ELECTRONIC PASSIVE COMPONENTS-I

Classification of electronic components Considering the various applications of electronics, we can be a little surprised only a few basic types of components can be classified into two groups: A) Passive Components. B) Active Components. The electronic circuit will not wor without use of the electronic components. All electronic circuits, however complicated, contain a few basic components. !A) Passive Components: The electronic components by themselves are not capable of amplifying or processing an electrical signal, are called passive Components. "esistors, Capacitors and inductors are basic passive Components. Passive Components can have fi#ed value or various value. The passive Components are used along with active components to construct the electronic circuit. $ithout aid of these components, the electronic circuit is not wor ing. !B) Active Components: The electronic components which are capable of amplifying or processing an electrical signal are called active components. The active components are broadly classified into two groups: tube type and semiconductor type.

Tube devices include vacuum tubes and gas tubes.vacuum tubes include vacuum diode, triode, tetrode, pentode etc., while gas tubes include gas diode, thyratron etc. Cathode "ay Tube !C"T) also comes under tube devices. %emiconductor devices include semiconductor diode, Bipolar &unction Transistor ! B'T), (ield )ffect Transistor !%C"), special diodes such as *ener diode, +ight )mitting ,iode !+),), tunnel diode etc. +et us discuss few basic passive Components. RESISTORS The flow of charge !or current) through any material, encounters an opposing force, similar in many respects to mechanical friction. This opposing force for the flow of electrical current is called resistance of the material. -n the case of resistors, the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage. Thus a register is an electrical component, which has been manufactured with a specified amount of resistance. The resistors are mainly used for two purposes, namely controlling the flow of current and providing the desired amounts of voltage in electric or electronic circuit. The resistance of the material is measured in ohms, for which the symbol is .. The resistors are basically of two types namely linear resistors and non/linear resistors. )ach type is further sub/divided into many types. 0. Linear Resistors: the resistors, through which the current is directly proportional to the applied voltage, are called linear resistors.

The resistance values of such resistors are independent of temperature, voltage and light variations. The linear resistors are of two types, namely, fi#ed resistors and variable resistors. Again the fi#ed resistors are of four types: 0. Carbon Composition resistors 1. Crac ed carbon resistors 2. 3etal film resistors 4. $ire wound resistors The variable resistors are divided into three types: 0. "heostat 1. Potentiometer 2. Trimmers 1. Non linear resistors: The resistors, through which the current is not directly proportional to the applied voltage, are called non/linear resistors. such resistors have a property that their resistance values change with the variation in applied voltage, temperature or light intensity. The non/linear resistors are of three types: 0. Thermistors !Temperature ,ependent resistors) 1. 5aristors !5oltage ,ependent resistors) 2. Photoresistors !light ,ependent resistors) i!"#"$ %elo& s'mmari(es t)e classification of resistors"

i!"#"* s)o&s t)e s+m%ols for vario's resistors"

#"# RESISTOR COLO,R CO-E 3ost fi#ed resistors are pieces mar ed in several ways: colour coding, straight numerical value, easily translated numerical codes and one numerical code that is incomprehensible without a cheat/sheet. All the carboncomposition resistors are colour/coded to indicate their resistance in ohms. This system is based on the use of colour bands, painted on the body of the resistors as numerical values. )ach colour band stands for a digit. 6enerally there are four bands which indicate the value of that resistor. %ome manufacturers use five bands out of which the first three colour bands give the value of the resistor. The colour used with the code and the numbers they represent are given in table 0.0 Ta%le $"$: Colo'r Co.e of resistors Colo'r Blac Brown "ed 9range :ellow 6reen Blue 5iolet 6rey $hite 6old %ilver Ao Colour Si!nificant -i!it 7 0 1 2 4 ; < = > ? / / / M'ltiplier 0 07 077 0777 07777 077777 0777777 07777777 077777777 0777777777 7.0 7.70 / Tolerance / 08 18 / / / / / / / @ ;8 @ 078 @ 178

"eading left to right, starting with the band nearest one end, the first two bands give two digits in the resistance value, the third band indicates the number of following *eros and the fourth band indicates thetolerance. The basic code originally called the "3A !"adio 3anufacturersB Association) code is now called the )-AC3-+ !)lectronic -ndustries Association C 3ilitary). As shown in the table starting from left to right, the colour bands are interpreted as follows: i!" #"# Colo'r Co.e for Resistors

-f there are three bands, only then the first three colour bands represent the resistance value as per the colour codeD the absence of fourth band means a resistance tolerance of @ 178. -f there are four bands, then, as before, the first three bands give resistance value and the fourth one gives tolerance. Thus, if the fourth band is gold ring, it means a tolerance of @ ;8, whereas a further silver ring means a resistance tolerance of @078. -f there are five bands, then the first three bands as usual give resistance value, fourth one gives tolerance and the fifth one indicates reliability level of failure rate for which colour code is: Brown E 08 "ed E 7.0 8 9range E 7.70 8 :ellow E 7.770 8 Resistance 'n.er Ten O)ms: -n this case, the third band is either gold or silver which serves as fractional multiplier. -f the third band is gold, then multiply the first

two digits by 7.0. -f it is silver, then multiply by 7.70. Fowever, the fourth band gives tolerance i.e. if it is silver, then tolerance is 078. -f it is gold, then it has a tolerance of ;8. i!"#"/

#"/ I0E- RESISTORS: There are four basic types of fi#ed resistors as follows: 0. Carbon Composition resistors 1. Crac ed carbon resistors. 2. 3etal film resistors. 4. $ire wound resistors. $" Car%on Composition resistors: i!" #"1

Man'fact'rin! process: 0. Production of carbon rod. 1. 3etal spraying. 2. )nd connection 4. -nsulating coating. ;. 3easuring and printing. The carbon Composition resistor is constructed from powdered carbon.

This powdered carbon held together with fillers and moulded into cylindrical shape. The rod is then sintered in G hydrogenB or G nitrogenB at 0777 7c / 04777c. Then metal is sprayed for soldered contact. The metal caps are fitted from both sides. After that insulating material such as sprayed over it. Then colour codes are printed on outer coating. Specifications: Power rating: 0C> w to 1 w 5ma#: ;775 9hmic range: 0. to 0 3. 3a#imum temperature: 0 . to 0 3. Temperature Coefficient of resistance: @ 0177 ppm C 7c Tolerance: ; 8 to 17 8 Applications: Power control circuits. Power supplies. These are used in general/purpose electronics eHuipments. These have higher voltage withstanding capacity and cost is low. i!" #"2

1. Crac3e. car%on resistor: 3anufacturing process Preparation of %ubstrate

Crac ing

%piraling of carbon layer

(itting of end cap

Applying protective coating

Printing values lo& C)art Preparation of S'%strate: -t should be good insulator. The ceramics are used as a %ubstrate. Advantages of using ceramic as substrate are that they can be shaped into desired dimensions and coefficient of linear e#pansion can be match with resistive element on the top of it. -t has good mechanical strength and can withstand high temperature. Preparation of ceramic substance consists china clay E ;7 8, Huart* E 278, and fiu# E 17 8. This mi#ture is held together with fillers and binders and modulated into cylindrical shape. Then it is heated at high temperature. Then these rods are cut to reHuired si*e.

Crac3in!: crac ing or pyrolysis is nothing but decomposition of ceramic rod to produce carbon layer. Spiralin! of car%on la+er: %piraling is the process due to which spiral grooves are made around cylindrical substrate coated with carbon film. This increases the effective length and reduces with. ittin! of en. caps: The metal caps are fitted from both sides for connection. After that insulating material is sprayed over it. Then colour code is printed on outer coating. i!"#"4

Specifications: Power rating: I w to 1w 5ma#: 2;75 9hmic range: 1 . to 11 . Temperature coefficient resistance: 0777ppmC7c 3a#imum temperature: 01; 7c Tolerance: @ 7.;8 to 178 Application: oscillators, radio amplifiers, A(C"T circuits. #"Metal film resistor: i) Preparation of substrate ii) ,eposition of metal film. Aicrome is deposited on ceramic substance. The deposition process in vacuum evaporation. %ubstrate is evacuated chamber. The current heats Aicrome filament, while substrate is ept at about 277 7c and ept rotating directly over the filament which emits vapours of nicrome molecule. These vapours get deposited in the

form of film. After cooling, the film is spriled to reHuired resistance. (itting of end caps: )nd caps are fitted from both ends. After that insulating material is sprayed over it. Then the colour code is printed on outer coating. Specifications: Power rating: J w to 1 w 5ma#: ;775 9hmic range: ; . to 03 . Temperature coefficient of resistance: 0.; K 177 ppmC 7c for conducting films : @ ;77 ppmC oc for o#ide films Temperature: 0;7 7c to 0=; 7c Tolerance: 08 to ;8 Application: 3easuring eHuipment ,33 circuit, Temperature indicators and presion "eHuirement. Comparison: Metal film resistors 0. 3ore accuracy 1. Better stability 2. A thin film of metal alloy is deposited on ceramic body. 4. "esistance less than 07 . can be manufactured ;. -t is costly. Car%on composition 0. +ess accuracy 0. +ess stability 2. A thin film of pure carbon is deposited on ceramic body. 4. "esistance less than 07 . cannot possible to manufactured ;. -t is cheap. iii)

5ire 5o'n. resister 0. "esistive wire is would on the insulating rod 1. Accuracy more 2. %tability Better 4. Figher wattage wire can be manufactured. 2. $ire wound resistors:

Car%on composition resistor 0. Carbon is deposited on resistive rod 1. Accuracy less 2. %tability poor 4. 3a#imum wattage is 0 watt.

i!"#"6

$ire wound resistors are constructed by using wire of nichrome wound on ceramic body. $ire wound resistor suffer from high freHuency effect due to winding. Thus a bac to bac or bifilar winding is used. The metal caps are fitted from both sides and terminals are welded. The different types of protective covering are provided. The types or wire wound resistor are as follows. $" Open &o'n.: -n this type, there is simple nichrome wire wound on ceramic rod or tube and ad&ustable tapping is fitted. *" Cement coate. resister: A protective coating of cement is provided on winding. The resistive wire is so protected. #" Lac7'ere. resistors: a protective coating of organic lacHuer is provided on resistive wire. /" Vitreo's enamels: A protective coating of vitreous is provided on resistive wire. A.vanta!es:

0. 6ives more power dessipation. 1. Temperature coefficient is very small. 2. -t has high accuracy. -isa.vanta!es: 0. Cannot be used for high freHuency applications 1. %i*e becomes large fo7r increasing power dissipation. Specifications: 5ma#: ;77v Power rating: 0w to ;7 w 9hmic range: 0 . to 0;7 . Temperature coefficient resistance: ;7/177ppmC7c 3a#imum temperature: 277 7c for vitreous enamaled, 017 oc for other type Tolerance: 08 to 078 Application: power supplies. Power control circuits. C)aracteristics of fi8e. resistor: $" S)elf life: 3any resistors change their value on storage. *" Tolerance: Figh 8 tolerance means low accuracy and vice versa. #" Sta%ilit+: Change in value of resistance due to storage or wor ing condition. /" Temperat're Coefficient: Change in value of resistance per unit length of resistance per unit change in temperature. 1" Volta!e coefficient: -t is change in resistance value per volt of applying voltage. 2" Ma8im'm temperat're of operation: -t is the ma#imum temperature upto which there is no serious effect on the device. Above that temperature, the device gets damaged. 4"Noise: -t is caused mainly by thermal agitation of current carrier in the reister.
#"1 NON LINEAR RESISTORS Aon K liner resistors are of the following types:

0) Temperature dependent resistors or thermistors. 1) 5oltage dependent resistors !5,") or varistors. 2) +ight dependent resistors !+,") (ig. 2.> shows the symbol used to represent these resistors.

i! " #"9 Thermister: There are two types of thermister. Their resistance depends upon temperature. Types are: $: Aegative temperature coefficient resistor. *: Positive temperature coefficient resistor $: Ne!ative temperat're coefficient t)ermister:- These are made up of semicondactor of ceramic material mi#ture of manganese, ni el, cobalt, titanium copper, iron and uranium are sintered. #: Positive temperat're coefficient t)ermister:- These are manufactured from barium titan ate titanium dio#ide. !a) !b) !c)

i! " #"$; Beads:/ They are made by forming small beads of thermister material on two wires, which are about 7.70 inch apart. The material is sintered at high temperature and leads are inserted tightly in beads ma ing good electrical contact inside the thermister. The resistance of bead type is 077 to 3. they have higher stability, higher accuracy and fast response.

Probs:/ Beads are sealed into the tips of solid glass epo#y rods or the metal case to form probes. ,iscs:/ These are made by pressing thermister material under pressure to form flat tablets, tablets, these pieces are sintered and then silvered on the two faces for a lead attachment. The resistance value is from 7.1 to . $ashers:/ these are made li e disc e#cept that hole is formed in the center that unit can be mounted on bolt. These are used when high power dissipation in reHuired. "ods:/ these are molded in long cylindrical shape which are 1mm to in diameter and ;mm long. The resistance value is from ;77 to 0;7 , Applications of thermisters:/ 0) Lsed for temperature measurment. 1) Temperature control 2) (low measurment. 4) +iHuid level detector. ;) A.C.voltage regulators. * V-R:- The varistors are non/linear which depend on voltage i.e. they are voltage dependent resistors. They have very large negative voltage coefficient. There are two types of varistors. 0. 3etal o#ide varistors in which the curve of current/ voltage i.e. -5 curve changes more suddenly. 1. %ilicon carbide varistors in which the curve slope gradually. The construction of metal o#ide varistors shown is in (ig. 2.00 a. These types of varistors are enclosed in polycrystalline ceramic with metal contacts and wire leads. Minc o#ide and bismuth o#ide are mi#ed with other metal fillers and binders and then pressrd into disc and sintered at temperature above 0177oC.

i!" #"$$ %ilicon carbide varistors are made from silicon and mi#ed with suitable ceramic binders. The material is pressed to desired shape and heated at high temperature. Applications of 5,":/

0. Lsed as protective device against over/ voltage. 2.) +,":/

Fig 3.12 +," is photosensitive resistor whose resistance varies with the intensity of light falling on it. -t is also called photo/resistive device or photoresistors. $hen light is not incident on +,", +," has resistance greater than 077 which is nown as dar resistance. $hen light is incident on +,", the resistance is decreased on few hundred ohms. The semiconductor materials normally used are cadmium selenide Cd%, Pb%. The construction of +," is shown in the (ig. 2.01 !a). the light sensitive semiconductor material is deposited on ceramic body by using vacuum evaporation techniHues. Applications of +,":/ 0). +ight intensity meter. 1). Photoelectric relays !on/off switch). 2). Burglar alarms. 4). Photoelectric ob&ect counter. #"2 S<IN E ECT:A.,.C. current flowing through a conductor has uniform current density over the entire cross/sectional area of conductor. But in A.C., with increasing freHuency, the current density increases near to the surface of condcutor, decreasing in the centre. At "(, the current travels over the surface of the conductor. This increases the effective resistance of conductor to a high value. This is called s in effect. -t is minimised by coating the conductor with silver layer. #"4 -ERATIN= O RESISTOR:,erating of resistor means using much higher wattage resistor than reHuired at higher temperature. . This can be done by using two similar resistor in parallel but the reHuired value of resistance. (or e#ample, reHuired value is 17 .and power dissipation is ; $, then we will ma e and use of two 47 resistor pn parallel each having wattage rating of ; $. 5ariable resistors

These are the components whose resistance value can be ad&usted to any desired value within the given range in the circuit. 5ariable resistors generally have 2 terminals/1 fi#ed and 0 variable. They are used in measuring instrument, electrical instrument, radio receivers, T.5. receivers, etc. They various types are, as per the constructions: 0). "heostat. 1). Potentiometer. 2). Preset. 0). "heostat:/

i!" #"$#: R)eostat -t is variable wire wound resistor of high wattage. 6enerally, it is higher than ; $. for construction, resistance wire made of nichrime is wound on ceramic cylinder and the ends are fi#ed on both sides of fi#ed terminal. The variable terminal is provided by the slider which moves on a metal rod, fi#ed on both the ends as shown in the (ig. 2.02. -n many applications rheostats are used as variable resistors to limit current flow. They are also used as voltage dividing potentiometers. The rheostats are also available for different current and power ratings.

/" Potentiometers: >i: Linear Potentiometers: They are produced by ta ing resistive material of uniform thic ness or resistively over the entire length of element. This gives resistance versus rotation characteristics as a straight line. i!" #"$/ ? fi!" #"$1

>ii: Lo!arit)mic potentiometer: They are produced by ta ing resistive materials of different resistively to ma e total length of element. This gives the resistance versus rotation characteristics as a logarithmic curve. -t is used for volume controlling in radio receiver. >iii: Car%on t+pe potentiometer : i!" #"$2

Two processes are used for maturing: >a: Coate. film: a mi#ture of carbon filler and binders is coated on a ring of insulating material. The contact is of brass or phosphor bron*e. The wiper is connected to shaft. As shaft rotates, wiper also rotates and changes the resistance. -t consists of two fi#ed terminals and one variable terminal. 5ariable terminal is connected to shaft. Specifications: "esistance value: 077. to 07. Power rating N I watt to J watt. Tolerance: @ 178 for 077 . to 03 . 5oltage coefficient: 7.77;8 5. Application: They are used in T.5. in brightness, contrast control and radio and measuring instrument. > %: Mo.'l.e. t+pe: the carbon composition mi#ed is mouided into cavity in plastic base. Application: they are used in test eHuipments, computers, military and industrial applications.

Carbon composition potentiometers are made in linear and non/ linear types. >iv: &ire &o'n. potentiometers: i!" #"$4

>a: Stan.ar.@ t+pe or sin!le t'rn: nichrome wire is wound on flat strip of insulating material such as paper or Ba elite. This strip is then bent into an arc of circle and fi#ed in a Ba elite mould with end plates and with screws. The resistance element has rotating shaft at is center that moves wiper. To dissipate high power former is made up of aluminum with o#ide coating. >%: Aelical &o'n.: a very angle of rotation is obtained with helical wound resistor. The resistance winding is first wound resistor. The resistance winding is first wound on an insulated former. The former is then bent into a heli#. The helical former may be rectangular or circular. i!"#"$6

These potentiometers have highest resolution in smallest space.

Specifications: "esistance range: 01,07,;7,=;,077, 1.; ,07O,;7O and 01;O . Power rating: 077w to 177w Tolerance: @ 18 #"Preset: Presets are variable resistors having three terminals. Its wor ing principle is same as that of a potentiometer, but the rotating shaft is absent. Their value is ad&usted by using screw driver in the slot provided for the purpose. They are available with standard values in J watt or I watt. They differ potentiometer in the method of use. They are generally provided inside the instrument, where they are set for a particular value and should not be changed, as per reHuirement. i!"#"$9

Rectilinear trimmer: -n this, the resistive material is deposited on straight substrate strips. The moving contact is phenolic strip. The slot is provided over the trac to change the resistance by using screw driver. i!"#"*;

>i:

Car%on trimmer: -t consists of the mi#ture or the carbon powder, resin and binders which is deposited on insulating ring.

i!"#"*$

>ii: Cermet trimmer: -t is the mi#ture of ceramic and metal. These are made by screening a mi#ture of glass and metal or metal o#ide to a ceramic substrate. These resistors have better temperature coefficient and resistance to Fumidity. 5ire 5o'n. present: i!"#"**

-n this type nicrome wire is wound on ceramic insulating substrate in the form of arc. #"6 RESISTIVE NET5OR< %ome manufacture ma e discrete resistors in the form of networ pac , they can be single in line pac !,-P). "esistive networ pac s are made to be mounted on directly on PCB. These types of resistors are used for TTl gates, TTl/39%, -nterfacing networ s, current limiting and impedance matching. Based on the ind of resistor used, the resistor networ s can be discrete, thic film or thin film. ,iscrete networ pac s are preferred when e#tra high precision is compulsory and power handing reHuirement is

high and replacement of components act individual level is desired. Thic film networ pac s are manufactured by techniHues of screen printing. A ceramic material is printed on non/conducting substrate. i!"#"*#

A.vanta!es: 0. lower storage and lower cost 1. Better tolerance 2. 3a e in order in %-P or ,-P 4. )asy for mounting particularly for atomic production. Spacification of varia%le resistor: $" Car%on composition : 9hmic range: 077 to 073 Power rating: 7.;w to 1w Tolerance: @ 178 +aw: linear or log *" 5ire 5o'n.: +aw: +inear sine "ange: 07 Tolerance: @ ; 8 Power arting: 2 $ +ow: cosine "ange: 077 O #" Cermet : +aw: +inear "ange: 07 to ;77 O

Tolerance: @ 07 8 Power arting: 0 $

E0ERCISE
0. write colour code for following resistors: !a) 027 O., 07 8 !b) =.< O., 17 8 !c) 0 O., ; 8 !d) 7.<= ), 0.0 !e) 1 3

1. %tate different methods used to find out value of given resistor. 2. $hat is meant by tolerance. 4. $hat is meant by temperature coefficient of resistance. )#plain terms PTC and ATC. ;. Fow will you select resistor with proper wattage for particular application. <. $hich types of resistors are used in high freHuency applicationsP $hy. =. $hich type of resistors are used in high power applicationsP $hy. >. $hich types of resistors are having better accuracy. ?. %tate the applications of carbon, metal film and wire wound resister. 07. )#plain why high power wire wound resister are open wound. 00. )#plain why wire wound resister are not used at ".(. 01. )#plain the term spiraling used in film resistors. 02. 6ive constructional details of applications of high stability resistors. 04. )#plain wire wound resistor with respect to following points: !a) Construction, !b) 5oltage rating, !c) Current rating, !d) Application. 0;. )#plain the constructional detail of carbon composition resistor. 0<. )#plain the constructional detail of crac ed carbon resistor. 0=. )#plain the characteristics of a fi#ed resistor. 0>. $hat are variable resistorP %tate the various types. 0?. $hat is meant by linear and logarithmic potentiometerP 17. $hat are presents and e#plain how they differ from potentiometerP 10. 6ive the constructional details of rheostal. 11. 6ive the constructional details of carbon. Composition potentiometer. 12. )#plain the constructions of +6". 14. )#plain the constructions of 5,".

1;. )#plain the constructions of thermistor. 1<. %tate difference between linear and logarithmic potentiometer. 1=. )#plain construction of linear carbon composition type potentiometer. 1?. )#plain the term multitern potentiometer. 27. %tate application of rheostats. 20. )#plain why rheostats posses high wattage.

ELECTRONIC PASSIVE COMPONENTS - II

/"$ CAPACITORS Capacitors are electronic which have the ability of storing electrical energy. Basicaclly, all capacitors consist of two parallel facing conductive surfaces or parallel plates separated by an insulating material called dielectric. $hen connected to a voltage source, a momentary charging current deposits on the plates, establishing an electric field. )nergy is stored in this field and may be returned by discharging the capacitor through a load. Capacitor may be defined as the amount of charge reHuired to create a unit in which the capacitance is measured is a farad. Thus, the capacity is a charge to potential. Capacitance: -t measures the ability of a capacitor to store charge. -t may be defined as the amount of charge reHuired to create a unit potential difference between its plates. Q C E /////// 5 -f Q E 0 coulomb, 5 E 0 volt, than C E 0 farad !() farad is the unit used to measure capacitor, but it is too large for practical purpose. Fence smaller units li e microfarad !R(), nanofarad !n(), picofarad !p(), i.e. micromicro farad are generally employed. 0 R( E 0S07/< ( 0 n( E 0S07/? ( 0 p( E 0>07/01 ( The dielectric materials between the plate of the capacitor are of the following types: 0. 1. 2. 4. Air Ba elite Ceramic (ibre

;. <. =. >. ?.

6lass 3ica $a#ed paper Polystyrene Porcelain

(ig. 4.0 represents schematic symbols for various types of capacitors.

i!" /"$: S+m%ols for capacitors /"* IMPORTANT SPCE ICATIONS O CAPACITORS The capacitors are specified on the type of dielectric material used, capacitance values, capacitance tolerance, their voltage ratings, their power factor, their temperature coefficient. The capacitors may be specified by the type of dielectric used. Accordingly, they can be named as ceramic capacitors, tantalum capacitors, paper capacitors, film capacitors, elector capacitors etc. The voltage ratings or wor ing voltage of the capacitors is the ma#imum voltage at which capacitor may be operated without damage at a specified temperature. The wor ing voltage pf capacitor varies over the range of few volts to several hundred volts. The capacitors used more commonly in transistor circuits have a wor ing voltage of < volts. 9n the other hand, capacitors used in e#tra high tension supply of colour television receivers may have a voltage rating as high as ;7 5. /"# TBPES O CAPACITORS Capacitors are commonly classified on the basis of dielectric material used for their manufacturing. -t is mainly because of the fast that the characteristics of capacitor depend upon the dielectric. (ig. 4.1 summarises the classification of capacitors commonly used in the electronic field. Capacitor

(i#ed Capacitors

5ariable Capacitors

The capacitors may be divided into two groups: !A) (i#ed capacitors and !B) 5ariable capacitors. (i#ed capacitors are divided into two sub/groups !a) )lectrolytic capacitors and !b) Aonelectrolytic capacitors. The )lectorolytic capacitors are of the following types: 0. Tantalum capacitor 1. Aluminium capacitors Aonelectolytic capacitors are of the following types: 0. Ceramic capacitors 1. 3ica capacitors 2. Plastic or Polyester capacitors 4. Paper capacitors ;. 6lass capacitors. /"/ ELECTROLBTIC CAPACITORS These capacitors are made up of metal plates, which have a definite polarity separated by a thin metal dielectric as shows in (ig. 4.2.

i!" /"# The metal o#ide is a conductive compound having dielectric constant between > and 1;. Lsually it is in paste form, though it can be in liHuid form also. The metal o#ide film is deposited on one of the metal plate acts as positive electrode or anode. The capacitor is formed by using either a conducting electrolyte as a second electrode o a semiconductor such as manganese dio#ide. The electrolye used is either in a liHuid form or in the form of paste, which saturates a paper. The capacitor is pac ed in a metal cylinder. The cathode is connected to the cylinder. The cylinder is usually enclosed in a paper tube or cardboard tube, in order to insulate it from outside. $hen a voltage of correct polarity is applied to the capacitor, a very thin insulating layer of o#ygen atoms between the anode and the o#ide layer. A reversal of polarity removes the insulating layer, thereby allowing very high currents. Thus these capacitors are nown as polari*ed capacitors. They must be connected in a circuit according to the plus !T) and minus !/) ma ing on the bode capacitor. -f the capacitor is connected with a reverse polarity, it will act as a short circuit or get overheated, due to e#cessive lea age current and it can e#plode also. The electrolytic capacitors possess a large value of capacitance ranging from 0 R( to 07,777 R( in very compact si*e. These capacitors are used in starting motors, bloc ing ,.C. current, passing A.C. current, filtering unwanted signals, turning currents to a specified and bypassing signals etc. They are of two types: !i) Aluminium )lectrolytic Capacitors. !ii) Tantalum )lectrolytic Capacitor >i: Al'mini'm Electrol+tic Capacitors" These low cost capacitors are used in radio and television receivers and consumer audio eHuipments for power supply filtering, bypass and audio coupling applications. These capacitors are sealed in tubular aluminium cases using typically rubber phenolic end capacitors are securely spun over the elastomer so that capacitor does not lea out, dry out or to be contaminated with atmospheric moisture. The construction of such a type is shown in (ig. 4.4 The capacitors are made in single or dual sections or in isolated dual sections. +ead wires are a#ial, bar or insulatedD some types have all lead wires at one end, some types are made with solder tabs instead of wires. They are also made in non/polarised version. Application: Bypass, power supply filter. Specifications:

"ange: 0 R( to 0777 R( Temperature coefficient: 177 ppmCoC (reHuency range: 07 F* to 07 F* 5oltage range: < 5 to 477 5 Temperature range:/ ;; to 0;7oC

i!" /"/ >a:: Al'mini'm capacitor constr'ction

i!" /"/ >%: Al'mini'm electrol+tic capacitors ii:" Tantal'm electrol+tic capacitors:- ,espite a considerably higher cost than aluminums electrolytic capacitors, tantalum capacitors are e#tensively used in miniaturi*ed eHuipments and computers because of their smaller si*e, good stability, wide operating temperature range and long reliable operating life. These are a new type of electrolytic, using tantalum instead of aluminium. Aiobium is used. The electrolytic may be or dry. Accordingly they are classified as: 0). $et electrolyte capacitors. 1). ,ry electrolyte capacitors. $:" 5et electrol+te capacitors" The construction of wet slug tantatum capacitors is as follows. The anode and is made up of pure powdered tantalum. The powder is pressed in cylindrical pellet and then ba ed between 0<77 to 1777 oC. The lead wires are welded. The porous pellet is placed in anodic bath to form an o#ide coating on lead wires are welded. The porous pellet is

placed in anodic bath to from an o#ide coating on entire spongy surface. The pellet is then put into a metal can whose inner surface is coated with cathodic material and lead is soldered. The electrolytic material between the pellet and cathode is &elly of sulphuric acid or lithium chloride. Then the whole assembly is sealed to avoid lea age.

C i!" /"1 >a:D 5et electrol+te capacitor *:" -r+ electrol+te capacitors" The construction of dry electrolyte tantalum capacitors is somewhat similar to that of wet electrolyte type. After the pellet formation a thin coating of tantalum pento#ide is give by electrolysis process. Above this coating, a manganese dio#ide is giveD first immersing this into manganese nitrate solution and then applying heat to convert the coating into manganese dio#ide. A carbon and metal film applied over this prepared pellet acts as cathode. Then a copper or silver coating is give to improve solderability. The electrodes the construction. They feature larger capacitance in a smaller si*eD longer shelf life and less lea age current. Although the voltage ratings are lower than for aluminium electrolytics, tantalum capacitors are commonly used for low voltage applications in transistor and integrated circuits. Tantalum is the most stable of all anodic film/ forming materials, reforming is unnecessary, and the capacitor have a long life" Applications: Lsed in timing circuits (oil type: A.(. coupling/decoupling. Specifications: Capacitive range: 0u( to 077u( Temperature coefficient: 0;7ppmCoC (reHuency range: 0 F* to 07 F* 5oltage range:2; to =; 5 Temperature range:;;to 0=;oC

i! /"1 >%:: -r+ electrol+te capacitors" /"1 NON-ELECTROLBTIC CAPACITORS $:" =lass capacitors : ,ifferent si*ed glass capacitors are shown in (ig. 4.< The rugged glass capacitors are stable and durable. They are practically immune to temperature, aging, voltage, moisture, freHuency, shoc and vibration problems. i! /"2 : =lass capacitors Aluminium foil is used in place of the tin/lead foil. 6lass is drawn into a one/mil thic fle#ible ribbon, layers of foil and glass are inter/layered, leads are attached and assembly fused at a high temperature to form a monolithic of great physical strength. These capacitors are costly. Specifications of !lass capacitors: Capacitance range E0;7 p( to 07777 p( 9perating temperature rage E / ;;o C to 177o C 5oltage rating E 277 5 to ;77 5 *:" Ceramic capacitors: ceramic capacitors are manufactured in many shapes and si*es for a multitude of applications. -n such capacitors the ceramic material li e titanium dio#ide and barium titanate is used. Thin coating of silver compound is deposited on both the sides of the dielectric disc which acts as capacitors plates. +eads are attached to each procedure of preparing disc capacitor. Tubular ceramic capacitors are constructed from ceramic mi#es e#truded through a die to form the tube. The wor ing voltages range from 2 5 for use in solid state circuits upto <777 volts for other applications. The usual range of capacitance ratings for these small disc ceramics e#tends from 2 mmf to 1.1 mfd and the diameters typically measure J inch to U with ;C21 inch thic ness. ,isc and tubular types of ceramic capacitors are shown in the (ig. 4.= !a) and their construction is shown in the (ig.4.= !b)

i!" /"4 >a:: -isc an. t'%'lar ceramic capacitors

>%: Constr'ction of .isc from

i!"/"4 Constr'ctions of t'%'lar form"

Specifications of ceramic capacitors: Capacitance range E 0777 to 0277 p( or 7.770 to 07 u( $or ing voltage E 27777 5 Power factor E 7.71,7.7= at 0 F* Temperature coefficient E >77 ppmCo C (reHuency range E 0 F* to 0777 3F* #:" Paper capacitors: $:" Impre!nate. paper capacitors : Paper is a fibrous material. Air has lower permittivity and brea down occurs in air first, ma ing worse insulation. -f the air poc ets are filled with oils and varnishes, they becomes strong and stable. Paper is thoroughly dried so that all the moisture is removed before impregnating resins, varnishes for impregnation of paper. This type of capacitor consist of alternate layers of paper and metal foils. 6enerally raft paper is used which is having thic ness about =.; um to 1; um and foil is of aluminium having thic ness 11.; um. Aormally two paper sheets are used instead of singe sheet. This avoids the possibility of short circuit if single paper contains metal impurities. i!" /"6 Constr'ction of impre!nate. paper capacitor"

These are rolled. After rolling, ends are sprayed with copper so that lug type or e#tended foil type connection can be made. After connection, protective coating is applied and value is printed. Construction is as shown in (ig. 4.> Application: Paper is low cost dielectric material. %o these capacitors are used as general purpose capacitors. Specifications:

Capacitance range E 0777 p( to u( Tolerance E T/ 0;8 5oltage range E 477 5, <77 5, 0177 5, 0>77 5 Temperature coefficient E T 077 to 177 ppmCoC >%: Metallise. paper capacitors: -n metallised citance range paper capacitor, metal !Al) is deposited on one side or on both sides. There are two types of paper capacitor. -n first top and bottom orders of paper are left unmetalled. -n second method, the paper is fully metallised e#cept for a castellated trac drawn in middle. The construction is as shown in the (ig. 4.? >%:Constr'ction of .isc from i!" /"4: Constr'ction of t'%'lar form

Specifications of ceramic capacitor: Capacitance range E 0777 to 0277p( or 7.770 to 07 ( $or ing voltage E 27777 5 Power factor E 7.71, 7.7= at 0 F* Temperature coefficient E ppmCoC (reHuency range E 0 F* to 0777 3F* #": Paper Capacitor: $:" Impre!nate. paper capacitors: Paper is a fibrous material. Air has lower permittivity and brea down occurs in air first, ma ing worse insulation. -f the air poc ets are filled with oils and varnishes, they become strong and stable. Paper is thoroughly dried so that all the moisture is removed before impregnating resins, varnishes for impregnation of paper. This type of capacitor consists of alternate layers of paper and metal foils. 6enerally raft paper is used which is having thic ness about =.; m to 1; m and foil is of aluminium having thic ness 11.; m. Aormally two paper sheets are used instead of single sheet. This avoids the possibility of short circuit if single paper contains metal impurities.

i!" /"6: Constr'ction of impre!nate. paper capacitor These are rolled. After rolling, ends are sprayed with copper so that lug type or e#tended foil type connection can be made. After connection, protecting is applied and value is printed. Construction is as shown in (ig. 4.>. Application: paper is low cost dielectric material. %o these capacitors used as general purpose capacitors. These are used as "( bypass capacitors and coupling capacitors. Specifications: Capacitance range E 0777 p( to 0 ( Tolerance E T/ 0;8 5oltage rating E 477 5, <77 5, 0177 5, 0>77 5 Temperature coefficient E T 077 to 177 ppmCoC >%: Metallise. paper capacitor: -n metallised paper capacitor, metal !A0) is deposited on one side or on both sides. There are two types of metallised paper capacitor. -n first top and bottom borders of paper are left are unmetalled. -n second method, the paper is fully metallised e#cept for a castellated trac drawn in middle. The construction is as shown in the (ig. 4.?.

>%: Castellate. trac3 i!": Metallise.-paper capacitor This type of capacitor has self healing property. Before rolling, the metallised is passed between two metallic rollers across which voltage is slightly greater than rated voltage applied. The spar ing occurs at wea point in the paper and thin metal film evaporates from these spots

without damaging the paper. At at high temperature produces aluminium o#ide, which is good insulator. This property is nown as self healing. The demetallised margin serves as insulator between two electrodes. Both ends are sprayed with metal so that end connection can made. Then they are enclosed in plastic or metal case for protection. Application : -t is used for decoupling, main surge suppression, starting and running motor. Specifications : Capacitance range E 0777 p( to 0 ( 5oltage rating E 277 5 to 0;77 5 Tolerance E T/ 078 to 178 %tability E ; to 078 Temperature coefficient E 0;7 to 177 ppmCo C /"2 SPECI ICATIONS O CAPACITORS >i: Po&er factor: The ratio of resistance to impedance, measured in per cent. (or most practical purposes, it is dissipation factor. >ii: 5or3in! volta!e >Volta!e ratin!s:: 5oltage rating of a capacitor is given by the ma#imum potential difference that can be applied across its plate without rupturing its dielectric. %uch ratings are give for temperature upto <7o C. Figher temperatures result in lower voltage ratings. (or general purpose paper, mica and ceramic capacitor voltage ratings are typically 177 to ;77 5.,.C.Cramic capacitors with voltage ratings of of 0777 to 01777 volts are also available. )lectrolytic capacitors are commonly used in 1;, 0;7 and 4;7 voltage ratings. The miniature electrolytic with < volts to 1; volts ratings are often used for transistor circuits. $hen the capacitor are in circuits, the voltage across the capacitor should not be allowed to e#ceed its rating. Fowever, a capacitor with a higher voltage rating can be used in a low voltage circuit. /"4 VARIAELE CAPACITORS A variable capacitor is whose capacitance can be verified usually by rotating a shaft. -t consists of two sets of metal plates separated from each other by air. Air acts as a dielectric medium. 9ne set of plates is stationary and is called stator which is insulated from the shaft of the capacitor upon

which it is mounted. The other set of plates is connected to the shaft and can be rotated. -t is called the rotor. By rotating the rotor with the help of suitable nob, the rotor plates can be made to move in or of the stator plates. Capacitance is ma#imum when rotor plates are fully in, and minimum when they are out. -f GnB is the total number of plates and GdB is separation between any two ad&acent plates, then, the capacitance for air dielectric is given by: $hen two or more such capacitors are operated by a single shaft, it is nown as ganged capacitor or ganged condenser. -t is shown in the (ig. 4.07. Commercial receivers and those used by short wave radio often have a variable capacitor as a gang condenser. Another type of small variable capacitor which is often used in parallel with the main variable capacitor is sometimes nown as trimmer and sometimes as padder. -t is primarily used fir ma ing final ad&ustments on total capacitance of the device. A trimmer is shown in the (ig. 4.00. -t consist of two small fle#ible metal plates separated by air or mica or ceramic slab as dielectric. The spacing between the plates can be changed by means of a screw ad&ustment. As the screw is turned inward, the plates are compressed and its capacitance is increased. Capacitance of trimmers can be changed from 4.= p( to a ma#imum value of 27 p(. Corresponding values for padder are 07 p( to ;77p(.

i!" /"$;: =an! capacitor

Fig. 4.11: Trimmers 5ariable capacitors are used as tunning capacitors in radio receivers. $hen we tune two different stations, we actually vary the capacitance by moving the rotor plates in or out of the stator plates. Combined with an inductor, the variable capacitance tunes the receiver to a different resonant freHuency for each transmitting station. T+pes of frame: >i: E'ilt 'p V"efer (ig. 4.01 !a)W

This type of construction is rigid, thus it provides for freHuency stability and freedom from microphony. The front and bac plates are held together by rigid tie bars. %ometimes the tie bars are of ceramic to provide insulation for stators. (or having gang units, a number of sections can be easily added" >ii: , frame t+pe CRefer i!" /"$* >%:D The frame is one piece pressing. The two end are integral with base plate which carriers stators. !a) Built up type variable capacitor !b)Bent frame type variable capacitor

(ig. 4.01 4.>%T"A-6FT +-A) -A5)"%) %QLA") +A$ AA, %QLA") +A$ 9( 5A"-AB+) CAPAC-T9" The change in capacitance varies with the change in rotation of the vane. The different laws govern the relationship. The (ig. 4.02 shows the law of straight line and sHuare law. "elationship

between the vane si*e !#/a#is) capacitance !y/a#is) is plotted.

and

i!" /"$# /"9 =AN= CON-ENSER $hen two or more capacitors are operated by single, it is called gang condenser or gang capacitor. >i: Air !an! con.enser: -n this type of capacitor air is used as dielectric medium. -t consists of two sets of interleaved metallic plates !5anes), one of which is fi#ed called stator and other is movable called rotor as shown in the (ig. 4.04.

i!"/"$/" The plates are made from cadmium plated aluminium. The rotor plated are mounted on rotating shaft and grounded to the capacitor frame through a flat phosphor/bron*e spring which presses against the shaft. The rotor plates have slots that ate cut to match the multisection stator when the rotor is turned.

The highest capacitance obtained when rotor plates are fully in or meshed and minimum capacitance when rotor plates are fully out or unmeshed. $e can change capacitance from linear to sHuare or inverse sHuare. >ii: PVC !an! con.enser: This condenser uses P5C as dielectric medium. The plates or vanes are made of cadmium plated aluminium and dielectric spacers used between the plates as shown in the (ig. 4.0;. The rotor is made up of two sections on a common spindle. The total assembly is held together by four screws whose leads are fi#ed to plastic base. Tags connected to screws give connection to the stator through washer placed between spacer. The rotor sections are tag/connected separately to a common base plate mounted on the plastic base material. P5C gang condensers are used in radio receiver and transistor radio receiver because of their small si*e.

(ig. 4.0;: A P5C gang condenser 4.07 T"-33)" CAPAC-T9": The trimmer capacitors are mainly used for the two different purposes in circuit namely to set the value of the capacitance to designed value and other for the tunning. The trimmer capacitors can be constructed using various dielectrics li e air, mica or plastic. 6enerally air dielectric types are used.

$" Air .ielectric trimmer capacitors: They are available in types as moving vantype and concentric cylinder type. 3oving vane type trimmer capacitor is as shown in the (ig. 4.0<. -t consists of one moving vane and one fi#ed vane. (or air dielectric trimmer capacitor relationship between the ratter of vane and change in capacitance is almost liner.

i!"/"$2: T+pical air-space. trimmer capacitor The spacing between the vane is of the order of 7.70 inches for use at lower voltage and upto 7.7; inches for high voltage. (or ".(. use special silver plated brass vance are used. The change in capacitance of about 1 to 2 p( for lower capacitance. The tolerance is about XT078 *" -ifferential rotar+ t+pe: The construction of the capacitor is as shown in the (ig. 4.0=. %haded region shows the effective capacitance due to differential arrangement.

(ig. 4.0=: Construction of typical differential trimmer capacitor The rotor i.e. moving vane is changed so as to change the capacitance of one set of vanes increases while that of other decreases.

These differential air trimmers are mainly used in variable capacitive voltage dividing where high accuracy is e#pected. They can also operate in ".(. range. #" Mica compression t+pe: The trimmer capacitors can be used for temperature compensation with air as dielectric but it shows few drawbac s, which may be eliminated in mica compression type of capacitors. The construction of mica/compression capacitor is as shown in the (ig. 4.0> The compacitor is provided with the screw which can be driven to ad&ust the desired value. The position of the screw trimmer is set ia as shown in the (ig. 4.0> above. The mica is used as dielectric having low temperature coefficient.

(ig. 4.0>: Psotage stamp or single/unit type compression trimmer capacitor The capacitor provides good fine resolution.

mica

/" Concentric c+lin.er t+pe trimmers: These are also screw type capacitors as shown in the (ig. 4.0?

i!" /"$9: Concentric-t+pe trimmer capacitor The trimmer capacitor is made up of concentric cylinders of metal with the rotor moving on central pillar. The central pillar may be made up of material li e ceramics. There capacitors high. The compacitors are generally tubular and small in si*e. The capacitance can be determined by )+ C!p() E///////////////////// 4.04 log07 !dC,) $here, / permittivity of dielectric l K length of tubular element d / internal diameter of element , K outer diameter of element There are used in tunning purpose in T5 receivers.
)

1" Plastic- .ielectric t+pes: These trimmers also have concentric type of construction similar to ceramic trimmer. The dielectric used is plastic li e polythene or polytrtrafluoro/ethylene !P.T.(.T.) These trimmers are sensitive to vibrations. They are mainly used in intermediate freHuency ad&ustments. /"$$ COLO,R CO-E OR CAPACITORS 3ost capacitors are plainly mar ed with purchase value, wor ing voltage, and polarity or outside foil as appropriate. %ome types are colour coded. -n the past, colour code mar ing was more e#rensively used with more than one system of coding, although they all used the same colour digit code. Ta%le /"$ s)o&s t)e colo'r s+stem 'se. for paper capacitors"

Table 4.0: Colour code for moulded paper capacitor Colour ,igit Elac3 ; Ero&n $ Re. * Oran!e # Bello& / =reen 1 El'e 2 Violet 4 =re+ 6 5)ite 9 =ol. -Silver -No -colo'r E$ 3ultiplier $ $; $;; $;;; $;;;; $;;;;; $;;;;;; ------Tolerance *;F --------$;F 1F $;F *;F

(ig.4.17 Table 4.1: Colour code for moulded mica capacitor !Capacity given in 33() Colour ,igit 3ultiplier Tolrtance Class of

Elac3 Ero&n Re. Oran!e Bello& =reen El'e Violet =re+ 5)ite =ol. Silver

; $ * # / 1 2 4 6 9 --E$

$ $; $;; $;;; $;;;; // // // // // ;"$ ;";$

*;F $F *F #F -1F >ELA: ----1F>MIL: $;F

characteristics A E C E >MIL: = >MIL: -I >EIA: G >EIA: ---

(ig. 4.10 TAB+) 4.2: Ceramic capacitor codes !capacity given in 33() Colou ,igit 3ultipli Tolerance 9ver Temperatur )#tended r er 07 33( 07 e coefficient range or 33f ppmCoC temperature less %igni 3ulti/ / piler ficant Elac3 ; $ H*"; H*; ; >NPO: ;"; -$ MM F Ero& $ $; H;"$ H$F ## >NO##: $"1 -$; n MM Re. * $;; -H*F 41 >NO41: *"* -$;; Oran # $;;; -H*"1 -$1; #"# -$;;; !e F >N$1;: Bello / $;;;; ---**; /"4 -

& =ree n El'e Viole t =re+ 5)it e Silve r =ol. 1 2 4 6 9 ----;";$ ;"$; -H;"1F --H;"*1 MM H$"; MM -H1F ---H$; F --

>N**;: -##; >N##;: -/4; >N/4;: -41; >N41;: I#; >PO#;: 4"1 ----=eneral p'rpose ? %+-pass co'plin! I$;; >P$;;: --

$;;; ; I$ I$; I$;; I$;; ; ---

--

--

--

--

--

--

(ig. 4.11
Note: )-A / )lectronic -ndustriesB Association 3-+ / 3ilitary "3A / "adio 3anufacturesB Association

E0ERCISES

$" $hat is a capacitor P Classify the various type. *" ,raw and e#plain ceramic disc capacitor. #" ,raw and e#plain impregnated paper capacitor. /" ,raw and e#plain metali*ed paper capacitor. 1" ,raw and e#plain Al electrolytic capacitor. 2" ,raw and e#plain tantalum electrolytic capacitor. 4" $hich type of capacitor has ma#imum cCv ratio. 6" $hy electrolytic capacitor have polarity. 9" $hich electrolytic capacitors will you prefer for large time constant and why. $;" ,raw and e#plain the capacitor used for tunning in transistor used radio receiver. $$" $hich type of capacitor used for stating and running of motor. $*" $hat is the purpose of trimmer.

C)apter---- 1"
CAELES@ CONNECTORS AN- 5IRES

CONNECTORS
Connectors have been aptly described as sources of trouble &oining two pieces of electronic eHuipment. -n this section let us discuss some common connectors used in industrial, military and aerospace electronic eHuipment. -t is very difficult to cover all available connectors in this section, but some of the common ones can be discussed. (amilies of commercial and industrial connectors are usually developed by a single company to meet a particular need. $hen additional companies are licensed to manufacture the connector family, new trade names are often deviced. The factors which are to be considered while selecting the connectors are often deviced. $" Temperat're: ,ifference in thermal e#pansion rates of terminals and wires gives ruse to stress problem. Two dissimilar metals or alloys in contact at elevated temperatures can generate a thermal e. m. f. which shows up as a spurious low level ,. C. signal. *" C'rrent: Terminal current carrying capacity must be more than wire, it should have larger heat dissipating mass. #" Volta!es: )#tremely high operating voltages reHuire special consideration for insulation spacing. /" Corrosion: The two most damaging types of corrosion that may occur in terminals are atmospheric and galvanic. Atmospheric corrosion especially o#idation, in increased at higher temperature. 1" Ra.iation: Properties of most common plastic insulating material degrade drastically under prolonged e#posure. 2" Ins'lation: Preinsulated terminals must be used. 1"* A,-IO CONNECTORS %ome common audio connectors are shown in (ig. ;.0. These connectors are specially designed for use in audio and other low level signal applications such as test instruments, computers and medical instrumentation. They can be classed in two grade !i) commercial and !ii) broadcast. Commercial includes high fidelity, home tape recording and amature use. Broadcast includes use in interconnecting broadcasting, recording studio television, computer and medical electronic instruments. Broadcast Audio Connectors are made by Philips and Abu&a and have become the standard microphone and general audio connectors

for broadcasting and recording. They are made with three, four or five contacts and in a considerable variety of case styles. %hells are aluminum alloy, diecast, *inc or light/weight moulded plastic. i!" 1"$ : A'.io connectors

Miniat're A'.io connectors : A great variety of styles and shell is available, contacts range from two to seven. 1"# PAONE PL,=S AN- GAC<S These connectors are used for a lot of thing besides plugging in earphones and telephone switch boards. 'ac s panels and patchcords provide unlimited fle#ibility in interconnecting audio eHuipments in broadcast and television stations and sound recording studios. Phone plugs and &ac s are made in several si*es as reHuired for different applications. They are shown in (ig. ;.1.

i!" 1"* P)one pl'!s an. Jac3s The 0C4Y diameter plug is considered to be standard for industrial, military and telephone audio interconnection. Plugs are also manufactured to a diameter of 7.17< inch to be used in con&unction with 0C4Y plug for polari*ing. These can be grouped into si# main categories. !i) %olid pin plug, !ii) Bifercated plug, !iii) Banana type, !iv) "olled spring type plug, !v) 3ultispring wire plug. %oc ets are also of 4 types listed below : !i) 9pen end rolled soc et, !ii) Closed end rolled soc et, !iii) Turned soc et, !iv) 3ultiple spring wire soc et. 1@/ R" " CONNECTORS

". (. inter/connection id the art of conveying high freHuency signals from one device to another with minimum loss and distortion. -n most practical situations, inter/connecting routes incorporates semi/ permanent &oints to allow disconnection and reconnection at will. These ".(. &oints are made by using what are nown as connector plugs and soc ets, and it is chiefly these and their associates cables. "adio freHuency connectors are manufactured in several series which have dissimilar characteristics. (or optimum electrical performance !minimum mismatch), the connector si*e should be appro#imately the cable si*e. 3ost of these connectors are designed with a nominal impedance of ;7 ohms and are used with cables of the same impedance. Fowever, these connectors may be terminated with non/;7/ohms cables if used at low freHuencies, where the mis/match due to the connector is negligible. The voltage and power handling capability of connectors are dependent on many factors, the most important of which are si*e and cable entry design. A higher voltage rating necessitates increasing the creepage path from the center conductor to the other conductor. This is accomplished by telescoping the interface dielectrics and counterboring the dielectric in the cable entry portion. The latter has a limiting effect on the operational freHuency range because of the resulting mis/match in impedance at the connector cable entry. -n general, operating freHuency range decreases as the connector si*e increases. Bayonet connectors have the ability to Huic ly connect or disconnect a circuit. Threaded connectors generally have better electrical performance and can withstand high vibration levels without producing e#cessive noise. Cable connectors terminated three types of cables/fle#ible, semi/rigid or semi/fle#ible and rigid. )ach type of cable has optional termination techniHues. The outer conductor of the fle#ible cable is terminated either by a clamping device or by crimping. Connectors using the clamping method do not reHuire special assembly tools and connectors may be replaced replaced if damaged without restripping or changing or changing the length of cable. Crimping reHuires an assembly tool. The outer conductor of a semi/rigid cable is terminated by either soldering or clamping. -n soldering the connector body is soldered to the cable &ac et with low temperature solder. %oldered connectors are usually less e#pensive than clamp connectors, but clamping is a very fast and reliable means of terminating semi/rigid cables. The outer conductor of a semi/rigid cable is terminated by either soldering or clamping. -n soldering connectors are usually less

e#pensive than clamp connectors, but clamping is a very fast and reliable means of terminating semi/rigid cables. The ".(. connectors are broadly divided into following type: !a) BAC connectors !b) TAC connectors !c) A connectors !d) 3F5 connectors !e) C connectors !f) %C connectors !g) Aanohe# connectors !h) %3C connectors !i) %3A connectors !&) %%3A connectors ! ) %3A connectors !l) LF( connectors These connectors are manufactured by )lcom, Amphetroni# and Comel. >a: ENC connectors: These connectors are small, weather proof, light, weight, ;7 ohms nominal impedance bayonet loc ing Huic disconnect connectors. BAC connectors are i!" 1"# : ENC Ea+onet co'plin! connector

5ery popular and are e#tensively used in test eHuipments because of their rapid connectCdisconnect loc ing type feature. They possess overlapping dielectrics and wiping outer contact.The upper freHuency is generally limited to 2 6F*, for acceptable performance, since the interface cannot be sufficiently lightly located with the bayonet bloc system for higher freHuencies to be handled adeHuately. The tendency for the connector to roc on two bayonet pins is an undesirable feature at radio at freHuencies. The BAC is generally used with fle#ible cable. Connectors are available with non/captive center contacts, which are soldered to the center conductor of the cable. The outer shield is terminated by either clamping or crimping. A typical BAC connector is shown in figure ;.2.

!%: TNC connectors: These connectors are similar to BAC connectors e#cept that they use a threaded instead of bayonet coupling. They are small, weather/proof, light/weight and have a ;7 ohms nominal impedanceC the TAC e#hibits good screening efficiency and is usable to 00 6F* and upto 0; 6F* in some cases. These connectors are primarily designed fir use with ;7 ohms cable, however, other non/;7 ohms impedance cables may be terminated. Both captive and captive and non/captive contact designs are available. i!"1"/" TNC connector

The center conductor of the cable is soldered to the contact and the outer conductor is secured by means of a clamping mechanism. Connectors are made for cable si*es between 7.00 inch and 7.44 inch. A typical TAC connector is figure ;.4. >c: KNL connectors: the type K A/connector series was probably the earliest and the most popular microwave connector until recent years. This connector is screw coupled and has an air interface, the center conductor being supported by a polyteterfluoroethylene !PT()) or polystyrene bead. These medium si*e ;7 ohms connectors are weather/proof, use a threaded coupling and are rated at 0777 5rms. They have e#cellent electrical characteristics from ,C !7 F*) to 00 6F* and are considered to be precision connectors. The power handling ability of the type A is restricted because of its air dielectric and small line si*e. Both captive and non/captive center contacts are available. The center conductor of the cable is soldered to the contact and the outer conductor is secured by either clamping or crimping. 9ne of the A/type connectors is shown in figure ;.;. i!" 1"1": T+pe N-Connector

>.: T+pe MAV connectors: These connectors are specially designed for use of high voltage. They are similar to connectors e#cept that the overall length is greater than that of BAC and the male connector has a pro&ecting dielectric. The deep shrouding of the cable dielectric limits the use of this series to 5F( freHuencies and below. These connectors are capable of handling a pulsed signal if about ;777 volts compared with ;77 volts for the BAC. -t is shown in figure ;.< i!" 1"2 : T+pical MAV Ea+onet co'plin! connector

!e) Type K C K Connectors are designed for use with cables from ;C0< into to =C> into diameter in a Huic connect/disconnect application. The type K C features a two pin bayonet coupling and overlapping dielectrics. i!" 1"4 : T+pe C Ea+onet connector

The offer e#cellent electrical performance from ,.C. to 07 6F*. But it cannot be used in environments where it could be sub&ected to high levels of shoc and vibrations. The C/type Bayonet coupling type alongwith its dimensions is shown in figure ;.= >f: T+pe SC connector : The %C K connector is most rugged type, yet discussed and is i!" 1"6 : T+pe SC-connector

%imilar to type C/connector, e#cept that it has the advantage of a threaded coupling. The freHuency range is upto 00 6F* for cables from ;C0< inch diameter to =C> inch diameter and for cables down to =C21 inch diameter, the upper freHuency limit is reduced to 4 6F*. These connectors are specially designed for use in military applications. This type of connector is shown in figure ;.>. >!:T+pe Nano)e8 connectors : This series is a micro/ miniature version of the %3B and %3C series, and allows a much higher pac aging density than %3B and %3C with miniature fle#ible or semi/rigid cables. They wor satisfactory upto 01.4 6F* usable freHuencies. The Aanohe# is currently a selectors connector series and is manufactured in brass with a gold or nic el electroplating. $ith gold, an initial deposit of copper and nic el is used to prevent diffusion and corrosion. -t is shown in the (-6. ;.?. i!" 1"9 : T)e Nano)e8 connector

>):T)e SMC-connectors : The %3C connectors are designed for the use of military applications. These connectors are designed for use with fle#ible cables from 7.7<> inch to 7.21 inch diameter and semi/rigid cables upto 7.040 inch diameter. They are recommended for use in moderate environmental conditions at freHuencies upto 07 6F*. -t gives good high density pac aging consistent with reasonable electrical performance. A typical %3C style is shown in (igure ;.07. i!" 1"$; : T)e SMC connector

>i: T)e SME connectors: The %3B connectors are identical in si*e to the %3C, but features a snap/on connectors are designed for the use the same dielectric material as that of %3C. These are designed for the use with fle#ible cables from 7.7<> inch to 7.21 inch in diameter and semi/rigid cables upto 7.040 inch diameter.

Because of the coupling mechanism of the %3B, the freHuency range is limited to a ma#imum of a 4 6F*. A typical %3B snap/on style connector is shown in figure ;.00 i!" 1"$$: SME connector

>J: SSMA connectors: %%3A connectors are the microminiature style and can be used for ;7 ohm impedance cables of type fle#ible and semi/rigld. -n is used for microwave communication eHuipments. -t hive reliable electrical performance from ,.C. to 0> 6F* freHuency range. -t is a smaller version of %3A. A bode of these connectors is made from chemically passivated stainless steel or gold plated beryllium copper with passivation or gold plate. A typical %%3A connector is shown in figure ;.01. i!" 1"$*: SSMA connector

>3:SMA connector: -t is shown in figure ;.02.This series is probably the most popular miniature microwave connector. -t is specially used where high performance is needed. -t has a butt dielectric interface and a screw coupling mechanism, and may be used on fle#ible cables ranging from 7.72 inch to 7.11 inch at freHuencies upto 01.4 6F*, with semi/rigid cables upto 0> 6F*. %ome cases it can also be used upto 1< 6F*. These connectors i!" 1"$#: SMA connecto

Are available in many styles and it is much suitable for interconnection between microwave integrated circuits. 9ne of the

most common cables for use with %3A connector is the 7.040 inch semi/rigid. The bodies of %3A connectors are generally of stainless steel, gold plated or passivated. >l: ,A connectors: These connectors are cheap and designed for use in low freHuency range. These connectors are specially used in video tape recorder or video cassette record. These connectors wor satisfactorily upto 277 3F* and are rated for ma#imum ;77 voltage rating. 3ost LF( connectors have fi#ed center contacts that are soldered to the center conductor of the cable. Crimp connections are also available. 1"1 M,LTICORE CONNECTORS 3ulticore connectors are broadly divided into two groups: >a: 3ultiway rectangular connectors, and !b) 3ultiway circular connectors. 3ostly rectangular form of connectors are used in industry and consumer products. This is because the rectangular form shape is far more adaptable to optimi*e the shape available in modern methods of electronic pac aging. A rectangular pin out grid simplifies contact identification which aids servicing and is also more suited to automatic methods of wiring. "ibbon and flat cable can more readily be terminated to a rectangular pattern of pins. >a: M'lti&a+ rectan!'lar connectors: These connectors are widely used in electronic industry for connecting the main circuit to the input devices. Automatic Test )Huipment !AT)) of the data system industry uses these connectors are broadly divided into: $" Two/part rectangular, *" Lniversal !interface), #" , type, and /" Telecommunication connectors. $" T&o-part rectan!'lar connectors: These are wide variety of two/ part rectangular connectors carrying form as 07 to 17 to as many as 0<; or more contacts. These connectors are normally supplied with same means of mechanical assistance for the i! 1"$/: t&o-part rectan!'lar connector

3ating operation. This mechanical assistance is most commonly a &ac ing screw in one/half of the connector, which engages with a nut in the second/half to pull the two halves together. Fe contact used in these connectors ta es several forms, the most common being the round pin and soc et. The disadvantage of this of connector is the lac of Nwiping actionY which in normal connectors helps to clean the contact area during the mating operation. %uch a connector is shown in figure ;.04. *" ,niversal >interface: connectors: $ith the advent of connectors which accept NCrimp insertable and removableY contacts, a number of connectors nave been developed which will accept a whole range of contacts. The contact may include standard wire crimp type, wire wrap, coa#ial and even fibre optic connectors. This means that variety of circuits may be interconnected using the same connector loaded with a number of different types of contacts. There are a number of connectors available which have combination of cavity si*es to power and signal contacts to be carried in the same housing, this having considerable advantages where peripheral is supplied from a central power supply contained in the main unit. These contacts are designed carry currents as high as 2; amps, which is adeHuate for most normal electronics applications. #" M-N t+pe connectors: N,Y type connectors have been used for some considerable time and widely used in both data processing and telecommunication industries. They are normally used for inter/ connectors between eHuipment or between different sections of the same piece of eHuipment and are available in si*es from ? to 2= ways. (or less demanding applications, these connectors are now available in all plastic versions which offer a low cost. i!" 1"$1: t+pe connector

The standard range of N,Y type connectors is based around a pin and soc et combination of contact, the contact diameter being 0.71 mm. There is, however, a range of connectors available with same basic layout, but using 7.=1 mm diameter pin. This allows a higher pac aging density of contacts and these connectors are available with 0<, 1<, 44, <1, => and 074 contacts positions. A type connector is shown in figure ;.0;.

/"

Telecomm'nication connectors: The telecommunication industry has developed a range of connectors to suit own reHuirements. These reHuirements are becoming more comple# with the introduction of electronic e#changes, and a connector has been developed to accept wiring from both incoming wires and outgoing e#tension wires which give reliable interconnection with relatively low cost. The connector has simple leaf contacts giving wiring action and low insertion forces, ma ing hand mating possible, even upto the largest si*e of connector, the <4 way. This range of connectors is also available in wide variety of mounting types, meaning that the same basic connector can be used or clips, cable to PCB in both a vertical and ?7 o configuration loc ing being again available in both screw and clip version. A typical telecommunication connector is shown in figure ;.0<. i!" 1"$2: Telecomm'nication connector"

>%: M'lti&a+ circ'lar connectors: Circular connectors have been in use since early this century and their development has led to the three basic groups: $" +ow density !standard threaded circular) connectors. *" 3edium density !miniature Bayonet) circular connectors. #" Figh density !sub/miniature). $" Stan.ar. t)rea.e. circ'lar connectors >lo& .ensit+:: This family of connectors begins as NAAY !Army Aavy) connectors and were originally designed for aircraft use. They are now widely used in military aerospace and industrial applications because of their low cost, uniform high Huality, broad range of si*es, styles variations and pin arrangements and ready availability from vendors, including mail order distributors. (igure ;.0= !a) shows two of the many varieties. The connector construction is shown in the (ig.;.0= !b). i!"1"$4 >a: connector constr'ction

*" Miniat're Ea+onet circ'lar connectors >Me.i'm .ensit+:: i!" 1"$6: Miniat're %a+onet circ'lar connector

Bayonet connectors can be mated and demated faster than eHuivalent connectors with rhreaded couplings. They as mil /C K >2=12 series 0 and series 2. these connectors are used eHuipments, used in aircraft and aerospace vehicles. Connectors for special applications are available. They include "(- filtering versions with pressure water K tight pin contacts and glass header hermetic connectors for high pressure water K tight reHuirements. A typical miniature bayonet circular connector is shown in figure ;.0> #" Ai!) .ensit+ 7'ic3-.isconnect circ'lar connectors: These subminiature connectors provide greater contact than is available in miniature circular connectors. These connectors are made in two series using different shell designs series 0 !long) and series 1 !short). Although both series use the same inserts, the two series cannot be intermated because they have different shell ey positions. A typical high density Huic / disconnect circular connector is shown in figure ;.0? /" i!" 1"$9: Ai!) .ensit+ 7'ic3-.isconnect circ'lar connectors

PC Eoar. connectors: PC board connectors are available for board, board to wire, board to fle#ible cable and board to chassis interconnections. These can be separated into two general categories: $" Board edge plugs and *" "eceptables. The edge/receptable or finger/recepiable type connector consists of a mounded insulator containing a number of female type contacts accept the edge of the PC board. Assembly time is increased with this connector but it is recommended when the unit is sub&ected to high vibration. Two piece connector consists of a male plug and a female contact arrangement. 9ne section is mounted to the PC board and the other section is attached to a chassis or another PC board. )lectrical contact is made when these two connectors are mated. Connectors are also specified in terms of female contact design. (or the edge/receptable type, which must contact the foil fingers e#tending to the edge of the board, two/contacts arrangements are necessary. The first is the type with contacts that mate with a row of fingers on the single sided board whereas the second mates with rows of fingers on both sides of the board. %everal contact for single and double sided reHuirements i!" 1"*;: PC %oar. e.!e connectors

Are shown in figure ;.10. The tuning for design shown in figure ;.10 !a) has low contact resistance and is used for single sided board applications because it has only terminal point that e#tends through the rear of the insulator. The ribbon type contact design shown in figure ;.10 !b) provides for contact to double sided boards. )ach upper and lower pair of contacts have individual terminal pins that may be used independently or soldered together with a &umper wire. The cantilever contacts shown in figure ;.10 !c) are performed and pre/loaded so that a specific is applied to the foil fingers when PC board is inserted into the connector. (inally the bifurcated contact arrangement shown in individual bifurcated contacts is points of contact on each foil finger. )ach section in figure ;.10 !d) furnishes two points of contact on each foil finger. )ach section of the individual bifurcated contacts is different in width, imparting to

each its specific resonant freHuency. ,uring a period of vibration it would be e#pected that at least one leaf will always be in contact with the foil. These split contacts also ensure positive contact of these should be any non/uniformity in finger thic ness. i!" 1"*$

The connectors &ust discussed are typically constructed of either brass, phosphorus, bron*e, or beryllium copper. $hen cost is ma&or factor, brass is the least e#pensive. -t does, however, degenerates spring tension, owing to aging and continual insertion and removal of the PC board. Phosphorus bron*e contacts are superior in spring retention characteristics but they are slightly more e#pensive and have a higher contact resistance than brass. Beryllium/copper contacts, although more e#pensive, overcome all the disadvantages of the brass or phosphorus bron*e type. %ince the material used in the construction of the contacts for these connectors are relatively soft, they tend are plated with a gild alloy to a thic ness of 17 to 077 millionths of an inch. %everal contact terminations through the top or rear of the connector are shown in figure ;.11. The eyelet and dip solder types afford the most sound electrical connections and are recommended for use where vibrations are e#pected. $ire wrap style allow for more rapid assembly, with a resulting cost savings over the solder types. The crimped tapered pin style allows for easy and rapid modification or repair of assembled connectors. i!" 1"**: T+pical connector terminations

Connectors have contact spacings that vary from 7.07 to 7.17 inch, the most common being an on/center spacing of inch. The number of contacts per connector may vary from < to

as many as 077 and will naturally, depend on the number of contacts reHuired on the PC board. 3ost manufacturers design their connectors to eHually well with either 0C0< or 0C21 inch thic PC boards. -nsertion type connectors for thic er boards are also available. To insert the board into connector in the correct position a plastic or metal polari*ing ey is inserted either between pairs of contactor or beside in slots provided for this purpose. (or the board to be inserted into the connector when this type of eying is used, a notch in the leading edge of the board at the fingers must align with the align with ey. The type of ey that is positioned on the insulator beside contact pairs is sometimes preferable because it does not reduce the number of available contacts by one set. The leading end of the board that is inserted into the connector is chamfered at the 4; degree angle on both edges. This configuration allows the board to be inserted easily into the connectors and reduces the possibility of the foil fingers lifting on boards that are freHuently removed and replaced . i!" 1"*#: P"C" %oar.

1"2 CONNECTORS Specifications of connectors: $" Contact resistance: -t is measured as voltage drop from end to of mated contacts with rated current flowing through the contact. 5oltage drop from end to end C.". E ////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// "ated current flowing through contact *" Erea3.o&n volta!e: -t is ma#imum voltage that conductor can handle without damage. #" Ins'lation resistance: -nsulation resistance is the resistance between contact and bode of connectors.

-t is a measure at amount of lea age current that flows through material. 1"4 CAELES There are mainly two types of cables : !0) coa#ial cable, and !1) twin core cable. -n almost all circumstances coa#ial cables are better than twin core cables. The construction of a coa#ial !coa#) cable is shown in (ig. ;.14. -t is similar in construction to shielded wire, with the outer insulating &ac et isolating the shield from ground. The ma&or difference between coa#ial cable and shielded wire is in their electrical characteristics. Coa#ial cable is designed specifically to transit ".(. energy from one point to another, with ma#imum loss !attenuation). -nsulation material and thic ness is controlled with e#treme accuracy during manufacture to produce cables processing ;7,=; and ?; ohm characteristic impedance for proper matching. i!" 1"*1 : T&in core ca%le

The cable are defined by few figure of merits li e characteristic impedance, current carrying capacity, fle#ibility, etc. >a: C)aracteristic impe.ance: -t is defined as the impedance offered by an infinite line per unit length. The characteristic impedance can be written as, 5o Mo E /////////////////////// -o $here, 5o E applied voltage -o E input current The characteristic impedance of the parallel line is give as, 1, Mo E 1=< log /////////// , $here, , E distance between the two wires d E diameter or the wire generally for parallel transmission line it ranges from 0;7 K <77 ..

(or coa#ial line: Mo where, E 02> ////////// log d d E diameter of nner conductor , E diameter of outer conductor Z E diameter constant of material >%: C'rrent carr+in! capacit+: -t is the ma#imum capacity of the transmission line to carry the current without diction. >c: le8i%ilit+: The fle#ibility of the transmission line is defined according to the CC-TT standard. The term is mainly applicable for the unshielded coa#ial cable. The parameters are as given in the Table ;.0. Ta%le 1"$: Parameters of coa8ial ca%les S+stem Noice c)annel 2<77 07>77 02177 1=77 re7'enc+ %an. 3A( ;<4 K 0=;4> 2014 K <7;77 2114 K <4>77 277 / 0142; Repeator spacin! 1 mile 0 mile 0 mile 4.; m , //////

+4 +; +;) 01 3F* CC-TT 1"6 TBPES O CAELES

0. Figh temperature cable. 1. +ow impedance cable. 2. Figh impedance cable. 4. "ibbon cable. ;. (lat cable. <. +ow noise cable. =. Printed cable. >. %heathed cable. $" Ai!) temperat're ca%le: Figh temperature cable are of two types depending upon insulating material used. 0. P.T.(.). insulation. 1. 3ineral insulation. 3ineral cables are heavy and rigid and can be used upto 477 o C" They can be used upto 177 3F*. P.T.(.). cables are light, fle#ible and upto 177 o C" *" Lo& impe.ance ca%le: A large plastic core is covered by wire braid, 07 ..To 0; . -mpedance is obtained. Aormally two or three cables of =; . are used in parallel.

i!" 1"*2: Lo& impe.ance ca%le

#" Ai!) impe.ance ca%le: Figh impedance cable is obtained by inner conductor is helically wound, then inductance per unit length is increased and characteristic impedance can be increased. i!" 1"*4: Ai!) impe.ance ca%le"

/" Ri%%on ca%le: There are two types of ribbon cable. !a) %ingle colour. !b) 3ulticolour. This cable is fle#ible. %ingle colour and used to connect the peripherals of computer. 3ulticolour ribbon cable used for interconnection between different PCBs and control panels. "ibbon cable consists of si# or twelve conductors which are parallel and struc together. i!" 1"*6: Ri%%on ca%le

1"

lat t&in ca%le: -t consists of two conductors which are held apart at distance by polyethylene insulation. -tBs standard impedance is 277 .. These are used to connect television set to antenna. i!"1"*9

2" Lo& noise ca%le: these are made by insulating coating covered by semiconductor material. 4" Printe. ca%le: -t consists of conductor deposited on plastic films. These are flat and fle#ible. These are used where spacing is the importance. To produce printed cable etching techniHues are used. The power rating of printed cable is very small. 6" S)eat)e. ca%le: 5arious type of composite sheathed telephone coa#ial cable are used in our country. -n telephone cables following types of materials are generally used as insulating materials: >i: Paper ribbon, >ii: Paper pulp, >iii: %olid polythene, >iv: (oamed polythenc. +ead sheathed, paper covered telephone cable are used in all the organi*ations of telephones and telegraphy. Aow K a / days instead of lead, a new type of sheath material is prepared which consists of layers of aluminium and polythenc. The following types of such cables are used in telephone field. >i: T)e Alpet) S)eat)e. Ca%le >Al'mini'm-pol+t)ence Ca%le:: This type of cable consists of flat or corrugated aluminium foil used longitudinally with a overlap over the cable core and the outer sheath is made of blac polythene. Aluminium foil is not bonded to polythene. %heath. Aerials are prepared using these cables. The construction of Alpeth sheathed cable is shown in (ig. ;.27 i!" 1"#;: Alpet) s)eat)e. ca%le

>ii:

Pol+t)ene-al'mini'm Pol+t)ene S)eat)e. Ca%les: These cables are nown as PAP sheathed cables. These are similar in construction as shown in construction as shown in (ig. ;.20. The sheath is formed by inner sheath of polythene. 9ver the cable core, fiat or corrugated aluminium foils are used longitudinally with an overlap. The sheath is formed of blac polythene. i!" 1"#$: s)eat)e. ca%le

>iii: Alpet) an. PAP 'se. Pol+t)ene Al'mini'm S)eat)e. Ca%le: -t is similar in construction as shown in (ig. ;.21 e#cept a film of polythene copolymer is bonded to the outside of aluminium foil. The polythene sheath and aluminium foil are bonded during e#trusion of the polythene sheath. An overlapped seam of the foil is sealed against moisture. >iv: Stalpet) >Steel Al'mini'm Pol+t)ene: S)eat)e.: -t has a sheath of flat or corrugated aluminium foil used tape longitudinally without any overlap. The coated corrugated steel tape is used. The tape is soldered continuously at the longitudinal seam. A sheath of blac polythene is used. The steel tape ma es the cable. These are never installed underground buried systems. A sectional view of %talpeth cable is shown in (ig. ;.21. i!" 1"#*: Stalpet) ca%le

>v:

PASP >Pol+t)ene-al'mini'm: S)eat)e. Ca%le: -t is similar in construction to that of %talpeth cable shown in (ig. ;.21, e#cept that an inner sheath of polythene under the longitudinal

foil aluminium is used in the cable. These cables can be buried directly underground. The inner sheath of polythene provides lighting protection and wor as water seal for core in the outer sheath a faulty condition, due to lightning or other damage. >vi: Ca%le Paper Ins'late. ,nit T&in &it) Composite Steel Al'mini'm: Pol+t)ene S)eat2): The general construction and characteristics of paper insulated unit twin cable with composite steel, aluminium, polythene sheath for being buried directly are very important for material problems. +ead sheathed paper insulated unit twin cables are used in -ndian telephone department. These cables are also used in local telephone areas. The conductor of the cable is chosen of a bright, clean and scale/free solid wire of annealed high conductivity copper material. The conductors are insulated with dry insulating paper. The paper tape is used loosely around the conductor in a form of heli# with an overlap to prevent metallic contact. 1"6 5IRE $ire is a bar conductor. To cover the conductor insulation or sleeves are used. ,ses of &ire: $" "esistance of inductor. *" $inding of inductor. #" $inding of transformer. /" ".(. cable. 1" To connect different electronic components and devices. T+pes of &ire: $" Tinned wire *" %tranded wire. #" +it* wire /" %il cotton covered wire 1" )nameled wire $" Tinne. &ire: The bare !open) of copper is coated with solder alloy of lead and tin. -t is bright silver in colour which stops the formation of copper o#ide !Cu91). *" Stran.e. &ire" %tranded wire is fle#ible wire is fle#ible wire used in power cord a radio or television receiver, or other small appliances. -t is composed of a number of small gauge wires twisted together. i!" 1"##

#"

Sil3 or cotton covere. &ire: Copper wire is covered with single or double layers of cotton or sil . These are used or winding of inductor and transformers. /" Enamele. &ire: Copper wire is covered with coating enamel which is usually dar brown or blac . These are used hoo up electronic components. 1" Lit( &ire: The effective A.C. resistance of a conductor can be made to approach the ,.C. resisted in parallel at their end and insulated throughout their length from each other. )ach strand is of small diameter and has little s in effect over its cross/section. Thus, such a stranded wire, when used in A.C. circuit will offer the same resistance as in ,.C. circuit. ,ue to this reason of s in effect in A.C. circuits, thic wires are discarded and wires having a large number of strands are used. The stranded wire is called a +it* Conductor. A rapidly alternating current does not penetrate far into the interior of the conductor, but is restricted to a thin later on the surface. This effect is nown is nown as the s in effect. 1"$; TAE VARIO,S TESTS ON A CAELE

>i: On line spar3 test: At the time of insulation covering, the cable is passed through a high voltage system, comprising fine lin mesh which can detect any electrically wea points on insulation sheath. >ii: Volta!e test on .ielectric: Figh voltage as per specification is applied between the inner conductor and screen for a specified time. The cable should withstand it without any brea down. The freHuency of applied voltage is ept between 47 to <7 F* and the rate of increase of test voltage should not e#ceed 1 5 per second. Lnscreened cables are immersed in water for 0 hour and test voltage is applied between conductor and water. >iii: Ins'lation resistance: A direct voltage of ;77 5 T - ;7 5 is applied between conductor and insulation system for 0 minute T / ; seconds. Then insulation resistance is measured between inner conductor and outer conductor for

coa#ial cable, this should not be less than =;777 ohms per 27 meters at room temperature. >iv: Con.'ctor resistance: "esistance of each inner conductor should be measured with direct current and its value corrected to a temperature of 17o C" >v: Capacitance meas're. at $ 3A(: 3easurement of capacitance give an idea about the losses in ".(. cable and its also to calculate impedance of the system. >vi: Corona .isc)ar!e test: $hen alternating potential between two parallel conductors increases beyond a certain limit, a point is reached when a pale violet glow appears on the conductor surface. This phenomenon is termed as C9"-AA and is accompanied by hissing noise. The luminous envelope surrounding the conductor is composed of air which has become ioni*ed and become conducting due to effect of high electrostatic stress. The brea down occurs at the surface of the conductors and the effect of corona is eHuivalent to increasing the effective diameter of the conductor corona is accompanied by power loss and there is flow of current due to corona. A specimen of 0 meter length is sub&ected to gradually inception voltage until C9"9AA is detected. This voltage reading is nown as inception voltage. %imilarly the voltage is decreased until corona e#tinction voltage is observed. Test voltage E 277 5 and the rate of increase of voltage is ;7 5Csec. >vii:Atten'ation meas'rement at *;; MA(: 5.F.(. 9scillator is used as a single generator. +ow pass filter is used at the output of 5.F.(. osc. 9f filter the harmonics from passing through the cable. 5F( is used to generate e#actly 27 3F*. 3i#er is used to heterodyne the above two freHuencies to give a beat freHuency to give a best freHuency of 27 3F*. The output of mi#er is give to -.(. amplifier. -.(. amplifier is tuned to 27 3F* to give ma#imum deflection. A certain reading is obtained an -.(. amplifier without inserting cable. The cable is inserted and the new reading is obtained. The difference between new and previous readings is attenuation loss is dB. >vii: Mean C)aracteristic Impe.ance On: The characteristic impedance is defined as the impededance seen at the input of an infinite cable. Characteristic impededance is the arithmetic mean of local Characteristic impededance along the length of cable. 1"$$ SLEEVES

%ingle stranded conductor may sometime be used with sleeves. %leeves provide screening. T+pes of sleeves: 0. %il . 1. 6lass. 2. Figh temperature ceramic covering. $" Sil3: -mpregnated sil is used for sleeve, are cut in ?7 cm strips. The strip is rolled on mandrel of si*e eHual to internal diameter reHuired. The rolled tube is heated and cooled. The sleeving may by braided with wire. *" =lass: 6lass is used for sleeve for moderate temperature. The glass sleeve is manufactured by passing glass fibre on multispindle machine. #" Ai!) temperat're ceramic coverin!s: Ceramic sleeves are used for high temperature and flam application. E0ERCISE $" $hat is cable, %tate the characteristics and application of cable. *" ,raw and e#plain coa#ial cable. #" ,raw and e#plain "( cable with two core. /" 6ive the constructional details and ribbon cable. 1" $hich are different types of wire. 2" $hich are the uses of wire. 4" $rite short note on +i type wire. 6" $rite short note on BFC and TAC connector. 9" )#plain , series connectors. $;" $rite short note on edge connector. $$" $rite short note on audio connector. $*" )#plain uses of plugs and soc ets.

IN-,CTOR AN- TRANS ORMER

2"$ IN-,CTORS -t is another basic passive circuit component commonly used in electrical and electronic circuits. -t is nothing but a coil of conducting wire wound on a core or former of some suitable material. -nductors serve a 5arity of purposes, such as in power supply filters, oscillators, tuned circuits and freHuency discriminating filters.it is used to introduce inductance reactance into circuit. -t is found that whenever current through an inductor changes. A counter ).3.(. is induced in it, which tends to oppose this change. This property of the coil due to which it opposes any change of current through it is called inductance !+). -t is measured in henry !F). This inductance of a coil is given by the following e#pression: +E Ro Rr AA1 XXXXXXXXXXXXX +

$here R7, Rr are the absolute and relative permeability of the core material, A is cross/sectional area of the core, A , the number of turns of the coil, l is the length of the core. (rom eHuation <.0 we can say that + varies: !i) directly as relative permeability of the core material, !ii) directly as core cross/sectional area, !iii) directly as sHuare of the number of turns of the coil, and !iv) -nversely as core length. %uppose current through an inductor is changed at the rate of di C dt, due to which a counter e.m.f. is induced in it, then it is found that: di e E+. dt

or e +E !diCdt) if diCdt E 0 ACs and e E 05, then + E 0F. A coil has an inductance of one henry if the e.m.f. induced in it is one volt when the current is changing at the rate of one ampere per second. "eactance is the opposition presented by a pure coil ! or a capacitance ) to the flow of comple# current ! alternating current ) through it. The opposition offered by a resistor to the flow of current is termed as resistance. "esistance dissipates energy in the form of heat while reactance diminishes current by setting up an opposing e.m.f. and therefore controls a source of alternating e.m.f. $ithout wastage of electrical energy. In.'ctive reactance: reactance of a coil is called inductive reactance and it is denoted by [+ and is given by: [+ E 1 \ f. + E ] + $here GfB is the freHuency of applied e.m.f. in hert* !F*) and G+B is inductance of the coil in henries. Self-In.'ctance: This is the e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the change of its own flu# lin ed with it. -f current through the coil is changed, then the flu# lin ed with its own turns will also change, which induces bac e.m.f. and that e.m.f. is nown as self induced e.m.f. M't'al in.'ctance: when two coils placed close to each other. The change of current in one coil produces induced e.m.f. in the other coil. That e.m.f. is nown as mutual inductance.

3 E O ^+-+1 $here, 3 E 3utual inductance O E Coefficient of coupling +0 _ +1 E -nductance of two coil. 2"* TBPES O IN-,CTORES The following types of inductors are in use. They are: !i) Air/core inductorD !ii) -ron K Core inductor !iii) (errite/core inductorD >i: Air-core in.'ctor: core is the space available inside a former. (ormer is a device on which the coils are actually wound. (ormers are made of insulating materials such as ceramic, pa#olin, plastic or cardboard. Air K core inductor consists of number of turns of conductive wire K wound on a former made of plastic or cardboard. %ince there is nothing but air inside the coil, an air/ core inductor has the least inductance for a given number of turns and core length. This is because of air all the magnetic lines produced by the changing current do not lin with every turn of the coil D many of them are lost in the surrounding space. Thus, the value of the inductance in air/cored coils is much reduced. A typical air/core inductor is shown in fig. <.0 !a) and its symbol is shown in fig. <.0 !b) i!" 2"$

To construct the air/core conductor, the wires are wound on the appropriate former in one layer. -t is wound from the bottom to its top and then the starting and ending terminals are anchored at tags fi#ed at the two ends of the former. %uch a winding is nown as a single layer simple winding. -t is shown in fig. <.1 i!" 2"*

The inductance G+B of single layer core coil is given appro#imately by: r1 # A1 + E /////////// ?r T 07.l $here G+B is inductance in microhenry !RF), GrB is the outside radius of the coil in inches. M'ltila+er coils: -n winding a 3ultilayer coil, the straight forward method is to wind the wire along the former in one layer and then to wind another layer above the first layer in the reverse direction until the starting point of the winding is again arrived at the end so on for such coils. The inductance G+B is given by: + E r. A1. ( $here, + E inductance in microhenry " E mean radius of the coil in inches i.e. radius of former plus half the depth of the winding. r

( E ////////// lTd $here, l E winding length in inches d E depth of the winding in inches. >ii: Iron core In.'ctor: -ron is a ferromagnetic material. $hen the space inside the former of coil is filled with solid iron or laminated iron core, the lines of flu# produced by the AC flowing in a coil find a much easier path through the iron and do not tend to lea to the outside of the coil. -nstead the lines of flu# produced by the alternating current complete their path through the iron. -n addition, when a current flows in a coil, the iron becomes magneti*ed and adds its own flu# lines to those produced directly by the current. Fence total flu# lin ed with coil increases i.e. the inductance of the coil is much greater in an iron cored coil than in an air cored coil of the dimensions. -n order to avoid eddy current loss, the iron is laminated i.e. made up of thin iron laminations pressed together but insulated from each other by varnish. i!" 2"#

The iron K cored inductors are also commonly nown as cho e. The iron K core has been found to wor more efficiently particularly at low freaHuencies if it is in the form of a closed core i.e. the core not only goes through the centre of the coil but also surrounds it on its two

sides as shown in fig. <.2. the symbol to represent an iron core inductor is shown in fig.<.2 GlB is the length of the coil in inches. GAB is the number of turns of wire. !iii) (errite K core -nductor:/ (errite is an artificially prepared non/metallic material using sintered iron o#ide with other metal ions to control magnetic properties. -f the coil of wire is wound on a soil core made of highly ferromagnetic substance called ferrite, the ferrite core e#hibits a minimum eddy current loss. (errite possesses high magnetic permeability and high resistiveity to eddy currents. The ferrite core is used in coils in the freHuency range covering audio freHuencies and radio freHuencies upto 077 3F*. ,ifferent types of ferrite Kcore inductors are shown in fig. <.4 !a7. The symbol to represent ferrite K core inductor is shown in fig. <.4. i!"2"/

2"#

I=,RE O MERIT KPL The Huality of figure of merit of a coil is measurement in terms of its Q value. -t is given by: [+ ]+ 1 \ f. + Q E /////// E //////// E ///////// " " " //////////////!<.=)

$here, [+ E the reactance of the inductor " E the resistance of the inductor

As seen, smaller the ,.C. resistance of a coil as compared to its inductance, higher is its H factor. -n tuned receiver circuits a high Q coil is preferred because !i) it increases sharpness of tuning, i.e. ma es the tuned circuit more selective !ii) it additionally increases its sensitivity. 2"/ CAOC<IN= IN-,CTORS >CAO<E COIL:: Cho ing inductors may be classified according to their use. They are: !i) (ilter Choc s, !ii) A.(. Choc s, !iii) ".(. Choc s. The cho e is an inductance in series with an e#ternal " to prevent the AC signal voltage from developing any appreciable output across ", at the freHuency of the source. >i: ilter c)o3es: one application of the inductors is in the smoothening of the pulsating ,.C. current produced by rectifying the alternating current to the direct current. -n the circuit of fig.<.; a pulse of electron flow will be produced when the anode of a diode becomes positive or forward biased. The current increase from *ero to a ma#imum value induces an e.m.f. Across which limits the delays the ma#imum value of current. $hen conduction stops, the inductance tends to eep the current from changing to *ero. Thus pulses of current will be smoothed out to produce a fairly constant direct current. (or this application the inductor is referred to as a filter cho e. A typical filter cho e has many turns of wire wound on an iron core !fig. <.;) many power supplies use filter cho es of ; to 17 henries capable of carrying upto 7.2 amperes. i!" 2"1

>ii: A'.io fre7'enc+ c)o3es >A" " C)o3e:: since audio freHuencies are not much higher than the ripple freHuencies of the rectifier supply !;7 F*), the lower inductance filter cho e can also be used as audio freHuency cho es. A.(. cho es can be used when it is desired to prevent A.(. current from flowing one part of the circuit to another. -n the circuit of fig. <.<, function of the cho e is to prevent A.(. current from entering the ,.C. source. i!"2"2

>iii: Ra.io fre7'enc+ c)o3es >R" " C)o3e:: As the freHuency increases into radio freHuency range, the inductance need for cho ing or bloc ing purposes becomes smaller at 0777 F* ".(. cho e of 0 mF will produce a reactance of <1>7 ohms. -n the circuit of fig. !<.= !a) compare this reactance to the 0; g ohm reactance of the 7.770 mid bypass capacitor c, naturally the ".(. current will ta e the path of the least opposition through capacitor CD Fence the ".(. current is bypassed around the ,.C. source. )ven less inductance will be reHuired for a cho e as the freHuency increases and the same <1>7 ohms of reactance can be developed by 7.70 millihenry at 077 3F*. The inductance range for ".(. Cho es is about 7.1 F to 04; mF. i!"2"4

%ome ".(. cho es have solid or powered iron cores the smaller inductance types for the very high and the ultra high freHuencies use plastic or steatite cores. The windings are commonly built up in a number of sections, each section being several lagers deep but not very wide as a means to reducing capacitance that would e#ist between wire turns. $inding of many ".(. cho es are left e#posed, but some of the smaller types having flat windings are enclosed. $indings of small cho es are usually of very small gauge sil covered copper wire. 2"1 REP,ENCB RESPONSE O AN IN-,CTOR The variation of inductance with freHuency or the variation of GQB with freHuency has great importance in A.C. circuit design. As we have seen that [+ E ] + E1 \ f. +, where f is freHuency in hert*, + is inductance , G]B is angular freHuency. This eHuation is valid for sinusoidal A.C. circuits. This eHuation ![+ E ] + E1 \ f. +) states that there is a linear increase in inductive reactance of a coil as the freHuency of applied A.C. source increases. This is represented in the graph of fig. <.> drawn for a constant value of + if f E 7, then inductive reactance is *ero. This means that inductance has no steady state effect or opposition to current in ,.C. Circuit. Another freHuency response for different +, with different Q value is shown in fig. <.? for toroidal inductors. i!"2"6

2"2 TRANS ORMERS Intro.'ction: Transformer is a device which converts alternating current at high voltage into low voltage into low voltage and vice versa. The transformer wor s on the

principle of mutual inductance. -n the transformer the changing current in one coil can induce an e.m.f. in the second coil. An important application of mutual inductance is found in iron core power transformers. These have the ability to step up or step down alternating voltages ma ing possible the economic distribution of electric power between generator and customer. They can also transform load resistances to affect matching for ma#imum power transfer purposes. A special transformer with the output voltage the same as the input, is used for isolation purposes where supply voltages grounds can cause problems when wor ing with grounding eHuipment. Another type is the auto K transformer, which is particularly adaptable to variable voltage operation. -nstrument transformers, both the potential and current types, are designed especially for transforming the high voltage and current in distribution systems for the safe measurement of power. (inally, in brief, we can say that the transformer is a static piece of device that the transformers electric power from one circuit to another having mutual inductance with it, does so without change of freHuency and does it by electromagnetic induction. 2"4 PRINCIPLE O OPERATION $hen two coils are placed so close to each other the e#panding and collapsing magnetic flu# of one coil. Then, these two coils are said to have mutual inductance 3. -n fig. <.07, the coil +, is connected to a generator that produces varying current in the turns. The winding +1 is not connected to +0 but the turns are lin ed by magnetic field. A varying current in +0, its varying magnetic field induces voltage in +0. The two coils +0 and +1 have mutual inductance, because current in one can induce voltage in the other. i!" 2"$;

Consider the core type transformer shown in fig. <.00. it consists of two highly inductive coils which are electrically separates but magnetically lin ed through an iron core of low reactance. The two coils posses high mutual inductance. i!"2"$$

-f one coil is connected to an A.C. source an alternating flu# is set up in the laminated core. 3ost of which is lin ed with the other coil. -f the second coil is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil in which electric energy is fed is called secondary winding. -t should be noted that a steady ,.C. voltage cannot be steady current cannot produce induced voltage. 2"6 T,RNS RATIO The ratio of the number of turns in the secondary to the number of turns in the primary is called turns ratio of the transformer.

A% Ao.of turns of secondary coil Turns ratio E /////// E/////////////////////////////////////// Ap Ao.of turns of secondary coil $" Volta!e ratio: with unity coupling between primary and secondary , the voltage induced in each turn of secondary is the same as the self K induced voltage of

each turn in the primary therefore the voltage ratio is in the same proportion as the turns ratio 5% ////////// E 5p A% /////////// Ap //////////////////////!<.>)

$hen the secondary has more turns the secondary voltage is higher and the primary voltage is stopped up .this type of transformer is nown as step/up transformer. $hen the number of turns of secondary are less than the primary, the secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage, in such a case it is turned as step/down transformer. *" C'rrent Ratio: with *ero losses assumed for the transformer, the power in the secondary windings eHuals the power in the primary windings. i.e. 5p -p E 5% -% //////////////////////////////!<.?) -p ///// -s 5s E /////// 5p //////////////////////////////

9r !<.07)

Thus, the current ratio is the inverse of voltage ratio. i.e. voltage step/up in the secondary means current step/ down, and vice versa. #" Impe.ance Ratio: The ratio of primary impedance to secondary in a transformer eHual to the sHuare of the turns ratio. 1 i.e. Mp ////// Ms E Ap ! /////// ) As

5p Ap ////// E ! /////// ) /////////////////////////////!a) 5s As

. . .

-s Ap ////// E ! /////// ) //////////////////////////////// !b) -p As -multiplying eHuation !a) and !b) 1 5p ////// [ 5s i.e. Mp ////// Ms E Ap ! /////// ) As -s ////// E -p Ap ! /////// ) As 1

/" Transformer Efficienc+: )fficiency is defined as the ratio of power out to power in stated by a formula. Pout )fficiency E /////////// [ 077 /////////////////////////////// !<.00) Pin 2"9 TBPES O TRANS ORMERS 6enerally transformers used in electronic eHuipment can be classified into power, communication, pulse and tuned type. But, transformers can be classified according to

their applications. %ome typical uses of transformers are as power transformers, filament transformers, transistor power transformers, autotransformers, potential transformers, current transformers. +et us study some main types in brief. 0. Sin!le p)ase mains po&er transformer: it is of either step/up or step/down type usually they have laminated core and have one primary winding but several secondary windings insulated from each other. They are commonly used in the power supply of electronic eHuipments and provide various A.C. 5oltages necessary for the conversion of ,.C. 5oltages. Atypical transformer designed for this purpose has secondary voltages . A typical transformer designed for this purpose has secondary voltage =77 5olt !2;7 5oltage all each side of the center tap). i!"2"$*

The same transformer has other secondaries low voltage for the vacuum tube filament. This is step/up type and it is shown in fig.<.02 i!"2"$#

Aow a days because of solid state devices a step/ down power transformer is used. A typical transformer is designed for the input supply to the primary as 127 v A.C. the output across the secondary is 145 !01 5olt on each of side of the center tap.) A typical power transformer used in bridge rectifier is shown in fig. <.04

i!" 2"$/

There are two types of winding of a transformer. !i) Core type transformer winding. !ii) %hell type transformer winding. >i: Core t+pe transformer is shown in fig.<.0;. as seen a core type transformer is made up of a pac age of thin rectangular silicon steel laminations. )ach lamination is coated with an insulating varnish and the total core is pressed $ith high pressure .The primary and secondary windings are placed on each side of the common core i! 2"$1

!ii: S)ell t+pe transformer &in.in!: The shell type construction also consists of similar laminations. The two windings are in layers and fit over the center section of the core. This is shown in fig. <.0< i!"2"$2

#" A'to-transformer: As shown in fig. <.0=, an auto K transformer consists of one continuous coil with a tapped connection such as terminal GCB between the ends at terminal GAB and GBB. There are two types of auto K transformersD

!i : Step 'p a'to transformers >ii:Step .o&n a'to transformers i! 2"$4

-t is also very adaptable to variable voltage operation by using a sliding contact li e a wire wound potentiometer !fig. <.0>). Fowever, an auto K transformer does not faction as a simple voltage divider. The auto Ktransformer is also nown by trade name variac .A variable auto Ktransformer is shown in figD <.0>. -n fig <.0= !a) the auto Ktransformer steps up the supply voltage between GaB and GcB and is connected across Part of the total turns ,while the secondary voltage 5s is induced across all the turns .with three times the turns for the secondary voltage 5s is three times 5P i! 2"$6

-n fig <.0=the auto Ktransformer steps down the primary voltage vp Connected across the entire coil. Then the secondary voltage is ta en across less than the total turns. The winding that connects the voltage source to supply power is the primary, while the secondary is across the load resistance "+. The turns ratio and voltage ratio apply same way as in a conventional windings. Autotransformers are used often because they are compact, efficient and usually costless with only one winding. Fowever, the same wire si*e must be suitable for both the primary and secondary. Also note that the

autotransformer has only three leads compared with four leads for the transformer. -t is also nown as light dimmer or dimmerstat. #"Isolation transformers: when the number of turns of primary is ept eHual to the number of turns in the secondary, the formation is isolation transformer. That is Ap E As or Ap ////// As E 0,

Fence isolation transformers have a 0 to 0 turns ratio. in power applications the, fig.<.0?. isolation transformers reduce the possibility of electrical shoc from eHuipment that has its chasis connected to one side of the 1175 A.C.line. Another form of isolation transformer is used in audio freHuency eHuipment to bloc direct current from the following stages. A typical isolation transformer is shown in fig.<.0?. i!"2"$9"

/" Classification of transformers accor.in! to fre7'enc+ ran!e over &)ic) t)e+ operate: The transformers used in electronic circuits can be classified according to the freHuency range over which they operate such as: !i) Audio freHuency !A.(.), transformers. !ii) "adio freHuency !".(.), transformers. !iii) -ntermediate freHuency !-.(.), transformers. >i: A'.io fre7'enc+ >A" ":@ transformers: they are designed to operate the audio freHuency !A.(.) range of

17F* to 17 F*, have laminated core and usually smaller than mains power transformers. These transformers are generally classified as input, output, inter/stage and driver types. An input transformer is used to match the output impedance of a transducer to the input impedance of an active device such as transistor or vacuum tube, !as shown in fig. <.17) in order to obtain ma#imum power transfer. The active device may be a microphone, phono cartridge, tape playbac head, or similar source of audio or vedeo energy. An input transformer is rated for primary C secondary impedance ratio !eHuals sHuare of ratio of primary C secondary turns), for power handling capability ? such as 0;7 3$) for winding resistances, and for freHuency range !such as 177F* to 07OF*). -nput transformers are magnetically shielded in most cases to minimi*e pic /up of stray fields. fi!" 2"*;"

9utput transformers are used to match the output impedance of an amplifier to the input impedance of a spea er coil, and thereby obtain ma#imum power transfer. ,.C. isolation is also provided !fig. <.10). 3any manufacturers use the standard colour code for leads. Fowever, some transformers use other forms of lead identification or no identification. Aote that an ohmmeter test serves to identify the windings on an output transformers, because the primary resistance is always much greater than the secondary resistance. An output transformer is rated for primary C secondary impedance ratio. Power handling capability !such as ; watts) winding resistance ?such as 1277 ohms and > ohms) and freHuency range under specified load conditions. i!"2"*$

-nterstage transforms are used to match the output impedance of an active device to the input impedance of another active device. These interstage transformers are used in the audio section of both vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers. An interstage transform and it is sometimes possible to distinguish between primary and secondary coils on the basis of ,.C. resistance measurements. -n case of doubt an A.C. test must be made to determine turns ratio. An interstage impedance ratio, primary and secondary windind resistance and freHuency range. ,river transformers are comparable to interstage transformers, e#cept that they are reHuired to supply grid current !or base current) to the driven stage. -n turn, the design of a driver transformer is characteri*ed by low winding resistances, greater core cross section and minimum lea age flu#. Although a driver transformer can be used in place of an interstage transformer, the reverse is not true. A driver transformer does not wor into a current loadD instead it wor s into essentially an open circuit until grid current starts to flow near the pea of the driving waveform. Then the transformer starts wor ing into a comparatively low resistance. This reHuires good regulation if the output waveform is to be undistorted. ,river transformers are rated for primary and secondary impedance ratio, ma#imum permissible primary current, freHuency response and winding resistances. 3ost secondaries are center/tapped, because driver transformers are generally used in class B amplifiers, a class B amplifier must be operated in pushpull to avoid serious distortion. The primary of the driver transformer may or may not be center K tapped, depending upon its particular applications. $hen the primary is center K tapped, the core cross K section is considerably less for a given audio power rating. The reason for this is that

there is no possibility of core saturation by the ,.C. current demand when T)bb ! T5cc) voltage is introduced at the center tap of primary. That is, the ,.C. current branches from the center tap and the two paths cancel out in so for as their magnetic fields are concerned. >ii:Ra.io re7'enc+ >R" : an. Interme.iate re7'enc+ > I" : Transformers : They are designed to operate at high freHuencies i.e. above audio range and are referred as ".(. or -.( transformers. 3ost of the ".(. transformers have either one or both of the windings tuned i.e. in con&unction with capacitor, they form a resonant circuit which wor s best at one particular freHuency. Fence, the transformers are also termed as collectively tuned transformers. Their main function is to provide a specified bandwidth at a particular center freHuency. Typical radio freHuency transformers are shown in (ig .<.11 !a ) ,!b) ,! c) ,! d) ,!e) and !f ).These can be classified into capacitively tuned and permeability tuned types . i! "2"**

A capacitively tuned transformers contains trimmer capacitors connected in parallel with the primary and secondary windings .A permeability tuned transformer contains ad&ustable ferromagnetic cores in the primary and secondary windings. -.(. transformers are designed for three principal -.(. freHuencies K1<1 F*, 4;; F*, and 0;77 F*. Their range of ad&ustment is generally specified, such as 1;7/1=; F*, 4;7/4=; F* and 0477/0<77 F*. -.(. transformers are also manufactured with a center freHuency of 4.; 3F*. These are used in the inter carrier sound section of T.5.

receivers. 9ther -.(. transformers with center freHuencies in the range from 2? 3F* are used in the vedio -.(. section of T.5. receivers. (.3. -.(. transformers have a center freHuency of 07.= 3F*. (.3. K A.3. composite -.(. Transformers consists of two separate -.(. transformers in a single shield can. 9ne transformer has a center freHuency of 07.= 3F* and the other has a center freHuency of 4;;OF*. 3iniature -.(. transformers designed !fig.<.11 V e W ) for use in printed circuit boards are permeability tuned, with provisions for tuning both cores from either end of the shielded can.the ground lugs on the shield serve also for mechanical mounting of the transformer. ".(. transformers operate at high freHuency compared with -.(. transformers in the same eHuipments. (or e#ample, a radio receiver that employs 4;;OF*. -f transformers ordinarily utili*es ".(. transformers that tune from ;;7 to 0=77 F*. As seen from fig. <.11, the e#ternal appearance of an ".(. transformer is similar to that of an -.(. transformer. An ".(. transformer that tunes from ;;o to 0=77 F* operates in combination with a variable capacitor that resonates its primary andCor secondary over the given range. 5ariable !gang) condenser with a ma#imum value of 2<; P( is commonly utili*ed. 9scillator transformers are similar to ".(. transformers, but operated at higher freHuency !(ig. <.11!e)) ".(. and -.(. transformers are also rated for bandwidth. (ig.<.12 shows the definition of bandwidth for tuned transformers used in radio eHuipments. i!"2"*#

The bandwidth is defined as the number of F* between =7.= 8 ma#imum points on the freHuency response curve for the transformer. ".(. and -.(.

transformers used in A.3. broadcast radio receivers usually have a bandwidth of appro#imately 07 F* tuned receivers have a bandwidth of appro#imately 177OF*, and the measurement is often made at ;78 of ma#imum points on the freHuency response curve, as shown in fig.<.14 various communications receivers may employ -.(. transformers with a center freHuency of 077OF* and bandwidth of 1.; or 2 F* or a tuned transformer with a center freHuency of 0>77 F* and bandwidth of 1; F* may be utili*ed. i!"2"*/

Transformer used in the -.(. section of a T.5. receiver or a radar receiver do not provide the full bandwidth of the amplifier, with stagger tuning as shown in fig. <.1;. in turn the overall response of both the transformers provides the rating bandwidth of the -.(. amplifier. Baffler transformer is fabricated by winding the primary and secondary wires besides each other, so that very tight coupling is obtained. A ferromagnetic core is provided to ad&ust the center freHuency of the baffler transformer. $hen greater bandwidth is reHuired than is provided by the transformer characteristics, a resistor of suitable value is connected in shunt with the primary winding. i!"2"*1

1" Ai!) Volta!e transformers >E")"T": : the main reHuirement is designed ).F.T. is to provide ! proper and sufficient insulation to avoid corona discharge. (or this reason, these transformers are generally oil

emerged type. -n ).F.T. for primary and secondary windings, the separate sections of bobbins are provided. %econdary windings have tapering connection to avoid brea down between end of secondary and core. ,ue to different tappings, ).F.T. terminals have different voltages. The different voltages are used for different sections which are supplied to different sections of T.5. circuit after rectification. Application: -t is used in T.5. it is used in [/ray and high voltage ,.C. power supply. i!"2"*2"

2" P'lse transformer: A pulse transformer is used to transmit voltage or current pulses with specific reHuirement on wave K shape fidelity and as electrical isolation transformer. There are two main types of pulse transformers. 0. Lsed for generating and amplifying small pulses. 1. (or power transformer, used in rador transmitter. -n first type, pulse width is about 7.1; Rs. -n second type, pulse transformer is placed in oil filled container which carries heat. A pulse transformer is rated with pulse width and not in terms of freHuency response more inductance is reHuired to increase pulse width. To reduce eddy current losses high permeability laminated core is used in pulse transformer. Pulse transformer is also rated in terms of primary and secondary winding ratio. e.g. 0:1:0 i.e. in secondary winding amplitude of pulse will be doubled than that of at primary and at another secondary the amplitude of pulse is same as that of at primary. %imilarly, e.g. li e 0:0:0, 0:1, 0:0. i!"2"*4

Applications: To match voltage and impedance of pulse forming nCw, to microwave tubes, pulse transformer is used in computer circuit. 4" C'rrent Transformer: The current transformer is also called as series transformer. -t is placed in series with high current and steps the current down. current transformer is used to get accurate and constant current transformation ratio. the circuit diagram is shown in the fig.<. i!"2"*6

2"$;LOSSES IN TRANS ORMER: $" E..+ C'rrent Loss: -n iron core, alternating current induces voltage in core. %ince it is a conductor, circulating current flow through iron core, and this current is produced due to induced voltages. This Current is shown as eddy current. The eddy current represents the wasted power dissipated as heat in core eHual to -1". eddy current flu# opposes the coil flu#, so more current is reHuired in coil to maintain its magnetic field. *" A+stersis loss: The Fystersis loss results from the additional power needed to reverse the magnetic field in magnetic material. This area represents Fystersis. i!"2"*9

2"$$SAEIL-IN= O TRANS ORMER There are two types of shielding: !0) 3agnetic shielding, !1) )lectrostatic shielding, >$: Ma!netic s)iel.in!: To reduce radiated type interference, magnetic shielding is used in transformer. -t is achieved by enclosing the transformer in single, high permeability, nic el/iron can. >*: Electrostatic s)iel.in!: To reduce line K coupled interference by reducing the interwinding capacity, electrostatic shielding is used between primary and secondary windings of transformer. -t uses a high conductive material such as copper, silver, aluminum as a wrap around or between the coil of a transformer. 2"$*LAMINATES ,SE- OR TRANS ORMER )ddy current losses are high due to low resistance of core material if single core is used. ,ue to lamination. )ddy current losses are reduced, because the resistance of core increases with laminated core. i!"2"#;

2"$# TBPES O LAMINATES !0) )+ type, !1) + type, !2) ( type, !4) )) type, !;) L- type, !<) Pot Core. i!"2"#$

E8ercise

0. $hat are inductorsP 6ive classification with e#ample. 1. ,raw and e#plain the construction of Air/cored inductor, -ron/cored inductor, (errite cored. 2. $rite short note on A(C, filter chec s. 4. %uggest suitable appropriate core for low freHuency inductor below 17 F*. ;. $hich type of core is used for antenna coil. <. $hy ferrite cores are used in high freHuency cho es and transformer. =. )#plain to increase inductance cores are used. >. ,efine of a coil. ?. $hat is transformerP +ist various types of transformers. 07. $hat are applications of the transformer. 00. ,raw and e#plain power transformer. 01. Fow eddy current losses are minimi*ed in transformers. 02. )#plain the losses in transformer. 04. )#plain variable transformer. 0;. )#plain transformer, which is used for impedance matching. 0<. $rite short note on A(T and "(T. 0=. )#plain pulse transformer and current transformer. 0>. $hy ).F.T. is oil emerged type.

S5ITCAES@ RELABS AN- -ISPLABS

4"$
S5ITCAES

Intro.'ction: An electrical switch is a device for opening and closing or for rerouting an electrical signal through a circuit. Commonly all switches are manually operated devices. %ince switch operation depends on the surface of two pieces of metal ma ing proper contact, there is always some resistance present. The area of contacting surface also limits the amount of current can be carried without e#cessive heating. The switch is put in series with voltage source and its load. -n the 9A position, the closed switch has very little resistance. The ma#imum current can flow in the load, with practically *ero voltage drop across the switch. $hen the switch is open, it offers infinite resistance and no current can flow in the circuit.

4"* TBPES O S5ITCTAES

$" *" #" /" 1" 2" 4" 6" 9" Toggle switch: !a) %P%T, !b) %P,T, !c) ,P%T, !d) ,P,T. %lide switch: !a) %P%T, !b) %P,T, !c) ,P%T, !d) ,P,T. "oc er switch "otary switch 3icro switch ,-P switch Push switch Pro#imity switch 3embrane switch.

4"# TO==LE AN- SLI-E S5ITCA

$" Sin!le pole sin!le t)ro& >SPST: s&itc): -t can connect or disconnect one side of a lone on a single wire circuit. They are of two type K the slide type and toggle. %lide type %P%T is shown in (ig. =.0 !a) while toggle %P%T is (ig =.0 !b). The slide type is suitable for PCB mounting. -ts current rating is from 0 A to ; A while voltage is from < 5 to 27 5. %ome toggle switches are manufactured for 5 ACC.C; A. i!" 4"$

The toggle switch has wide application in low current solid slate devices, computer, instruments and test apparatus. -ts function is 9A/9(( control of ,.C.supplies. They can used upto 0 3F*. *" Sin!le pole .o'%le t)ro& >SP-T: s&itc): i!" 4"*

%uch a switch has two 9A positions. A slide %P,T switch is shown in (ig. =.1 !a) while toggle %P,T switch in (ig. =.1 !b) #" -o'%le pole sin!le t)ro& >-PST: s&itc): As shown in (ig. =.2 such as switch has only one position of closure but contacts simultaneously. -n fact, it is similar to %P%T switch e#cept that it switches both the sides of a two wire line at once. -t may also be used as two single pole switches acting together. A slide switch !,P%T) is shown in (ig. =.2 !a) and toggle !,P%T) switch is shown in (ig. =.2 !b). i!" 4"#

/" -o'%le pole .o'%le t)ro& >-P-T: s&itc): %uch a switch has two poles and can be moved either to the right or to the left. %uch a switch can also be two poles ,P%T switches acting together. Toggle ,P,T is shown in (ig. =.4 !a) while slide ,P,T is shown in (g.=.4 !b). The symbol to represent ,P,T switch is shown in (ig.=.4 !c). i!" 4"/

4"/ ESN- S5ITCAES

These switches are used in radio, T.5. instruments, tape recorder, to select a particular circuit. A three band radio receiver reHuires three position band switch. These switches are slide type or rotary type. The different types have been shown in (ig. =.;. These switches are manufactured in different si*es and shapes. These switches have been in use for a long time and are still the first choice for most selector switch applications. These switches can are stillthe first choice for most selector switch applications. These switch can be broadly classified as power, heavy duty, miniature, subminiature and microminiature. %witch designs and materials are fairly standardi*ed. Commercial is the economy grade rotary or slide switch suitable for home, entertainment and other consumer products and industrial eHuipments with light use. The life rating is usually 07,777 operations. Construction generally includes a leaf spring detent, silver plated brass contacts, phenolic insulation and sta e assembly. -ndustrial grade rotary switches are suitable for all types of test and industrial eHuipments and heavy use consumer products. The life rating or dual ball detents, silver alloy contacts, insulation other than phenolic bolted construction and a finish that will withstand ;7 hour salt spray test are used in their construction. i!" 4"1

4"1 MICRO S5ITCAES

These switches are of different types. Are subminiature roc er switch, and illuminated roc er switch. The toggle micro is %P%T, %P,T, ,P%T, ,P%T, ,9,T types. They are suitable far both low level and power switching applications. They may be enclosed in nylon case. The nylon construction provides double insulation for e#tra safety. They withstand for 0,77,777 operations. Their insulation resistance is greater than 07 megaohms. Their temperature rating is between / 1; o C to =?o C" %ome common types of micro switches are shown in the (ig. =.<. Their typical current are 1 to 07 A and the voltage ratings are from 017 to <77 5.

4"2 -,AL IN LINE >-IP: S5ITCAES

This switch contains a number of single throw switches as show in the (ig. =.=. -t is a miniature switch which is designed for installation on PCB. The ,-P switch is used for individual circuit switching or for encoding a binary code in computer circuiting. i!" 4"4 s&itc)

4"4

MEMERANE <EB S5ITCAS

These switches are really &ust a special type of mechanical switch, which consists of a three layer plastic or rubber sandwich as show in the (ig. =.>. The top layer has a conductive line of silver in running under each roe of eys. The middle layer has a hole under each ey position. The bottom layer has a conductive line of silver in running under each column of eys. $hen you press a ey you push the top in through the hole to contact the bottom silver in line. The advantage of this type of eys on eyboard is that they can be made as very thin, sealed units. They are used often used on cash registers in fast food restaurants, in medical instruments, and in other messy

applications. The life/time of membrane range.

eyboards varies over a wide

i!" 4"6: A mem%rane 3e+-s&itc)

4"6

ROC<ER S5ITCA

"oc er switch is improvement to toggle switch. -t is used for high current in servo/stabili*ers, LP% control circuits and C5T%. -t consists of plastic roc er with better area. ,ue to plastic roc er, finger/tip pressure uniformly and prologs the life of mechanical part. -t reHuires more space on the panel, but its rugged operation has it increasingly popular. i!" 4"9

4"9

P,SA E,TTON S5ITCA

Push to 9A push to 9((: $" P's)-to-ON: -t consists of two fi#ed metal contacts and one variable metal contact. -t uses spring to connect and disconnect the metal contact and whole assemble is enclosed in insulating bode.

$hen button is pushed inward, the moves towards contact and ma e the contact. $hen the metal bar meets contact point, the circuit becomes closed. $hen button is released, the circuit becomes open because the spring pushes metal bar in the reverse direction away from contact. i!" 4"$;

*" P's)-to-O : -t is having similar structure that of push/to K9A e#cept two fi#ed metal contacts and one variable contact. $hen button is pushed inward, the metal bar moves away from contact and circuit becomes opened. $hen button is released, circuit becomes closed. i!" 4"$$

4"$; PRO0IMITB S5ITCA This is photo/operated or electromagnetic operated switch. This is capable of connecting or disconnecting an electric circuit when any metallic ob&ect is brought close to its sensing face. -t offers a wide range of operating distance and modes of operation. Aormally open normally closed, types are available. -nductive pro#imity switches do not reHuire any physical contact for their operation. 4"$$ IMPORTANT TERMS

$" Operatin! time: This is the time interval between the closing of energi*ing circuit and instant of first closing of a ma e contact or brea contact.

*" Release time: This is the interval between energi*ing circuit of monostable relay after switch 9(( and instant of first opening of a ma e contact or first closing of brea contact. #. Eo'nce time: -t is the interval of between the first and final closing or opening contact. 4"$$ RELAB Intro.'ction: A relay is a that function as an electrically operated switch. 3ost relays are electromagnetically operated. Current through a coil generates a magnetic field that attracts an armature, which in turn closes or opens the electrical contacts. 9peration is in the millisecond range. "elays are manufactured in a great variety. Classification by application is very difficult, each variety of relay is used in widely dissimilar applications. 9ne common type of relay has a normally closed and a normally open contact as shown in (ig. =.02 !a). The normally closed contact provides continuity between the armature and the upper contact when he coil is deenergi*ed. A spring holds the armature in this position. $hen rated voltage is applied to the coil, the armature is attracted by the coil, the armature is drawn downward, brea ing the normally closed contact and ma ing the normally open contact. Continuity now e#ists between armature and lower contact. -n a typical relay a P.,. of 015 at &ust few milliamperes is sufficient to energi*e or pull in the relay. The load may be rated at 1175 A.C. and 0 A or more. A wide variety of A.C. and ,.C. relays are available. (ig. =.04 !b) shows the symbol used to represent the relay in the circuit. i!" 4"$#

4"$# TBPES O RELABS 6reat variety of relays are available in the mar et. The following types of relays are arranged in the order of increasing speciali*ation: 0. 6eneral purpose !common) relay

1. Power relay 2. Telephone relay 4. Card actuated relay ;. %ensitive relay <. Crystal can relay =. ,ry reed relay >. 3ercury wetted reed relay ?. P.C. board relay 07.%tepping relay 00.Coa#ial relay 01.-nstrument relay 02.Fybrid relay, and 04.%olid state relay. 4"$/ =ENERAL P,RPOSE ELECTORMA=ETIC RELAB These is a low cost electromagnetic rely which is adaptable to many application and is not special in any way. -t is an electromagnetic relay, it is shown in (ig. =.04, along with its different parts. i!"4"$/: Parts of !eneral p'rpose electroma!netic rela+

The parts of the relay are of iron core and its surrounding coil of iron yo e which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flu#, the yo e being shaped so that the magnetic circuit can be closed by a movable piece of iron called the armature and a set of contacts. The armature is hinged to the yo e and held by a spring in such a way that there armature is attracted to the iron. )lectrical switching contacts are mounted on the armature. $hen the relay coil energi*ed, these movable contacts brea their connection with one set of fi#ed contacts !normally closed) and close a connection to previously open contacts !normally open). $hen electric power is removed the coil, a spring returns the armature to its original position. To prevent the armature from remaining stuc to the end of the core because of

remnant magnetism a separator made of non/magnetic malarial maintains a small NresidualY air between the armature face and the core. The relay coil bobbin/wound with insulated enameled copper wire. Then it is powered with rubber compounds or impregnated varnish to protect it from moisture. The end wire terminals are soldered to the terminal tags and no &oint is used during the coil winding as it brea s due to e#pansion of wire material. Phosphor bron*e is widely used for contact strips to give good contact without spar ing process. %tandard voltages for ,.C. relays are <, 01, 14, 4>, and 007 volts, for A.C. relay are <, 01, 14, 4>, 017 and 147 volts. The rated coil power for such relays is 0177 m $. The operation time mechanical life for such relays is 07 million operations. The electrical life of such relay is about 0777 operations. They can be operated safely within the temperature range 4;7C to =77C. The current rating for contact is 0 A to ; A. They are available !contact standard) in %P%T, ,P,T, 2P,T, 4P,T. These relays are also nown in (ig. =.0;. i!" 4"$1: =eneral p'rpose rela+

4"$1 -RB REE- RELABS A dry reed is also nown as a reed relay. ,ry reed relay are widely used for counting selection and logic control system and for isolating input and output eHuipment interface. These relay are made in standard miniature and subminiature si*es. A reed relay is a combination of one or more reed switches, each of which enclosed in a hermetically sealed glass capsule, and an electromagnetic coil. -n some types, biasing permanent magnets are also included. The capsule is either filled with a dry inert gas or evacuated. The hollow relay coil surrounds the capsule is either filled with a dry inert gas or evacuated. The hollow relay coil surrounds the capsule or group of capsules to ma e a multiple relay .Lnenclosed dry reed are also available .They are of the following types: !i) Type A Kmechanically biased. !ii) Type B Kpolari*ed, magnetically biased.

!iii) Type C K mechanically biased. !iv) Type K-5 polari*ed, magnetically biased. >i: T+pe A mec)anicall+ %iase.: -n this most common %P%T K A9 capsule configuration !as shown in (ig. =.0<) two overlapping ferromagnetic reeds are sealed into the ends of a narrow glass tube with their free ends overlapping in the centre. Contact areas are either plated, usually with gold or rhodium or have precious metal contacts inlaid welded or bra*ed. %ince the reeds are ferromagnetic, the e#treme ends will assume opposite magnetic polarity when in magnetic field. $ith sufficient flu# density, attraction between the reeds overcomes their stiffness, and they fle# towards each other and ma e contact. (or reliable switching, some overdrive is necessary. i!" 4"$2: -r+ ree. T+pe A mec)anicall+ %iase.

>ii:

T+pe E polari(e.@ ma!neticall+ %iase.: This type of reed relay is shown in (ig. =.0=. -f a Type A switch capsule is biased to the closed position with a small permanent magnet, the result is an %P%T K AC contact set. $hen the coil is energised in proper polarity, the coilBs magnetic field cancels the magnetic field of the biasing magnet and the contacts open. -f e#cessive voltage is applied to the coil, the magnetic field of the coil will e#ceed the magnetic field of the biasing magnet and will cause the contact to recluse.

i!" 4"$4: T+pe E ma!neticall+ %iase. .r+ ree. rela+

>iii: T+pe C mec)anicall+ %iase.: The %P,T switch capsule contains one complaint reed and two rigid stationary contacts. This type at reed relay is shown in (ig. =.0>. Before it is used into the glass, the movable reed is positioned so that pressure is e#erted on the normally closed contact. To limit the magnetic attraction between the normally closed contacts, the normally closed stationary contacts have a pad of non K magnetic material welded or bra*ed to it K performing essentially the same function as a residual screw of a telephone relay. i!" 4"$6: T+pe C Mec)anicall+ %iase. .r+ ree. rela+

$hen the relay coil is energi*ed, the magnetic attraction is stronger between the normally open contact and the movable contact then it is between the movable and normally closed contact. This produces the switching action. >v: T+pe C mec)anicall+ %iase.: This type of reed is shown in i!" 4"$9: -r+ ree.@ T+pe C -@ Polarise.@ mec)anicall+ %iase.

(ig. =.0?. -n this reed switch configuration the complaint movable reed is similar to that in the mechanically biased switch, but both the stationary contacts are identical. There is no non K magnetic residual pad on the normally closed reed. The movable reed is centre K stable, that is, with no magnetic forces applied to it, is mid K point between the two stationary contacts.

A permanent magnet is positioned to hold the movable reed against one of the stationary con. $hen the relay coil is energised with proper polarity, the combination of the complaint contact moves from the normally closed contact to normally open contact. 4"$2 MERC,RB 5ETTE- REE- RELAB -n this form of reed relay, hermetically K sealed glass capsules similar to those used in dry reed relays are stood on end with a pool of mercury at the bottom. By capillary action, some of the mercury flows up the reed to wet both the movable and fi#ed reed contact surface as shown in (ig. =.17 !a). the central reed is ept in mercury pool which is free to move between two fi#ed strips also of magnetic material. %mall ad&ustable permanent magnets are used to bias the reed to one side of the other. The reed is nic el plated and grooved with capillary channels so that the whole surface becomes wetted. $hen the current through the coil is passed, the central reed is attracted towards the right, so that one of the contacts is disconnected V(ig. =.17 !b)W. ,ue to cushioning effect of the mercury there is a virtually no bounce or chatter. The main drawbac of this type of relay is it must wor in vertical position. i!" 4"*;: Merc'r+ Vette. ree. rela+

4"$4

ERRE- REE- REAB

-f used ferred reed relay. -n this relay, the magnetic state is controlled by pulses of current through its associated winding. To close the contact the current pulses are applied to series aiding coils. To disconnect, reverse pulse is applied to single coil. -t provides automatic latching action. This relay is very fast and current pulse of very short duration is reHuired to operate relay. This type of relay is used in computers, microprocessor it and telephone e#change. i!" 4"*$: erre. ree. rela+

4"$6

SOLI- STATE RELAB

%olid state relay consists of a solid state switching device driven by either an amplifier, +),, optical coupler or transformer. -n solid state relay, response is developed by electronic component without mechanical motion. A.vanta!es of soli. state rela+: 0. Ao mechanical inertia. 1. Quic reset. 2. (ast response. 4. Figher sensitivity. ;. +ow maintenance. <. 4"$9 IMPORTANT TERMS $" Contact resistance: Contact resistance is steady d.c. resistance of a switch contact pair in the closed condition at specified load. *" Ins'lation resistance: -t is the resistance between contact and body of the switch. #" Contact volta!e: -t is the admissible ma#imum voltage between open contacts of a switch . 4"*; -ISPLAB -EVICES Intro.'ction: ,isplays are most useful devices used to display alpha numeric characters from A to M and numericals from 7 to ?. ,isplays are comprised of one or a multiple of digits or characters. )ach display position is, in turn, constructed from individual sections, are arranged either as a rectangular bar segment array or a dot matri# array. 4"*$ TBPES O -ISPLABS

A number of methods may be employed for the display of a digital Huantity. -n digital instruments, output device indicates the

value of measured Huantity as a decimal display. This is done by using a ,igital ,isplay ,evice. A digital display device may receive digital information in any such as analog form but it converts that information into decimal form. Thus the display device indicates the value directly in decimal digits. The number of digits corresponds to the significant figures needed to represent the value. The basic element in a digital display device is the display for display a single digit, because a multiple digit display is nothing else, but a group of single digit display. (ig. =.11 shows a multiple digit consisting of ; single digit displays. i!" 4"**: M'ltiple .i!it .ispla+

A single digit display is capable of indicating the number from 7 to ?. There is usually a provision for a decimal point between each of the numerals. 9ne of these is selected and activated in accordance with the range selection controls of the instruments. %ome instruments have automatic range selection, commonly referred to Auto K ranging. The input to the digit display is a code indicating the particular to be displayed or the e#citation of one of the ten inputs, representing the number to be displayed. There are many ways of classifying digital display units. 9ne of the methods of classifying them is based upon the format used. The display can be planer i.e. entire readout different planes. The planer displays may be 0. -lluminated segmental type, 1. -lluminated dot matri# type, 2. ,isplays using rear pro&ection, and 4. 6aseous discharge type segmental displays. The non K planer displays include gaseous discharge li e Ai#ies and displays using illuminated +ucite sheets. $" Se!ment .ispla+s: The segment displays may be either = or 04 segment ones, depending upon whether numeric or alphanumeric are reHuired. (ig. =.12 shows a seven segment display.

i!" 4"*#: Seven Se!ment -ispla+

This is used for numeric display only. -t consists of seven segments, a, b, c, d, e, f, and g. A seven segment display forms the digit to be displayed by illuminating proper segment from the group. (or e#ample, to display number nine, segments a, b, c, d, f and g should be illuminated. Lsing 3an =0, 3an =1 segment display, numbers 7 to ? can be displayed. +), or +C, are used for illuminating each segment. (igure =.14 shows another fourteen segment display unit to display Alphanumeric characters, i. e. both numericals and alphabets. This is as shown in (ig. =.14. i!" 4"*/: o'rteen se!mental .ispla+

The diagram shows how alphabet A and number > are displayed by illuminating proper segments. *" -ot Matrices: ,ot matrices may be used for display of numeric and alpha K numeric characters. A 2 S ; dot matri# is used for display of numeric characters only. -t is shown in figure =.1; !a). A ; S = dot matri# is used for display of Alpha K numeric characters and it is show in (ig. =.1; !b). Another system using 1= dots is shown in (ig. =.1; !c) and is used to display numeric characters. i!" 4"*1

*" Rear proJection .ispla+: A cut !sectional) view of typical rear pro&ection display is shown in (ig. =.1<. -t uses 01 lamps. )ach limp is lightened by e#ternal switching. )ach lamp is coupled to its own sets of double lenses. The first of these lenses is a condensing lens and has a numerical inscribed on it which pro&ects on the common sources after passing through a pro&ection lens. 9ne lame at a time is illuminated, causing the numeral associated with its lens system to be indicated. #" i!" 4"*2: Rear proJection t+pe .i!ital .ispla+"

Col. cat)o.e !lo& transfer t'%e: This type of display tube permits digital indication by means of a neon glow !neon gas discharge) which may assume one of the ten discrete position in a circular pattern. Position indications are mar ed on a ring e#ternal to the tube. They permit simplified circuitry with fewer components in electronic counters as compared with the neon ban of lamps in which each lamp lights a numerical in a column arranged from 7 to ?. The moving glow spot within the tube advances one position for each input pulse and thus always indicates total pulse per decade. $hen the total counts reach the last figure, the first glow spot of the ne#t decade is actuated. The second neon glow in line readout consists of a compact tube in which the numerals 7 to ? are formed as electrodes. -t is show in (ig. =.1=. i!" 4"*4: =aseo's .isc)ar!e t+pe .ispla+

4"**

NI0IE T,EE

The basic construction of a digital indicator tube us shown in (ig. =.1>. -t is cold cathode glow discharge tube, which is popularly nown as Ai#ie which is the trade name of 3Cs Burroughs Corporation, L%A. -t is non K planer type display. The display wor s on the principal that when a gas brea s down !ioni*ed), a glow discharge is produced. A gauge with a positive voltage supply function as an anode, and there are ten separate wire cathodes, each in the shape of a numeral from 7 to ?. The electrodes are enclosed in a glass filled envelope with connecting pins at the bottom. Aeon gas is usually employed and it gives an orange red glow when activated. Fowever, other colours are available when different gases are used. There is one anode and 07 cathodes. After a negative voltage is applied to the selected cathodes, a simple gas discharge diode is formed which lights the selected digit . i!" 4"*6: Ni8ie t'%e

The transistor gate is usually employed at each cathode so that the desired numerical can be switched on. The circuitry driving the ni#ie tube is simpler than that for seven segment displays. Fowever high voltages !0;7 to 0>7 5 ) are reHuired to produce low discharge. The current reHuired is of the order of 0 to ; mA. (ig. =.1? shows the circuitry of Ai#ie tube. i!" 4"*9: Circ'itar+ to -rive Ni8ie

-river Circ'it for Ni8ie t'%e: A circuit used to display the number from 7 to ?, using Ai#ie tube and a =4040 decoder -C is shown in (ig. =.27. To display a decimal digit on a discrete display device, the ground on the output line of =4040 can be applied to the display device. )ach BC, input to the =4040 is decoded as ground on one of the 07 output lines. This ground then causes the neon gas around a particular cathode to ioni*e. %uch a circuit is needed for each decimal digit. i!" 4"#;: -eco.er .rivin! a Ni8ie t'%e

4"*#

LI=AT EMITTIN= -IO-E >LE-: -ISPLAB

A relatively new family of display devices utili*es light emitting diodes. The +), is perhaps the most important of the display devices available today for use in -nstrumentation systems. The +), is a PA &unction device which emits light when a current passes through it in the forward direction. By using elements li e gallium, arsenic and phosphorous, the +),s can be manufactured to radiate red, green, yellow, orange and invisible infra K red rays. +),s that radiate visible radiation are used in instrument displays such as calculators, digital watches, panel meters, etc. Lsing seven such diodes, the seven segment monolithic device can be produced. -t consists of seven +),s whose cathodes !or anodes) are connected to a common terminal. -f all the cathodes are connected to a common terminal, then it is referred as common cathode seven segment +), display. -f anodes are connected to common terminal, then it is nown as common anode seven segment +), display. (ig. =.20 !a) shows a common anode type +), display and =.20 shows common cathode type +), display. i!" 4"#$

The common anode type has to be connected to a current limiting resistor between each +), and ground. The common cathode type uses a current limiting resistor between the source !T 5cc) and +),. (A, ;7= is a common anode type +), display. (A, ;77, is common cathode type display. 3an >7 is common cathode +), display. -river circ'it for LE- .ispla+: The -C =44< is a seven segment decoder driver that can be used to drive seven segment +), display. -t is shown in (ig. =.21 !a). -n it a =44< drives a common anode indicator. The BC, input is converted to the reHuired output by the logic circuits inside the =44<. -f, for e#ample, the BC, input is 7007, the =44< forces +),s a, c, d, e, f and g to conduct as the corresponding transistors go saturation. %o digit < shows itself on the seven segment +), display. i!" 4"#* >a: 4//2 .eco.er .river circ'it for common ano.e .ispla+

The -C =44< drives a common cathode +), display. -t is shown in (ig. =.21 !b). Fere also, the internal logic converts the BC, input to the output that is reHuired. As before, if the BC, input is 7070, the internal logic forces +),s a, c, d, f and g to conduct and number % will displayed on the screen. The current resistors are included in -C itself. >c: 4"*/ 4//2 .eco.er Q .river for common cat)o.e .ispla+

LIP,I- CRBSTAL -ISPLABS >LC-: +iHuid crystal is a state of matter between between a solid and a liHuid. +C,s are used in similar applications, where +),s are

used. These applications are a display of numeric and alpha K numeric characters in dot matri# and segmental display. There are two types of +C,s. : 0. ,ynamic scattering type, and 1. (ield effect type. $" -+namic scatterin! t+pe LC-s: A dynamic scattering display consists of two glass plates with a liHuid crystal in between. The liHuid crystal materials may be one of the several organic compounds which e#hibits optical properties of a crystal though they remain in liHuid form. Lsually, the bac plate is coated with a thin transparent layer of conductive material. The front plate has a photoetched conductive coating, such as seven segment pattern. $hen no voltage is between the plates, molecules of liHuid crystal align themselves either perpendicular or parallel to the glass plates and appear transparent. (ig. =.22 !b) shows the molecules perpendicular to the plates. -n such a case, the display is transparent. But when the voltage is applied between the plates as shown in (ig. =.22 !c), the electric field causes the molecules to scatter. i!" 4"##

The liHuid crystal than reflects the surrounding light and appears mil y white. -f the voltage is removed, the molecules realign perpendicular to the glass plates again. Thus a dynamic scattering display produces light display segment on a dar bac ground. *" iel. Effect -ispla+: This type of display is more complicated. -t has glass plates, a liHuid crystal and polari*ers. This ind of display produces dar characters on a light bac ground. The polari*ers are fi#ed on front and bac sides perpendicular to each other. A typical segment +C, is shown in the (ig. =.42 !a) and !b). The liHuid crystal is sealed between two glass surfaces which have transparent conducting coating on them. The conductive coating on the lower electrode is common to all electrodes while the upper segments are independent. The display is designed so that when one of the segments is energi*ed, it causes the incident light either to be

transmitted or to be reflected. -n the latter case, energi*ed electrode appears silvery in colour. -n the former case, the display may be either silvery or blac depending on the +C,. i!" 4"#/

A.vanta!es: -f it is operated as ,C, its life K time will be small. $" -t can be operated only in a limited temperature range. *" -ts turning off is slow. #" -f the surrounding light is poor, the visibility is also poor. /" -ts reliability is less. 4"*1 -RIVER CIRC,IT OR -OT MATRI0 ALPAA N,MERIC LE- SISPLABS ,ot matri# alpha K numeric +), display systems use a matri# array of diodes usually ; S = or ? S = and the appropriate dot matri# character generator. A typical dot matri# alpha K numeric display system is shown in (ig. =.2;. -n such alpha K numeric display, both numbers as well as alphabets are displayed due to electric inputs. The alpha K numeric characters are shown by a code of a given word length, produced by the ey board. The A%C-- code is one of the codes of other symbols. A si# bit code represents the different characters. )ach code provides a uniHue row address and column address, so that a particular +), in ; S = array may be energi*ed !(ig. =.2; !a)). (ig. =.2; !b), shows that the number of +),s in the ; S = array is reduced from 2; to 01 in the matri# format. 3ultiple#ing several characters as a numeric unit produces further reduction. Fence matri# units are always multiple#ed though seven elements may be addressed at a time. >a: 1 R 4 .ot matri8 arra+ >%: -river circ'it for Alp)a n'meric .ispla+ s+stem i!" 4"#1

The above type of alpha K numeric display is usually available in such a form that it can be connected to the source of A%C-signals, decoder and multiple#es directly without any further connections. -n the diagram, a character 4 is displayed. Comparison %et&een LE- ? LCLC"eHuires 07/ 177 `$ power per digit. "eHuires e#ternal or internal light source Aot applicable. +imited to temperature range K 17 to <7oC. +ife/time is limited to ;7,777 hrs. Ao emission, e#ternal illumination is reHuired. 9perating voltage is 2/17 5 A.C. "esponse time is ;7/177 ms. LE$" 0. "eHuires 07/1;7 m $ power per digit. *" 1. 6ives off visible light when it is energi*ed #" 2. 5ery good brightness. /" 4. Can operate temperature range/ 47 to >;oC. 1" ;. +ife/ time is 077777 hrs.

$" *" #" /" 1" 2"

2" <. )mits red, orange, yellow, green colours. 4" 4" =. 9perating voltage is 0.< 5 to ; 5. ,. C. 6" 6" >. "esponse K time is ;7 to ;77 ns. 9" 5iewing angle is 077o. 9" ?. 5iewing angle is 0;7o $;" (ront style K = to 0<D $;" 07. (ront style K = to 0< dot matri#. segmentsD dot matri#. Contrast Ratio >CR:: (or +), contrast ratio between display element and the bac ground surroundings is governed by brightness of the display unit itself and by the brightness of surrounding light. The C" can be e#pressed as, Bd / Bs C" E /////////////// Bs $here, Bd E Brightness of display Bs E Brightness of surroundings (ollowing table gives regarding the emission of colour and material used in +),. Semi-con.'ctor Imp'rit+ Colo'r 6aAs Mn -nfrared

6aAs 6aP 6aP 6aP 6aAs!7.<) P!7.4) 6aA%7.1;P7.<; 6aAs7.1;P7.=; 6aAs7.0;P7.>;%iC %iC

%i A A,A Mn9 A A A A

-nfrared 6reen :ellow "ed "ed 9range Amber :ellow :ellow

E0ERCISE
$hat is switch a +ist the different types of switches. $rite shot note on toggle switch. )#plain slider switch. $hat are the uses of slider switch. )#plain the construction of rotary band switch. ,escribe constructional feature and application of following switch !a) 3icro switch, !b) 3embrance switch, !c) ,-P, !d) "oc er switch !e) Pro#imity switch. 4" $hat is relay a %tate the different types of relay. 6" )#plain the constructional details of general purpose relay. 9" )#plain ferried relay and dry reed relay. $;" Compare +)9 and +C9 display. $$" ,ifferentiate between common anode and common cathode +), display. $*" $hat is difference between planer and non/planer display. $#" )#plain +), display. $/" )#plain +), display. 0;. E8plain N8ie t'%e" $" *" #" /" 1" 2"

C)apter-6

"MICROPAONES SPEA<ERS AN- EATERIES

The term G)lectroacoustic transformer is used for all those devices which convert sound waves to electrical signals and vice versa. Thus, in case of a microphone, the sound wave or energy is converted to an eHuivalent electrical signal. 9n the other hand, loudspea er converts electrical energy into appropriate sound energy. Fence, both microphone and loudspea er can be termed as G)lectroacoustic transducersB. -n the following paragraphs, we shall learn more about their classification, types and principle of wor ing. 6"$ MICROPAONES G3icrophonesB are electromechanical transducers !)lectroacoutic transducers) that convert changes in air pressure !sound energy) into corresponding changes in electrical signal !electrical energy). -f reHuired, the electrical signal can be further amplified and transmitted to for/off places using transmitter or cables. At the receiving end, a receiver collects this signal and converts it bac to sound waves using G+oudspea ersB or GFead phonesB. 6"* TBPES O MICROPAONES ,epending upon the material used and wor ing principle, microphones can be classified into following seven types: !0) Carbon 3icrophone !1) "ibbon 3icrophone !2) 3oving 3icrophone !4) Crystal 3icrophone !;) Ceramic 3icrophone !<) Capacitor 3icrophone !=) )lectret 3icrophone 6"*"$ Car%on Microp)one

Carbon, in solidstate, is a good conductor of electricity. Fowever, when it is pac ed in the form of powder or fine granules, it acts fairly as a resister. -f pressure be increased on loosely/ pac ed carbon granuals, then due to increase in contact area of granules, resistance decreases. -nstead, if the pressure decreases, granules would separate! move apart).and the resistance would increase. This is the basic principle of operation of a carbon microphone.

i!"6"$ The construction of the microphone is as shown in the fig. >.0 above. $hen sound waves are incident on the thin and highly fle#ible metal diaphragm, it is set into vibrations. ,ue to these vibrations, a varying proportional pressure is applied on the carbon granules which are pac ed between the carbon bloc and the diaphragm. Thus, resistance is developed depending upon the incident sound waves. The microphone is connected in a circuit consisting of a battery and a coil as shown in fig. >.1. A varying current in turn generates an induced e.m.f. in the coil +0.

i!" 6"*

-t reHuired the e.m.f. can be further stepped up using a transformer. The metal diaphragm is suitably damed by cotton wool to avoid any significant resonance effects. 6"*"* Ri%%on Microp)one: "ibbon 3icrophone or G5elocityB microphone consists of a thin, stretched duralumin ribbon, < mm wide and ;7/077 mm long !0. resistance) suspended between the two poles of a permanent magnet. This ribbon is fi#ed or clamped at its ends only so that it is, other wise, free to move bac and forth within the magnetic field of the magnet. $hen sound waves are incident on the metallic ribbon, it begins to move bac and forth in the magnetic field. This movement of the ribbon cuts the magnetic flu# and hence an e.m.f. is induced in the ribbon such that the freHuency of the induced e.m.f. is in direct correspondence with the incident sound waves ! speech). Thus, the sound energy is converted into proportional electrical signal. %alient features of ribbon microphone are: !0) (lat response over the GaudioB range !1) )#cellent high freHuency response. !2) 6entle trebble roll/off !4) Ao GpoppingB problem.

i!"6"# 6"*"# Movin! coil microp)one

i!"6"/ This microphone has a light diaphragm shaped hollow cone which is clamped to a case around its outer rim as shown in fig. >.4. the light diaphragm of stiff cardboard or plastic material has circular corrugations pressed into it. This construction ma es it elastic !spring action) and so, when slighest of pressures is applied at its center, it moves in and out. Thus, the sound waves incident on the diaphragm ma e it to move in and out faithful to the incident sound waves. A light cylindrical former of insulating material is wound on a coil GCB &ust behind the diaphragm. This former and the coil fit into the gap of an annular magnet as shown in the figure. $hen sound waves !speech) are incident on the diaphragm, it moves in and out. The coil attached to the rear of the diaphragm also starts vibrating in the strong magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force are cut and an oscillatory e.m.f. is induced in the coil C. this e.m.f. is a faithful reproduction of the sound waves in the electrical form. A.vanta!es: !0) These microphones are rugged and reliable, both, for indoor and outdoor applications. !1) %mooth and e#tended freHuency response. !2) Figh sensitivity. !4) Figh Huality reproduction. 6"*"/ Cr+stal Microp)one

i!" 6"1 The principle of operation is based on the pie*o/ electric e#hibited by a number of crystals such as Huart*, tourmaline, rochellesalt atc. $hen mechanical force is applied to opposite faces of such crystals, an e.m.f. is generated. The magnitude of e.m.f. is directly proportional to the e#tend of deformation or applied forceC pressure. As evident from fig. >.;, the center of the diaphragm is attached to a drive pin whose other end is in contact with a pair of metal plates. Crystal is sandwiched between the metal plates. The lower end of the metal sandwich is fi#ed to the microphone housing while the upper part is free to move. $hen sound waves are incident on the diaphragm, it vibrates to and fro and e#erts mechanical pressure on the crystal proportional to the sound waves. This results in an alternating voltage being developing across the crystal. This voltage being developed across the crystal. This voltage !proportional to the incident sound waves) is pic ed up by metal plate electrodes G)B and amplified further. This microphone has a very good sensitivity and can even be used in hearing aids. 6"*"1 Capacitor microp)one The transducer element in this case is the parallel K plate capacitor having one movable plate. To start with, the capacitor is ept charged to a certain potential difference by a d.c. voltage termed Gpolari*ing 5oltageB. $hen sound waves are incident on this capacitor, the movable plate vibrates to and fro in accordance with the incident sound waves. The movement of the movable plate increases or decreases the charging capacity of the

capacitor thereby producing voltage variations across the plates of the capacitor. This voltage fluctuation is e#actly in line with the incident sound energy and thus, the sound waves are converted to proportional electrical signal.

i!" 6"2 SI=NI ICANT CAARACTERISTICS 0. )#tremely high impedance of the order to 1. )#cellent (reHuency response 2. +ow distortion. 4. )#cellent transient response dye to e#tremely small mass of diaphragm. 6"*"2 ELECTRET MICROPAONE -t is Huite similar to any capacitor microphone e#cept that it does Aot reHuire a polari*ing voltage for its capacitor. The transducer element is a self/polari*ed capacitor called Gelectret capacitorB. This is a specially designed capacitor which can hold its starting charge for years there by eliminating the need of a separate polari*ing voltage source. 6"# LO,-SPEA<ER The function of a loudspea er is e#actly opposite to that of a microphone. -t is a device !9r transducer) which converts a varying electrical signal buc into a proportional sound signal !identical to one received by the microphone) 6"#"$ MOVIN= COIL LO,-SPEA<ER

. A moving coil loudspea er resembles a moving K coil microphone e#cept that its diaphragm is much larger. The construction details of a moving coil loudspea er are as shown in fig .>.=. -t consists of a fairly large diaphragm of stiff paper or aluminum alloy which is mounted on a large si*e baffle board. The front side of the conical diaphragm gives out compression waves &ust when the rear side emits rarefaction. The baffle +oral prevents intermi#ing of these rarefaction and compressions.

i! 6"4" The moving coil or the speech coil is wound on a light cylindrical former of cardboard, in turn is firmly fi#ed to the diaphragm. The coil can move in and out parallel to its a#is in the strong radial field of the electromagnet. $hen the amplified output from the microphone is made to pass through this coil, it is acted upon by a mechanical force in accordance with (lemingBs left/hand rule. This force is dependent on the input varying current from the microphone. The force ma es the coil to vibrate, which in turn produces vibration of the diaphragm. This to and fro motion of the diaphragm produces sound waves proportional to the electrical signal from microphone. %ince a single diaphragm can not give a good response for both, low and high freHuencies, high Huality loudspea ers are fitted with two diaphragms loosely coupled to each other using a fle#ible collar. Thus, one diaphragm called woofer, produces low freHuency sounds while the other, called woofer other, called tweeter produces high freHuency sound waves.

6"#"* 5OO ER AN- T5EETER The basic freHuency response of the spea er shows distortion at Figh freHuency and low freHuency end. To provide uniform response and appropriate out put signals the spea ers are provided with compensating. The woofer is a spea er having large diameter and heavy cone. -t is used to produce good output at low freHuency end. The tweeter is a spea er having light cone and small diameter. -t provides good output at high freHuency end. Thus instead of a single spea er. -f a combination of spea ers is used then the freHuency response is improved and made uniform. This helps to overcome distortion. 6enerally, the good Huality hi/fi sound systems use combination of woofer and tweeter. The woofer and tweeter are generally used with two/ way cross/over networ . The high freHuency range is divided into two ranges nown as cross/over freHuency. The high freHuency signals are passed to tweeter while low freHuency signals are passed to woofer respectively. The two way cross/over networ for woofer and tweeter is as shown in the fig. >.>

i!"6"6 The component +0C0 forms the low pass filter while +1C1 forms high pass filter. 6"#"# Aorn Spea3er

Forn loudspea er is mainly employed when higher efficiency is reHuired in the acoustic system. The horn is a tube varying cross/section having different terminal areas, to provide a change of acoustic impedance of dense diaphragm material to low air impedance of dense diaphragm material to low air impedance. Forn shape or taper affects the acoustic transformer response. The impedance transforming action is controlled by the ratio of mouth to throat diameter. 5arious horn drivers are as shown in the fig. >.?

i!"6"9 The straight and folded horns of large and small throats are also shown. +arge throat horns are used for low freHuency loudspea er system, while small throat horns are used for wide freHuency. 6"/ EATTERIES 6"/"$ Intro.'ction: cell an. %atter+ f'n.amental The battery can be loo ed upon as an electrochemical power source. The battery may consist of number of electrochemical cells. The cell is fundamental unit as shown in the fig. >.07

i!"6"$; The cells may be connected in series or parallel to obtain the reHuired output voltage as shown in the fig.>.00 i!" 6"$$ The principle of cell is based on (aradayBs laws of electrolysis. The cell in turn consists of anode and cathode, placed in the some ind of electrolyte. ara.a+Ls irst La&: -t states that the mass of ions liberated at an electrode !cathode or anode) is directly proportional to the amount of charge that rasses through electrode. ara.a+Ls Secon. La&: -t states that for the same amount of electricity, the mass of ions of different substances liberated is directly proportional to its chemical eHuivalent weight. Polari(ation or %ac3 e"m"f": $hen the p.d. is applied to the electrodes of the cell at certain p.d. current starts to flow. The positively charged ions are battracted towards cathode while negatively charged ions are attracted towards anode. These attracted ions reaching respective electrode are absorbed. These ions try to go bac in the electrolyte which gives rise to polari*ation. The polari*ation or bac e.m.f. is the opposing e.m.f. produced in the electrolyte due to absorption of ions. -t is important to note that applied voltage should be always greater than the bac e.m.f. of otherwise the electrolysis cannot ta es place. 6"/"* c)ar!in! an. -isc)ar!in! Process: $hen the cell is fully charged, it discharges by sending the current. -t gives rise to positive and negative ions. ,ue to the discharge, voltage of the cell decreases giving out energy.

i!"6"$* ,uring charging of opposite reaction as that of discharging ta es place.

i!"6"$# ,ue to charging the voltage increases and energy is observed by the cell. 6"/"# -ifference %et&een primar+ an. secon.ar+ cell: The basic cells are power or energy generating devices. The cell converts one form of energy into other. The cell may be solar type, electrochemical type etc. The cell can be classified as primary cell or secondary cell. Primar+ cell: The cell can be said to primary if the stored energy inherentlypresent in the substance. The *inc/chlorine cell, +eclanche cell etc.are e#amples of primary cell. These cells cannot be charged again i.e. chemical action is not reversible. Secon.ar+ Cell: The cell in which energy can be included with the hlp of e#ternal source are nown as secondary cell. +ead acid

cell, Aic el/cadmium cell etc. are e#amples of secondary cells. These cells can be charged again. The secondary batteries use secondary cells for construction. The secondary batteries may be classified further as portable batteries, industrial batteries and stationary batteries. 6"1 TBPES O EATTERB 6"1"$" Lea.- aci. Eatter+ -t is an e#ample of secondary battery. -t is consists of number of cells.
Constr'ction: fig.>.04 shows the lead/acid battery.

i!"6"$/

The important parts of the battery are positive and negative plates, separator an electrolyte and container. Plates: Cells uses positive and negative plates. Their construction is more or less similar. The positive plates are generally plante plates while negative plates are faure or pasted type. The plates are in the form of grid of cast antimonial lead alloy. The grid is coated with materials li e lead pero#ide or sponge lead. The plates of the cell have two functions namely it protects the fragile active material and it helps in conduction of the electric current. Separations: The large numbers of negative and positive plates are used in the battery. These two plates must be electrically separated from each other, else the internal short circuit may ta es place. The separators are used to isolate positive and negative plate. The separators are in the form of thin porous materials. The materials used for the separator are li e microporous plastic, glass wool material etc. the separator should have good mechanical strength, so that it remain rigid.

Electrol+te: The positive and negative plates are immersed in electrolyte. (or lead acid battery dilute sulfuric acid is used as an electrolyte. !9ne part of sulfuric acid T three parts of water.) Container: The container is the outer body of the battery in which the other parts are being placed, so as to protect them. The materials li e ebonite !hard rubber) ceramics, glass etc. can be used. The container has various parts li e bottom grooved support bloc s, connecting bars, terminal bars, filter caps, e#ternal connecting strips for contact etc. C)emical reactions in lea. %atter+: when the sufficient p.d. applied between the anode and cathode due to the electrolysis of the F1%94 the current flows from cathode to anode in which F1 ions move to anode and %94 ions move to cathode. At anode the chemical reaction is Pb91T F1 T F1%94 At cathode, Pb%94 T 1F19

Pb T %94 Pb%94 This shows discharge of the battery on the other hand, during charging, F1 ions move to cathode, while %94 ions move to anode as in chemical reaction. At cathode, Pb%94 T F1 At anode, Pb%94 T %94 T 1F19 Pb91 T 1F1%94 Open Circ'it Volta!e: The open circuit voltage of the battery is same as full load voltage for fully charged battery it is appro#imately 1.7 5CCell. -t depends on parameters li e last charging time, specific gravity of electrolyte and temperature. Specific !ravit+: the specific gravity of electrolyte helps to find charge of the battery. (or the charged battery the Pb T F1%94

specific gravity of electrolyte is high, while as battery discharges, the specific gravity decreases. The specific gravity of dilute sulfuric acid used as electrolyte shows relationship with charge as, 0.1>7 specific gravity 0778 charge 0.1;7 specific gravity =;8 charge 0.117 specific gravity ;78 charge 0.0<7 specific gravity 5ery little useful capacity 0.027 specific gravity ,ischarge -isc)ar!e: $hen the battery delivers current to the load, it discharges due to the discharge. (or lead acid battery the anode and cathode changes the colour. Ampere)o'r ratin!: the capacity of the battery is measured in the ampere K hour !Ah). The capacity of the battery is a function of the plate area of all the plates. e.g. a 017 ampere battery i.e. theoretically it can deliver one ampere current for 017 hours, 017 amperes for one hour or any other combination of ampere and hours that when multiplied together gives 017. But as battery is discharged slowly, it may shoe a variable capacity. Application of lea. aci. %atter+: They are used for lighting purpose in remote ruler areas. 6"1"* Nic3el-Ca.mi'm Eatter+ -n 0>?? $aldemac &uger, a %wede developed another storage cell as nicel/cadmium cell. The construction of the cell is similar to the )dison cell. The plates of nic el plated steel are flat and contain parallel row of small poc ets. -n these poc ets active chemical i.e. electrolyte is placed. The electrolyte is potassium hydro#ide !O9F). The positive element is nic el hydro#ide while negative element uses cadmium hydro#ide. The poc ets contain many fine perforations. The positive and negative plates of the cell are as shown in the fig. >.0;,

i!"6"$1 The battery is constructed by stac ing many plates cells to increase the capacity. The material used as separator may be li e polystyrene or glass rods between the plates. The container is made up of the steel or hard plastics. C)emical reactions: The electrolyte splits into the positive O ions and negative 9F ions. At anode, during discharge, reaction is Ai!9F)4 T 1O At cathode, Cd T 19F ,uring charging, at anode, Ai!9F)1 T 19F At cathode, Cd!9F)1 T 1O Cd T 1O9F Cd!9F)1 Ai!9F)1 T 1O9F

Ai!9F)4

The above chemical changed show that when cell is discharged, the positive element becomes nic elous hydro#ide, on the other hand negative element becomes cadmium hydro#ide. $hen the cell is discharged, the positive element is again changed to nic elic hydro#ide and negative element to metallic cadmium. -f the cell is charged, after it is fully charged, the charging process generates o#ygen gas at positive elementD while hydrogen gas at negative element. ,ue to this cell is vented to permit the escape of gases. The nic el/cadmium battery uses advantages of the lead acid battery and )dison battery. -t is rugged and long active life. -t has lowest self/discharge rate.

-t may be used in automobile and other vehicles. The disadvantages of nic el/cadmium cell is higher initial cost. C)ar!in! Met)o.s: the battery is a direct current device. $hen it run down and must be recharged, the recharging current must be supplied with the help of d.c. generator. The charging of reHuires positive terminal is connected to positive plate, while negative terminal to negative plate. ,uring the recharging of the battery positive electrode and negative electrode is reconverted to its original. The specific gravity of electrolyte increases. The charging rate of the battery should be decided by considering the N gassingY or the heat. The various methods used for charging of the battery are constant current charging constant voltage charging, tric le charging. Content C'rrent C)ar!in!: -n this method of charging the charging current is ept constant by means of variable e#ternal resistance. This method in general reHuires high time. Constant Volta!e C)ar!in!:/ as the name suggests, in this method voltage is ept constant which results into high current. This leads to faster charging. Tric3le c)ar!in!: This method is specially used for the emergency battery applications. Though the battery is idle or open circuit, it looses the charge slightly. To compensate this charge tric le charging is used. The general battery charging is as shown in the fig.>.0=

i!"6"$4 The general battery is connected to the battery rheostat and current meter. The voltage of the generator should be high enough to overcome the opposing electromotive force of the battery, internal resistance and resistance of rheostat and current meter. -f the battery contains si# positive plates, the rheostat is so ad&usted that current meter shows < amp which is rate of charging. $hen the battery is highly discharged, the charging current is utili*ed for the reformation of the plates and little N gassingY becomes high and cannot be reduced, the specific gravity of electrolyte is measured to find weather battery is fully charged. ,uring charging of the battery, the care must be ta en that vents are ept open. Comparison of lea. aci. an. nic3el-ca.mi'm cell: Parameter 0. Positive plate 1.Aegative plate 2. )lectrolyte 4. -nternal "esistance ;. Average 9perating 5oltage Lea. aci. Cell lead pero#ide %ponge lead ,ilute F1%94 +ow 0.=;5 Nic3el Ca.mi'm Cell Aic el hydro#ide Cadmium hydro#ide Potassium hydro#ide 5ery low 0.15

E0ERCISE 0. $hat is meant by microphoneP +ist the different types of microphone 1. )#plain constructional details of crystal microphone. 2. )#plain constructional details of crystal carbon microphone. 4. )#plain constructional details of moving coil. ;. )#plain constructional details of ribbon microphone. <. )#plain constructional details of cone type loudspea er. =. )#plain constructional details of horn type. >. $hy different spea er are needed for different freHuency range in an audio system. ?. Compare primary battery and secondary 07. )#plain the construction of lead acid battery 00. )#plain the construction of ni/cd Battery.

C)apter------9
INTE=RATE-EVICES CIRC,ITS ANS,R ACE MO,NT

9"$ INTRO-,CTION -n early 0?<7Bs, a new field of microelectronics was born primarily to meet the reHuirement of 3ilitary which wanted to reduce the si*e of its electronic eHuipment to appro#imately one/tenth of its then e#isting volume. This drive for e#treme reduction in the si*e of electronic circuits, has led to the development of microelectronic circuits nown as integrated circuits !-Cs) which are so small that their actual construction is done by technicians using microscopes. N3icroelectroniceY is a branch of electronics which deals with miniaturi*ation of discrete components. A circuit using discrete electronic components !transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc.) occupies more space. A techniHue which is used to reduce the si*e of the circuit or to integrate the number of components on a single small chip, is referred to as microelectronics. -ntegration allows comple# circuits consisting of many transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors to be included in a chip of semiconductor or on a small insulation substrate. ?.1 INTE=RATE- CIRCITS An integrated circuit !-C) consists of a singe silicon crystal, typically 7.1; mm and covering a surface area 0 to 07 mm S 0 to 07 mm containing both active and passive components. The fabrication of -C technology is referred to as microelectronic technology. -n ma ing -Cs, we integrate large number of components on small area of %i chip. They are also transferred as microelements or micromodules. '.%. Oilby was the first to develop an integrated circuit K a single monolithic %i chip, in which active and passive circuit elements were fabricated by successive diffusion and deposition. Fe was soon followed by "obert Aoyce who successfully fabricated complete -.C. including the interconnections on a single silicon chip. A.vanta!es of ICs: As compared to standard printed circuits which use discrete components, -Cs have the followings: $" E8tremel+ small p)+sical si(e: 9ften si*e is thousandth times smaller than a discrete circuit. The various components and their inter/connections are distinguishable only under a powerful microscope. *" Ver+ small &ei!)t: %ince manufacturers can pac much circuitry into an -C pac age, it drastically cuts down the weight of the circuit. $eight and si*e are of great importance in military and space applications, though in consumer applications, they are not always the primary consideration.

#" Re.'ce. cost: The reduction in cost per unit is due to the fast that all the circuit components are fabricated in or the wafer at the same time and also because hundreds of similar wafers are produced simultaneously. ,ue to mass production, an -C costs as much as an individual transistor. /" E8tremel+ )i!) relia%ilit+: This is perhaps the most important advantage of an -C and is die to many factors. This has been possible because all the components are fabricated simultaneously and there are on solder &oints. Figher reliability means that -Cs will wor individual transistor. 1" S'ita%ilit+ for small-si!nal operation: As the number of components of an -C are located very close to each other in on %i/wafer, their chance of stray electrical pic /up is practically nil. Fence, it ma es them very suitable for small signal operation. 2" Lo& po&er cons'mption: Because of their small si*e, -Cs are more suitable for low power operation than bul y circuits, using discrete components. This is also due to small 9AC9(( switching speeds. 4" Eas+ replacement: -Cs are hardly ever repaired, it is more economical to replace them than to repair them. -isa.vanta!es of ICs: Besides the advantages described above, -Cs have certain disadvantages. They are: $" -t is very difficult to fabricate inductors or coils. *" They are Huite delicate and cannot withstand rough handling or e#cessive heat. #" +imited range of values of passive components with wide tolerances and difficulty in circuit ad&ustments. /" As they operate on low voltage, slight fluctuation in applied voltage malfunctions -C operation. 1" +arge resistor cannot be fabricated as it reHuires larger chip area which is adverse of economy. 9"# CLASSI ICATION O ICs There are several ways of categori*ing -Cs as to their use and method of fabrication. According to fabrication techniHue, they can be classified as: $" 3onolithic -Cs *" Thic and thin film -Cs, and #" Fybrid or multi/chip -Cs. According to their uses and applications, they can classified as:

/" +inear -Cs, and 1" ,igital -Cs. $" Monolit)ic ICs: The word mono means single and litho means stone. Thus, monolithic circuit is built into a single stone or single crystal. -n this the active components !diodes, transistors, etc.) and passive components !resistors, capacitors) are all formed in the silicon slice by diffusing impurities into the selected regions to diffusion operations are carried out on the top surface of the silicon slice and also the element contact regions are formed on the same surface, so hat they can be interconnected to form the complete electronic circuit. All the components are automatically part of the same chip. *" T)ic3 an. T)in ilm ICs: The essential difference between thic film and thin film is not their relative thic ness but the method of depositing the film. These -Cs are not formed within a silicon wafer but on the surface of an insulating substrate such as glass or ceramic material. 3oreover, only passive components !resistors, capacitors) are formed through thic or thin film techniHues on the insulating surface. The active elements !transistors, diodes) are added e#ternally as discrete elements to complete a functional circuit. These discrete active components are freHuently produced by using monolithic process. 3ore details of these -Cs have been discussed in the ne#t article. #" A+%ri. or M'ltic)ip ICs: As the name implies, such circuits are formed by interconnecting a number of individual chips or by a combination of film and monolithic -C techniHues. -n such -Cs, active components are formed within a silicon wafer, using monolithic techniHue which is subseHuently covered with an insulating layer such as %i91. (ilm techniHues are then employed to form passive components on the %i91 surface. Connections are made from the film to the monolithic structure through G$indowsB cut in the %i91 layer. /" Linerar ICs: +-Cs are also referred to as analog -Cs because their inputs and outputs can ta e on a continuous range of values and the outputs are generally proportional to the input. +-Cs find wide use in military and individual applications as well as in consumer products. They are freHuently used in: !a) 9perational amplifiers. !b) %mall/signal amplifiers !c) +arge/signal !power) amplifiers !d) ". (. and -. (. amplifiers !e) 3icrowave amplifiers

!f) 3ultipliers !g) 5oltage comparators, and !h) 5oltage regulators. 1" -i!ital ICs: ,igital -C contains circuits whose input and output voltages are limited to two passive levels K low or high. -t is so because digital signals are usually binary. ,igital -Cs include circuits as: !a) +ogic gates !b) (lip/flops !c) Counters !d) Cloc chips !e) Calculator chips !f) 3emory chips !g) 3icroprocessors 9"/ MONOLITAIC IC AERICATION SEP,ENCE (ollowing are the steps involved in fabricating the monolithic -Cs: !a) Crystal growth !b) $afer slicing and polishing !c) Burried layer diffusion !d) )pita#ial growth !e) -solation region formation !f) Base regions and resistor formation !g) )mitter region formation !h) Component interconnection !i) Pac aging >a: Cr+stal !ro&t): The seHuence begins with a single crystal ingot of silicon. The process consists of pulling the crystal from a melt of doped molten silicon, the pulling of crystal results in a formation of cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder varies from 2C4cB to 4BB, depending on the pulling rate, melt temperature and other e#ternal factors. >%: 5afer Slicin! an. Polis)in! >Cr+stal c'ttin!:: Fighly refined silicon, though free from impurities, is still polycrystalline. Fence, it is to be processed to become single crystal. %ingle crystal silicon can be prepared by controlling free*ing of a melt. A difficulty is that the concentration of atoms in the molten material is very munching greater than in the regular diamond lattice of the crystalline form. This precludes method of crystal growth in crucible which would result in a

material containing many dislocations. The C*ocharals i method obviates this difficulty. A correctly oriented seed crystal is partly immersed in molten refined silicon. The melt temperature is then reduced slightly until silicon begins to free*e on the cooler seed crystal, which is then slowly withdrawn.-f the temperature and withdrawal rate are correctly chosen, the liHuid/solid interface remains near the surface of the melt and a long single crystal is pulled from it. This process is also carried out in an inert atmosphere !argon or helium) to prevent o#idation. A further refinement is that both melt and puller are continuously related to produce a more homogeneous crystal. By this method, silicon crystals of around ;7 mm diameter and 1;7 mm long can be produced, whereas larger diameter crystals have commercial advantages can be grown. ,ifficulties may be encountered because of resistivity gradient across finished slices. 3onolithic -Cs are usually fabricated on p/type substrate so it is necessary to introduce acceptor atoms into the single crystal silicon at the same stage. A controlled amount of acceptor impurity !Boron), is added to the melt before the crystal is pulled to produce the reHuired p/type silicon substrate material. %ubstrate slices typically 7.0 mm thic , are cut with a diamond saw from the single crystal ingot !bar). Correct orientation of the surface of the slices with respect to crystal planes is important, particularly for successful epita#ial layer growth at the ne#t stage. The slices thus cut, are Huite rough. Fence, they are lapped to remove saw mar s and to produce a flat surface. This process is nown as crystal cutting. There still e#ists surface damage to a depth of around 17 Rm. -t is removed with a chemical etch, employing an acid mi#ture, consisting of nitric acid to o#idi*e the surface and hydrofluoric acid to dissolve the o#ide. The slices are then polished mechanically on a wheel to mirror/li e finish, using aluminium abrasive powders of decreasing grit si*e down to around 1 Rm deep. Are finally removed by an additional chemical etching stage, which can sometimes be simultaneous with the final polishing stage. After completing the above process, the silicon wafer ta es the following form. A wafer of integrated circuits after currying and brea ing into individual chips is shown in (ig. ?.0. A wafer of ;7 mm diameter and about 7.0 mm thic can be divided into about <77 chips. )ach chip is used to produce one -C. 9"$: Silicon &afer after c'ttin! an. %rea3in! into in.ivi.'al c)ops

>c: E'rrie. La+er -iff'sion: %i91 layer is grown on the wafer by heating the wafer to a high temperature of about 0077 o C. the surface is then e#posed to o#ygen or steam. By photolithographic techniHue, the o#ide is removed in certain selected regions, where transistors are to be placed. These selected regions act as windows through which impurities can be deposited on the silicon surface. After that, the wafer is sub&ected to diffusion process which is carried out at 0077o C. A gas containing an GnB type impurity such as arsenic, is passed over the surface of the wafer. The gas decomposes and the impurity, atoms are deposited on the wafer. $here no windows e#ist in the o#ide, the o#ide prevents the impurities from reaching the silicon surface. $here windows e#ist, the impurities are deposited on the silicon surface and because of elevated temperature, they begin to diffuse into silicon, thereby forming an GnB type, highly conductive layer. This layer is called Gburried dyerB which is used to reduce the collector resistance of the transistor, following the burried layer diffusionD all o#ide is removed from the wafer surface. >.: Epita8ial =ro&t): The GnB type silicon layer is grown on the surface of the wafer by means of epita#ial growth. The wafer is e#posed to an atmosphere, containing a silicon compound which decomposes at high temperature, deposing silicon atoms on the wafer surface. The epita#ial layer is doped by adding small amount of the GnB type impurity in gas steam during growth. >e: Isolation Re!ions ormation: %uccessive o#ide growth, photolithography,

steps and diffusion are now carried out to put isolation walls. These walls separate devices to be fabricated from each other. -solation is achieved by reverse biased p/n &unction. Fence, isolation walls are of p/ type. >f: Ease Re!ions an. Resistor ormation: The same steps are repeated i. e. o#ide growth, photolithography and diffusion. -f non/transistor is to be fabricated, then the base is p/type. Fence p/type diffusion is carried out by ma ing the base which also serves as resistor where resistor is reHuired in the circuit. >!: Emitter Re!ion ormation: The emitter is n/type for npn transistor and hence GnB type diffusion is carried out after o#idatiobn and photolithography. >): Component Interconnection: Contact windows are opened in the o#ide layer for connections to be made to the component. Aluminium is vacuum evaporated over the entire surface and the interconnecting contacts are formed by a photolithography step in which unwanted metal is etched away. >i: Pac3a!in!: (inally the wafer is bro en up into small chips or dice, each of which contains a single circuit and the dice is then mounted on the case or header. The wire leads are used to contact the aluminium pattern on the chip to the header lead. After sealing, the circuit is tested and is ready for use. Aow let us discuss how a particular circuit shown in (ig. ?.1 !a) is fabricated in an -C. i!" 9"*

>a:: A circ'it containin! a resistor@ t&o .io.es an. a transistor The fabrication of -Cs is based on materials, processes and design principles which constitute a highly developed semiconductor diffusion and plannar technology. The fundamental structures of an -C is shown in (ig. ?.1 !b) and consists of four distinct layers of material. The bottom layer !A) is p/type silicon and serves as a substrate or body upon which the -C is to be built. This layer is of about < mils thic . The second layer !B) is thin layer of n/type material which is grown as a single crystal e#tension of the substrate. This thin layer of n/type has a thic ness of ; to 1; Rm. All the active and passive components are built within the thin n/ type layer using a series of diffusion steps. These components are transistors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors and they are made by diffusing p/type and n/type and all other elements are constructed with one or more of the processes reHuired to ma e a transistor. i!" 9"* >%:: Cross-sectional vie& of t)e circ'it"

-n the fabrication of all the above elements, it is necessary to distribute impurities in certain precisely defined regions within the second !n/type) layer. The selective diffusion of impurities is accomplished by using %i91 as a barrier of material !C) is silicon dio#ide and it also provides protection of the semiconductor surface against contamination. -n the regions where diffusion is to ta e place, the %i91 layer is etched away, leaving the rest of the wafer protected against diffusion. To permit selective etching, the %i9 1 layer must be sub&ected to a photolithographic process. (inally, a fourth metallic !aluminium) layer !,) is added to supply the necessary interconnections between components. The monolithic -C is one in which all circuit components are fabricated into or top of any bloc s of silicon. The word N monolithic N is derived from the 6ree 39A9% meaning N single N and +-TF9% meaning N stone N. Thus a monolithic -C is built into a single stone or single crystal. -n this section, let us discuss the basic fabrication seHuence of constructing monolithic -C. +et us consider again a circuit in (ig. ?.1 !a). This is chosen for discussion because it contains typical components, a resistor, diodes and a transistor. These elements are

the components encountered in -Cs. The monolithic -C is formed by the seHuence indicated in (ig. ?.2 as described below. i!" 9"# >a:: Epita8ial !ro&t) i!" 9"# >%:: Isolation .iff'sion i!" 9"# >c:: Ease .iff'sion i!" 9"# >.:: Emitter .iff'sion transistor i!" 9"# >e:: Al'mini'm metalli(ation

$" Cr+stal =ro&t) of t)e S'%strate: A tiny crystal of silicon is attached to a rod and lowered into a crucible of molten silicon to which the acceptor impurities have been added. The rod is very slowly pulled out of the melt under carefully controlled conditions, a single p/type crystal ingot of the order of =.; cm in diameter and ;7 cm long is grown. The ingot !bar) is subseHuently sliced into round wafers appro#imately < mils thic to form the substrate upon which integrated components are to be fabricated. 9ne side of each wafer is lapped and polished to eliminate surface imperfection before proceeding with the ne#t process. *" Epita8ial =ro&t): An n/type epita#ial layer typically ; to 1; micrometers is grown into a n/type substrate. After polishing and cleaning, a thin layer of %i91 is formed !about 7.; Rm) over the entire wafer as shown in (ig. ?.2 !a). %i9 1 is grown by e#posing epita#ial layer to an o#ygen or steam atmosphere while being heated to about 0777o C. %i91 has the fundamental property of preventing the diffusion of impurities through through it. #" Isolation -iff'sion: The ne#t process is isolation diffusion. As shown in (ig. ?.2 !b), the wafer is shown with o#ide removal in four different places of surface. The removal of %i9 1 region is done by means of photolithographic etching process. The remaining %i9 1 region serves as a mas for the diffusion of acceptor impurity !Boron). The wafer is now sub&ected to the so/called isolation diffusion, which ta es place at the temperature and the time/ interval reHuired for the p/type impurities to penetrate the n/type epita#ial layer and reach the p/type substrate. The sections thus

formed are called isolation islands or isolated regions. Their purpose is to allow electrical isolation between different circuit components. /" Ease .iff'sion: ,uring this process, a new layer of o#ide is formed over the wafer and the photolithographic process is used again to create the pattern openings shown in (ig. ?.2 !c). The p/type impurities !boron) are diffused through these openings. -n this way, are formed the transistor base regions as well as resistors and anode of diodes, and &unction capacitors, if any. 1" Emitter .iff'sion: A layer of o#ide is again formed over the entire surface and the mas ing and etching processes are used again to open windows in the p/region, as shown in (ig. ?.2 !d). Though these openings are diffused, n/type impurities !phosphorus) for the formation of transistor emitter, the cathode regions for diodes and &unction capacitors, additional windows $ 0, $1 shown in (ig. ?.2 !d) are often made into n/regions to which a lead is to be connected, using aluminium, as the ohmic contact, or interconnecting metal. ,uring the diffusion of phosphorous a heavy concentration of nT is formed at the points where contact with aluminium is to be made. Aluminium is a p/type impurity in silicon, and a large concentration of phosphorus prevents the formation of a p/n &unction when the aluminium is alloyed to form an ohmic contact. 2" Al'mini'm Metalli(ation: All p/n &unctions and resistors for the circuit of (ig. ?.2 !a) have been formed in the preceding steps. -t is now necessary to interconnect the various components of -C as dictated by the desired circuit. To ma e these connections, a fourth set of windows is opened into a newly formed %i9 1 layer, as shown in (ig. ?.2 !e) at the points where contact is to be made. The interconnections are made first, using vacuum deposition of a thin even coating of aluminium over the entire wafer. The photoresist techniHue is now applied to etch away the unwanted areas of aluminium, leaving the desired pattern of interconnection, shown in (ig. ?.2 !e) between resistors, diodes and transistors. 9"1 TAIN AN- TAIC< ILM CIRC,ITS $hen resistors and capacitors are made e#ternal to the monolithic %i/chip, two types of techniHues are generally used. They are thin and thic film techniHues. The passive elements are fabricated and interconnected by thin film or thic film process.

9"1"$ T)in film Tec)nolo!+ The proce seHuence, by which the film material with a thic ness varying between ;7 Ao to 17,777 Ao , !0 Ao E 0S07/>cm) is deposited by vacuum or vapour deposit method on an insulating substrate such as glass or ceramic. This method is used only to fabricate passive components li e resistors, capacitors, ect. 9n the other hand, thic film techniHue consists in depositing on a substrate by screen and fire methods of film material, varying in thic ness between 01.; S 074 Ao to <1.; S 074 Ao . The main difference between the two processes lies in the manner by which the film is formed. Both thin and thic film techniHues lies in the manner by which the film is formed. Both thin and thic film techniHues lies in the manner the same type of components, but the processing methods are different for each case. Therefore, componebts fabricated by these techniHues have different characteristics. Because tantalum is presently most versatile thin film material for passive -C components, we ta e tanchnology while discussing thin film processes. ,ses of t)in ilm Tec)nolo!+: 0. -nterconnection of components in -C. 1. (or fabricating resistors and capacitors either on the same substrate or on a separate substrate. A.vanta!es: 0. Thin film resistors generally e#hibit smaller temperature coefficient of resistance. 1. %heet resistivity of the film may be chosen independent of other design consideration, therefore a large of resistors is possible. 2. The capacitance of thin film capacitor made with suitable dielectric material, is not voltage dependent. 4. Thin film resistors and capacitors need not be biased for isolation purpose. ;. Thin film resistors and capacitors have much stay capacitance and lea age currents. -isa.vanta!e: The only disadvantage of the thin film passive component is the additional process steps needed in their fabrication. Fence, the method is costly. 9"1"* Easic Processes in t)in film Tec)nolo!+ The following are the different methods used in thin film formation. $" Vac''m Evaporation: -n this method, thin films are evaporated onto a substrate ept in a bell &ar. The source material may be liHuid or solid. -n case of solid, the evaporation

process is ?.4.

nown as sublimation. The process is shown in (ig.

i!" 9"/: T)in film .eposition %+ vac''m evaporation

The bell &ar is highly evacuated to the order of 07 /; to 07/< torr. Figh current is passed through a tungsten filament which is ept in contact with source material. The source !evaporant charge) gets heated and vepour is formed. This vapour is radiated in all directions. The vapour gets deposited on the substrate which is cool and ept away from the source. (ilm thic ness and rate of deposition are the important which control the characteristics of the film. These are monitored by placing a Huart* crystal oscillator. The film deposited on the crystal changes its freHuency, thus the thic ness can be determined directly. 3any different materials such as gold, aluminium and %i9 1 may be deposited by this method on the substrate with good adhesion. *" Cat)o.e Sp'tterin!: -t is also referred to as glow discharge sputtering or impact evaporation. -n this method, a thin stream of inert gas, such as argon, is let into the evacuated bell &ar. The apparatus used for this process is shown in (ig. ?.;. This high voltage is applied to a cathode, made up of a material to be sputtered and deposited on the substrate. Tantalum, tungsten and molybdenum are generally used as a refractory material !material having high 3.P.). -t tantalum deposition is to be reHuired on the substrate, then the cathode is made up of tantalum and substrate is made up of ceramic or glass. $hen a negative high voltage is applied to the cathode, plasma is formed. The plasma consists of positive argon ions and electrons. The positive argon ions are attracted to the cathode and they bombard the cathode with sufficient velocity so as to release atoms of cathode material. These atoms of tantalum cathode deposit on substrate. i!" 9"1: T)in film .eposition %+ sp'tterin!

%puttering is a cold process, process, hence it is suitable for refractory material. 9"1"# Comparison %et&een Vac''m Evaporation an. Sp'tterin! $" $ith vacuum evaporation techniHue, much thic er film can be deposited in a reasonable time. 9n the other hand, the film deposited by sputtering method is uniform and permits a wider range of process control by the use of alloys and reactive glass. "eactive gas is added to argon in the sputtering chamber to modify the chemical composition of the deposited layer. *" The thic ness of the film can be controlled by crystal oscillator in evaporation method, while wider control is possible in sputtering method. #" -n the sputtering techniHue forms of film material can be produced by altering the sputtering process in proper ways i. e. by controlling voltage between cathode and anode and chamber pressure. But in evaporation process, this is not possible. /" Vapo'r P)ase -eposition Met)o.: -n this process, the halide compounds of the material to be deposited are chemically reduced and resulting metal atoms are deposited on the substrate. The volatile metal halides li e aluminium chloride A-C-1 or %ilane %iF4 can be deposited by this process. 1" Platin! Process: There are two types of plating processes. They are. !a) )lectroplating, and !b) )lectroless plating. >a: Electroplatin!: -n this type of plating, the substrate to be plated at the cathode terminal of the plating apparatus and is immersed in an electrolyte solution. The metal to be plated is anode and the substance to be deposited is cathode. A. ,. C. potential is applied detween them which Are ept in an electrolyte solution. >%: Electroless platin!: The involves reduction of a metal ion by simultaneous o#idation of a chemical reducing agent. -n electroless plating the metallic coating is achieved without the use of current. This plating techniHue is also suitable for insulating substrate. Ai, Cu and Au are the most common metals which can be deposited in this manner.

9"1"/ T)in film Components T)in ilm Resistors: Lsing any one of the techniHues described above, resistive thin film can be deposited and patterned the substrate. The most commonly used thin film resistors are made from nichrome, tantalum, tin o#ide and chromium. 9ther resistor thin materials are tantalum nitride, rhenium and deposited film, hence these resistors are generally specified in terms of sheet resistance !"s). The resistor patterns are generally *ig*ag type. Thin film resistor values are determined by the length to width ratio of the resistor area and the ohms per sHuare value of the material. ,issipation capability is a function of the resistor area. T)in ilm Capacitors: Thin film capacitors, li e their counterpart, consist of two conductors separated by a dielectric. The most popular among thin film capacitors is tantalum film capacitor. This is because of the fact that tantalum film capacitors have a reasonably high capacitance per unit area. +et us discuss few thin film capacitors. $" Tantal'm O8i.e ilm Capacitor: To fabricate tantalum o#ide film capacitor, first a thin film of tantalum metal is sputtered onto a substrate. This serves as one plate of the capacitor. The dielectric Ta19 is deposited on it. The second capacitor is formed by sputtering another tantalum film on the substrate. *" Al'mina Capacitor: -n this capacitor, first a thin film of aluminium is deposited on substrate which acts as one plate. The substrate is silicon dio#ide layer of the -. C. Then nic el is evaporated over aluminium to prevent migration of aluminium into alumina !A- 192) dielectric. 9ver this film, a desired thic ness alumina !A- 192) is deposited. This acts as a dielectric. The nic el is again evaporated over the dielectric which acts as another plate of the capacitor. #" Silicon .io8i.e >SiO*: Capacitor: -n this, a low resistivity silicon substrate acts as one plate. A thin layer of !%i91) on the silicon substrate is formed is formed by o#idation. This acts as dielectric. A film evaporated aluminium forms the top plate of the capacitor. %uch capacitorBs fabrication is compatible with hybrid -Cs. 9"1"1 T)ic3 ilm Tec)nolo!+ The term thic film implies thic ness in the range 01;777 A o !01.; Rm ) to <1;77 Ao !<.1; Rm ). $ith the advance in technology, the upper limit of thic ness of films, using thin film technology is increasing while the lower limit of thic ness of film, using thic film

technology is decreasing. Because of this overlap in thic ness ranges, a clear distinction between the two technologies can be maintained by referring to the radically different processes used in each. $here thin film are deposited by vacuum or vapour methods, thic film are deposited by screen and fire methods, which involve totally different eHuipments and materials. Fence, the characteristics of the components fabricated by the two technologies differ. 9"1"2 Easic Processes in T)ic3 ilm Tec)nolo!+ Thic film technology involves two basic processes. They are: 0. %il screening, and 1. (iring. These processes are simpler than the methods used to form thin film. Therefore, the cost of the resulting product by this techniHue is less than that obtained by thin film techniHues. $" Sil3 screenin!: The sil screening reHuired in this techniHue is stretched on an aluminium frame and the screen is then coated with a photo/sensitive emulsion or photo/resist. This is e#posed through a photographic mas and then developed. This leaves the screen clear where the thic film is to be deposited and bloc ed by the fi#ed emulsion elsewhere. The screen is then ept on the substrate and is carefully aligned. Circuit components are then deposited on the substrate through a screening process for which a wide variety of tools are available. %eparate screens are used for the conductor and resistor areas. The paste type depends on whether resistors or conductors are to be deposited. The electrical characteristics also depend on the type of paste. *" irin!: After the thic film paste has sil screened onto a ceramic substrate, the liHuids of the paste dry out and the firing process begins. (iring process is carried out in an electrical furnace or iln in a controlled manner. There are actually four to eight separately controlled *ones. The firing temperatures change from ;77 oC to 0777oC. ,uring the firing process, the organic binders of the thic film past are burnt out, i. e. o#idi*ed and evaporated. The remaining paste material consisting of the metal particles spread uniformly throughout and fired with glass or ceramic particles into a frit, fuses with the substrate, thereby becoming a permanent part of the overall ceramic structure. 9"1"4 T)ic3 ilm Components 6enerally thic film techniHue is used for ma ing good Huality resistors and conductors for connections of the discrete components in an -C.

T)ic3 ilm Resistors: Cermets i. e. ceramic in an organic material added to render paste suitable for screen deposition, are the most widely used type of resistors. The most common material used for cermet paste are palladium silver or palladium o#ide and glass composition. Con.'ctors: Conductors for thic film application are fabricated from metal glass composition. The conductor composition consists of finely divided suspension of either palladium silver, platinum silver, or platinum gold powder plus a glass frit in an organic vehicle which renders the paste suitable for screening. But the most common material used is gold platinum composition. 9"1"6 Comparison %et&een T)ic3 film an. film Components $" Thin film components are vacuum deposited or vapour deposited or sputter deposited, whereas thic film components are made by screening and firing process. *" Thin film components are usually less than 0 Rm thic while film components are generally 01.; Rm or more in thic ness. #" Thin film resistor are reHuired when very stable, precision resistors are reHuired. /" Thin film resistor are more suited for high freHuency wor because of their low capacitance per unit area 1" Thic film resistors are cheaper than film resistors. 2" Thic film resistors are less susceptible than the thin film resistors to damage by heat and handling during bonding of active semiconductor chip to the substrate. 4" Thic film resistors can be mechanically trimmed to provide close tolerance .Tolerance of 0 per cant may by obtainted for thic film resistors during production by tailoring with air/abrasion eHuipment. (or tolerance better than 0 per cant, thin film resistors must be used.

9"2

TAE COOCAALS<I TECANIP,E >METAO-:

This method is capable of producing large si*e crystals at a high growth. The process is i!" 9"2: C(oc)rals3i tec)ni7'e of cr+stal p'llin!

Onown as crystal pulling. A typical arrangement is shown in the (ig. ?.0=. (or a crystal to be grown, a seed crystal is lowered into contact with the material held molten in a crucible. The bottom of the seed is allowed to melt so that it can fuse into material. The seed is then slowly raised to pull out the crystal. As the liHuid column suspended from the seed passes into the region of lower temperatures, it solidifies into a crystal that repeats the crystalline structure of the seed. -n the process, it is necessary to rotate the crystal or crucible to avoid radial non/uniformity due to possible asymmetrical temperature distribution. "otation of the crystal as it is pulled also helps to stir the melt. The C*ochrals i method is widely used in growing %i, 6e and some of the compound semiconductors. -n pulling compounds such as 6aAs from the melt, it is necessary to prevent volatile element !e.g. As) from vapori*ing. -n method, a layer of B1 92, which is dense and viscous when molten, floats on the surface of the molten 6aAs to prevent As evaporation. This growth method is called liHuid/encapsulated C*ochrals i !+)C) growth. 9"4 EPITA0IAL =RO5TA

The word Nepita#y N comes from the 6ree word epis meaning layered and ta#is meaning ordered. -n -C fabrication, the epita#ial process is used to grow a layer of single crystal silicon as an e#tension of an e#isting crystal wafer of the same material. )pita#ial growth is performed in a special furnace called a reactor into which finished silicon wafers are inserted and heated to ?77 o 0777oC. The chemical reaction involved in epita#ial growth of pure silicon is hydrogen reduction of silicon tetrachloride !%iC-4) as given below: i!" 9"4: Apparat's for t)e !ro&t) of epita8ial la+er

%ince it is reHuired to produce epita#ial films of prescribed impurity concentration, it is necessary to introduce impurities such as phosphine for n/type doping or biborane for p/type doping into silicon tetrachloride. Fydrogen is bubbled through the volatile silicon compound, causing it to vapouri*e. (ig. ?.= shows the apparatus for the production of epita#ial layer. The apparatus consists of a long cylindrical Huart* tube encircled by ". (. induction coil. The silicon wafers are ept on rectangular graphite rod called a boat. The boat is inserted to the reaction chamber and graphite is heated inductively to a temperature of about 0177oC. At the input of reaction chamber a control console permits the introduction of various gases reHuired for the growth of appropriate epita#ial layers. This permits formation of an almost abrupt step p/n &unction between the substrate and the epita#ial layer. 9"6 PAOTOLITAO=RAPAB

The monolithic techniHue described in article ?.4 reHuires the selective removal of %i91 to form openings through which impurities may be diffused. The photoetching method used for this removal is shown in (ig. ?.=. ,uring this process, the wafer is coated with a uniform film of photosensitive emulsion. A large blac and white layout of the desired pattern of openings is made and than reduced photographically. This negative, called stencil of reHuired dimensions, is placed as a mas over the photo/resist. By e#posure of the emulsion to ultra/violet rays through the mas , the photo/resist becomes polymeri*ed under the transparent regions of the stencil. The mas is now ta en out and the wafer is unpolymeri*ed portions of the photo/ resist film and leaves the surface the pattern as shown in (ig. ?.= !b). The emulsion which was not removed in development is now fi#ed or cured so that it becomes resistant to the corrosive etches used ne#t. The chip is immersed in an etching solution of hydrofluoric acid. $hich removes the diode from the areas through which dopants are to be diffused. Those portions of %i91 which are protected by the photo/ resist, are unaffected by the acid. After etching and diffusion of impurities, the resist mas is removed with a chemical solvent !such as hot F1%94) and by means of mechanical abrasion process. i!" 9"6

9"9

IC PAC<A=IN=

Intro.'ction: The final series of production steps involves bonding the circuit chips or semiconductor device to a header in a suitable pac age connecting the circuit bonding pads to the e#ternal leads of the pac age, and encapsulating the whole unit. Transistors and integrated circuits must have wire leads bonded from their semiconductor elements to a metal frame for connection to e#ternal circuits. The conventional method is to bond an individual wire to each element, one wire at a time. These bonding techniHues would be used by the manufacturers where assemblers might operate bonding machines. The pac aging processes are relatively very e#pensive. They comprise around ?7 per cant of the total production costs because of the highly s illed labour involved to carry out fairly slow tas and because of pac age costs, which can be more e#pensive than the semiconductor device or -C chips they contain. Pac3a!in! Material: 6old or gold plated copper or aluminium conductors are used for bonding. (or pac aging thermoplastics or O95A" alloy or aluminium are used. Plastic material is cheaper but it cannot stand high temperature. Ceramic body is also for encapsulation. 6old wire of 7.71; mm diameter is used for binding the -C chip to lead. 9"$; PAC<A=IN= O -ISCRETE COMPONETS A pac age has four basic functions: 0. To protect the sensitive semiconductor device from e#ternal environment that could degrade the circuit performance. 1 To provide adeHuate mechanical protection. 2. To provide a convenient means for interconnecting many individual pac aged circuits.

4. To act as a path for heat resulting from power dissipation in the -C, the pac ages must dissipate this heat to the surrounding air, or conduct it to a heat sin . The type of pac age to be used for a particular application is generally evaluated on the basis of five factors. They are: 0. )nvironmental capacity. 1. Comparative interconnecting cost. 2. Comparative pac age cast. 4. Component density per unit volume. ;. Comparative system si*e. The choice of a suitable pac age is wide and is dependent on the application and Huality of the finished product. %ome of the common styles of pac ages are described below. Transistor or TO St+le Pac3a!e: The transistor or T9 style header is more economical alternative. The semiconductor device encapsuled inside the metal can. -t dimensions of some common T9 styles are given below. TO - # Pac3a!e: The T9 /2 pac age is generally used for power transistor. The metallic part is made up of steel. This type of pac age is also used for power -Cs. -t is shown in (ig. ?.? along with dimension. i!" 9"9: To # pac3a!e >All .imensions are in mms:

TO 1 Pac3a!e: This is a round metal can type pac age. The metallic bode is generally made of aluminium alloy or O95A" alloy. The transistors in T9/ ; metal envelope with the collector connected to the shown in (ig. ?.07 All the dimensions shown in the figure are in milimetres. i!" 9"$;: -1 metal envelope for transistor pac3a!es

(ig. ?.00 shows T9 K ;, > lead pac age. The metallic T9 K metal can provid electromagnetic shielding for -C chip which cannot be provided by ceramic or plastic pac age. This is a great advantage of this style. Again, this difficult to solder into circuit boards by conventional flow solder techniHue, because of the close spacing of its > leads. Because of this drawbac G,ual -n/line Pac age G ,-P is preferred PCB. i!" 9"$$: TO 1@ 6 lea. pac3a!es for IC"

A 07 lead T9 K ; style pac age used for an -C is shown in (ig. ?.01. All dimensions are in mm. i!" 9"$*: $; lea. TO 1 st+le pac3a!e

A 01 lead T9 K ; style pac age used for an -C is shown (ig. ?.02. All the dimensions are in mm. i!" 9"$#: A $* lea. TO 1 pac3a!e

IC Pac3a!in! t+pe: The -C pac age must be mechanically strong enough to withstand stresses during manufacturing. -t should provide good electrical contact between chip circuit and leads. -t should also provide electrical insulation between chip circuit elements and yet the thermal resistance from the circuit to its environments should be as low as possible. The pac age must provide perfect shield to the circuit from e#ternal light radiation and magnetic field.

,epending upon the choice, application and Huality of the finished product, there are three types of pac ages in use. They are, 0. T9 style or "ound 3etal Can type pac age. 1. (lat pac age 2. ,ual -n/line Plastic !,-P) pac age. The seal used for these products is glass seal with o#ide buffer between glass and metal. ,uring seating process, the outside surface of metal o#ide dissolves into glass surface, forming a continuous transition from metal o#ide, dissolved in glass to glass. A special composition glass with a low 3.P. is used. The pyrocream solder glass seals to glass metal and ceramics. This has high mechanical strength and provides good insulation and good thermal conductivity. -t also provides hermetic sealing to the -Cs. $" T)e TO-st+le pac3a!e: This type of -C pac age has been already discussed in the last article. *" lat Pac3a!e: The pac age is made up of a sHuare or rectangular enclosre, made up of an alloy of aluminium Al 292 and 3g9, %i91. The whole assembly is fitted with leads of typical alloy, made up of metal O95A" !i.e. alloy of (e, Ai and Co). The solder glass sealing is used to seal. This type of pac is originally designed for aerospace applications. The pac age occupies smallest area. The main difficulty is that once fi#ed, it is very difficult to detatch the same. (lat pac s are normally flow soldered to multilayered PCBs. The ma#imum dimension is 07 mm d < mm d 0.2 mm. %uch a pac age shown in (ig. ?.04. i!" 9"$/: lat Pac3

#" -'al In-line Plastic Pac3a!e >-IP:: The body of this type of pac age is generally made up of plastic or ceramic. This type of pac age is generally used alongwith the -C base. 6enerally > pin, 04 pin, 0< pin or 47 pin lead configurations are common. (ig. ?.0; shows 0< lead plastic ,-P pac age. i!" 9"$1: $2 terminal -IP or -IL pac3a!e

(ig. ?.0< shows the typical dimensions.

i!" 9"$2: P)+sical .imensions >all in mms:

TO 4; Can T+pe: This another pac age style transistor type. The bode is made up of metal. A typical > K lead T9 K =7 pac age is shown in (ig. ?.0=. i!" 9"$4: TO 4; Can T+pe

Pac3a!e Testin!: The finished product has to undergo following tests. 3ost of the tests are non/distructive. >a: Aermetic seal test: The pac age is immersed in helium under pressure of 4 gCsHuare cm for about <7 minutes and helium is allowed to lea through. Theta the pac age is ta en to a mass spectrometer chamber which is evacuated. ,uring the cycle, if helum lea s, it will lea into the spectrometer chamber. $ith the help of spectrometer it can be detected and measured. The test has no effect on device wor ing. >%: T)ermal s)oc3 test: (or this test, the device is ept for a sudden temperature change for about 0; minutes. The change of temperature is between 1=oC to 027oC. The pac age is then brought to room/temperature and then its temperature is reduced to K ;; oC and held at this temperature for about 0; minutes, and then returned to room temperature bac . %uch 0; cycles are completed. After this the lea age tests are carried.

>c: Lea. fati!'e: The leads are deflected through 4;o by a force of 1.;7 gms. Three/four times this process is done. After this, the pac age is tested. >.: Sol.erin!: The device must withstand the immersion of leads into molten solder metal for about 0; seconds. The temperature of soldering metal is ept at 1<7oC. 9"$$ S,R ACE MO,NT -EVICES 6enerally uptill we have seen the circuit board design as through hole type i.e. insertion type. The (ig. ?.0> shows the comparison of the ,-P and the %3T !%urface 3ount Technology). i!" 9"$6: Comparison of -IP an. SMT

The %3T is sophisticated method of design, build and test the product with electronic components which are mounted on the surface of the circuit board without holes for the leads. %3T provides high yield and reliability of the component. 9"$* MEANIN= O TAE S,R ACE MO,NT TECANILI=B As in %3T no holes are meant for the leads, it reHuires concurrent engineering i.e. design, manufacturing test and mar eting people will together concern themselves with broad, layout parts, placement, test pac ing etc. before product is made. 5arious parameters are controlled carefully with the principle based on ,esign (or 3anufacturability !,(3) and ,esign (or Testability !,(T). The %3T is generally implemented for the reduction in the si*e, weight etc. of the board. -n the %3T when the circuit design is finali*ed, the substrate design and fabrication is followed. The PCB assembly

configuration using %3,s are classified into three categories as shown in the (ig. ?.0?. i!" 9"$9

T+pe I: -t uses %3,s only. The components can be placed on the both sides i.e. top and bottom. %uch type of board can soldering with help of reflow soldering techniHue. T+pe II: -t use %3,s as well as through hole components. The components can be placed on either side of the board. 6enerally passive components and %3,s are placed on the bottom side. T+pe III: -n this type the through hole components are placed on the top side while bottom side uses %3,s and small active components. -t uses wave soldering techniHue. (or fabrication of the type - board, the solder paste is applied to the component pads on the board. Then active and passive parts are being placed in the paste, the process is carried out on automated eHuipment. This means the eHuipment itself will pic the part from reel or tray and place it at appropriate pad location on board. -n this way all the ports are being appropriately placed then the assembly is sent for reflow oven. -n this step the temperature of assembled board is increased so that solder can reflow and &oint is created. (or type -- board fabrication %3, as well as through hole technology is used. The adhesive is placed on the each %3, the parts is placed and is dried this assembly is sent for the through hole technology. The components are mounted and wave soldering is carried out. This shows that it is produced by combination of %3T and TFT. (or type --- board adhesive is placed on the board. -t is allowed to dry and through hole components are placed. -n this type the wave soldering is carried out not with conventional method but it uses dual/wave machine. 9"$# A-VANTA=ES O TAE SM-

-t is mainly used as it gives miniature component si*e. The advantages are: !&) "eduction in circuit board si*e. !ii) "eduction in circuit board si*e weight. !iii) "eduction in number of layers of board. !iv) "eduction in trace length on the board. !v) 5arious pac aging possibilities. !vi) Can operate faithfully at high freHuency. 9"$/ -ISA-VANTA=ES O TAE SM-s The fabrication of the component depends on its placement by the mounting machine. -t reHuires high accuracy in Component pad design. PCB art wor and fabrication. Accuracy of adhesive deposition. 9therwise component will not be perfect. 9n the other hand, through hole technology these parameters are not present and component placement machine can detect difference.

9"$1 S,R ACE MO,NT -EVICES The surface design provides resistors, capacitors and other passive devise in two terminal pac age as shown in the (ig. ?.17. i!" 9"*;

The end terminals are used to connect it to the boardCland. The %3, -Cs are available in variety of pac ages from > pins to 177 pins or high. (ig. ?.10 shows plastic lead chip carrier !P+CC) for small -Cs and Huad flat pac age !Q(Ps). i!" 9"*$

9"$2 LAN- PATTERN PARAMETERS O SM- RESISTOR@ CAPACITOR AN- ICs The fabrication of PCB demands for the correct component layout. -n %3,s land design is an important issue. The substrate design must ta e into account placement of component. 9"$4 SOL-ERIN= PROCESS AN- TESTIN= The circuit design and analysis reHuires to find out weather all %3,s will be used to form type -, type -- or --- board. (ollowing points should be considered during design: $hat are number of components. The amount of the current passing through placement machine and wave soldering. Cost. ,esired si*e of the final product. Thermal parameter. The board may into small parts according to the operating freHuency, voltage, power etc. The %3T process reHuires the %3,s footprints i.e. the hard copper pattern commonly called as lan." The land pattern is as shown in the (ig. ?.11. i!" 9"**

The various footprint patterns are available in data boo s. (ig. ?.11 !a) shows the general consideration having %3,, solder land, solder resists etc. (ig. ?.11 !b) shows the land pattern of the -C in the typical Huad flat pac age.

The design of the land pattern of the %3, reHuires thermal considerations also. -f the %3, pac age is small then heat carrying capacity is also less. As all electronic components generate heat when used, the temperature rises and it affects the reliability and failure rate of the semiconductor. ,uring design the &unction temperature, thermal resistance, power dissipation, thermal characteristics of substrate should be considered. The %3T pac ages li e P+CC, %9-C are developed to ma#imi*e heat transfer to substrate, with special arrangements li e integral heal spreader. 9"$6 A-AESIVES -n the surface mount techniHues to type -- and type --- board adhesives are reHuired to place the %3,s. The adhesive remains on the surface throughout. The selection of adhesive needs parameters to be considered as follows, -t should be electrically non/conductive. Thermal coefficient of e#pansion should be similar to substrate. -t should be non/corrosive. -t should be hemically inert. -t should be removable for rewor repair. The process of the adhesive application to the substrate is as shown in the (ig. ?.12 !a) to !e). i!" 9"*#

Adhesive is applied with the help of sHuee*e such that adhesive dot height is greater than substrate metal height and %3, termination thic ness. Adhesive are dried with oven heating or with L5 light. 9"$9" SOL-ER PASTE

%3T reHuires good Huality &oint formation to increase the reliability. -t is seen earlier that paste is deposited on the bass and the different types of %3,s are fabricated. The deposition of the paste may be carried out with the help of spring or by screen or stencil printing techniHue give good result. The various causes for the solder &oints may be due to, poor solder paste Huality, solder paste deposition problem, component lead problem, incorrect solder pads ect. The solder paste used for %3T uses <2/2= eutectic tin/lead composition of the solder. The other paste called silver paste uses ?</ 4 tin and silver. The flu#es can also be used similar to TFT. The ma e/up for the solder paste is as shown in (ig. ?.14. i!" 9"*/

-t shown that solder paste consists of many microscopic balls of solder with film of o#ide coating. The solder paste is tested for the sphere si*e as it is important to find out whether it is comparable with the smallest %3, port. -n such case is discarded. Lneven sphere si*e provide uneven heating during reflow process and create defective &oints. 9"*; SOL-ERIN= TECANIP,E The %3,s are soldered with techniHue called reflow soldering. The %3,s are place in the soldered part and reflow soldering is carried. The soldering can be carried out by batch type or conveyori*ed oven. 5arious steps involved in reflow soldering as shown in the (ig. ?.1;. it is divided into four steps. i!" 9"*1

Pre)eat (one: -t is the first step of reflow soldering. -n this step the substrate, components and solder paste is preheated. -r+in!: Components are allowed to dry. -t helps in evaporation of the solvent and flu#es. This reduces o#ides. Reflo&: -n this step temperature of the solder paste is increases liHuidus point and reflows, wetting both components leads and board pads. The wetting time used may be of 27/<7 sec. The temperature of the solder paste is about 117oC. Coolin!: %older paste is cooled below the liHuids point forming acceptable solder &oints. The temperature maintained is about 0>2oC. The solder &oint is inspected with the criteria as shown in the (ig. ?.1<. i!" 9"*2

(ig. ?.1< !a) shows that solder &oint is good. -ts open angle is greater than ?7o. -t the angle is E ?7o &oint is said to acceptable as shown in the (ig. ?.1< !b), while &oint is discarded if angle is less than ?7o . 9"*$ ASSEMELB O SM-s The assembly of %3, should ta e into account following points. >i: 9ptimum passage for solder fillet. >ii: +ess trac si*e and footprint area. >iii: 3inimised board area. >iv: AdeHuate distance between components. >v: AdeHuate interport clearance for placement and test eHuipment.

The port is placed by port placement eHuipment li e in/line placement eHuipment, simultaneous placement eHuipment. Then appropriate soldering techniHues are used, in which port is moved into the solder paste and &oint to substrate.

E0ERCISE
0. )#plain the types of -.C. 1. )#plain the manufacturing process of -.C. 2. $rite short note on -.C. pac age. 4. $hat is meant by %3,. ;. $hat are the advantages and disadvantages of %3,. <. $hich are the pac age of %3,. =. )#plain the soldering techniHue of %3,.

C)apter-$; RINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

$;"$INTRO-,CTION A printed circuit is an electronic circuit mounted on a base material. The circuit made of copper foil is so thin that it needs a base to support it. The base is also mounted device used to fasten the complete pac age to its case. The type and shape of the actual electronic circuit are limited only by the imagination of the person designing the board. The name printed on the base material. -n ordinary printing, in is deposited on the paper. The electronic printed circuit gives this same appearance although the circuit is actually a thin layer of copper. The shape of copper is determined by the layout or art wor reHuired for actual circuit. The final shape is developed by etching, that is chemically removing some copper from the surface of a blan board. The remaining copper and the base material from the complete printed circuit board. -t is abbreviated as PCB. The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the information on the board before one can go on to the artwor preparation. The detailed circuit diagram is very important for the layout designer, but he must also be familiar with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the eHuipment. The printed circuit board has been developed by the electronics industry so that mass production techniHues could be applied to electronic assemblies using PCBs, given a high rate of reablity in production. All the circuits are uniform in layout, eliminating the wiring errors common to hand wired electronic circuits. -n production, component parts are often inserted by machine into the finished board. Fundreds of similar circuits can be manufactured by this method. At etched or printed circuit consists of a thin layer of copper foil. The final circuit is shaped by etching the copper in a chemical. The copper foil acts as the wire, or conductor, in the circuit, component parts li e resistors
$;"* EASE AN- CON-,CTIN= MATERIALS Although the number of different printed circuits base materials in common use is finite, the problem of material selection and Huality

control is almost limitless. The laminate is the base material used to manufacture the laminates. The laminate can be simply described as the product obtained by pressing layers of a filler material with resin under heat and pressure. The commonly used fillers are a variety papers or glass in various forms such as cloth and continuous filament mat. The commonly used resins are phenolic, epo#y, polyester, polytetrafluorethylene !Teflon) etc. The commonly used conducting materials are copper, aluminum and silver. But aluminum is difficult to solder and silver is a costly material, hence copper or silver/coated copper conducting material is most commonly used for the manufacture of PCB. $hen the copper foil is pressed or fi#ed on insulating base material !laminate), the structure so formed is referred as copper/ clad laminates or a copper/ clad laminate are: !a)(iller, !B)"esin, !C)Copper coil. !a: iller: fillers are continuous webs of materials such as paper, glass, cloth, etc.and are used for this purpose are craft, alphacellulose, ragor their combinations. The vast ma&ority of printed circuits are made with paper/ based laminates because these are low priced. %econd advantage is that it is easily operated on machine. Amongst the various papers, rag paper provides an electrically better laminate than the one made of alphacellulose paper. The glass filler is generally in the form of cloth woven of filaments. 6lasscloth will produce a laminate with a very high mechanical strength and very low moisture absorption. >%: Resins: The fillers described above are embedded in a matri# of a resins are phenol/ formaladehyde resins long e#perience with these has led to an almost perfect understanding of their behavior epo#ies which are comparatively recent and are much cosllier but they e#hibit superior electrical and mechanical properties which are retained under not and humid conditions. polyesters, too, have good electrical and mechanical properties but they are restricted with respect to type of filler applied. These materials also have low chemical resistance. >C: Copper Coil: The copper foil which forms the surface of a copper/ clad laminate is manufactured by the process of electrode position. A thin film of pure copper metal is deposited on to a slowly rotating corrosion resistantmetal cylinder whose lower portion is immersed in a copper rich electrolytic plating both. As the cylinder whose lower portion is immersed in a copper rich electrolytic plating bath. As the cylinder slowly rotates in the bath, a thin copper deposit gradually builds up into an integrate sheet of metal foil which can be grealluy peeled off from the cylinder surface of the point where the cylinder surface comes out of the plating bath.

Properties Of Copper- Cla. Laminate: A copper/ clad laminate, apart from its electrical and physical properties, must have a good copper to base laminate bond strength. The side surface of the copper must be smooth and Lniform. Apart from this, a designer of PCB may need data on a wide spectrum of laminate properties such as dielectric strength, dielectric constant dissipation factor, surface and volume resistance foil to base band strength, water absorption, flatness, flame resistance and appearance. Properties li e punchability, resistance to hot solder or peeling, is also considered at the time of production. All electrical and mechanical properties are affected by environment conditions such as humidity, temperature, corrosive atmosphere, etc. similarly most of the electrical properties vary with changes in freHuency. it is therefore, necessary to understand the behavior of insulating materials when sub&ected to various environmental conditions li ely to be encountered in use. )lectrical properties of a laminate depend upon the electrical properties of the filler, the cured resin and the by/products of the caring reaction. !a) ,ielectric strength: dielectric strength is the ability of an insulating material to resist the passage of a disruptive discharge produced by an electric stress under specified conditions. This depends upon chemical composition, molecular structure, degree of moistening freHuency and wave from of voltage applied, thic ness of the specimen, degree of material, aging, cleanliness and roughness of surface. The standard value for copper clad laminate should lie between 0; y to 4; y. >%: -ielectric Constant: This is also referred to as permittivity. -t is the ratio of the capacitance of the laminate under test and capacitance of the same electrode system with air replacing the laminate as dielectric medium. ,ielectric constant of 0 3F1 for a standard laminate should lie in the range of 1 to ;.;. >C: -issipation actor: The dissipation factor is the ratio of parallel reactance to paralled resistance. Theranges of dissipation factor for laminate of 0 3F1 should lie beth 7.77> to 7.7>.Thedissipation factor of laminate as such is not a constant factor,it varies with freHuency temperature and moisture absoried in the laminate. !d) Ins'lation Resistance: -nsulation resistance of a base laminate is the ratio of voltage applied to the current flowing in the base laminate. such measurements sure reported in terms of surface and volume resistively. Thesurface resistance must lie in the range of 0,777 to 07,777 megaohms.

4 Thevolume resistively of a laminate should lie in the range of 0#07 < to 0#07 megaohm/ cm. The above properties are the electricalproperties of the laminate. Aow let us discuss clad laminate. >e: Copper To E'se Laminate Eon. C)aracteristics: To ensure satisfactory performance of copper/clad laminate during PCB processing and component assembly, it is necessary that the laminate with stands the processing conditions. Testing of properties such as that resistance to hot solder, bond strength and its retention after stimulated digressing, etching, plating and heat cycling is prescribed to ensure this aspect. >f: le8'ral Stren!t): This is a measure of the force per unit area !i.e. pressure or stress) which a laminate strip will stand without faucture !brea ), when supported at ends and loaded in the center. The value for 0.<mm laminate should lie in the range 01,777 to <7,777. >!: 5ater A%sorption: The amount of water absorbed by a sample of specified si*e, immersed in distilled water for a specified period !14 hours) at a specified temperature !17 to 1;c) is reported as water absorption in milligrams. The value lies, for 0.<mm thic laminate, in the range of 7.0 to 0 percent. The gain in weight can also be e#pressed as the percentage of increase over the initial weight. >): lame Resistance: The electronic industry is becoming concerned with the problem of inflammability of materials, used in the eHuipment. -t e#pected to ma e laminates more flame/resistant. $;"# TBPES O LAMINATES >EASE MATERIALS: Aational electrical manufacturers association !A)3A) has various types of laminates obtained by the use of different filler and corresponding matching resin. !a) P)enolic Laminates: Phenolic resins consist of a solution of reaction product of phenol and formaldehyde in a solvent. The Phenolic resins are reinforced with paper fillers for copper K clad laminates. These laminates are stable enough under a variety of conditions to suit a ma&ority of applications. These laminates are usually light brown or dar brown in colour, hence they are opaHue. $hen translucency is e#pected, the filler paper used in manufacturing Phenolic K laminate must be of bleached variety to get a transparent laminate. Commercially available grades are hot punching variety, room temperature punching variety and resistant variety corresponding to A)3A grades of [[[P, [[[PC,

and ("/1 respectively. A.vanta!es: 0. They have no acid effect. 1. 9rganic solvents do not affect them. -isa.vanta!es: 0. They are attac ed by strong al alis. 1. 5ary strong acids react on them. 2. They have poor arc resistance 4. 3oisture resistance is poor as compared to epo#y laminate. !b) Epo8+ Laminates: 6enerally epichlorohydrin and a bivalent phenol is reacted to give the base resin. This again is reacted with suitable hardness and accelerates to give a crosslin ed product. Fere are two types of epo#y laminates in use. They are: 0. paper epo#y laminates. 1. 6lass epo#y laminates. -n epo#y paper laminates, are manufactured using epo#y resin as resin and glass fiber as filler. These laminates are hard to machine and usually not suitable for punching operations. A recent development ma es use of a continuous filament glass mat as reinforcement. The cost of glass e#p. epo#y laminate is more as compared to paper epo#y laminate. The colour of this laminate is pale green and it is semi/transparent. Properties: ; ; 0. -nsulation resistance E 0#07 to ;#07 megaohm 4 = 1. 5olume resistively E4.; # 07 to 07 2. ,ielectric strength E01 to 10.1 5Cmm 4.,ielectric constant at 0 3F* E4 to ; ;. ,issipation factor at 0 3F* E 7.70 to 7.72 <. Arc resistance E0; to 0>7 1 =. (le#ural strength E 0077 to 1=77 OPCcm >. $ater absorption E 7.74 to 7.;C ?.They are tough. 07. They give good adhesion. 00. 6ood mechanical strength. 01. Figh al ali resistance. 02. 6ood moisture resistance. 04. 6ood electrical properties. 0;. Ao effect of wea acids. 0<. %light effect of strong acids. 0=. %light effect of organic solvent. >c: Pol+ester Laminates: Polyesters are solutions of

unsaturated polyester resins in copolymerisable monomers such as styrene etc. They are e#clusively used with glass fiber reinforcement. They have good arc and tract resistance. They show good water resistance. They are not used in electronic industry. Commercially available polyester, glass laminates are of ("/< grade of A)3A. !d) -ill+ P)t)alate Laminates: they are glass reinforced and used almost e#clusively as insulation in electronics. They wor upto a temperature of 0<; 7C without any damage. !e) Pol+-tetra- l'oro-Et)+lene >PTEE:: it is a thermoplastic which when reinforced with glass gives such types of laminates. Properties: 0. -t has low dielectric constant and low dissipation factor under a wide range of temperature, humidity and freHuency variations. 1. The electric strength is very low. 2. They show high insulation resistance. ,ue to such properties PT)) laminates are often used for 5F( and LF( !microwave) applications. !f) Silicon Laminates: These laminates are manufactured by using silicon resins and glass mat or fibers. %ilicon resins contain silicon, carbon, o#ygen and hydrogen. Properties: 0. They have good electrical properties upto 1;7 7C. 1. They have good heat resistance. -isa.vanta!es: 0. it is difficult to obtain a good copper foil to base material bond. 1. They do not show good mechanical properties as compared to phenolic and epo#y !g) Melamine Laminates: They can be manufactured by using melamine resins and glass fabric. The most significant property offered by these laminates is a high arc/resistance. A ma&or disadvantage is poor dimensional stability, low mechanical strength. !h) Pol+ami.e Laminates: This is one of the best heat resistant polymers.when reinforced with woven glass fabric, the laminates find use in military and aerospace applications and in special multilayer circuits. They have better copper to base bond strength at soldering temperature. $;"/ LIST O MAGOR SPECI ICATIONS TO COPPER-CLALAMINATES B% K British %tandard -% K -ndian %tandard

,-A K 6erman %tandard -)C K -nternational )lectro/technical Commission '%% K &oint %ervice %pecification !3inistry of ,efense) 3-+ K 3ilitary %tandard !L%A) A)3A K Aational )lectrical 3anufacturers Association !L%A). $;"1 PRO-,CTION O PRINTE- CIRC,IT EOAR-S The transfer of the conductor pattern, which is on the film master, onto the copper/clad laminate is done by two methods. They are: 0. Photoprinting, and 1. %creen printing $;"1"$ P)oto-Printin! Tec)ni7'e Photo printing is an e#tremely accurate process. Photo/printing is the method of pattern transfer of PCBs used in professional applications. -t produces eHual or better results by forming a resist on the surface of the blan board photographically. The original artwor is used to ma e a mas . The mas is placed on the top of a board, prepared with a photo/resist material. $hen light is held over the mas and board, the resist material reacts to the light. The light source is removed, and the board is put in a developing solution. This hardens the resist where it is e#posed to light. 9ther areas are not hardened and will etch away rapidly. The following steps are involved in this process: 0. +ayout artwor 1. 3a e photographic mas . 2. Prepare photo/resist. 4. )#pose board. ;. ,evelop board <. ,ry board. 0. La+o't Art&or3: The purpose of artwor preparation is to develop for the final circuit board. The artwor is used to prepare the foil on the board for etching. -t is easier and less e#pensive to do this layout on a sheet of paper than on the copper foil. 3ista es are easy to correct with an eraser. There is no need to paint over or remove any artwor from the board. The first thing reHuired when ma ing a layout for a PCB is a good schematic diagram of the circuit you plan to ma e. +oo at schematic diagram. (ind the position of inputCoutput terminals and the common lines. Then fi# the positions of the component to be used for the circuit. The artwor for the circuit must meet two basic criteria. !a)-t serves as a master to reproduce the electronic circuit on the

board, and !b)-t must allow enough space for all the parts to be mounted on the board. A point to eep in mind while laying out the board artwor is spacing between lines or conductors, as arc over may occur if two lines are too close together. %pacing between conductive paths depends upon their voltage difference. As the voltage increases, the spacing must also increase. The spacing starts at 7.71; inch for a range of upto 0;75. ,.C. or pea A.C. for 0;0 to 277 it is 7.7; inch, and for 270 to ;77 it is 7.0 inch. -f the voltage difference is above ;77 volts, then 7.771 inch per volt spacing is ept. The si*e of the artwor will depend upon whether a copy camera is available. The camera is used to reduce the artwor to its final si*e. -n commercial circuit development, the artwor is made twice or four times larger than the true si*e. 9ne of the most convenient ways of laying out the circuit board is to use a grid paper !li e a graph paper). -t is available with ruled lines spaced at 7.7; to 7.0 and 7.01; inch. 3ost electronic circuit boards use a 7.07/inch grid. The in used to print the grid lines is usually light blue or blac . The grids are used as a guide in laying out the final artwor . 9ne of the easiest methods of laying out the circuit board pattern is use grid paper as an underlay. Place a sheet of trac ing paper over the grid. This paper is used to ma e a rough wor ing drawing of the circuit. (irst mar the tracing paper with an outline of the circuit board to ensure that the artwor and the board end up the same si*e. Oeep in mind while laying out a circuit board that the parts end up the same si*e. Oeep in mind while laying out a circuit board that the parts mount on the bac side of the board. These parts will be on the base side of a single sided board. Certain parts such as transistors and -Cs have their leads arranged in a definite order, and it is easy to overloo this bac wor , viewing of the parts when designing a board. Two types of aids in developing component +ayouts that are readily available, are layout templates !models) and precut component outlines. (ig.07.0 !a) shows several common template styles. These templates, constructed of plastic, provide component outlines such as resistors capacitors, transistor pin arrangement and common -C patterns, thus eliminating the need of measuring individual terminal positions. These templates are available in scales of 0:0,1:0 and 4:0.

i!" $;"$>a:: -raftin! templates Component outlines, such as those shown in fig.07.0 !b) can easily constructed

i!"$;"$ >%:: paper c't-o't >.olls: (rom thin cardboard with the use of a scaled template, pencil and scissors in any of the desired device and component si*es and shapes. These outlines cut by using cardboard papers are sometimes referred to as dolls. 9nce the component parts are positioned and connecting lines drawn, the final wor is developed on a sheet of tracing paper. %ome people prefer to lay another sheet of tracing paper on the top of the one on which the parts are laid out. )ach point of contact for a part is mar ed. +ines representing wires are drawn on this sheet rather than the one with the parts on it. Lsing a second sheet of paper allows the designer more leeway when attempting to connect all the reHuired points on the layout of the board. The dolls can be repositioned, if necessary, without doing a lot of erasing or redrawing at this stage. Lpon completion of the component and conductor pattern layout, the following observations should be notedD 0. the component and conductor pattern composite drawing enables the designer to readily observe both the sides of PCB simultaneously and therefore determines the effect of any layout modification on either side of the board. 1. )ven though the component layout appears, and conducting paths are electrically correct, there may be conductor pattern crowding occurs when component placement forces many conductor paths to lie close together, resulting in nonuniform conductor density, that is ma ing inefficient use of the total foil area. Proficiency in obtaining both component and a conductor path balance simultaneously reHuires considerable layout e#perience and practice. 2. Component spacing must be consistent with any specified spacing tolerances. (or this, the grid system used to align and orient components is an immeurable aid. Lse of the intercepts of the grid system to position leads for components and e#ternal

connections is also e#tremely helpful in minimi*ing mis/ alignment of the eventual taped conductor pattern artwor . 4. %pacing among similar components, such as resistors, should be uniform to enhance the appearance of the board and result in a more systematic drilling seHuence. After the artwor has been completed, several more steps remain,. The artwor has to be transferred from the layout to the surface of the surface of the blan board, which must be clean and able to accept the artwor . The board can be prepared for the etching solution in several ways. %ome use light sensitive materials to form resist, which is not acted upon chemically by the ateching solution. -t, therefore, protects the surface beneath it form the action of the etch out. 9ther methods use a resist that is applied directly to the surface of the board. These two methods are called the photosensitive process and the ,irect Process. $;"1"* -irect Resist Materials 3ethods of laying out a resist directly onto the copper foil of the copper/clad PC board include using commercially prepared tape and dots, nail polish, paint, rubon forms and in . %ome of these methods are easier than others. %ome are less e#pensive, some ma e better loo ing boards. Tape an. -ot Process: 9ne commercially available set of materials uses precut and shaped tapes/ and dots made of paper or plastic. These are shown in fig. 07.1 !b). These are pressure/adhesive tapes. These aids provide a Huic and accurate method of developing artwor masters. These materials resist the echants. The larger si*es are used in the process discussed here.

i!" $;"*: >a: Tape an. pa.sS >%: IC pa.s@ el%o&s an. 'niversal circle %oar. mar3 pa.s Fow do you get the layout on the copper foil to match your artwor P Lse your good &udgement of spaces and distances and always refer to the artwor you have prepared. The companies which ma e the tape and dot sets also sell templates matching the tapes, dots and other standard shapes you plan to use, hence

drawing the artwor becomes much simpler.spacing of components and lines is fairly critical but need not be an e#act science. Lse the artwor as a guide and place the dotsD where they appear on the artwor . "emember that they represent the pads used as mounting pads for component parts. The position of lines used as conductive pattern can be slightly different from that on the artwor . Another way of solving this problem is use carbon paper to transfer the artwor to the surface of the board. Place a sheet of carbon paper directly over the cleaned copper foil. Place the artwor on the top of the carbon paper. -f necessary, trim both the carbon paper and the artwor to the si*e of the board. Lse a ball/ point pen or hard pencil to trace the artwor . $hen you remove the artwor and the carbon paper, you should see an outline of the artwor on the copper. Lsing the artwor as a reference, select a form of proper shape. %tic it on the copper foil directly over the place indicated by the tracing carbon. Lse an artistBs nife to transfer the adhesive tape and dot. After the forms and tape have been positioned, they must be burnished. This simply means rubbing the resist material on the board with a smooth/tipped device. (ailure to burnish means that areas which should be foil when a good burnishing tool, but any nife of a smooth firm rubbing tool will wor . Another method of putting resist on the blan circuit board is to use artistBs pen and special in . The special in available for this purpose is called resist in . The artwor is prepared, as before, anyone using this method must have a very steady hand. The artwor is drawn with pen and special in on the surface of the blan copper board. %tart with the circles and pads to which parts are to be connected. $hen they have all been laid out, connect the dots and pads with lines for conductive paths. ,o not move the board until you are certain the in is dry. After the in is dry, chee the board for brea s in the resist and touch them up. All the methods described above can be used successfully to ma e a resist pattern on the copper foil. Try paint or resist in to correct the minor problems. Be sure you have the necessary material on hand to remove the resist in case you need to change the artwor before etching. Certain chemicals are used to remove etchant. After the board is etched, the resist remover solvent should be used. $;"1"# Art&or3 to prepare PCE %+ P)oto-Printin! Tec)ni7'e The artwor reHuirements for the photographic processes are similar to those used for direct process. The same

layout rules apply, the only ma&or difference being the material on which the artwor is laid out. The terms negative and positive refer to the type of artwor and have nothing to do with polarity of operating voltage in a set.

i!" $;"#: ne!ative is t)e opposite of t)e art&or3 Art&or3 Master Ne!ative: A photographic negative is shown in fig. 07.2. it is the opposite of the artwor which is also shown. Blac surfaces appear in areas, which would normally be white on the artwor , while clear areas appear in places, which are blac on artwor . The negative is a true opposite of the original artwor . T)e Positive Art&or3: A Photographic positive is shown in fig. 07.4. the positive loo s e#actly li e original artwor . -t is clear where the artwor is white or clear. -t is dar in areas that are blac on the original.

i!" $;"/: Positive Art&or3 -t is important to understand these terms. %ome photographic processes reHuire a negative mas and others reHuire a positive mas . This is the only difference in the process. $;"1"/ Ma3in! t)e P)oto!rap)ic Mas3 The Photographic mas is positive or negative, depending on the type of resist material used on the board. Both positive and negative resist materials are available. The process used to ma e the mas is the same in other cases. 3ost commercially available materials use negative mas . The e#ception, the )#cel circuits process, used a positive mas .

3as /ma ing processes fall into two categories : !a) and The original artwor is destroyed as a part of the process,

!b) The artwor is not destroyed. Processes t)at .estro+ t)e Ori!inal Art&or3: The lift off techniHue is the lift tact process. -t is a plastic film to remove the printed artwor . Aot much time is reHuired for the total process. The transfer film is supplied with a bac ing sheet. The first step is to remove the bac ing. Cut the film to the appro#imate si*e of your artwor . Tape the artwor down on a smooth solid surface. "emove the bac ing material from the film and discard it. The film is applied directly to the surface of the artwor . -t cannot be lifted or repositioned, once it is place. ,o it carefully for the first time. The film is now burnished to ma e it stic . The process also removes air bubbles. Air bubbles do not adhere to the in and cause gaps in the artwor if they are not removed. Ae#t, put the artwor in a pan of warm water for about 0; to 17 minutes when the time is up, very gently rub or peel the paper off the film. Lse the tip of your finger. The paper will start to ball up and wash off very Huic ly. 9nce the paper is removed, wash the film under warm running water. Allow it to dry in open air. The film is be used. Another method is PCT transfer film process. Fere, the process is similar to lift tact process and procedures are the same. The materials reHuired to produce the mas are available in the mar et. Process t)at .oes not .estro+ t)e Ori!inal Art&or3: This process uses a board with positive photoresist on it. !Ooda "esist) OP" is available in the mar et for this purpose. The artwor is made by placing a sheet of mylar !plastic) over the top of the artwor model. Artwor from a boo or maga*ine can also be used. Commercial tape and dots are placed on the mylar sheet. 9rdinary blac in can be used to draw artwor , correct errors or correct pads. The completed mylar sheet becomes the artwor mas . Another advantage of this process is that the image on the e#posed board us very easy to see and inspect. Areas which will be etched become green. Areas to remain on the board are blue. The

third advantage is that all chemicals are water/soluble. These are no to#ic fumes. A positive of the artwor is placed directly on a pre/ sensitised board. -t is not possible to buy the resist, and coat the board the board. :ou can transparency of the original artwor and use it as a positive of the artwor . The photoresist coated board should be wor ed in reduced light. (luorescent lights will damage the board. A standard bulb is used. Place a sheet of glass on the top of the artwor . This forces the artwor and the board into close contact with each other. )#posure is made with the number two photoflood lamp. The time for e#posure is ept about 07 to 0; minutes. To speed up the process, a 1=; $ L5 sun lamp instead of photoflood lamp is used. -f the board does not appear to be completely e#posed at the end of the prescribed time, e#pose it longer. The reHuired chemicals, i.e. developer and etchant are brought from the company. The developer is mi#ed with water at about 27oC. hot water will not be used as it removes the resist from the board. Ae#t, pour some developer into a glass or plastic tray. Place the board in the tray up. 6ently about 1 to 2 minutes. $hen all the resist in the bac ground has been removed, the board is done. Ta e it out of the developing solution and rinse it under warm water. +et it dry. $hen dry, the board is ready for a final inspection and any minor touch/up reHuired to correct the error is done. The board is ready for etching. #M-Colo'r <e+ Process: The artwor for this process may be made of any material as long as the material does not allow the light to pass through it. Artwor may consist of tape. And dots but the necessary drawing can also be done with pen and ordinary blac in . The ey to this process is a film produced by the 2 3 company primarily for use in the printing industry. -t is used to ma e the positives and negatives reHuired for offset printing. The printed circuit industry can ta e advantage of these techniHues because ma ing an offset printing plate is very similar to ma ing PCB. -t is first decided which type of mas is reHuired to be made. This colour ey process can produce negative uansparent, positive transparent and negative film mas s. The type of film reHuired for the PC process is negative opaHue. A source of L5 light and a frame hold to the artwor is also essential. A developing surface on which the wor is done, is also reHuired. %et the bulb 0>BB away the copy area. The unit capable of being used for e#posure of the film and later the photosensiti*ed circuit board is

shown in (ig. 07.;. To carry the process accurately a photo/timer is used. Precaution is ta en so that light does not enter from the process accurately a photo/time is used. Precaution is ta en so that light does not enter from the sides of the mas . i!" $;"1: Li!)t 'nit to e8pose t)e p)oto!rap)ic mas3" 2 3 K colour ey film can used in normal room light for short period of time. -t can also be used under the red or yellow safety lights, recommended for photographic processing. %tart the e#posing process by ma ing a sandwich consisting of artwor , the colour ey film and a bac ing sheet. An e#posure frame is to hold the sandwich firmly together. -f the film and artwor is not held tight. +ight can creep into areas where it does not belong. This spill/ over of light ma es the lines on the negative, narrower than intended. -t can cause one area to bleed into another, giving a bad negative. After the film is e#posed, it must be developed. )ach type of photosensitive material has its own ind of developer. The film is placed on a sheet of glass in a tray. ,eveloper is poured onto the sheet a bloc of wood covered with a wiping pad is used to spread the developer around the film. "everse the pad on the bloc to give a clear surface and complete the process. As a final step, rinse both the sides of the sheet of film under room temperature water. Blot the film dry with an absorbent paper. A negative of tour original artwor should be on the film the anti ready for the ne#t step. $;"1"1 Preparation of P)otoresists The ne#t step is to preVare a blan circuit board covered with a photosensitive resist. The photographic negative is placed on the top of the prepared board. $hen e#posed and developed, the photoresist forms a resistive positive on the board. The positive is in the shape and form of the conductive paths reHuired for the finished board. The blan circuit board can be cut to its final si*e at time. "ough edges cleaned up with a file. The copper surface is cleaned. This is dine to remove the traces the of traces of grease, oil or copper o#ide from the board. "inse the board under water. ,ry the board in oven at ;7 oC for ten minutes. Ta e the board for board for the application of photoresist on it. The photoresist is a light sensitive liHuid. "esist is available in liHuid form or in a spray can. -t is rolled, spun or sprayed on the surface of copper. %tart to spray the liHuid resist from the bottom side of copper, spray hori*ontally and move upward at the end of each pass with the spray. This will produce a uniform coating of resist on the board. After spraying, dry the board in

oven at about ;7oC for 07 to 0; minutes. The above process can be done in any light tight room. $;"1"2 E8posin! t)e Eoar. The photo/sensitive resist is e#posed &ust the way the negative was. Lse the same e#posure unit shown in (ig. 07.;. -n this procedure, the lamp is brought near the board. $or ing in subdued light, place the board on the table with the sensiti*ed side/up. Centre it under the lamp. Carefully place the negative of the artwor on the surface of the board. Place a piece of glass plate over the negative and board. The weight of the glass will hold the negative tight against the surface of the board. ,uring the e#posure period of ; to < minutes, the photoresist reacts to the light. This reaction sets the resist. -f the negative is not tight against the board, light will lea into ad&acent areas. -t will result in a board of poor Huality.

$;"1"4 -evelopin! t)e Eoar. 9nce the board is e#posed, it is developed. The developing solution must be compatible with the resist. The developer and resist must be purchased from the same company. The developer is poured into a tray of glass or metal because most developers react to plastics. Place the board in the developing solution. 9n not touch the copper side of the board. 6enerally. The developing time must be ept about ;7 seconds to <7 seconds. "oc or agitate the tray during development to eep the fluid moving over the surface of the board. "emove the board from the tray. %tand the board up as a piece of paper towel, so that any developer on the surface of the board can drain on to the towel. 9nce the board is developed, it is no longer sensitive to light. Aormal room light can be used for all future wor on the board. The resist is soft when the board is first removed from the developer. $;"1"6 inal 5or3 an. -r+in! Careful use of an artistBs nife will remove any e#cess resist material. A paint brush and a liHuid resist are used to ma e additions to the circuit on the board. After all corrections, the resist on the board must be hardened by

drying. This process is done at room temperature. After this, the board is sent for etching. $;"2 SCREEN PRINTIN= PCB production by photographic printing method is e#pensive though accurate. The screen process uses a resist in applied through a stencil or mas to the surface of the blan circuit board. The stencil is produced and attached to a fine mesh, metal, nylon, polyester or sil screen. The resist in is forced through openings in the stencil onto the surface of the blan board. This process produces a positive of the circuit on the copper foil. $hen dry, the board is ready for etching. Preparation of Screen: A light rectangular wooden frame is used for this purpose. A piece of screen fabric material is stretched tightly over the frame. Commercial screens are often made of a fine wire mesh. %pecial frames are available in the mar et to hold this screen. The frame is hinged on one end of the base of printing board. The base of the printing board is larger in area than the frame. The following eHuipments are used for screen printing process: 0. Photosensitive film. 1. ,eveloper. 2. Bloc out solution. 4. A rubber sHuee*e, and ;. The resist paint or in . A Pre/sensitised film is used to ma e the screen stencil. A ma&or source of this material and related serene process suppliers is the Llano Company !L%A) and $oodpec -ndustries !Bombay, -ndia). These companies produce several types of screen stencils. This film consists of layer of photosensitive film and a clear plastic bac ing. This film is soluble in water until it is e#posed and developed. After processing, the film is water soluble, but to a much smaller degree. The e#posure process is very similar to that used to ma e photographic negative. A blac sheet of paper is placed on the e#posure board. A piece of film larger than the circuit board is placed film/side down !plastic bac ing/side up) on the top of paper. The artwor is placed on the top the film. They are all held in with a piece of untinted glass. )#posure is about > minutes using a number two photoflood lamp. The should be about 0> inch above the film and glass. After e#posure, the film is put in a tray of developing solution for about ?7 seconds. 9nly the developer

available from the above companies be used. %creen preparation chemicals are also available from +unar Caustic Pvt. +td., PuneD "aman -ndustries, Bombay. -t is sold in two pac ages identified as Fi/(i A and B developer. The direction state that the temperature of the. ,eveloping solution should be between 47 oC and 4<oC, but the film in the tray emulsion/side up. The developing solution is light sensitive as it is prepared. 9nce the film is placed in the solution, the solution becomes sensitive to light. At this time, the developer must be protected from light. The developer life is 14 hours. After 14 hours, it becomes useless, fresh developer is reHuired. The tray holding the film and developer must be agitated during development. After the reHuired time, the film is removed from the tray of developing solution. -t is washed in running warm eater. Placing the side down in the bath may ruin the wor . The purpose of this process is to wash out the film and remove the areas which will permit the in to be printed onto the circuit board. The wash/out water should flow over the stencil. This will wash away the une#posed emulsion on the film. Lse gentle water flow, otherwise it will damage the film. This process reHuires several minutes to complete. After the wash/out is finished. The film has to be cooled. This will firm the serene stencil. "eturn the film to a flat surface. the glass used to hold the film during the rinse process is convenient, but any solid flat surface can be used. The stencil film is attached to the screen. -n order to achieve good adhesion, the film stencil must be held on a flat surface and must be raised up higher than the surface you are wor ing on. This is shown in (ig. 07.<. Lse a hard build up about IY. 6ently lower the screen and frame onto the film. The weight of the frame is sufficient to press screen material onto the soft film emulsion. Place a pad of unused on the top of the screen. 6ently wipe the newsprint with a soft cloth. This will ma e the soft emulsion wor up onto the screen. ,onBt apply pressure, change the newsprint until it no longer shows any green film colour. !Aewsprint is a paper used for printing newspaper). ,o not use printed paper for the pad. 9nly clean newsprint will wor successfully. 9nce the moisture is removed by this method, the screen is set aside to dry. This reHuires about one hourBs time. $hen the emulsion is dry, the bac ing material is carefully peeled oft the film. The result is a negative mas , attached to the screen. Chec the screen for lea s in areas which should be protected. Fold it under a strong light. Tough up with a small paint brush and bloc out material thinned with water.

Printin! Ease Preparations: $e have now a screen to which a stencil is attached. Areas which are to appear on the board as conductor or pads arc clear. There is no bloc /out on the screen in these places. The ne#t step is to prepare printing base. The blan board is placed on the printing frame in e#actly the same place each time the registration guides are used to ensure good registration. Pieces of cardboard or scrap circuit boards are tac ed in place on the base board !see (ig. 07.=). The registration guides are placed on three sides of the area, surrounding the blan board. %ometimes a small piece of double/ sided tape is placed in the centre to hold board on place. i!" $;"4

The screen frame is held to the printing board base with two hinges. Lsing a hinge with a removable pin will ma e cleaning easier. Aow, for actually printing, the resist on the PC board, place a clean blan board, copper/side up in the registration area of the base. +ower the screen and frame so that the screen rests firmly on the copper foil. Pour some of the resist in or paint on the screen in one of the bloc ed out areas. Ta e a rubber sHuee*e, preferably the ind used for screen printing, and pull the in over the negative part of the screen. This shown in (ig. 07.>. A piece of stiff cardboard may be substituted for the sHuee*e. Continue pass over the negative into a bloc /out area. 9ne pass of the in over the negative part of the screen should do if you have used enough in . 6ently lift the screen frame. The board with resist pattern on the circuit should be seen in all its glory. Carefully lift the board from the registration area on the base. %et it aside to dry, the board is ready for etching when the in on it is dry. There are several different inds of in resists available. %ome use a water based in , and others use a lacHuer or oil base. 9il base much slow drying than lacHuer base in . This means that the clean up may be delayed with oil based products. 9n the other hand, lacHuer based in dries faster and thus speeds up the

overall processing time of the board. The ne#t step is to clean the board and send it for etching. i!" $;"6: Screen printin! process $;"4 ETCAIN= TAE EOARAll the wor done so far has been to prepare a blan copper board for etching. Theoretically, any one of the following solutions is used to etch a board. 0. Ammonium persulphate. 1. Chromi acid. 2. Cupric chloride, and 4. (erric chloride The most common etchant used in industry is ferric chloride !(eC-2). -t is a cheap chemical and least dangerous and easily available in mar et. Aever use itchen utensils for holding etching solution. )tching is the process of attac ing and removing the unprotected copper from the PC board to yield the desired conductor pattern. 3ethods of etching include tray roc ing, and spray etching. 9ut of these, tray roc ing is the simplest one. This consists of a tray of pyre# glass, attached to a powered roc ing table. -f powered roc ing table is not available. Then the PC board is ept on the glass marbles which are ept in the tray along with the etchant solution. ,ry etchants and also liHuid etchants are available. (erric chloride crystals of ;77 gms. Are mi#ed in water to ma e a total solution of 0 litre. ,uring the etching process, the concentration wea ens because the soluble cupric and ferric ions precipitate out of the solution, in the form of sludge that tends to settle on the bottom of the etching vat. -deal etching condition reHuires that the etchant be heated to a temperature of between <7oC to =7oC. with the temperature maintained reasonably constant, the length of time reHuired for etching will be consistent. $;"6 -,ILLIN= OPERATION The PCB gives the holes to ta e the various components that will be mounted on it. $ith greatest precision, these holes must be drilled. -n industry, depending on production volumes, manual, semi/automatic or pneumatically/controlled drilling eHuipments are used. A whole stac of boards can be drilled using various &igs and bushes. The speed of drill is an important consideration with maintaining the si*e and location of holes with reHuired tolerance and minimi*ing deformity at their edges.

(or paper laminates, a high/speed steel can be used at >777 rpm or less. (oe epo#y/glass laminates, it uses tungsten carbide bit at about 0;,777rpm. (or high precision, the drill is at 0,77,777 rpm. -f accuracy is not important, &igs are used to punch all holes in PCB. $hen holes are drilled in a PCB, the laminate is uncovered in PTF. To provide a conducting layer within the holes electrodeless copper plating is used. The plate is coated with palladium and immersed in an electrolyte containing copper ions. $;"9 SOL-ERS %olders are special alloys used to obtain a mechanically strong, tight &oint or a permanent electric contact resistance. %older is an alloy of metals that melt at low temperature. $ith the help of solder, soldering is done. %oldering is a method of &oining two parts or more than two parts of metals. (usible alloy metals are used for this purpose. Prior to soldering, the metal portions are to be &oined and the solder must be heated. %ince the solder has a much lower melting point than the metals to be &oined, it melts, while the metals remain hard. At the place where the molten solder comes in contact with the hard metal, comple# physiochemical process ta es place. The molten solder wets the metal, spreads over it and fills in the gaps between the metal parts, the solder diffuses into the base metal which dissolves in the solder and this an intermediate layer that after hardening fastens the parts together into an integral assembly. %olders are traditionally divided into two groups: !i) %oft %olders, and !ii) Fard %olders. >i: Soft Sol.ers >Sol.erin! allo+s:: %oft solder used e#tensively in electronic eHuipment construction is an alloy of principally tin and lead. %oft solder is differentiated from hard solder by tin content and lower melting point. The amount of tin contained in soft solder ranges from ;7 to =78. The tin/lead determines the strength, hardness and melting point of the solder. %oft solders have melting points upto 477 oC. >ii: Aar. Sol.ers >%ra(in! allo+s:: Fard solders are used for bra*ing process. Bra*ing is similar to soldering and it provides a stronger &oint than soldering. These solders have melting temperature of <77 oC to >;7oC. Among hard

solders, most widespread are copper, *inc alloys and silver base compositions. 5arious purposes reHuire different compositions of solders. %older for electronic applications is available in bars, sheets, wire, spools and special forms such as pellets, rings and washers. (or hand wiring purposes, solder wire ranging from 7.72 to 7.7? inch in diameter are used. The larger si*es are used for general purpose wor and the smaller for delicate soldering applications such as printed circuit board: and solder cup/type pins found on certain connections. Aow/a/days, solder wire is available with a core containing flu# in specific amounts to promote sound solder connections. (or this reason, flu# core solder wire is used almost e#clusively for electronic applications. There are different types of solders used for different applications. 3ost commonly used solders are as follows: $" Tin-Lea. Sol.er >Sn-P%:: This is sift solder, has a composition of 2=8 lead and <28 of tin. This is this alloy is a mi#ture of lead and tin. This type of solder is used in construction, wiring of electronic instruments. (or most hand wiring and printed circuit board applications, this type of solder is commonly used because of its e#cellent wetting action. *" Tin-Antimon+ Sol.er >Sn-S%:: (rom the metallurgical eHuilibrium theory for the binary tin/antimony alloy system, it can be solid solution in tin. -t is a soft solder. -t has a composition of ;8 %b and ?;8 tin. #" Tin-Lea.-Antimon+ Sol.er >Sn-P%-S%:: (or the most commonly used antimonial tin/lead solder with a tin content of 27 to ;78, the liHuidBs temperature is raised compared to binary system. The presence of antimony generally restricts the flow of solder. /" 5oo.Ls Allo+s Sol.er >Ei-P%-Sn-C.:: The solders with additions of bismuth and cadmium have a still melting point. They are used wherever a lowered soldering temperature is reHuired. This solder contains ;78 bismuth, 1;8 lead, 01.;8 tin and 01.;8 cadmium. -t has a melting temperature of merely <7.;oC. 1" Tin-Silver Sol.er >Sn-A!::

This is hard solder which has the composition of 2.;8 silver, ?<.;8 tin. A higher silver content results in a very steep rise in liHuidous temperature. 2" Tin-Lea. Silver Sol.er >Sn-P%-A!:: (or solder &oints which must possess strength at elevated temperatures, an alloy of ?=8 lead, 18 silver 0 and 08 used. Tin is added because of the poor wetting of lead. This is a hard solder. 4" Tin-Oinc Sol.er >Sn-On:: This type of solder is specifically used for soldering of aluminium. Tin/*inc solder has >.?8 and ?0.08 of tin. -t has melting temperature of 0?>oC. -t is a soft solder. $;"$; L,0ES (lu#es are au#iliary materials used in soldering. They are used to: !i) dissolve and remove o#ides and contaminates from the surface of metals to be soldered, !ii) protect the metal surface and the molten solder form o#idation, !iii) reduce the surface tension of the molten solder, and !iv) improve the ability of the solder to spread over the surfaces to be soldered. The interaction of metal parts with the atmosphere results in thin layer of o#ide on their surfaces. The o#idation increases as the metal is heated and severely interferes with the solvent action of the solder, thus preventing alloying and the formation of an electrically continuous &oint. ConseHuently, the o#ide must be removed. (lu#es are used for this purpose. They are chemical agents that aid in soldering by removing thin films of o#ide present on the metal surface to be soldered. $hen applied to the &oint, the flu# arrac s the o#ides and suspends them in a solution where they float to the surface the soldering process. $hen the &oint is heated, the presence of flu# also prevents o#idation in addition to lowering the surface tension of the metals, thereby increasing the wetting action. -t is important remember that flu# is not a cleaning agent for removing grease or other contaminants. -ts sole function is to remove the o#ide film. (or optimum soldering result, the parts must be thoroughly cleaned before the flu# is applied. Chloride of *inc is used as a flu# on steel, cast irons, brass, *inc, nic el, stainless steel, lead and galvani*ed iron, while commercially prepared flu# is used for soldering copper and brass. "osin or *inc chloride may use as a flu# for soldering lead. (or soldering sheets of metal, tin beeswa# rosin or any of the

commercially prepared pastes or liHuid flu#es are considered good. %ometimes *inc chloride with ;78 alcohol may be used as flu# for this purpose. There are three ma&or classifications of flu#es: 0. Chloride !inorganic salts) flu#es 1. 9rganic !acids and bases) flu#es 2. "osin flu#es The chloride type are the most active !highly corrosive) flu#es. They absorb the moisture from the atmosphere and strongly react with acids even at room temperature. 9rganic flu#es are slightly less active than the chloride and are used mainly for confined areas in which fast growing time is important and corrosion problems are not critical. 3any organic flu#es and converted to an inert residue rather thermal decomposition. They do not absorb moisture and are difficult to remove. (or the above reasons, chloride and organic flu#es are not recommended for use in electronic construction. The rosin type flu#es are used almost e#clusively because of their non/corrosive characteristics at room temperature. They are corrosive at room temperatures near the melting point of the solder. ConseHuently they attac the o#ide film during the heating cycle, but are inactive when room temperature is reached. "osin flu#es are available with activating agents greatly improve their activity. These activated rosin flu#es are much more corrosive than pure rosin when heated and present the appearance of an instantaneous melting, wetting and flowing action of the solder. They are essentially non/corrosive at room temperature as pure rosin type are often preferable if a higher of flu# activated such as in dip or ware soldering. $hen hand soldering, the proper amount of flu# can best be applied with the use of flu#/core wire solder. This form of solder contains a core of solid flu# in a single or multiple core. Fowever, there is no significant advantage in using multiple core since it is essentially the volume ratio !amount of flu# to solder) that determines optimum soldering conditions. Core si*es are available that provide a ratio of rosin flu# per unit volume of solder of form 7.<8 to 4.48. These ration can be obtained nor any si*e wire solder. -ndications are that <7C47 rosin flu# !<78 tin T 478 lead flu# core wire) core solder with a diameter of 7.74 inch and 2.<8 flu# is ideally suited for hand soldering printed circuit boards and other electronic precision wor . $;"$$ SOL-ERIN= There are two methods of soldering. 0. Lsing soldering iron !Fand soldering).

1. 3ass soldering. $" Aan. sol.erin! or iron sol.erin!: This is used small/scale production. By using solder iron, each component and contact is fi#ed to PCB. The wattage of soldering iron depends upon the thic ness of solder pad and contact leads. (or earthing and heat sin mounts, solder iron of 2; $ K <7 $ is used. (or normal component 0; $ to 1; iron used. (or -Cs 07 $ is used. )ach degreased lead is tinned, flu#ed and heated at its PCB pad. A cooling spray used immediately after solder &oint has been established and finally, the e#tra contact lead is snipped off with a cutter.

*" Mass Sol.erin!: 3ass soldering incorporates those techniHues by which large number of &oints are made simultaneously using a solder bath, as the source of heat as well as of filler metal. The most important mass soldering techniHues employ some form of immersion or contract with a molten bath. The ma&or advantage of mass soldering techniHues, apart from the high productivity, is that a more rigorous control is possible over all the individual stages of soldering. 3ass soldering techniHues are much used in electronic industries, particularly for assembling PCBs. Components are mounted are mounted on one side of the boards so that their connecting leads pass through the component holes. These leads are then soldered to the conducting trac s on the boards. (or high production rates, ma ing all these contacts manually would be a very slow and costly tas , but mass soldering can provide an economic solution. -nitially, flu# is applied to the PCBs. The flu# is usually resin type, dissolved in organic. 3ethods used to apply flu# include: 0. ,ipping the board onto the surface of a bath with fluid. 1. Brushing. 2. %praying using a special spraying cabinet. 4. "olling, in contact with a plastic foam rubber roller impregnated with wa#. ;. $ave flu#ing, i.e. by passage over a standing wave of liHuid flu#. <. (oam flu#ing, where the secondary wave is of foamed flu#.

(or flu# coating, the PCBs are usually heated to remove the bul of solvent prior to soldering. There are three methods of soldering PC boards in mass production. They are: 0. ,ip soldering. 1. ,rag soldering. 2. $ave soldering. But, the common methods are dip and wave soldering. -n simple dip soldering, the preflu#ed assemble is lowered vertically onto the clean solder surface until it ma es contact and is then immersed in solder bath to the reHuired depth. The surfaces become wetted by the solder, and whenever the interstices are sufficiently narrow, solder penetrates and is retained between them by capillary forces. The solder pot is usually made of cast iron or steel and is electrically heated. The solder bath temperature is normally within the range of 117oC to 1<7oC for binary tin lead alloys close to eutectic composition. The temperature may be increased from 2;7oC to 477oC for lead rich alloys for a high liHuids enamelled copper wire. -n wave soldering instead of lowering the boards onto a bath, solder is pumped out of a narrow slot create a standing wave in the solder bath. The boards, after passing over the usual flu#ing and drying sections, are conveyed across the crest of the solder wave by a conveyor system which follows a straight line path. This path may be inclined upwards at a small angle to the hori*ontal !;o to 0;o) in order to assist solder drainage after the boards have passed the wave !(ig. 07.?). i!" $;"9: 5ave sol.erin!

The drainage and distribution of solder may also be improved by choosing a particular waveform, double crested, flat topped or unidirectional solder flow, against the wave types for certain geometrics. The use of solder wave brings the advantage of a virtually o#ide/free surface being continuously generated on the solder, while airflu# and flu# vapour are dislodged by the rapid movement of the solder.

$;"$*

SELECTION AN- MO,NTIN= O COMPONETS The careful assembly of the PCB is as relevant for the final eHuipment reliability as the circuit design or PCB design and fabrication. Assembly techniHues can vary widely from case to case. %mall scale production is mainly done by hand wiring, but large scale production of all these operations is done by machine automatically. Automation plays an important role where manual labour is the main problem. The bending of the a#ial component lead is done in a manner to guarantee an optimum retention of the component on the PCB while a minimum stress is introduced on the solder &oint. ,uring bending the components lead, no damage to the component should occur. The bent lead should fit into holes perpendicular to the board so that any stress on the component lead &unction is minimi*ed. (ig. 07.07 shows ways of lead bending for a#ial 1 lead components. i!" $;"$;: Correct mo'ntin! of t&o lea. components"

The lead bending must be done using a suitable bending device. A simple hand/held device is available in the mar et for this purpose. Polari*ed 1 lead components such as electrolytic condensers and diodes have their leads bends in a manner to show the polarity symbol on the top. After mounting for easy reliability. $here large Huantities of boards have to be assembled, automatic lead bending machines are used with a through/put of thousands of components per hour. Components are generally mounted on only one side of the PCB. -n double sided PCBBs, the components side is usually opposite to the ma&or conductor pattern/side, unless otherwise detached by special design reHuirement. Aon/polarised 1/lead components are mounted to give the mar ing or colour code, the same orientations throughout the board. %uch a system is illustrated in (ig. 07.00. The component orientation can be both hori*ontal as well as vertical but uniformity in reading directions must be maintained.

The uniformity in orientation of polarised components li e diodes, capacitors, transistors. -Cs etc., is determined during the design the PCB. The hori*ontally mounted resistor must touch the board surface to avoid lifting of solder &oints along with the copper pattern under pressure on the resistor body. The vertically mounted resistors should not flush to the board surface to avoid strain on the solder &oint as well as on the component lead &unction due to different thermal e#pansion coefficient of lead and board materials, coated or sealed component also mounted in such a way a to provide certain length along the leads. i!" $;"$$: Component orientation

%ome other mounting recommendations have been illustrated in (ig. 07.01. Those components dissipating more heat be clearly separated from the board surface. 'umper wire reHuired to be connected between the points, should be well insulated to avoid short/ circuit. i!" $;"$*

-n case of flush to board mounted components over conductors, a conformal coating of the finished PCB is recommended to prevent the formation of moisture traps which traps which could be harmful to electrical functioning of the circuit. Mo'ntin! of Transistors: -t is recommended that while mounting transistor, the sleeves or spacer should be used. -f these components are mounted on the top very close to the PCB, during soldering, due to solder heat, the &unctions of the transistor will be damaged. This must be avoided.

To avoid the damage, that are mounted in such a way that there is a gap between PCB and transistor. Mo'ntin! of ICs: -t is never e#pected to put the -Cs directly on the PCB and then soldered. The -C soc ets are available in the mar et. These are first mounted and leads of the soc ets are soldered. After completion, the -C is transferred on the soc et. After the component mounting and soldering, the e#tra part of the lead coming out, must be with a cutter. -t is recommended that before soldering the leads, the e#tra portion of the lead must be cut and then soldered. +ead cutting after soldering is still common in smaller industries where hand/soldering is used. $;"$# INAL PROTECTION $ith the soldered PCB, many contaminants can be found which may produce difficulties with the functioning of the circuit. The problem usually arises at a much later date rather than during the final functioning testing of the board in the factory. Among the contaminants we find the flu#, chips of plastics, metals and other constructional materials, plating salts, oils, greases, environmental dust and other processing materials. The cleaning of the PCB is done by using organic solvents. Chemicals mostly used in the cleaning media are: 0. Acetone. 1. Alcohols. 2. Aliphatic hydrocarbons. 4. Aromatic hydrocarbons. ;. (luorinated hydrocarbons. <. Trichlorotrifluoroethane. =. ,e/ionised water plus detergents. )ach one of these chemicals offers advantages as well as disadvantages. 9nly a careful testing in relation with the final reHuirements will reveal the economically optimum choice. After the removal of chemicals offers advantages as well as disadvantages. 9nly a careful testing in relation with the final reHuirements will reveal the economically optimum choice. $;"$/ ENVIRONMENTAL TESTIN= )nvironmental testing is necessary because eHuipments are used in different climatic conditions. Consider an e#ample, industry or military electronic, different electronic eHuipments operate perfectly on free*ing or hot

condition. The eHuipment undergoes continuous cycle of heat, humidity or both. %uch eHuipment is tested for most severe condition of temperature and humidity in a climati*ing chamber. The testing includes a cold cycle test, dry/heat cycle test and damp/heat cycle, both high humidity are maintained and brea down points are noted. The various test conditions are maintained continuously over steady cycle or repaid cycle. Lse of these tests indicating operating condition. $;"$1 RELIAEILITB The reliability of a component is nothing but an ability to perform a reHuired function without failure under stated condition for a stated period of time. The reliability of a component gets affected at four stages. 0. ,esign 1. Production 2. %torage 4. Transport operation. As the reliability increases, cost of repairs goes down while design and production cost goes up. i!" $;"$#: Man'fact'rin! cost a!ainst relia%ilit+ c'rve

$;"$2

AIL,RE (ailure is nothing but the termination of ability of a component to perform function. The variation of failure rate 5s time is shown graphically in (ig. 07.04 it is nown as NBath TubY because of its shape. i!" $;"$/

The failure rate of component can be found by operating large number of components for long time and number of failures occur. $" E'rn- in or Earl+ fail're: Burn/in failure is the initial period of high failure rate. *" Ran.om fail're or 'sef'l perio.: Lseful period nothing but the early failure levels off to constant value. #" 5ear o't fail're: $ear out failure is nothing but after useful period, the failure goes up.

$;"$4 TBPES O AIL,RE 0. $hether the has completely bro en down or slightly deviation from the specification. i.e. complete failure or partial failure. 1. (ailure of component due to inherent wea ness or misuse by user. 2. (ailure has been sudden or gradual. $;"$6 MTTR OR MEAN TIME TO REPAIR 3TT" is defined as the mean time ta en to diagnose the fault, locate it and repair. 3TT" must be as small as possible. $;"$9 MTT OR MEAN TIME TO AIL 3TT( is the reciprocal of failure rate. (ailure rate is the ratio of number failures to number of components hours. 1 MTTF = Failure rate

$;"*;

MTE OR MEAN TIME EET5EEN

AIL,RE

3TT( is average time that system will run before failing. 3TB( of complete system is calculated by finding the sum of failure rates of all components. Consider a circuit using two components p, H. The total failure rate is (" E (" !p) T (" !H) The circuit failure is denoted by, 0 0 3TB( E ////////// E /////////// (" $;"*$E0PLAIN TAE PROCESS O MAN, ACT,RIN= A PCE The various steps involved in the fabrication of PCB are as follows: 0. Artwor preparation. 1. Printing 2. )tching. 4. ,rilling.

$"

Art&or3 preparation" The purpose of artwor preparation is to develop a layout for the final circuit board. -t is the first and the most important step as the placement of various components and conductor thic ness is decided in this step. t is easier and less e#pensive to do this layout on a sheet of paper than on the copper foil directly. Artwor is always prepared from the component side of the PCB, ta ing the help of circuit diameter. 3ista es are also easy to correct with an eraser. *" Printin!: This step involves transferring of the artwor into the copper clad. There are three methods of printing : !0) ,irect resist method, !1) Photoresist printing, !2) %creen printing. (or small number of PCB !0 or 1) direct resist method is used. This method involves stic ing etch/resist pattern and taps on the copper clad as per the solder side view of the artwor . After stic ing process is completed, the PCB is ept under pressure so that etch resist pattern and tapes adheres perfectly to the copper clad.

#" P)otoresist printin!: -n this method, photosensitive material !OP") is applied to the board as a thin film. The photoresist when e#posed to ultraviolet light hardness or polymerises and it becomes insoluble to certain chemical solvents nown as developers. Fere the developer dissolves the portion, which is mar ed or which is not e#posed to light. The pattern that is to be drawn on PCB is transferred to a mas and mas is ept on PCB. Aow it is sub&ected to ultraviolet rays. The mar ed portion is washed away in developer leaving wanted copper pattern on board and removed photoresist. Screen printin!: -n this process a resist in surface of the blan circuit board. /" Etc)in!: This step involves removal removes of unwanted copper from copper clad. The most common etchant used is ferric chloride !(eCl2). The copper clad is dropped in solution. After half an hour, the PCB is ta en out and washed in clean water. 1" -rillin!: The last step is drilled of PCB after removing the etch resist tape and pads. The hole ares drilled according to the diameter of respective components leads. %o the drill/bit dimensions should be &ust a little more than the component leat. 2" Sol.erin!: +ast step involves to solder various component on the PCB. is through stencil or mas to

7.

0. 1. 2. 4. ;.

)#plain the laminates used for PCB. )#plain the fabrication steps involved in PCB. $rite short note on screen printing. )#plain drilling operation. )#plain soldering techniHue.

E0ERCISE

<. )#plain the use of flu#. =. $hat is meant by environmental testing. >. ,efine 3TBT and 3TT(.