Chapter 6: Air Pressure and Winds The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology, 12th

Lutgens Tarbuck

Lectures by: Heather Gallacher, Cleveland State University

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It Is All About the Wind

Unequal heating of the Earths surface creates unequal air pressure. These pressure differences create wind, but the direction and strength of the wind depends upon three important factors: 1. pressure gradient force, 2. the Coriolis force, 3. and friction.

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Air Pressure is the Weight of the Air

Consider a "unit area" of 1 square inch. At sea level, the weight of the air above this unit area is (on average) 14.7 pounds! That means pressure applied by this air on the unit area would be 14.7 pounds per square inch.
Meteorologists use a metric unit for pressure called a millibar and the average pressure at sea level is 1013.25 millibars.

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Concept Check 6.2

2. Describe the operating principles of the mercury barometer.
A glass tube filled with mercury is inverted into a dish of mercury. The mercury flows out of the tube until the pressure at the base of the mercury column is balanced by the pressure exerted on the surface of the mercury by the air above. When air pressure rises, the height of the column increases and when air pressure drops, so does the height of the column.

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Measuring Air Pressure

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Concept Check 6.2

2. Describe the operating principles of the aneroid barometer.

An aneroid (without liquid) barometer consists of evacuated metal chambers that compress as air pressure increases, and expand when pressure decreases.

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Concept Check 6.2

1. What is average sea-level pressure when measured in millibars? Average sea level pressure is measured as 1013.25 millibars.

In inches of mercury? 29.92 inches, of mercury.

What is standard sea-level pressure, in pounds per square inch? Standard sea level pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch.

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Concept Check 6.1

1 What is wind and what is its basic cause?

Wind is the horizontal movement of air and is the result of horizontal differences in atmospheric pressure.

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Air Pressure Round the Planet Varies All the Time

Why?
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Why Does Air Pressure Vary?

Temperature is a measure of the average molecular motion (kinetic energy) of a substance. Temperature influences air pressure. Air pressure drops more rapidly with altitude in a column of cold (dense) air than in a column of warm (less dense) air. We assume that both columns of air exert the same surface pressure,

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At sea level a column of air weighs 14.7 pounds per square inch and therefore exerts that amount of pressure. As we ascend through the atmosphere, we find that the air becomes less dense because of the continual decrease in the amount (weight) of air above. Therefore there is a corresponding decrease in pressure with an
7.35 lbs/in2

increase in altitude.

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14.7 lbs/in2

Why Does Air Pressure Vary?

We assume that both columns of air exert the same surface pressure, and (although greatly exaggerated)
13 16

differences in the spacing of air molecules represent differences in density. Looking at the line drawing halfway up notice that there are more air molecules above this altitude in the warm column than in the cold column
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Why Does Air Pressure Vary?

At the red line 16 molecules weigh more then 13 molecules so the pressure at the altitude of the red line is greater in the warm air. This creates a HIGH PRESSURE aloft While in the cold air we have a LOW PRESSURE aloft.
13 16

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Concept Check 6.4

1 Explain why a cold, dry air mass produces a higher surface pressure than a warm, humid air mass.
Cold, dry air is more dense and therefore heavier than warm, humid air. Because it is heavier, the cold, dry air will tend to sink, creating a high-pressure center. Because it is lighter, warm, humid air will tend to rise and leave a low-pressure center.

2 If all other factors are equal, does a dry or moist air mass exert more air pressure? Explain.
Dry air mass exerts more pressure because the molecular weight of water vapor is less than the molecular weight of nitrogen and oxygen. In a moist air mass, the water vapor molecules will displace some of the nitrogen and oxygen molecules, lowering the molecular weight of the air mass and its overall density.

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Summary

Why does atmospheric pressure vary daily, and why is that important? Recall that variations in air pressure cause the wind to blow, which in turn causes changes in temperature and humidity. In short, difference in air pressure create global winds that become organized into the systems that bring us our weather.

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Horizontal Air Movement Changes Surface Pressure

The movement of air can also cause variations in air pressure. Where there is a net flow of air into a region, a phenomenon called convergence, air accumulates. As it converges horizontally, the air is squeezed into a smaller space, which results in a more massive air column that exerts more pressure at the surface.

L
divergence

By contrast,in regions where there is a net outflow of air, a situation referred to as divergence, the surface pressure drops. In summary, the pressure at the surface will increase when there is a net convergence in a region and the surface pressure will decrease when there is a net divergence.

convergence

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Factors Affecting Wind

Pressure gradient force

Coriolis force

Friction

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Factors Affecting Wind

Pressure gradient force: Isobars are lines connecting places of equal pressure. If isobars are close together a steep gradient and high winds result. If isobars are far apart, the result is a low gradient and lower wind speeds.

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Factors Affecting Wind

Find a station with high winds. What is the spacing of the isobars? Find a station with low winds. What is the spacing of the isobars?
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Factors Affecting Wind

The horizontal pressure gradient is the driving force of wind. The magnitude of the pressure gradient force is shown by the spacing of isobars. The direction of force is always from areas of higher pressure toward areas of lower pressure and at right angles to the isobars.
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Concept Check 6.5

2 What force is responsible for generating wind?
Winds are only generated by horizontal pressure differences, that is, by the pressure gradient force.

3 Write a generalization relating the spacing of isobars to wind speed.

Closely spaced isobars indicate a faster wind, while widely spaced isobars indicate a slower wind.

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Factors Affecting Wind

Why

But the wind does not blow directly from high to low pressure.

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Factors Affecting Wind

Pressure gradient force

Coriolis force

Friction

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Coriolis force

Air moves out of the regions of higher pressure and into the regions of lower pressure. However, the wind rarely crosses the isobars at right angles, as the pressure gradient force directs. This deviation is the result of Earths rotation and has been named the Coriolis force, after the French scientist Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, who first expressed its existence. It is important to note that the Coriolis force cannot generate wind; rather, it modifies airflow.

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Coriolis force

The Coriolis force acts to change the direction of a moving body to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i2mec3vgeaI

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Coriolis force
This deflecting force is always directed at right angles to the direction of airflow. Affects only wind direction, not wind speed. Is affected by wind speed the stronger the wind, the greater the deflecting force. Is strongest at the poles and weakens equatorward, becoming nonexistent at the equator.

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Concept Check 6.5

5 Which two factors influence the magnitude of the Coriolis force?

The two factors that influence the magnitude of the Coriolis force are wind speed (the stronger the wind, the greater the deflecting force) and latitude (strongest deflection at the poles and zero at the equator).

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Factors Affecting Wind

Pressure gradient force

Coriolis force

Friction

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Friction Effect on Wind

Friction significantly influences airflow near Earths surface. Its effect is negligible above a height of a few kilometers.

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Geostrophic Wind

The only force acting on a stationary parcel of air is the pressure gradient force. Once the air begins to accelerate, the Coriolis force deects it to the right in the Northern Hemisphere. Greater wind speeds result in a stronger Coriolis force (deection) until the ow is parallel to the isobars. At this point the pressure gradient force and Coriolis force are in balance, and the ow is called a geostrophic wind

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Winds Aloft
Curved airflow and the gradient wind

Low-pressure systems (L) that occur in the middle latitudes are called midlatitude cyclones.
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High-pressure systems (H) are called anticyclones,

Winds Aloft
Curved airflow and the gradient wind

Wind flow aloft can create ridges (high) and troughs of (low)pressure

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Concept Check 6.6

3 Describe the direction of cyclonic and anticyclonic flow in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Draw diagrams to answer the question.

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Surface Winds
Surface winds travel at an angle across isobars, toward low pressure.

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How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion

Vertical airflow is associated with cyclones and anticyclones.

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How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion

Factors that promote vertical airflow: Friction Increased friction causes a drop in wind speed resulting in a pileup of air upstream from the ocean to land. Convergence can result in cloudy weather. Decreased friction causes an increase in wind speed from the land to the ocean. Subsidence and divergence results in clearing weather.

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How Winds Generate Vertical Air Motion

Vertical airflow is associated with cyclones and anticyclones.

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Concept Check 6.8

2 What general weather conditions are to be expected when the pressure tendency is rising?

When the pressure tendency is rising, it means that a high-pressure center is approaching. Because highs are associated with descending air, adiabatic warming precludes cloud formation. Thus, clear, fair weather is foretold by a rising barometer.

When the pressure tendency is falling?

Conversely, when the pressure tendency is falling, a low-pressure center is approaching. Because lows are associated with rising air, cloud formation is likely and precipitation is possible. Thus, cloudy and possibly rainy weather is foretold by a falling barometer.

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Wind Measurement
Wind direction is always measured from the direction it is coming. A North wind blows north to south. A prevailing wind consistently blows more often than not from one direction.

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Wind Measurement

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Wind Measurement
A wind vane shows wind direction. Wind speed is often measured with a cup anemometer, which has a dial that shows wind speed. An aerovane is a combination of wind vane and anemometer.

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End Chapter 6
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