts aimed at environmental protection and resource conservation because money spent on such efforts would diminish profit. 2owever, the attitude is changing, not because of legal action only but also due to reali@ation that cutting down on raw material waste etc. could be a financial gain.
%t also ecame clear1 in due course that environmental pro lems are not only local or national ut must e viewed in international perspective. -s for e2ample, pro lems li$e o'one depletion or Glo al warming cannot e tac$led at national level. *eaders politicians and people in general, therefore, started loo$ing up organi'ations li$e 3/ for environmental issues of glo al concerns.

.nite& Nations Con4eren$e on #'man Environment9 1@G3 ?t was in the light of the above-mentioned scenario that the !nited >ations 3onference on 2uman Environment was held at =toc"holm. The following two strategies emerged in this conference. $) The principle and action plan were evolved for controlling and regulating human environment. <) ?nstitutional and financial arrangements were proposed for achieving the goals for regulating human environment. This has been called as 5agma 3arter environment. ?t declares0 #a) 2uman have the fundamental right to freedom, eEuality and adeEuate conditions of life in an environment of Euality that permits a life of dignity and well-being. #b) 2uman beings have responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. )ENERA" ASSEMB"YHS RESO". ION OF (ECEMBER9 1@G3. =toc"holm conference was followed by the !nited >ations 9eneral ,ssembly resolution of :ecember, $(I< emphasising the need of active cooperation among the states in this

sphere of human environment. The resolution designated June F as The Aorld Environmental :ay and urged governments and organisations in the !nited >ations =ystems to underta"e on that day every year world wide activity reaffirming their concerns for the protections of the environments. ,nother resolution was passed which provided for institutional and financial arrangements for international cooperation of environments. ,mongst other decisions provisions were made for establishing a governing councils for environmental programmes headEuarters at >airobi leading to establishment of environmental secretariat and environment funds. The governing council formulated long terms and short terms plans for the protection of environment particularly relating to development. .N #a,itat Con4eren$e on h'man settlement o4 1@G@9 5orl& Con4eren$e o4 1@GG an& other $on4eren$es. The international efforts at the protections and preservation of the environment became vigorous in $(I7s and $(%7s. 5ost important efforts are the followings. $) !> 2abitat 3onference on 2uman =ettlements in ancouver, 3anada in $(I&. <) Aorld Aater 3onference on 5ardle -lata, ,rgentina in $(II. 6) The Aorld Aater 3onference called upon the !> to establish the programme to provide clean drin"ing water and sanitation to all. ') The !> :esertification 3onference held in >airobi in $(II. F) -aris 3onference held in n$(%& called for saving trees and forest. The conference was attended by heads of state and government officials from 6& countries. EAR # S.MMI 9 1@@3 Intro&'$tion !> 3onvened a !nited >ation 3onference on Environment and :evelopment #!>3E:) at ;io-:e-Janeiro in $((<. ?t is called Earth =ummitH an %77- page document called ,genda <$ was issued at this conference. ?t contains comprehensive blue prints for the government and every thing from population strategy, management of ha@ardous waste, recycling energy conservation, renewable energy, and business strategy to role of women in the environment. Ahile the guidelines and the principles proclaimed at ;io conference are not legally binded, they carry a strong moral force to ensure their adoption. The underline idea of ,genda <$ is that humanity has reached a point where present policies on development and economic growth have not been able to tac"le the problems of poverty, hunger and loving conditions. They continue to cause continuing resource depletion and deterioration of ecosystem on which life on this planet depends. ?f human beings have been provided with decent living conditions specially in developing countries, the management of eco system at local, national and global levels have to be underta"en on priority basis. Rio Declaration 2aving met at ;io de Janeiro from 6 to $' June , $((<H ;eaffirming the declaration of the !nited nations 3onference on the 2uman Environment, adopted at =toc"holm on $&th June , $(I<. and see"ing to build upon itH

Aith the goal of establishing a new and eEuitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among =tates, "ey sectors of societies and peopleH Aor"ing towards international agreements which respect the interest of all and protect the integrity of the global environment and developmental systemH ;ecogni@ing the integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, our home.

IN(IAHS EFFOR
IN RO(.C ION ?ndia did recogni@e and visuali@e the significance of environmental protection and resource conservation before the first ?nternational meet on Environmental. The =toc"holm 3onference on 2uman Environment was convened by !> in $(I< whereas ?ndias 4ourth -lan #$(&(-I') document clearly lays down the following0 B-lanning for harmonious development recogni@es the unity of nature and man. =uch planning is possible only on the basis of a comprehensive appraisal of environmental issues. There are instances in which timely, speciali@ed advice on environmental aspects could have helped in proDect design and in averting subseEuent adverse effect on the environmental leading to loss of invested resources. ?t is necessary, therefore, to introduce the environmental aspect into our planning and developmentC. CONS I . IONA" !ROVISION Aithin five years of the =toc"holm 3onference, ?ndia amended its 3onstitution #The '< nd 3onstitutional amendment $(I&) to include BEnvironmental -rotectionC as a constitutional obligation. ,rticle '%, lays down0 BThe =tate shall endeavor to protect and improve the environmental and to safeguard the forest and wildlife of the countryC. ,rticle F$, relates to fundamental duty. This article runs0 B?t shall be the duty of every citi@en of ?ndia to protect and improve the natural environmental including forests, la"es, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creaturesC. NA IONA" COMMI EE ON ENVIRONMEN A" !"ANNIN) AN( COOR(INA ION =oon after the =toc"holm conference, ?ndia set up a >ational 3ommittee on Environment -lanning and 3oordination #>3E-3). This committee was concerned with issues relating to appraisal of development proDects, human settlements planning, survey of eco-systems, li"e wetland, and spread of environment education. Environment !rote$tion A$t 1@IJ Till $(%7s, emphasis seems to have been chiefly to prevent and control pollution. ?n $(%& the 9overnment of ?ndia passed a comprehensive Environment -rotection, ,ct, #$(%&) as an aftermath of /hopal tragedy of $(%'. The Environment -rotection ,ct #$(%&) was passed for the protection of environment, regulation of discharge of pollutants, handling of ha@ardous substances, speedy response in the event of accidents threatening environment and deterrent punishment to those who endanger human environment, safety and health. BThe present ,ct was enacted to bridge the gaps in the existing legislation on this subDect, since the existing laws generally focus on specific types of pollution or on specific categories

of ha@ardous substances. Let some maDor areas of environmental ha@ards are not covered. There are uncovered gaps in areas of maDor environmental ha@ards. There are inadeEuate lin"ages in handling matters of industrial and environmental safety. 3ontrol mechanisms to guard against build up of ha@ardous substances, especially new chemicals, in the environment, are wea". /ecause of a multiplicity of regulatory agencies, there is a need for an authority which can assume the lead role for studying, planning and implementing longterm reEuirements of environmental safety and to give direction to, and co-ordinate, a system of speedy and adeEuate response to emergency situation threatening the environmentC. ?f the authority contemplated by the 3entral 9overnment continues to be the existing -ollution /oards then it is feared that the entire exercise may not yield results. This is so because the -ollution 3ontrol /oards #3-3/), till now seem to have adopted a soft line visM-vis the country and prefer to be persuasive rather than punitive. ?t may be pointed out that of late various agencies including 3-3/s have become more stringent and have recommended strong actions against those who violate the act. #E SEVEN # AN( EI)# # !"AN Seventh !lan The seventh plan lays down well-defined strategy for environment protection. This strategy is the result of reali@ation that environment and natural resources represent the most fundamental building bloc"s for national development and social well-being. The strategies that are laid down in the =eventh -lan, to achieve substantial development in harmony with environment are0 Eight !lan Eighth Lear -lan further strengthened the Environmental policies. ?n the Eighth -lan allocation of funds for the protection of environment were increased and a state-wise allocation was formulated. The 9overnment of ?ndia set up a cell to ensure effective implementation of anti-pollution measures and measures for the protection of environment. ?ndia embar"ed in a big way in the direction of protection of environment in launching new programmes. >oteworthy are the proDects for cleaning rivers of which biggest proDect relate to cleaning of 9anga and Jamuna. ?ndia has also embar"ed on the proDect of afforestation. ?ndia became signatory to Earth =ummit $((<.

+ Chapters ? an& B also have the $ase st'&ies on Narma&a ,a$hao an&olan9 silent valle%9 $hipFo movement et$.0 to ,e ela,orate& an& st'&ie& 4rom the $lass notes

Dear students, some of you from the Sion (W) college had re uested me to pro!ide some more points on the topic "#an as a Resource $roducer and Resource Consumer% as I had not gi!en these points in the class so, I am for&arding the same ( the Sion (') students are &elcome to use any points &hich might not ha!e (een co!ered in class ) ) this is part of the third chapter* 5ans role in ;esource !tilisation. Man is Fno6n 4or his sFill9 a,ilit% an& intelligen$e. Man has ,een9 4rom time immemorial9 'sing his attri,'tes to maFe his e-isten$e a more satis4%ing one. o&a% man is not onl% a,le to pro&'$e an& sell man% &i44erent goo&s9 ,'t i4 he so $hooses he is also a,le to pro&'$e man% reso'r$es. here4ore man is Fno6n as a reso'r$e pro&'$er9 &istri,'tor an& $ons'mer. 5an as a ;esource -roducer. Man is the most intelligent o4 spe$ies9 6ith the most $reative min& Fno6n. #e has 'se& his sFill an& intelligen$e to improve the te$hni8'es o4 production o4 nat'ral reso'r$es i.e. he is a,le to e-tra$t an& man% times pla$e ,a$F 6hat is taFen 4rom the environment. .sing planning an& appropriate te$hnolog% he is a,le to allo$ate reso'r$es as he 6ants an& 4'l4il the nee&s o4 the so$iet%. Also9 he is a,le to reshape the availa,le nat'ral reso'r$es to s'it the $'rrent nee&s i.e. Man has the a,ilit% to mo&i4% the ph%si$al environment as he $hooses an& 6hen he $hooses. here4ore man is $alle& as a !ro&'$er o4 reso'r$es. 5an as a ;esource 3onsumer. ('ring an$ient times i.e. &'ring the &evelopment o4 h'man $ivilisations9 man pro&'$e& an& $ons'me& the availa,le reso'r$es in proportion to his ver% ,asi$ nee&s. B't as he 4lo'rishe& an& &evelope& his nee&s also gre69 till to&a%Hs era9 6hi$h sees a high stan&ar& o4 living. In this age man has to pro&'$e more to meet the &eman&s o4 so$iet%. he stan&ar& o4 living an& manHs ever0in$reasing &eman& has le& to a large $ons'mption o4 reso'r$es. .sing ,etter te$hnolog% an& s$ien$e man is 4orever &eveloping ne6er an& ,etter pro&'$ts 4or the $ons'mption o4 so$iet%. here4ore man is $alle& as a Cons'mer o4 reso'r$es.

Chapter 5 5atershe& management

The necessity of conserving water and soil resources is universally recogni'ed. While there are seven to eight months without water in a year when it is too dry, there is a period of four to five months during the monsoon, when everything is wet and drainage channels ecome overflowing fast moving rivers. The construction of small and cheap earthen dams to chec$ the overflow of rainwater helps to use this vast water potential that can e used during the long hot and dry months. This simple idea is oth water and soil conservation-effective and ecologically sound1 was practiced y the people of %ndia in the past, what we today $now as the 4watershed technology. -mongst all the natural resources, water, with its availa ility, 5uality and cost-effective distri ution have ecome serious pro lem, to oth city- dwellers and people living in the rural areas. The scarcity

availability of water is becoming a severe constraint in improving human food health security. Water conflicts are li$ely to grow at local, regional and national levels. &onservation sustaina le and the e5uita le use of water must receive high priority. This needs science- ased $nowledge of !"ydrological cycle# and the technical $nowledge of !$atershed management#. $hat is a watershed% & watershed is defined as any spatial area from which rain or irrigation water is collected and drained through a common point. %t is synonymous with a drainage asin or catchment area. There is no definite si'e for a watershed as it may vary from a few hectares to several hundred hectares. Si'e of watersheds depends upon the topography. ,ased on the si'e watersheds may e classified as 'icro 'ini or 'acro. Given the general topography of the )eninsular %ndia and farm si'e distri ution patterns, the 6oint property of a group of 7 to 8# farmers usually adds up to a landscape unit, which suffices for creating a watershed. %n natural landscape, such units generally co-e2ist in a serial continuum. Each watershed unit is a well-defined topographically delineated area with a distinct oundary. Each landscape watershed may constitute simple or comple2 agro-ecologies. %t may e made up of an upland ecology or a com ination of upland, lowland ecologies or in some cases, a topose5uential comple2 of ecologies representing upland lowland and coastal ecosystem. Each ecosystem in such comple2 watershed has its distinct function and land use capacity. The upland part of the watershed generally represents dry land rain fed agro( ecology and acts as a catchment flow regular area for water to the lowlands. The lowlands, mainly used for the production of paddy or other high water re5uiring crops, are a net consumer of water while the coastal ecosystem functions as the main water resource system. %n this way watershed framewor) provides the necessary inter(ecological lin)ages and is a logical unit for the integration of the sustainable use of land and water. %t helps augment soil and groundwater resources. %t is also enefited y the iological, social and economic inputs, which if properly managed, lead to diversified high agricultural production, control of environment degradation and provide a mechanism for recharging underground water a5uifers.

Watershed management in this way, thus ensure water ade5uacy to crops and reduce the ris$s of yield loss due to water related tresses.

Basic *rinciples of $atershed 'anagement

Since no 4pac$age of practices9 of large-scale application of watershed technologies e2ists and there are no thum rules, which can e universally applied to all $inds of landscapes some fine-tuning of watershed strategies is necessary. The following are the important steps in watershed management. 8. The first step in watershed management is human resource development and creation of awareness at all levels. :. The watershed is a geographic hydrologic landscape unit. %t has to e surveyed y civil engineers, and the land has to e developed y the watershed farmers on contoured topographic setting. ;. $aterways have to e designed and mar)eted on the ground and built in harmony with the slope of the land and farmers have to plant their crops and prepare the seed eds in wheel-leveled land. <. +inally tan$s have to dug at proper locations and interlin$ed to achieve ma2imum water storage efficiency. Ahere watershed management programme has been applied in a holistic manner it has proven that farm management can be successfully sustained at higher levels.

Ralegaon Si&&hi village in 5aharashtra has been Euoted as a ,est mo&el o4 6atershe& management. The adaptation of watershed management techniEues has changed fortunes in 2a&$herla village in the chronic drought prone Mah,oo,nagar &istri$t o4 An&hra !ra&esh. !nder the RaAiv )an&hi 5atershe& Mission, in 5adhya -radesh, << percent of the district lands in 2ha,'a, which were brought under watershed development, witnessed a remar"able ecological-economic change. The government of ,ndhra -radesh has prepared an extensive watershed programme. The government proposes to ta"e up <77 watersheds for development, where there is scarcity of potable water caused by steep fall in groundwater levels.

"an& Management
1and has always been the preliminary reEuisite of economic development. Aith the changes inland use over time land has become more of a prime and crucial resource. !nderstanding of the basic fact that Dust <I8 of the total earth surface has land, has made it necessary to understand the importance and limitation of land as a resource. ?t was therefore essential to manage the land in a more effective manner. The efficiency of 1and management is a preliminary to sustainable development because sound land management is crucial to enhance land productivity. 1and administration improvement is consistent with land and economic reforms. The use of computer technologies offers new prospects. "an& management0 a maDor factor of economic development. The efficiency of 1and ,dministration a preliminary to sustainable development because sound land management is crucial to enhance land productivityH .r,an "an& Management an& )overnan$e : Ahy are cities involved in the process of economic growthO 3ities are historically associated with economic expansion. The acceleration of the urbani@ation process is unprecented. !rban management and governance are "ey elements in urban development. The urban employment issue directly affects the economic growth. The urban policy obDective is to contribute to the economic development.

$. <. 6. '. F.

.r,an "an& management an& )overnan$e are Fe% elements in 'r,an &evelopment ;apid urban population growth places an unprecedented logistical and financial burden on municipal authorities, especially when the urban growth is recent. 3ity governments can do a lot to assist industry and commerce #including tourism) by good planning and physical development. ?nfact they are confronted with increasing difficulties in the management of land, infrastructure and services0 $. They face a widespread lac" of competence in the administrative bodies in charge of town management. <. They lac" the resources to provide infrastructure and basic social services necessary to promote employment, health and economic growth.

?n that respect, urban management and governance enhancement is a current priority when there is a need to develop the spirit and ability of municipal authorities to plan and manage urban growth and environment and to develop and improve appropriate supporting institutions.

3oastal Jone 5anagement

Coastlines are tr'l% spe$ial pla$es9 sites o4 remarFa,le ,ea't% in high &eman& 4or &evelopment. Over this past 4i4t% %ears9 o'r $oastal 6atershe&s an& shorelines have seen intense press'res 4or all t%pes o4 'ses0o4ten to the &etriment o4 the ver% reso'r$es 6hi$h attra$te& people in the 4irst pla$e. Sin$e the passage o4 the 4e&eral Coastal Cone Management A$t an& the Clean 5ater a$t in the 1@GEHs9 government0planning a$tivities have attempte& to ,alan$e these potentiall% $on4li$ting 'ses. Virt'all% all $oastal states no6 have Coastal Management !lans an& !rograms9 as &o man% $o'ntries an& lo$al $omm'nities. Amen&ments to these a$ts $reate& National Est'ar% !rograms. Non point poll'tion programs9 an& a 6atershe& management 4o$'s to enhan$e est'arine an& marine 6ater 8'alit%9 maFing &e$isions 6ithin this $onte-t re8'ires e-pos'res to a vast arra% o4 te$hni$al in4ormation an& management tools. The coastal areas are one of the most prime areas as far as the environment is concerned. They form the oundary etween the two spheres of the planet vi'. =ydrosphere and the *ithosphere. The coasts support one of the natures most diverse and comple2 environment which perform a multifaceted role which is crucial in maintaining the ecological alance. The multifaceted role which is crucial in maintaining the ecological alance. The coastal areas have ecome environmental hotspot after it has come under scrutiny due to e2tensively damages rought a out y development activities in these areas. +nce upon a time these areas were considered as the wastelands ut the developments in the field of environmental studies have changed the perspective towards these so-called wastelands. &onsidering the fact that a out more than 7#% of the worlds population lives within the 7## $ms. Stretch of the coast, it ecomes almost o vious that the human settlements and human activities are also concentrated within this 'one. This further led to the step of disposing wastes in this fragile environment the est e2ample around us which has led to severe damage is the area of !ahim cree$ which was one not long ago a paradise for the migratory as well as local irds. %t has turned ma6or feeding and reeding ground for these irds. %t was a ma6or feeding and reeding ground for these irds. Today it has turned into nothing more than a 6un$yard. !angrove forests along the coast are mainly responsi le for the protection of the coasts, prevent soil erosions and lessen the effects of natural disasters li$e cyclones, typhoons and tidal waves. This ecosystem also help in sta ili'ing the physical environment y uffering against the wave action and thus sta ili'ing the sediments which ma$es them into system supporting a large variety of li$e forms and a comple2 food chains and a food we . +ne of the world $nown mangroves are that of the Sunder ans in the Ganga delta. Such a diverse and ecological fragile environment is today under threat from various agencies. This threat is asically due to two reasons, 8. )ollution from land :. (evelopment pro6ects such as ports, dams etc. ;. Tourism, (eforestation, +verfishing, etc. This has led to a rapid destruction and degradation of the coastal ha itats and resources. With the increase in the environmental degradation of coastal areas the !inistry of Environment and forests issued certain guidelines for the development of eaches in 8>?;. %t proposed Environmental %mpact -ssessment @E%-A procedures to gauge the effect of the activities that have direct impact on the coastal areas. %n 8>>8 the ministry issued another notification under the

environmental protection act 8>?B, declaring the coastal stretches as the &oastal .egulation Cones @&.CA, and regulating the activities within the area. The act defines the coastal stretches of seas, ays, estuaries, rivers and ac$waters which are influenced y tidal action, in the land ward side up to 7## mts from the high tide line as a pan of the &oastal .egulation Cone.

,gricultural 5anagement
With the ever increasing developments in the field of technology man has achieved unlimited advances to ma$e his life more comforta le. The ne2t result of these developments was an over all increase in the standard of living, and life e2pectancy. The death rates gradually egan to fall ut man forgot a out the control of irth rates. This im alance led to the pro lem of ever increasing population. %t is estimated that today there are a out a illion people eing added to the human population every 8:-8; years which re5uires an increase in the annual food grain production to :7# mn tones once in every 8# years. Till date there has een no acute shortage of food grains in real sense this was possi le due to the four basic factors which are as follows1 ,. Rapid advances in the technology particularly the breeding of varieties and high yielding seeds. -. .mprovised organi/ation of production and distribution systems of seeds fertili/ers irrigation etc. 0. *ublic policies in land reforms infrastructure development. 1. Efforts of the people towards accepting the new technologies. The developments in the field of agriculture also added a new dimension to traditional agriculture and that was commercial outloo) which aimed at ma2imum output from the farms with the use of most advanced technologies. The traditional farm products were replaced in many parts with industrial and cash corps. This gave rise to new agricultural society with profit as the main motive. This was achieved with the technology, services and government policies, This was later $nown as the G.EE/ .ED+*3T%+/. This era started in 8>B? and gave a tremendous oost to the agricultural production. %nitially the fruits were very tasty ut as the time passed the technology egan to show its colors. The miracles of the 23#s and 43#s now are becoming nightmares of today. The over use of fertili'ers for increasing production, use of pesticides, weedicides etc. for crop protection. +ver irrigation, destruction of natural gene an$s etc. gave rise to serious pro lems. This raised many 5uestions a out the validity of the advances in agriculture. This e5ploitative agriculture did offer greater possibilities but intensive cultivation without proper soil conservation techni6ues led to destruction of soil fertility and structure which will lead to formation of deserts. .rrigation without proper drainage will lead to water logging resulting in soil getting al)aline and saline rendering them useless for farming. E5tensive use of pesticides and fertili/ers fungicides bring about changes in natural food chains which lead to cancer and other disease.

7nscientific tapping of ground water will deplete the underground water which will paw away for desertification. Replacement of local species with high yielding varieties in large area will result in spread of diseases capable of wiping out the entire crop. Thus we can see that without proper understanding of the conse5uences of the changes rought a out it has raised new issues and pro lems. This re5uired a different approach not only to solve the e2isting pro lems ut also to solve the pro lems in future. This is the where -griculture !anagement techni5ues came into pictureE. %n the su se5uent years 8>"# e2cessive use of fertili'ers and chemical pesticides has caused soil degradation, ground water pollution and spread of pesticide resistant pests. This led to warnings of the is no option e2cept to produce more food from less per capita land. %n other words impending food crisis in the in coming millennium. Since land is shrin$ing resource for agriculture there it ecomes necessary to produce more with the help of high yields per unit of land. %t will e therefore necessary to see how science can e used to ra$e the productivity without ecological harm. %t will e necessary for the emerging progress to e referred as evergreen revolution as the emphasis will e on the productivity which is sustaina le overtime and is rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, and social issues. 0ortunately in the recent past the revolution in the field of technology gave us three ma8or weapons which will help us to increase our agricultural productivity )eeping in view the environmental concerns. These three weapons are ,. The genetic engineering. -. The information and communication revolution. 0. The ecotechnology revolution. 8. The genetic engineering will help us in the understanding the genetic ases of living organisms which when used in a careful and rational manner will help to understand and develop newer processes to increase the productivity. :. The developments in the fields of information and communication will ena le us to access the vast store house of information assimilated from the different parts of the world. This information will e very useful for planning and minimi'ing the damages in agriculture as well as help to increase the productivity as the technical information relating to weather forecasts, agronomics choice of farming methods, fertili'ers in proper proportions etc. will also e availa le. ;. Ecotechnology promotes the est of traditional $nowledge and technology with leading technologies li$e the iotechnology, space @.emote sensingA, new materials etc. %f these three weapons are used in com ination with the improvements of management and governance, has a great potential for the integrated management of natural resources and ecosystems so as to get the est out of them. The -gricultural !anagement will now have to loo$ into the pro lem with an integrated approach $eeping a holistic view. Today what is $nown as precision -griculture will e the only solution if there is need to increase the food grain production without seriously damaging or the destroying the natural resources re5uired for agriculture. )recision re5uires an A. #I"" AREA MANA)EMEN *roblems of hill areas9

The crucial environmental pro lems of the hills are deforestation and soil erosion, oth leading to the drying up of water resources, flash floods and decline in the yield of food and cash crops, fodder, fuel and other minor forest produce. )overty in the hills is directly related to storages of material for asic su sistence, specially where, under the traditional, land and water management systems, the capacity of land to support the population has already een e2ceeded. %n many hill areas, intensive human and livestoc) pressure along with indiscriminate felling of trees for commercial purposes have already led to loss of soil and rapid depletion and destruction of the forest cover. ,esides, the water retention capacity and productivity of land have been adversely affected. These factors have impaired the ecology significantly and also resulted in deterioration in the economic conditions of the hill people. Traditional agricultural practices, especially shifting cultivation, have also contri uted to destruction of forests and soil erosion. Seemingly harmless activity as prolonged gra'ed y livestoc$, especially goats and sheeps, have further e2posed many hill areas, serious ecological degradation. (evelopmental activities li$e construction of uildings, roads, dams, large and medium industries and mining, etc. have aggregated environmental pro lems. &onse5uently, perennial sources of water springs and small streams have dried up in many areas. The ma6or challenge, therefore, locations specific solutions, so as to reverse the process and ensure sustaina le development of the growing population and ecology of the hill areas. Classification of hill areas9 The hill areas covered under the =-!) were the areas identified in 8>B7 y a committee of the /ational (evelopment &ouncil @/(&A and these recommended y the =igh level &ommittee for Western Ghats in 8>":. The "ill areas of the country fall broadly in to the following two categories9 8. -reas which are coe2tensive with the oundaries of the state or 3nion Territory, namely Fammu G Hashmir, =imachal )radesh, Si$$im, !anipur, !eghalaya, /agaland, Tripura, -runachal )radesh and !i'oram. :. -reas which form part of a state which are termed as I(esignated =ill -reas Di'1 aA Two hill districts of -ssam-north cacher and $a ri angling. A Eight districts of 3)- (heradhun, )auri Garhwal, Tehri Garehwal, chamoli, 3ttar $ashi, /ainital, -lmora, and )ithoragarg. cA !a6or parts of (ar6eeling (istrict of West ,engal. dA /ilgiris district of Tamil /adu eA 8B; talu$as of Western Ghats areas comprising of !aharashtra @B: talu$asA. Harnata$a @<# talu$asA. Herela @:> talu$asA, Tamil nadu @:> talu$asA, and goa @;A. The asic o 6ective of the =-!) has een socio economic development of the hills and the people living there in harmony with ecological development. The programmes implemented under the /)() have, therefore, aimed at promoting the asic life support systems with sustainale use of the natural resources of the areas covered y the programme. The approach and the strategy of the =-!) has evolved over time. The programmes implemented during the 7th )lan period were mainly eneficiary oriented. While the emphasis shifted to eco development in the Bth )lan, the general tenor of the =-!) remained su stantially the same as that of the normal state plan following the same sectoral approach. The " th )lan laid particular emphasis on the development of ecology and environment as summed up in three phases, namely, eco restoration, eco preservation and eco development. %t aimed at evolving plans and programmes to ta$e care of the socio economic growth, development of infrastructure and promotion of the ecology of the areas covered y =-!).

The Special &entral -ssistance which is given for hill areas is >#% grant than 8#%loan this is in addition to the /ormal state )lan and is not meant to replace activities under the States normal plan. =ence, States receiving funds under =-!) are e2pected to prepare su plans for designated hill areas indicating flows from oth normal State )lan and the Special &entral -ssistance. This is to ensure that the schemes are properly dovetailed and integrated with State )lan Schemes.