ELEC 4302/7311 POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION: PROTECTION SETTINGS

Dr. Ramesh

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Contents
Introduction Functions of Equipment Protection Functions of Protective Relays Required Information for Protective Setting Protection Settings Process Functional Elements of Protective Relays Operating Characteristics of Protective Relays Overcurrent and Directional Protection Elements Distance Protection Function

PROTECTIO SETTI !S" I TROD#CTIO

$ po%er system is composed of a num&er of sections 'equipment( such as generator) transformer) &us &ar and transmission line* These sections are protected &y protective relaying systems comprising of instrument transformers 'ITs() protective relays) circuit &rea+ers 'C,s( and communication equipment* In case of a fault occurring on a section) its associated protective relays should detect the fault and issue trip signals to open their associated C,s to isolate the faulted section from the rest of the po%er system) in order to avoid further damage to the po%er system*

)rotection *ettings: +ntro,uction

Below Fig. 1 is an typical example of power system sections with their protection systems. Where: G1 is a generator. T1 is a transformer. B1,...,B5 are bus bars. !5 is a transmission line "T #. $G is a generator protecti%e relay. $T is a transformer protecti%e relay. $B is a bus protecti%e relay. $ &!,...,$ &' are T protecti%e relays. (1,..., (' are (Bs.

Fig. 1 )rotection of power system sections

PROTECTIO SETTI !S" I TROD#CTIO

-a.imum fault clearance times are usually specified &y the regulating &odies and net%or+ service providers* The clearing times are given for local and remote C,s and depend on the voltage level and are determined primarily to meet sta&ility requirements and minimi/e plant damage* The ma.imum clearance times of the &ac+up protection are also specified* e*g* the clearing times for faults on the lines specified &y one net%or+ service provider in $ustralia are presented in Ta&le I 'ne.t slide(*

T, LE I: ;,.LT CLE,R,NCE TIMES

-oltage le%el ./-0 (B operate correctly .ms0 ocal $emote 21 111 111 151 151 151 151 1161 111 151 151 1!1 161 161 161 & (B fail .ms0 ocal 135 551 551 !41 !41 !41 !41 1511 $emote 135 551 551 !41 !41 !41 !41 &

511 441 535 551 145 111 66 7 44

F# CTIO S OF E0#IP-E T PROTECTIO

Protection schemes are generally divided into equipment protection and system protection* The main function of equipment protection is to selectively and rapidly detect and disconnect a fault on the protected circuit to" ensure optimal po%er quality to customers1 minimi/e damage to the primary plant1 prevent damage to healthy equipment that conducts fault current during faults1 restore supply over the remaining healthy net%or+1 sustain sta&ility and integrity of the po%er system1 limit safety ha/ard to the po%er utility personnel and the pu&lic*

F# CTIO S OF PROTECTI2E RE3$4S

The protection functions are considered adequate %hen the protection relays perform correctly in terms of" De<e!*a2'"'&): The pro&a&ility of not having a failure to operate under given conditions for a given time interval* Se#1r'&)" The pro&a&ility of not having an unwanted operation under given conditions for a given time interval* S<ee* $% O<era&'$!" The clearance of faults in the shortest time is a fundamental requirement 'transmission system() &ut this must &e seen in con5unction %ith the associated cost implications and

6F# CTIO S OF PROTECTI2E RE3$4S

Se"e#&'/'&) 7D's#r'm'!a&'$!8" The a&ility to detect a fault %ithin a specified /one of a net%or+ and to trip the appropriate C,'s( to clear this fault %ith a minimum distur&ance to the rest of that net%or+* S'!("e %a'"1re #r'&er'$!: $ protection design criterion %here&y a protection system must not fail to operate even after one component fails to operate* 7ith respect to the protection relay) the single failure criterion caters primarily for a failed or defective relay) and not a failure to operate as a result of a 9 performance deficiency inherent %ithin the design of the relay*

6F# CTIO S OF PROTECTI2E RE3$4S

The setting of protection relays is not a definite science* Depending on local conditions and requirements) setting of each protective function has to &e optimi/ed to achieve the &est &alance &et%een relia&ility) security and speed of operation* Protection settings should therefore &e calculated &y protection engineers %ith vast e.perience in protective relaying) po%er system operation and performance and quality of supply*

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RE0#IRED I FOR-$TIO SETTI !

FOR PROTECTI2E

L'!e Parame&ers: For a ne% line" final total line length as %ell as the lengths) conductor si/es and to%er types of each section %here different to%er types or conductors have &een used* This information is used to calculate the parameters 'positive and /ero sequence resistance) reactance and susceptance( for each section* -a.imum load current or apparent po%er '-2$( corresponding to the emergency line %hich can &e o&tained from the ta&le of standard conductor rating 'availa&le in each utility(* The num&er of conductors in a &undle has to &e ta+en into consideration*

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6RE0#IRED I FOR-$TIO PROTECTI2E SETTI !

FOR

Tra!s%$rmer Parame&ers:
The

manufacturer8s positive and /ero sequence impedance test values have to &e o&tained* The transformer nameplate normally provides the manufacturer8s positive sequence impedance values only*

Term'!a" E41'<me!& Ra&'!(:

The

rating of terminal equipment 'C,) CT) line trap) lin+s( of the circuit may limit its transfer capa&ility therefore the rating of each device has to &e +no%n* Data can &e o&tained from the single line diagrams*

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6RE0#IRED I FOR-$TIO PROTECTI2E SETTI !

FOR

;a1"& S&1*'es Results of fault studies must &e provided* The developed settings should &e chec+ed on future cases modelled %ith the system changes that %ill ta+e place in the future 'e*g* %ithin 9 years(* #se a ma.imum fault current case* CT = >T Ra&'$s: O&tain the CT ratios as indicated on the protection diagrams* For e.isting circuits) it is possi&le to verify the ratios indicated on the diagrams &y measuring the load currents on site and comparing %ith a

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6RE0#IRED I FOR-$TIO PROTECTI2E SETTI !

FOR

Che#?'!( ;$r CT Sa&1ra&'$!:

Protection systems are adversely affected &y CT saturation* It is the responsi&ility of protection engineers to esta&lish for %hich forms of protection and under %hat conditions the CT should not saturate* -2) :2 and 32 CTs must &e matched as far as possi&le ta+ing into consideration the transformer vector group) tap changer influence and the connection of CTs*

CTs %$r Tra!s%$rmer D'%%ere!&'a" Pr$&e#&'$!:

CTs %$r Tra!s%$rmer Res&r'#&e* Ear&h ;a1"& 7RE;8 Pr$&e#&'$!: $ll CT ratios must &e the same 'as %ith the &us /one protection() e.cept if the relay can internally correct unmatched ratios*

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PROTECTION SETTINGS PROCESS

The Protection Settings team o&tains all the information necessary for correct setting calculations* The settings are then calculated according to the latest philosophy) using sound engineering principles* Pre;%ritten programs may &e used as a guide* $fter calculation of the settings) it is important that another competent person chec+s them* The persons %ho calculate and %ho chec+ the settings &oth sign the formal settings document* The flo%chart in Fig* < indicates information flo% during protection setting preparation for commissioning of ne% Transmission plant*
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Fig. 5 +nformation flow ,uring protection settings preparation

)ro9ect lea,er of the )rotection *ettings team ,etermines scope of work and target dates +:; manufacturers pro%i,e bay specific +:; ,etails :ngineering team pro%i,es bay specific proformas an, ,rawings *ummary an, comparison of inputs <= *tu,y new protection an, create necessary setting templates in liaison with engineering team an, +:; manufactureres Calculation and verification of settings *ettings store, in central ,atabase an, formal document issued >ot <= (orrecti%e actions an, re&issue of ,rawings

+nterface with the :xpansion )laning team an, +:; manufacturers to obtain rele%ant e@uipment parameters for correct system mo,elling (entralise, *ettings Aanagement *ystem sen,s the action ,ocuments to the fiel, staff

+mplementation ,ate an, responsible fiel, person store, in the central ,atabase &? implementation action mplementation s!eet completed by fiel, staff an, returne, to )rotection *ettings team

(orrecti%e actions re@uire, to ensure implementation

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;.NCTION,L ELEMENTS O; PROTECTI>E REL,YS

To achieve ma.imum fle.i&ility) relays is designed using the concept of functional elements %hich include protection elements) control elements) input and output contacts etc* The protection elements are arranged to detect the system condition) ma+e a decision if the o&served varia&les are over=under the accepta&le limit) and ta+e proper action if accepta&le limits are crossed* Protection element measures system quantities such as voltages and currents) and compares these quantities or their com&ination against a threshold setting 'pic+up values(* If this comparison indicates that the thresholds are crossed) a decision element is triggered* This may involve a timing element) to determine if the 17 condition is permanent or temporary* If all chec+s are satisfied) the relay 'action element( operates*

*e@uence of protection operation initiate, by a fault is shown in Fig. 4.

Fault

)ic/up of protection element

<peration of protection element

Bssertion of relay trip logic signal

Bction of relay trip contact

(ircuit brea/er opening

Fault cleare,

Fig. 4 *e@uence of operation.

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OPER,TING C@,R,CTERISTICS O; PROTECTI>E REL,YS

Protective relays respond and operate according to defined operating characteristic and applied settings* Each type of protective relay has distinctive operating characteristic to achieve implementation o&5ective" sensitivity) selectivity) relia&ility and adequate speed of operation* ,asic operating characteristics of protective elements is as follo%s" O/er#1rre!& <r$&e#&'$! %1!#&'$!: the overcurrent element operates or pic+s up %hen its input current e.ceeds a predetermined value* D're#&'$!a" %1!#&'$!: an element pic+s up for faults in one direction) and remains sta&le for faults in the other 19 direction*

AOPER,TING C@,R,CTERISTICS O; PROTECTI>E REL,YS

D's&a!#e <r$&e#&'$! %1!#&'$!: an element used for protection of transmission lines %hose response is a function of the measured electrical distance &et%een the relay location and the fault point* D'%%ere!&'a" <r$&e#&'$! %1!#&'$!: it senses a difference &et%een incoming and outgoing currents flo%ing through the protected apparatus* C$mm1!'#a&'$!sB,ss's&e* Tr'<<'!( S#hemes: a form of the transmission line protection that uses a communication &et%een distance relays at 20 opposite line ends resulting in selective clearing of all line faults %ithout time delay*

O2ERC#RRE T $ D DIRECTIO $3 PROTECTIO E3E-E TS

$n overcurrent condition occurs %hen the ma.imum continuous load current permissi&le for a particular piece of equipment is e.ceeded* $ phase overcurrent protection element continuously monitors the phase current &eing conducted in the system and issue a trip command to a C, %hen the measured current e.ceeds a predefined setting* The &iggest area of concern for over;current protection is ho% to achieve selectivity* Some possi&le solutions have &een developed) including monitoring current levels 'current grading() introducing time delays 'time grading( or com&ining the t%o as %ell as including a directional element to detect the direction of current flo%*

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C#RRE T !R$DI !
Current grading %ill achieve selectivity &y determine the location of a fault using purely magnitude of current* It is difficult to implement this in practice unless feeder sections have sufficient differences in impedance to cause noticea&le variations in fault current* In a net%or+ %here there are several sections of line connected in series) %ithout significant impedances at their 5unctions there %ill &e little difference in currents) so discrimination or selectivity cannot &e achieved using current grading*

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TI-E DE3$4S

$n alternate means of grading is introducing time delays &et%een su&sequent relays* Time delays are set so that the appropriate relay has sufficient time to open its &rea+er and clear the fault on its section of line &efore the relay associated %ith the ad5acent section acts* :ence) the relay at the remote end is set up to have the shortest time delay and each successive relay &ac+ to%ard the source has an increasingly longer time delay* This eliminates some of the pro&lems %ith current grading and achieves a system %here the minimum amount of equipment is isolated during a fault* :o%ever) there is one main pro&lem %hich arises due to the fact that timing is &ased solely on position) not fault current level* 23 So) faults nearer to the source) %hich carry the highest current) %ill ta+e longer to clear) %hich is very

DIRECTIO $3 E3E-E TS

Selectivity can &e achieved &y using directional elements in con5unction %ith instantaneous or definite;time overcurrent elements* Directional overcurrent protection schemes respond to faults in only one direction %hich allo%s the relay to &e set in coordination %ith other relays do%nstream from the relay location* This is e.plained using e.ample in Fig* >*

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DIRECTIO $3 E3E-E TS

Fig. !: Cse of ,irection element example

,y providing directional elements at the remote ends of this system) %hich %ould only operate for fault currents flo%ing in one direction %e can maintain redundancy during a fault* This is in line %ith one of the main outcomes of ensuring selectivity) %hich is to minimi/e amount of circuitry that is isolated in order to clear a fault*
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DIRECTIO

OF C#RRE T F3O7

In $C systems) it is difficult to determine the direction of current flo% and the only %ay to achieve this is to perform measurements %ith reference to another alternating quantity) namely voltage* The main principle of ho% directional elements operate is &ased on the follo%ing equations for torque"
TA = VBC I A cos(VBC I A ) TB = VCA I B cos(VCA I B ) TC = V AB I C cos(V AB I C )

If current is in the for%ard direction) then the sign of the torque equation %ill &e positive and as soon as the direction of current flo% reverses) the sign of the torque equation &ecomes negative* These calculations are constantly &eing performed internally inside directional element*

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DIST$ CE PROTECTIO

F# CTIO

$ distance protection element measures the quotient 2=I 'impedance() considering the phase angle &et%een the voltage 2 and the current I* In the event of a fault) sudden changes occur in measured voltage and current) causing a variation in the measured impedance* The measured impedance is then compared against the set value* Distance element %ill trip the relay 'a trip command %ill &e issued to the C, associated %ith the relay( if the measured value of the impedance is less then the value set*

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6DIST$ CE PROTECTIO

F# CTIO

Fig. 5 ;istance protection principle of operation.

In Fig* 9 the impedance measured at the relay point Z = ( R + j L) x $ is ) %here x is the distance to the fault 'short circuit() and R and L are transmission line parameters in per unit length* The line length is l 28 in the fig**
in

6DIST$ CE PROTECTIO

F# CTIO

7e can see that the impedance value of a fault loop increases from /ero for a short circuit at the source end $) up to some finite value at the remote end ,* 7e can use this principle to set up /ones of distance protection as %ell as to provide feed&ac+ a&out %here a fault occurred 'distance to fault(* Operating characteristics of distance protection elements are usually represented using R;? diagrams* Fig* @ sho%s an e.ample of -ho R;? operating characteristic* The relay is considered to &e at the 29 origin*

6DIST$ CE PROTECTIO
E ine G 151F

F# CTIO
$egion of non&operation outsi,e the circle

B
21F

Done 5 ine )

ZR S
$egion of operation Done 1 oa, region

Fig. 6 Aho positi%e&se@uence $&E operating characteristic of a ,istance element.

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6DIST$ CE PROTECTIO F# CTIO

The need for /ones sho%n in Fig* @ arises from the need of selective protection1 i*e* the distance element should only trip faulty section* 7e can set the distance element to only trigger a trip signal for faults %ithin a certain distance from the relay) %hich is called the distance element reach* The setting impedance is represented Z RS = hs Z L &y ) %here A3 is the line impedance* The distance element %ill only trip %hen the measured impedance ZR is less than or equal to the setting impedance hsZL*

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6DIST$ CE PROTECTIO

F# CTIO

Typically hs is set to protect BCD of the line &et%een t%o &uses and this forms protection Aone E* Errors in the 2Ts and CTs) modeled transmission line data) and fault study data do not permit setting Aone E for ECCD of the transmission line* If %e set Aone E for ECCD of the transmission line) un%anted tripping could occur for faults 5ust &eyond the remote end of the line*

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6DIST$ CE PROTECTIO F# CTIO

Aone < is set to protect E<CD of the line) hence ma+ing it over;reaching) &ecause it e.tends into the section of line protected &y the relay at point ,* To avoid nuisance tripping) any fault occurring in Aone E is cleared instantaneously) %hile faults %hich occur in Aone < are cleared after a time delay in order to allo% relay , to clear that fault first* This provides redundancy in the protection system '&ac+up() %hilst maintaining selectivity*

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