THE U.S.

MILITARY COMMISSION TO THE CRIMEAN WAR,

1855-1856

A thesis p r e s e n t e d t o t h e F a c u l t y of t h e U.S. Army Command a n d G e n e r a l S t a f f College i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e degree

MASTER OF MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE

by ARTHUR T . FRAME, MAJ, USA B.A., U n i v e r s i t y of U t a h , 1 9 7 4 M.A. , U n i v e r s i t y of Kansas, 1 9 8 0

F o r t Leavenworth, Kansas 1983

Approved f o r p u b l i c release; d i s t r i b u t i o n u n l i m i t e d . Other HQ TRADOC, r e q u e s t s f o r t h i s document m u s t be r e f e r r e d t o : ATTN: ATCS-D, F o r t Monroe, V i r g i n i a 23651.

83-4543

MASTER O F MILITARY ART AND SCIENCE THESIS APPROVAL PAGE

N a m e of C a n d i d a t e :
T i t l e of T h e s i s : War, 1855-1856

Major A r t h u r T . Frame

The U.S. M i l i t a r y Commission t o t h e Crimean

Approved by:

T h e s i s Committee Chairman

Member, G r a d u a t e F a c u l t y

Dr.

Lawrence A. Y

day of Accepted t h i s Director, G r a d u a t e Degree Programs

$$d

&

1983 by

The o p i n i o n s and c o n c l u s i o n s e x p r e s s e d h e r e i n a r e t h o s e of t h e s t u d e n t a u t h o r and do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t t h e views of t h e U.S. Army Command and G e n e r a l S t a f f C o l l e g e o r any o t h e r governmental agency. (References t o t h i s study should include the forgoing statement.)

ABSTRACT

THE U.S. MILITARY COMMISSION TO THE CRIMEAN W A R , by Major A r t h u r T . Frame, USA, 9 8 p a g e s .

185501856,

T h i s s t u d y examines t h e U.S. M i l i t a r y Commission s e n t by S e c r e t a r y of W a r J e f f e r s o n Davis t o o b s e r v e t h e Crimean W a r i n 1855 and 1856, t o d e t e r m i n e why t h e commission was s e n t , where i t went, and t h e r e s u l t s i t a c h i e v e d .
A s u r v e y o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e U . S .

involvement i n t h e Crimean War i n g e n e r a l , and t h e M i l i t a r y Commission s p e c i f i c a l l y , i n d i c a t e s t h a t l i t t l e h a s been w r i t t e n on e i t h e r . It i s shown t h a t w h i l e t h e o f f i c i a l p o l i c y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was s t r i c t n e u t r a l i t y , many p r i v a t e c i t i z e n s i n v o l v e d themT h e n a t i o n was a b l e t o use t h e conselves i n the conflict. f l i c t t o r e a l i z e one of i t s age-old g o a l s : r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e r i g h t s of n e u t r a l s on t h e seas. The U S . M i l i t a r y Comm i s s i o n was t h e only o f f i c i a l involvement i n t h e c o n f l i c t . I n a t i m e of r a p i d n a t i o n a l e x p a n s i o n and minimum m i l i t a r y manpower r e s o u r c e s , t h e three-man commission w a s s e n t t o s t u d y t h e a r t of war as i t was b e i n g p r a c t i c e d i n Europe. I t w a s t o s t u d y t h e "new" t e c h n o l o g y i n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and armaments, and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of European armies t o s e e i f t h e r e might be some a p p l i c a t i o n t o improve t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s and c a p a b i l i t y of t h e U.S. Army i n d e f e n d i n g t h e v a s t new t e r r i t o r y . Although e x t e n s i v e r e p o r t s were w r i t t e n by t h e commission, l i t t l e w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d u n t i l w e l l i n t o t h e Civil W a r .

TABLE O F CONTENTS

CHAPTERS

PAGE Introduction

I.

...... ..........

1
16
45
70

11.
111.

America and t h e Crimean War, A H i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l

Iv.

.......... The U . S . M i l i t a r y Commission . . . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

and B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l S u r v e y

APPENDIXES
A.

The S e c r e t a r y of War's I n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e M i l i t a r y Commission Delafield's L e t t e r

B.
C.

............. t o t h e S e c r e t a r y of W a r . .

78
80

L i s t of Books, Drawings, Maps, and Specimens B r o u g h t by the Commission

BIBLIOGRAPHY

.......... .....................

84

93

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
A t t h e c o n c l u s i o n of h i s s e c o n d t e r m of o f f i c e a s

P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , George Washington i s s u e d a c a u t i o n t o t h e American p e o p l e and t h e i r f u t u r e g o v e r n m e n t s . I n what has become known a s t h e Farewell A d d r e s s , Washington encouraged t h e n a t i o n t o avoid e n t a n g l i n g a l l i a n c e s t h a t would e m b r o i l i t i n t h e c o n f l i c t s o f Europe. S e p a r a t e d geo-

g r a p h i c a l l y f r o m t h e c o n t i n e n t and d u t i f u l l y o b e d i e n t t o i t s
" f a t h e r " , t h e young r e p u b l i c s e t upon a c o u r s e , i n t e r r u p t e d

o c c a s i o n a l l y by armed s t r i f e , t h a t a t t e m p t e d t o a v o i d Europ e a n a f f a i r s and allowed i t t o d e v e l o p i n t o a g r e a t n a t i o n and t h e w o r l d power i t h a s become. Though t h e c o u r s e may have b e e n c o r r e c t , t h e c o n c e p t
i t e n g e n d e r e d d e v e l o p e d i n t o one of t h e myths o f American h i s -

tory.

Throughout t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

t h e United States

p r a c t i c e d a p o l i c y of r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r n a t i o n s t h a t h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d by s t a t e s m e n and h i s t o r i a n s a l i k e as i s o l a tionism. Although n i net eent h-cent ury s t a t e s m e n and h i s t o r -

i a n s u s e d t h e t e r m , i t was n o t u n t i l i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r
World W a r I t h a t i t w a s p o p u l a r i z e d by t h o s e who a d v o c a t e d a

r e t u r n t o t h a t p o l i c y as a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l non-alignment of t h e p a s t . I s o l a t i o n may h a v e b e e n a c o r r e c t

d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i r d e s i r e r e l a t i v e t o p o s t - w a r a l l i a n c e s , b u t i t w a s a misnomer i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e American e x p e r i e n c e .

I t w a s , however, a misnomer t h a t e v e n i n f l u e n t i a l modern d i p -

lomatic h i s t o r i a n s s u c h as Samuel F l a g g B e m i s , Thomas A. B a i l e y and D e x t e r P e r k i n s p e r p e t u a t e d i n t h e i r works. 1 What h a s b e e n c a l l e d i s o l a t i o n i s m was i n f a c t a n a g g r e s s i v e p o l i c y of n e u t r a l i t y t h a t o f t e n t o o k a d v a n t a g e of European c o n f l i c t s and m a c h i n a t i o n s t o f u r t h e r t h e i n t e r e s t s

of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

T h i s e f f o r t w a s n o t p a r t of a p r e c o n -

ceived p l a n , b u t was more t h e work of v a r i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t s u r r o u n d e d them. One e p i s o d e t h a t i s s e l d o m s t u d i e d i n American h i s t o r y t h a t p r o v i d e s a n example o f t h i s o p p o r t u n i s t i c p r o c e s s i s t h a t which encompasses t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g t h e p r o s e c u t i o n of t h e Crimean War by t h e g r e a t powers of Europe

.
The p u r p o s e of t h i s work i s t o s t u d y t h a t e p i s o d e i n

o f f i c i a l and u n o f f i c i a l American f o r e i g n r e l a t i o n s , and more

s p e c i f i c a l l y , t o s t u d y t h e work of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s M i l i t a r y Commission s e n t t o observe t h e Crimean W a r i n 1855.

T o do

t h i s , I w i l l e x a m i n e c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e and p r i m a r y s o u r c e s i n

a n e f f o r t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s and t h e Crimean W a r b e l l i g e r e n t s ; and t h e e v e n t s s u r -

r o u n d i n g t h e c o m m i s s i o n ' s e f f o r t s , why i t w a s s e n t , a n d t h e r e s u l t s of t h e c o m m i s s i o n ' s e f f o r t s .

B y way of i n t r o d u c t i o n

and b a c k g r o u n d , a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of t h e c a u s e s and c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e Crimean War i s a p p r o p r i a t e .

T h e Crimean W a r w a s one of a l o n g s e r i e s of e v e n t s

2.

t h a t f e l l u n d e r t h e g e n e r i c d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e " E a s t e r n Question". The E a s t e r n Q u e s t i o n can b e s t be i n t r o d u c e d by a

s t a t e m e n t a t t r i b u t e d t o o n e of t h e m i n i s t e r s of C a t h e r i n e t h e
G r e a t , Empress of R u s s i a (1762-1797) :

" T h a t which s t o p s grow-

i n g beings t o rot.

'I2

The d e f e a t of t h e Osmanali or Ottoman

T u r k s a t t h e g a t e s of V i e n n a i n 1 6 8 3 b r o u g h t the growth of t h e Ottoman Empire t o a halt a n d b e g a n t h e d e c l i n e t h a t would

l a s t f o r over two-hundred y e a r s .
For almost two-and-a-half

c e n t u r i e s t h e T u r k s , pushed w e s t w a r d by t h e Mongol c o n q u e s t s
of t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y ,

h a d b e e n t h e s c o u r g e of C h r i s t i a n Now

dom and h a d s e r i o u s l y t h r e a t e n e d t h e s e c u r i t y of Europe.

as t h e y e a r s p a s s e d and t h e e m p i r e b e g a n t o weaken and " r o t " ,

t h e q u e s t i o n became: " S i c k Man"? Who w i l l i n h e r i t t h e e s t a t e of E u r o p e ' s

From a b o u t 1 7 0 2 u n t i l a b o u t 1 8 2 0 , it a p p e a r e d
4

that Russia w o u l d be the heir.

R u s s i a n e x p a n s i o n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e Ottoman d o m i n i o n s began c o n c e p t u a l l y w i t h t h e r e i g n of I v a n t h e
T e r r i b l e (1533-1584) when h e vowed t o r e t u r n c o n t r o l of t r a d i -

t i o n a l Russian r i v e r s
. I

t o t h e i r mouths

t o the Muscovite

s t a t e O 5 While I v a n b e g a n h i s e x p a n s i o n a l o n g t h e VolgaC a s p i a n r o u t e 6 i n t o the C e n t r a l A s i a n K h a n a t e s , a c t u a l expans i o n i n t o Ottoman l a n d s d i d n o t b e g i n u n t i l t h e r e i g n of Peter t h e Great (1682-1725) whose c o n q u e s t s g a i n e d f o r R u s s i a a p i e c e of t h e n o r t h e r n coast of t h e B l a c k Sea.' C a t h e r i n e t h e Great, t h e R u s s i a n Empire t h r e a t e n e d C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , and by t h e close of t h e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y ,
3.

Under

R u s s i a , a l o n g w i t h A u s t r i a , had conquered v a s t t e r r i t o r i e s
across t h e Danube and f u r t h e r a l o n g t h e n o r t h shore of t h e

Black Sea, t o i n c l u d e t h e Crimean P e n i n s u l a . The Anglo-Russian r i v a l r y t h a t e v e n t u a l l y developed i n t h e Middle E a s t w a s n o t i n i t i a l l y a p p a r e n t and t h e t w o c o u n t r i e s had i n f a c t assisted one a n o t h e r on o c c a s i o n . B r i t i s h merchants i n s e a r c h of a n o r t h e a s t p a s s a g e t o t h e
e a s t i n t h e 1550s l a n d e d i n R u s s i a and w e r e encouraged t o

s t a y and t r a d e .

T h e Muscovy Company8 a t t e m p t e d t o e s t a b l i s h

t h r o u g h R u s s i a o v e r l a n d t r a d e w i t h P e r s i a , and i n 1 7 3 4 a t r e a t y of commerce was c o n c l u d e d t o do j u s t t h a t O g In 1 7 7 0 t h e B r i t i s h a s s i s t e d t h e R u s s i a n f l e e t ' s p a s s a g e from t h e B a l t i c i n t o t h e Mediterranean, t h e goal being t o put pressure on t h e Turks and foment a Greek r e v o l t .
10
I

By 1815 t h i s c o o p e r a t i v e a t t i t u d e of t h e t w o powers

had dwindled and d i s a p p e a r e d .

The B r i t i s h had g a i n e d s o l e

commerical dominance over I n d i a and expanded t h e i r empire t h e r e by d e f e a t i n g t h e French d u r i n g t h e Seven Years W a r ( F r e n c h and I n d i a n W a r of American h i s t o r y ) . In the aftermath

of t h a t w a r , t h e B r i t i s h were more c o n c e r n e d w i t h a n a t t e m p t e d

French comeback i n I n d i a t h a n w i t h R u s s i a n e x p a n s i o n .

This

p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e French would soon g i v e way t o o t h e r c o n c e r n s , f o r w h i l e Peter t h e Great and h i s s u c c e s s o r s w e r e expanding a t t h e e x p e n s e of t h e S u l t a n , t h e y were a l s o n i b b l i n g away a t t h e domain of t h e P e r s i a n Shah i n t h e d i r e c t i o n
of I n d i a .

B e f o r e 1 8 1 5 , a R u s s i a n d e f e a t of F r a n c e ' s T u r k i s h a l l y s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e B r i t i s h p o s i t i o n i n t h e Levant. A f t e r 1815,

R u s s i a n e x p a n s i o n became a t h r e a t t o t h e B r i t i s h l i n e s of communication w i t h I n d i a . F o r B r i t a i n , t h e r e was

...no t o p i c which a t t r a c t e d more a t t e n t i o n t h a n t h e s e c u r i t y of I n d i a , no t r a d e w a s more v a l u a b l e , no area o f f e r e d more s c o p e f o r m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l o r commercial advancement, T h e r e was no t h r e a t t o I n d i a which w a s too f a n c i f u l t o command some a t t e n t i o n and no p a i n s were s p a r e d t o s e c u r e t h e r o u t e s of communication b e t w e e n B r i t a i n and I n d i a - l l I n d i a was t h e k e y s t o n e o f t h e B r i t i s h Empire, and a weak Ottoman c o n t r o l of t h e l i n e s o f communication was i n f i n i t e l y
better than a powerful Russian c o n t r o l ,
T h e d i s t a n c e from

England t o I n d i a v i a t h e Suez1* or t h e E u p h r a t e s - P e r s i a n Gulf r o u t e was o n l y a t h i r d t h e d i s t a n c e of t h e Cape of Good Hope

route.

With t h e growing momentum of t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u -

t i o n , B r i t a i n ' s i n t e r e s t i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s e Middle E a s t e r n t r a d e r o u t e s grew c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y . The Napoleonic wars had b r o u g h t a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o

B r i t i s h i m p e r i a l e f f o r t s when Napoleon invaded and o c c u p i e d

Egypt (1798-1801) and l a t e r (1806-7) a t t e m p t e d t o draw t h e R u s s i a n T s a r and P e r s i a n Shah i n t o an a l l i a n c e d e s i g n e d t o remove I n d i a from B r i t i s h c l u t c h e s l 3 T h e end of t h o s e wars b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e b a l a n c e of European power t h r o u g h t h e conc e r t s y s t e m and r e c o g n i t i o n by a l l concerned t h a t t h e squabbles g e n e r a t e d by t h e European h e i r s a f t e r t h e "Sick Man's"

demise s h o u l d f a v o r no one n a t i o n .

Each power had i t s r e a s o n s

f o r c o v e t i n g t h e Ottoman domain and f o r p r e v e n t i n g a n o t h e r

f r o m g a i n i n g s o l e dominance.

The F r e n c h had i t s age-old

r i v a l r y w i t h t h e A u s t r i a n Hapsburgs, a l l i e d t o R u s s i a , and t h e desire t o expand t h e i r t r a d e i n t h e Levant. Russia sought

access t o t h e B l a c k Sea where the trade r o u t e s of the g r e a t

R u s s i a n r i v e r s , t h e Kuban, t h e Don, t h e D n i e p e r , t h e Bug and t h e D n i e s t e r converged, and egress i n t o t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n v i a

t h e s t r a i t s w a s paramount t o R u s s i a n economic p o t e n t i a l i t i e s .

A u s t r i a and R u s s i a a l s o s o u g h t i m p e r i a l e x p a n s i o n t o c o l l e c t
t h e i r S l a v i c and germanic b r e t h r e n t o t h e i r bossoms.

The

B r i t i s h c o n c e r n s have a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d , and t h e y were r e a d y t o swing t h e i r power t o any s i d e t o p r e s e r v e t h e s t a t u s

q u o of t h e Ottoman s t a t e .

The n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y R u s s i a n advance a t t h e expense of t h e Ottoman P o r t e i s s a i d t o have begun w i t h t h e T r e a t y o f Kuchuk K a i n a r d j i ( 1 7 7 4 ) .

T h i s t r e a t y , which ended C a t h e r i n e

t h e G r e a t ' s f i r s t T u r k i s h War (1768-1774), b r o u g h t s u c h conc e s s i o n s from t h e Ottoman P o r t e t h a t i t allowed t h e R u s s i a n s a n u n d e n i a b l e i n f l u e n c e i n e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l Ottoman

a f f a i r s and became t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r a l l f u t u r e t r e a t i e s

and d i p l o m a t i c a g r e e m e n t s between t h e t w o e m p i r e s . 14 The t r e a t y gave t h e R u s s i a n s t e r r i t o r i a l c o n c e s s i o n s t h a t a l l o w e d them greater access t o t h e Black Sea; m a r i t i m e and commercial c o n c e s s i o n s t h a t allowed freedom of n a v i g a t i o n and trade i n t h e Black Sea and T u r k i s h S t r a i t s ; t h e r i g h t t o e r e c t a R u s s i a n a d m i n i s t e r e d Orthodox c h u r c h i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e
6.

w i t h t h e r i g h t t o i n t e r v e n e i n f a v o r of t h e new c h u r c h ; and a p r o t e c t o r a t e o v e r t h e C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n of Moldavia and Wallachia. l5 These l a s t t w o c o n c e s s i o n s provided a backdrop

f o r s u b s e q u e n t R u s s i a n claims t o t h e r i g h t t o i n t e r v e n e on

b e h a l f of all Orthodox C h r i s t i a n s i n t h e Ottoman Empire.

From t h i s t i m e o n , R u s s i a n p r e s s u r e was r e l e n t l e s s i n advanc-

i n g i t s a m bi t i ons southward.
A s t h e N a p o l e o n i c w a r s drew t o a close i n E u r o p e , t h e

c o n c e p t s of n a t i o n a l and p o p u l a r r i g h t s b o r n i n t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , and s p r e a d u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y by t h e F r e n c h army, s p r e a d t o t h e C h r i s t i a n s u b j e c t s o f t h e Ottoman P o r t e . by one t h e s e p e o p l e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e g r o u p e d i n t h e B a l k a n s , b e g a n t h e s t r u g g l e t o e m a n c i p a t e t h e m s e l v e s from Ottoman r u l e . R u s s i a ' s r o l e i n t h i s p e r i o d was one o f p r o One

v i d i n g o p p o r t u n i t y and e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t h e C h r i s t i a n p o p u l a t i o n of t h e Ottoman Empire t h r o u g h d i p l o m a t i c p r e s s u r e and

wars w i t h t h e T u r k i s h o v e r l o r d s .

These C h r i s t i a n e f f o r t s t o

t h r o w o f f t h e Ottoman yoke a l s o drew t h e i n t e r e s t and o f t e n t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e o t h e r European powers and l e d t o a n a b i d i n g s e n s e of Russophobia i n W e s t e r n Europe.

16

The f i r s t of many e p i s o d e s i n t h i s s t r u g g l e w a s t h e
G r e e k w a r of i n d e p e n d e n c e (1821-1829).

A l t h o u g h t h e European

powers a t t e m p t e d t o r e m a i n aloof from t h e Greek s i t u a t i o n , p u b l i c s e n t i m e n t was on t h e s i d e of t h e Greek C h r i s t i a n s f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t t h e Turkish heathens. When a n Anglo-French-

R u s s i a n a t t e m p t t o mediate t h e c o n f l i c t was rejected by t h e

7.

Ottomans, a combined European f l e e t s e n t t h e Turko-Egyptian

f l e e t t o t h e bottom of Navarino Bay ( 1 8 2 7 ) .

I n 1828 t h e

R u s s i a n s declared w a r on t h e Ottoman Empire and advanced as

f a r a s A d r i a n o p l e , o n l y 150 m i l e s from C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .
The

T r e a t y of A d r i a n o p l e (1829) c o n f i r m e d t h e R u s s i a n p r o t e c t o r a t e o v e r t h e Danubian p r i n c i p a l i t i e s (Moldavia and W a l l a c h i a ) , b r o u g h t new t e r r i t o r i e s t o t h e R u s s i a n s t a t e , and secured T u r k i s h agreement t o t h e p r o p o s e d s o l u t i o n of t h e Greek c r i sis.
T h e n e x t major o p p o r t u n i t y f o r R u s s i a n i n t e r v e n t i o n

came n o t t h r o u g h t h e a c t i o n of t h e P o r t e ' s C h r i s t i a n s u b j e c t s , b u t t h r o u g h t h e e f f o r t s of h i s v a s s a l , Mohammed A l i , Pasha of Egypt. Mohammed A l i had p r o v i d e d t h e services of h i s a b l e

s o n Ibrahim Pasha t o a s s i s t t h e S u l t a n i n q u e l l i n g t h e Greek r e v o l t i n exchange f o r Greek t e r r i t o r i a l c o n c e s s i o n s . t h e loss of Greece p r e v e n t e d c o l l e c t i o n of t h e s e d e b t s , Mohammed A l i demanded t h e p a s h a l i k of S y r i a and s e n t I b r a h i m
t o s e i z e it.
W i t h t h e d e f e a t of t h e Turkish army and t h e

When

B r i t i s h d e n i a l of a i d , t h e P o r t e was d e s p e r a t e enough t o s e i z e upon t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f f e r e d by t h e R u s s i a n T s a r . The

r e s u l t w a s t h e temporary h a l t i n g of Ibrahim and t h e c e d i n g of S y r i a t o him, and t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e T r e a t y of U n k i a r - S k e l e s s i (1833).

A s e c r e t a r t i c l e of t h a t t r e a t y p r o v i d e d f o r t h e

c l o s i n g of t h e s t r a i t s t o f o r e i g n v e s s e l s i n t h e e v e n t of w a r ,
w h i l e R u s s i a n vessels had f r e e p a s s a g e d u r i n g p e a c e o r w a r .
T h e R u s s i a n s a l s o g a i n e d t h e r i g h t of p r i o r c o n s u l t a t i o n i n

8.

i n Ottoman a f f a i r s

v i r t u a l l y making t h e R u s s i a n Ambassador

t h e S u l t a n ' s primary advisor.

When t h e news of t h e secret a r t i c l e l e a k e d , t h e B r i t i s h p r o t e s t e d vehemently. Suddenly t h e y r e a l i z e d t h a t n o t o n l y

were t h e R u s s i a n s t h r e a t e n i n g t o r e p l a c e weak Ottoman w i t h a

s t r o n g R u s s i a n c o n t r o l i n t h e L e v a n t , b u t t h e l o n g arm o f Mohammed A l l , t h r o u g h h i s s o n I b r a h i m , h e l d c o n t r o l o v e r t h e
t w o v i t a l passageways t o I n d i a

t h e isthmus of Suez and t h e

upper Euphrates.
A s a c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n ,

t h e B r i t i s h took

a c t i o n when I b r a h i m Pasha b e g a n t o t h r e a t e n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a g a i n i n 1839.

A j o i n t Anglo-Austrian

n a v a l b l o c k a d e and the

l a n d i n g of T u r k i s h , A u s t r i a n and B r i t i s h t r o o p s b r o u g h t Mohammed A l l ' s t h r e a t t o a n e n d . Although t h e French w i t h h e l d

support for the allied intervention, they supported the f i n a l s o l u t i o n i n 1840 u n d e r which S y r i a w a s r e t u r n e d t o t h e Ottoman S u l t a n i n e x c h a n g e f o r Mohammed A l l ' s h e r e d i t a r y g o v e r n o r s h i p

over Egypt.

They a l s o s u p p o r t e d t h e S t r a i t s C o n v e n t i o n of

1 8 4 1 which e n d e d t h e R u s s i a n p r o t e c t o r a t e over t h e Ottoman Empire. The London a g r e e m e n t of 1840 and t h e S t r a i t s Conven-

t i o n of 1 8 4 1 marked t h e d e c i s i v e p o i n t a t which E u r o p e , u n d e r B r i t i s h l e a d e r s h i p , d e c i d e d n o t t o allow t h e e n f e e b l e d O t t o man Empire t o b e r e p l a c e d by a s t r o n g e r power Mohammed A l i n o r R u s s i a Turkey w a s e s t a b l i s h e d

neither

and a European p r o t e c t o r a t e o v e r

.
9.

Between t h e S t r a i t s C o n v e n t i o n of 1 8 4 1 and t h e

o u t b r e a k of w a r i n 1853, t h e r e were s e v e r a l p e r i p h e r a l e v e n t s t h a t i n c r e a s e d t h e e n t a n g l e m e n t s l e a d i n g t o open c o n f l i c t .

A f t e r t h e d e f e a t of Mohammed A l i , whom t h e French had o p e n l y

s u p p o r t e d and for whom t h e y had n e a r l y gone t o w a r w i t h England, t h e c o n c e r n o v e r p o s s i b l e c o n f l i c t w i t h F r a n c e c a u s e d a n Anglo-Russian e n t e n t e . I n 1 8 4 4 T s a r N i c h o l a s I of R u s s i a

e n t e r e d a g e n t l e m a n ' s agreement w i t h B r i t i s h f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r Aberdeen t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t , i f t h e Ottoman Empire c o l l a p s e d , R u s s i a and England would n o t a c t w i t h o u t m u t u a l c o n s u l t a t i o n and R u s s i a ' s army would come t o B r i t i s h a i d i f a t t a c k e d by France.
These good r e l a t i o n s may have c a u s e d the T s a r t o a c t

more c o n f i d e n t l y i n 1852-1853 t h a n h e s h o u l d have. The Anglo-Russian e n t e n t e remained i n t a c t d u r i n g t h e r e v o l u t i o n s and u n r e s t t h a t swept Europe from 1848 t o 1 8 5 1 and t h e B r i t i s h f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , Count N e s s e l r o d e , even u r g e d t h e
T s a r t o a s s i s t i n p u t t i n g down t h e Hungarian r e v o l t a g a i n s t

Austria,

But when A u s t r i a and R u s s i a demanded t h e r e t u r n of

Hungarian r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s t h a t f l e d t o Turkey, t h e B r i t i s h and F r e n c h conducted a n a v a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n n e a r t h e S t r a i t s i n s u p p o r t of t h e P o r t e ' s r e f u s a l t o do so.

L a t e r , however,

B r i t a i n remained s i l e n t when R u s s i a n f o r c e s o c c u p i e d Moldavia and Wallachia t o s u p p r e s s a r e v o l t a g a i n s t t h e S u l t a n ,

The

e n t e n t e w a s s t r e n g t h e n e d a g a i n i n 1852 when B r i t a i n f e a r e d a F r e n c h i n v a s i o n o v e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n w e s t e r n Europe and s o u g h t c l o s e r Anglo-Russian r e l a t i o n s . The t r e a t i e s e n d i n g t h e Napoleonic wars (1815) banned
10.

t h e B o n a p a r t e s from t h e French t h r o n e .

B y t h e 1850s t h e

French were i t c h i n g t o r e f u t e t h e 1815 t r e a t i e s and w e r e w i l l i n g t o go t o war t o do s o . I n 1 8 4 8 L o u i s Napoleon had been

elected t o t h e p r e s i d e n c y of t h e Second R e p u b l i c a n d , i n
December 1851, s e i z e d a b s o l u t e power t h r o u g h a coup d ' e t a t ,

d e c l a r i n g h i m s e l f emperor and p r o c l a i m i n g t h e Second Empire i n May 1852. I n s p i t e of t h e t r e a t i e s ' b a n , o n l y R u s s i a s t o o d

o u t i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e Second Empire, w h i l e the o t h e r powers

were w i l l i n g t o make c o n c e s s i o n s and a c c e p t Napoleon's p l e d g e s

of good f a i t h . Even t h e P r u s s i a n s and A u s t r i a n s , w h o had

i n i t i a l l y t a k e n t h e s t r o n g R u s s i a n p o s i t i o n , e v e n t u a l l y weakened i n t h e i r resolve.
W i t h these c o n d i t i o n s i n b e i n g , t h e

f i n a l s t e p s were t a k e n toward t h e Crimean W a r . L o u i s Napoleon f e l t t h a t T s a r N i c h o l a s I needed t o be humbled for an affront g i v e n by a d d r e s s i n g t h e new emperor as "my f r i e n d " r a t h e r t h a n "my b r o t h e r " , as b e f i t t i n g one who r u l e d by d i v i n e r i g h t .
T h e a g e o l d d i s p u t e o v e r c o n t r o l of

t h e Holy Places i n P a l e s t i n e , renewed by French demands as

p r o t e c t o r s of t h e L a t i n Church, p r o v i d e d t h e s p a r k .

French

demands and t h r e a t s , and R u s s i a n c o u n t e r demands i n s u p p o r t of t h e Orthodox Church, r e s u l t e d i n T u r k i s h v a c i l l a t i o n i n d e c l a r i n g one o r t h e o t h e r i n c o n t r o l u n t i l t h e a r r i v a l of t h e French ambassador, L a v a l e t t e , on a l a r g e French b a t t l e s h i p , and a change i n t h e T u r k i s h m i n i s t r y t o men a n t i - R u s s i a n i n
t h e i r o u t l o o k , c a u s e d t h e P o r t e t o decide f o r t h e L a t i n s .
T h e R u s s i a n s p r o t e s t e d on b e h a l f of t h e Orthodox C h r i s t i a n s ,

11

whom t h e y p r o t e c t e d under Kuchuk K a r n a r d j i , and d i s p a t c h e d a

s p e c i a l d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n under P r i n c e Alexander Menshikov.

Menshikov b l u n t l y demanded c o n c e s s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e Holy

Places and a t r e a t y g i v i n g R u s s i a a p r o t e c t o r a t e o v e r Orthodox

c h u r c h e s i n t h e Ottoman Empire.

The Turks a g r e e d t o some

minor c o n c e s s i o n s b u t r e f u s e d t h e t r e a t y , r e c o g n i z i n g a R u s s i a n p r o t e c t o r a t e as a n e n f r i n g e m e n t on t h e s o v e r e i g n t y of t h e Sultan. By t h e end of May 1853, R u s s i a had broken r e l a t i o n s w i t h Turkey, and F r a n c e and England, t h r o u g h a change of
B r i t i s h government p e r s o n a l i t i e s ,

were s u p p o r t i n g t h e T u r k s .

I n J u n e t h e B r i t i s h and French f l e e t s j o i n e d o u t s i d e the

S t r a i t s , and i n J u l y t h e R u s s i a n s o c c u p i e d t h e p r i n c i p a l i t i e s
of Moldavia and Wallachia.
T h e Turks declared w a r i n October

1853, and i n F e b r u a r y 1854, B r i t a i n and F r a n c e c a l l e d f o r t h e R u s s i a n e v a c u a t i o n of t h e P r i n c i p a l i t i e s . On March 2 8 , 1854

B r i t a i n and F r a n c e declared w a r on R u s s i a and t h e Crimean War

w a s on.

None of t h e powers were p r e p a r e d f o r w a r and t h e r e s u l t s were greater losses t o disease t h a n t o enemy a c t i o n .

Poor l e a d e r s h i p and d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n added t o t h e u n n e c e s s a r y

loss o f l i f e and waste of m a t e r i a l .

P r u s s i a and A u s t r i a

remained a l o o f from t h e c o n f l i c t w h i l e B r i t a i n , F r a n c e , and

l a t e r Piedmont a l i g n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t h e Turks a g a i n s t
Russia.
The u l t i m a t e A l l i e d s u c c e s s w a s due more t o R u s s i a n

t e c h n i c a l i n f e r i o r i t y and g r e a t e r incompetence t h a n t o A l l i e d
12

competency.

Corruption i n t h e Russian bureaucracy, a poor

s u p p l y s y s t e m , and a s h o r t a g e of e q u i p m e n t e v e n t u a l l y o v e r -

came t h e e f f o r t s of t h e v a l i a n t R u s s i a n s o l d i e r .

A f t e r the

d e a t h of N i c h o l a s I i n 1 8 5 5 , i n view of t h e i r e x h a u s t e d f i n a n -

ces and p h y s i c a l l o s s e s , t h e R u s s i a n s s u e d f o r p e a c e .
Peace w a s c o n c l u d e d a t Paris i n 1856.

R u s s i a ' s f ron-

t i e r s were pushed b a c k , h e r w a r s h i p s were removed from t h e

B l a c k Sea and h e r shore f o r t i f i c a t i o n s w e r e s c r a p p e d .
The

loss d e m o n s t r a t e d s e r i o u s w e a k n e s s e s i n t e r n a l l y i n t h e R u s s i a n
s t a t e which b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e i n t e r n a l reforms i n t r o d u c e d by

A l e x a n d e r I1 i n 1861. Europe was over.

The e r a of R u s s i a as t h e Gendarme of

13.

NOTES

Samuel F l a g g B e m i s , A S h o r t H i s t o r y of American 'See: (New York: Henry H o l t and C o . , F o r e i g n Policy and Diplomacy. I n c . , 1 9 5 9 ) p. 3 6 4 ; Thomas A . B a i l e y , A D i p l o m a t i c H i s t o r y of t h e American P e o p l e . ( 1 s t e d . ; New York: F.S. C r o f t s and C o . , 1 9 4 0 ) pp. 755, 757; and Dexter P e r k i n s , The E v o l u t i o n of American F o r e i g n P o l i c y . (New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 8 ) , pp. 4 0 , 5 3 , 54. 2Adam U l a m , Expansion a n d C o e x i s t e n c e : The H i s t o r y of S o v i e t F o r e i g n P o l i c y , 1917-1967. (New York: F r e d e r i c k P r a g e r , 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 5 .
3J.A.R. M a r r i o t t , The E a s t e r n Q u e s t i o n : An H i s t o r i c a l S t u d y i n European Diplomacy. (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1917) p. 5 .

*Ibid.,

p.

6.

5 T h i s account of I v a n ' s c o r o n a t i o n a d d r e s s i s found i n a USAF f i l m o n h i s t o r i c a l themes i n R u s s i a n h i s t o r y c a l l e d T s a r and Commisar, p r o d u c e d by A i r F o r c e I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e S o v i e t Awareness Team. 'Robert G . Wesson, The R u s s i a n Dilemma. R u t g e r s U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1974) pp. 6-7.

(New Brunswick:

7 R u s s i a n assaults on t h e C r i m e a i n 1 6 8 7 and 1689 i n r e s p o n s e t o concessions made by t h e Holy League, were a b o r t i v e . See: L.S. S t a v r i a n o s , The B a l k a n s S i n c e 1 4 5 3 . ( N e w York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1 9 5 8 ) p. 1 7 3 .
8Rose I , . Greaves, B r i t a i n , P e r s i a and I n d i a , 1 7 2 2 - 1 9 2 2 . ( U n p u b l i s h e d monograph p r e p a r e d f o r t h e Cambridge H i s t o r y of I r a n s e r i e s . ) p.3. 'Ibid., "Op. pp. 3-4.

c i t . , S t a v r i a n o s , p . 173.

14.

"Paul Hayes , The N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y 1814-80 , Malcom Robinson, g e n . e d . , Modern B r i t i s h F o r e i g n P o l i c y (New York: S t . M a r t i n ' s Press, 1975) p . 238.

12The Suez C a n a l had n o t yet b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d , s o t h e r o u t e w a s o v e r l a n d across t h e i s t h m u s f o r a d i s t a n c e . 130p. c i t . , M a r r i o t t , pp. 175-177: J o h n B. K e l l y , B r i t a i n and t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n Press, 1968) p. 4 4 .
14

Op.

c i t . , M a r r i o t t , pp. 150-151.

15See: George Lenczowski, The Middle E a s t i n World Affairs. ( I t h a c a NY: C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 5 2 ; 4th ed. 1 9 8 0 ) p. 33; and S t a v r i a n o s , p . 1 9 1 , f o r d i s c u s s i o n of t r e a t y details.

16An i n - d e p t h d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e e p i s o d e s i s n o t p o s s i ble w i t h i n t h e c o f i f i n e s of t h i s work, s o only a broad d i s c u s s i o n of key e v e n t s w i l l be a t t e m p t e d . T h i s g e n e r a l r e v i e w i s a summary of e v e n t s t a k e n from t h e works of M a r r i o t t , S t a v r i a n o s , Lenczowski, J o h n S h e l t o n C u r t i s s , B r i n s o n D . Gooch, A l b e r t S e a t o n , and P h i l i p Warner.

15.

CHAPTER 2

America

and t h e Crimean War:

A H i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l and B i b l i o g r a p h i c a l Survey

A r e v i e w of g e n e r a l works i n American h i s t o r y a n d ,

more s p e c i f i c a l l y , works on American d i p l o m a t i c h i s t o r y , i n

s e a r c h of i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g American a t t i t u d e s toward t h e Crimean War u s u a l l y r e v e a l s l i t t l e . Even s u c h p r e s t i g i o u s

works as Thomas A. B a i l e y ' s A D i p l o m a t i c H i s t o r y of t h e A m e r i c a n People' and Robert F e r r e l l ' s American Diplomacy:

A

H i s t o r y L o n l y t o u c h t h e t o p i c t a n g e n t i a l l y as t h e y d i s c u s s t h e s e e m i n g l y u n r e l a t e d e p i s o d e s of t h e p e r i o d ( 1 8 5 3 - 5 6 ) .
To

d e t e r m i n e t h e i n t e r e s t s and involvement of America and Americ a n s i n t h e Crimean War, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o search o u t s e p a r a t e works d e a l i n g w i t h t h e g e n e r a l and s p e c i f i c a s p e c t s o f

American involvement.

What were t h e i n t e r e s t s of Americans

t h a t l e d them t o become i n v o l v e d i n t h e Crimean c o n f l i c t ?

Commerce has always b e e n of major i m p o r t a n c e t o the

U n i t e d S t a t e s and i t s c i t i z e n s . exception.

The p e r i o d of t h e 1 8 5 0 s i s no

The o p p o r t u n i t y t o p l y t h e i r t r a d e wherever and

whenever t h e y p l e a s e d was o f p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e t o Americans. The U n i t e d S t a t e s needed r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e r i g h t s of n e u t r a l s on t h e seas f o r i t s merchant s h i p p i n g .

T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had

s o u g h t r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s c o n c e p t s i n c e t h e War f o r Independence. Linked t o t h e p e d d l e r s u r g e was t h e desire t o expand.

16.

Expansion y i e l d e d new m a r k e t s .

I t also s a t i s f i e d " m a n i f e s t

d e s t i n y " and p r o v i d e d s e c u r i t y on America's b o r d e r s w i t h t h e c o l o n i e s of t h e European n a t i o n s .

These e x p a n s i o n i s t tenden-

c i e s b r o u g h t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h O l d World
i n t e r e s t s i n Canada, Oregon, Texas, Mexico, and t h e Sandwich Islands (Hawaii)

and even R u s s i a n America ( A l a s k a ) .

These

c o n f l i c t s c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g t h e Crimean War p e r i o d , both i n Cuba and C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . I n n e a r l y e v e r y case where New

World i n t e r e s t c o n f l i c t e d w i t h O l d , Great B r i t a i n p l a y e d the

r o l e of p r i m a r y a n t a g o n i s t o r c l o s e l y shadowed t h e e f f o r t s of
t h a t n a t i o n which w a s t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n .

Many of t h e s e con-

f l i c t s of i n t e r e s t , as h a s been n o t e d , c a r r i e d i n t o t h e Crimean W a r era and f l a v o r e d r e l a t i o n s between t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e Crimean b e l l i g e r e n t s . One f a c t o r s h o u l d be remembered when c o n s i d e r i n g the t o p i c of American i n t e r e s t : t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n c e between

o f f i c i a l p o l i c y and a c t i o n s of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e a c t i o n s of i t s p r i v a t e c i t i z e n s . I n a democracy t h e p r i v a t e

sector w i l l a l m o s t always a f f e c t t h e p u b l i c sector t h r o u g h

e l e c t i o n s , l o b b i e s , and s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t w h i l e t h e o p p o s i t e i s n o t always t r u e . The f r o n t i e r o r f r e e s p i r i t of Americans
A

o f t e n l e d o f f i c i a l America t o a c c e p t a f a i t a c c o m p l i .

r e v i e w of o f f i c i a l and u n o f f i c i a l American a c t i v i t y d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d i s n e c e s s a r y , b u t b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g it m i g h t b e h e l p f u l t o look a t t h e i n t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n of t h e United States.

I n t h e f i v e y e a r s p r i o r t o 1850, i n a n e x p a n s i o n i s t i c
17

f r e n z y , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had n e a r l y reached t h e l i m i t s of i t s c o n t i n e n t a l growth. On t h e n o r t h , t h e Maine boundary d i s p u t e

w i t h B r i t a i n had been s e t t l e d i n 1842, and t h e d i v i s i o n of t h e Oregon t e r r i t o r y a l o n g t h e 49th p a r a l l e l was decided i n 1846.

A f t e r u n o f f i c i a l l y s u p p o r t i n g T e x a s ' w a r f o r independ-

e n c e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s annexed Texas i n 1845 and f o u g h t i n

t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r a w a r w i t h Mexico o v e r t h a t a n n e x a t i o n and

Texas boundary d i s p u t e s

As a n a f t e r m a t h of t h a t w a r , a l l of

p r e s e n t day C a l i f o r n i a and Texas and t h e m a j o r i t y of New Mexico and Arizona became U n i t e d S t a t e s t e r r i t o r y .

To t h e s e v a s t

a c q u i s i t i o n s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s added t h e Gadsden P u r c h a s e i n 1853

.
All t h a t remained w a s t o s e t t l e the middle r e g i o n s of

t h e n a t i o n and t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e y would b e s l a v e o r
free.

The s l a v e r y i s s u e created s e v e r e d i v i s i o n s i n the The Compromise of

n a t i o n and i n n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s as w e l l .

1850 had b r o u g h t a temporary l u l l , b u t t h e i s s u e w a s n e v e r f a r

from t h e s u r f a c e i n i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c s . One o t h e r a s p e c t of t h e i n t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n t h a t i n f l u enced p r i v a t e American a c t i o n s d u r i n g t h e Crimean p e r i o d w a s t h a t t h e n a t i o n w a s s u f f e r i n g one of t h e economic d e p r e s s i o n s t h a t p l a g u e d t h e U n i t e d States p e r i o d i c a l l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e Nineteenth Century. Such c o n d i t i o n s h a v e o f t e n been t h e

c a t a l y s t f o r American " f r e e s p i r i t s " t o t r y t h e i r l u c k i n some a d v e n t u r e and as w e s h a l l see, t h i s p e r i o d was no e x c e p t i o n .

Private opinion concerning t h e w a r p r i m a r i l y took t h e
18

form of p u b l i c o p i n i o n e x p r e s s e d i n t h e n a t i o n ' s p r e s s .

Most

s o u r c e s seem t o agree t h a t p u b l i c o p i n i o n w a i v e r e d i n i t i a l l y between t h e w a r r i n g s i d e s , b u t f i n a l l y f e l l d e c i d e d l y i n f a v o r

of R u s s i a f o l l o w i n g t h e axiom t h a t " t h e enemy of m y enemy i s

m y friend".3

R u s s i a had n o t always been t h e f o c u s of American

good w i l l , even though r e l a t i o n s o v e r t h e y e a r s s i n c e American independence c o u l d b e g e n e r a l l y described a s f r i e n d l y , and a t

l e a s t were more f r i e n d l y t h a n t h o s e w i t h G r e a t B r i t a i n .
M o s t works d e a l i n g w i t h Russo-American r e l a t i o n s a t

l e a s t mention t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e American p e o p l e d u r i n g t h i s

period.

Such s o u r c e s i n c l u d e :

Eugene A n s c h e l ' s The American

Image of R u s s i a : Russia:

177501917: Thomas A. B a i l e y ' s America Faces

Russian-American R e l a t i o n s From E a r l y T i m e s t o O u r

Day; and a l e n g t h y a r t i c l e by Benjamin P l a t t Thomas, "RussoAmerican Relations , 1815-1867''

These g e n e r a l l y p o i n t o u t

t h a t t h e n a t i o n s w e r e l i n k e d p r i m a r i l y by common c a u s e .

Since

t h e American War f o r Independence, when C a t h e r i n e t h e G r e a t i n i t i a t e d t h e League of A r m e d N e u t r a l i t y of 1 7 8 0 , both t h e

U.S.

and R u s s i a had s o u g h t r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e r i g h t s of n e u t r a l England h a d , a t t h e

s h i p s t o trade f r e e l y w i t h b e l l i g e r e n t s .

same t i m e , been t h e p r i m a r y opponent of t h e c o n c e p t of " f r e e

s h i p s make f r e e goods". By g o i n g t o war i n d e f e n s e of those

r i g h t s i n 1 8 1 2 , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had j o i n e d t h e R u s s i a n s as

champions of t h e r i g h t s of n e u t r a l s . F r i e n d l y , b u t d i s t a n t , r e l a t i o n s ensued u n t i l R u s s i a n d e s i g n s on S p a n i s h America ( C a l i f o r n i a ) and e x p a n s i o n i n t h e

19

American n o r t h w e s t 5 b r o u g h t Monroe's famous d i c t u m i n 1 8 2 3 and e v e n t u a l l y a t r e a t y s e t t i n g f o r t h r e s p e c t i v e s p h e r e s of i n t e r -

e s t i n t h e n o r t h w e s t i n 1824.

I n 1834 t h e t w o n a t i o n s s i g n e d

a commercial a g r e e m e n t , uncommon t o t h e T s a r ' s government of

t h a t day.
U.S.

Later,

i n the t h i r t i e s and f o r t i e s , u n f a v o r a b l e

p r e s s c o n c e r n i n g R u s s i a n a c t i o n s w i t h t h e P o l i s h and

Hungarian r e v o l u t i o n s c a u s e d t h e t w o n a t i o n s t o d r i f t a p a r t . American p u b l i c o p i n i o n d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d w a s o p e n l y h o s t i l e toward T s a r i s t s u p p r e s s i o n of t h e Hungarian r e v o l t , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e Hungarian r e v o l u t i o n a r y l e a d e r , L o u i s K o s s u t h , v i s i t e d t h e United States.

T h e r e were d e m o n s t r a t i o n s s u p p o r t i n g Hungarian i n d e -

pendence and denouncing R u s s i a n d e s p o t i s m and i n t e r v e n t i o n .

America's h e a r t went o u t t o t h e Hungarian v i c t i m s of o p p r e s -

sion.
U.S.

It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t a resolution t o the

Congress u r g i n g i t t o acknowledge Hungarian independence

and denouncing R u s s i a ' s involvement i n c r u s h i n g t h e r e v o l t w a s d r a f t e d by a young S p r i n g f i e l d , I l l i n o i s lawyer by the name of Abraham L i n c o l n

t h e same L i n c o l n who as P r e s i d e n t

of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s n e a r l y t w o decades l a t e r welcomed a v i s i t

by t h e R u s s i a n navy as a s i g n of f r i e n d s h i p a t a t i m e when
t h e t h r e a t of European i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e American C i v i l W a r

was p o s s i b l e .

L i n c o l n ' s 1848 r e s o l u t i o n t o Congress was n o t

t o t a l l y a n t i - R u s s i a n , however, s i n c e it a l s o denounced B r i t i s h oppression i n Ireland. 6

B y t h e decade of t h e f i f t i e s , Anglo-American r i v a l r y
20

i n t h e C a r i b b e a n and E n g l a n d ' s o p p o s i t i o n t o R u s s i a i n t h e
C r i m e a made t h e champion of r e p u b l i c a n i s m and t h e exemplar of

depotism s t r a n g e bedfellows.

In t h i s instance public opinion p o l i c y was

c o i n c i d e d w i t h government s y m p a t h i e s , a l t h o u g h U.S. officially neutral.

A s e a r c h of t h e memoirs and p u b l i s h e d

p a p e r s of American m i n i s t e r s t o England and R u s s i a i n d i c a t e

t h a t t h e y , James Buchanan, George M.

Dallas and Thomas Seymour,

were i n agreement w i t h p u b l i c o p i n i o n . 7

Alan Dowty d e v o t e s a l m o s t a f u l l c h a p t e r of h i s book,

T h e L i m i t s of American I s o l a t i o n :
~

T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e
~~ ~ ~

Crimean War, t o t h e s u b j e c t o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n .

H e contends

t h a t i t , " l i k e o f f i c i a l p o l i c y , tended t o reflect t h e c o u n t r y ' s international position

....

'I8

Even though e m o t i o n a l s e n t i m e n t s ,

l i k e b e i n g f o r t h e "underdog" a n d a g a i n s t t h o s e s u p p o r t i n g

" h e a t h e n " Turkey a g a i n s t C h r i s t i a n R u s s i a , were e x p r e s s e d ; a

belief t h a t t h e B r i t i s h - F r e n c h

a l l i a n c e a g a i n s t R u s s i a n expan-

s i o n c o u l d be t u r n e d a g a i n s t U n i t e d S t a t e s e x p a n s i o n i s m g was s u f f i c i e n t r e a s o n t o be a n t i - B r i t i s h i f n o t pro-Russian.
Pro-

R u s s i a n s y m p a t h i e s of American c i t i z e n s w e r e a l s o t h e r e s u l t
of a n t i - B r i t i s h s e n t i m e n t of I r i s h i m m i g r a n t s and the imagin-

a r y b r o t h e r h o o d f e l t between American s l a v e owners and R u s s i a n

serf-masters.
Horace P e r r y J o n e s ' " S o u t h e r n Opinion On t h e Crimean
War"''

s u p p o r t s almost a l l of Dowty's claims , p a r t i c u l a r l y

where S o u t h e r n o p i n i o n reflected t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n .

Deeper t h a n t h e k i n d r e d s p i r i t of dealers i n human bondage,

21.

S o u t h e r n e r s were k e e n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e a c q u i s i t i o n of Cuba. Not o n l y were t h e y i n t e r e s t e d i n C u b a a s e s s e n t i a l t o expand s l a v e r y , b u t t h e y were concerned t h a t , under B r i t i s h i n f l u e n c e , S p a i n would " a f r i c a n i z e " Cuba by f r e e i n g t h e Negro s l a v e s t h e r e and t h e r e b y s e t a d a n g e r o u s p r e c e d e n t . B r i t i s h support

of t h e a b o l i t i o n i s t movement w a s a l s o d e s p i s e d i n t h e South. 11 One o t h e r p l a c e where Dowty and J o n e s a g r e e i s i n the

b e l i e f t h a t p r i v a t e o p i n i o n i n t h e South agreed w i t h o f f i c i a l

government o p i n i o n t h a t t h e B r i t i s h - F r e n c h a l l i a n c e c o u l d b e turned a g a i n s t the United States. I n s u p p o r t of t h i s , b o t h

s o u r c e s q u o t e Lord C l a r e n d o n , B r i t i s h S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e f o r F o r e i g n A f f a i r s , i n a s p e e c h t o t h e House of L o r d s on January 31, 1854: Your l o r d s h i p s w i l l be g l a d a l s o t o h e a r t h a t t h e u n i o n of t h e t w o Governments i s n o t confined t o t h e Eastern question, but t h a t t h e h a b i t of a good u n d e r s t a n d i n g between them h a s become g e n e r a l on a l l matters of p o l i c y , and e x t e n d s t o a l l p a r t s of t h e w o r l d ; and t h a t o n t h e q u e s t i o n of p o l i c y , there i s no p a r t of t h e w o r l d , i n e i t h e r h e m i s p h e r e , w i t h regard t o which w e are n o t e n t i r e l y i n accord. Although t h e two q u o t e s d i f f e r i n wording, t h e i r meaning i s t h e same. l 3 Perhaps t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s c a n be e x p l a i n e d by t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e y were b o t h t r a n s l a t i n g from E n g l i s h .

Both Dowty and J o n e s make e x t e n s i v e u s e of t h e newsp a p e r s of t h e day t o s u p p o r t t h e i r a p p r a i s a l of p u b l i c o p i n i o n . " P r o - A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Democratic, e x p a n s i o n i s t , and S o u t h e r n newspapers and magazines...." supported t h e Russian cause, periodicals

w h i l e p r o - A l l i e d p e r i o d i c a l s were "...Whig
22.

... .
ti

14

T h e number of p r o - A l l i e d

newspapers w e r e " . . . d i s p r o p o r t i o n -

a t e l y large i n r e l a t i o n s t o p u b l i c opinion. Dowty 15

..",a c c o r d i n g

to

One a d d i t i o n a l s i d e l i g h t c o n c e r n i n g t h e news media d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d is i n t e r e s t i n g t o note.

t h e p e r i o d of t h e Crimean W a r ,

I r o n i c a l l y , during

from 1853 t o 1856, Karl Marx

w r o t e a s e r i e s of a r t i c l e s f o r t h e New York T r i b u n e c o n c e r n i n g
h i s t h o u g h t s on R u s s i a v i s - a - v i s
the W e s t . He was strongly

a n t i - R u s s i a n and a n t i - T s a r , revolution.

a s t h e bulwark of c o u n t e r -

As t h e d i s c o r d grew between R u s s i a and t h e A l l i e s ,

i n the

he f e l t t h a t t h e Western p o l i t i c i a n s were back-peddling

f a c e of R u s s i a n a g g r e s s i o n .

T h i s w a s n o t necessary, he

claimed, s i n c e R u s s i a w a s r e a l l y weak and o n l y b l u f f i n g w h i l e

a t t e m p t i n g t o expand e a s t .

T h e s t o r y o f Marx's d i s p a t c h e s i s

found in an a r t i c l e by Joseph C . Baylen, "Marx's D i s p a t c h e s t o

Americans About R u s s i a and t h e West, 1853-1856.

II

16

P r i v a t e i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h t h e b e l l i g e r e n t powers d u r i n g
t h e w a r t o o k s e v e r a l f o r m s , a s m i g h t be e x p e c t e d .

Commerce

h a s a l r e a d y been mentioned as i m p o r t a n t

n o t only p r i v a t e

t r a d e b u t a l s o American v e s s e l s c a r r y i n g b e l l i g e r e n t s ' c a r g o e s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o p e d d l e r s and seamen, mechanics and those who v o l u n t e e r e d f o r service i n t h e armed f o r c e s o f t h e w a r r i n g p a r t i e s were also i n v o l v e d on a p r i v a t e l e v e l . Even though

p u b l i c o p i n i o n rested d e c i d e d l y i n f a v o r of R u s s i a , n o t a l l p r i v a t e involvement w a s on t h e Russian side. T h r e e h u n d r e d Kentucky r i f l e m e n v o l u n t e e r e d t o go t o

23.

t h e C r i m e a t o a i d i n t h e R u s s i a n d e f e n s e of S e b a s t o p o l , b u t n e v e r s a i l e d . l7 Some Americans v o l u n t e e r e d t o j o i n t h e

B r i t i s h F o r e i g n Legion t o f i g h t i n t h e C r i m e a d u r i n g t h e e n l i s t -

ment c o n t r o v e r s y , t o be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , b u t n o t enough t o make

it worth t h e B r i t i s h e f f o r t . l8

Motivation f o r such actions

may h a v e b e e n f o r s y m p a t h e t i c r e a s o n s , b u t were more p r o b a b l y as a r e s u l t of t h e d e p r e s s i o n spoken of above. There were,

however, t h i r t y - o d d young American d o c t o r s t h a t j o i n e d t h e

T s a r ' s army.

"They v o l u n t e e r e d ; t h e y a c t u a l l y s a i l e d ; t h e y

worked i n t h e R u s s i a n h o s p i t a l s t h r o u g h m o s t of t h a t conf l i c t . II 1 9
A l b e r t P a r r y t e l l s t h e s t o r y of these young d o c t o r s ,

t e n of whom d i e d i n t h e w a r , i n a n a r t i c l e a p p r o p r i a t e l y
titled,

"American Doctors i n t h e Crimean W a r " .

2o

There were

f o u r basic r e a s o n s , a c c o r d i n g t o P a r r y , t h a t prompted t h e s e young d o c t o r s , f r e s h o u t of medical s c h o o l , t o v o l u n t e e r .

f i r s t w a s the o p p o r t u n i t y t o g a i n s u r g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e ; t h e

The

s e c o n d w a s a h a n k e r i n g f o r a d v e n t u r e ; money w a s the t h i r d ; and anti-British sentiment was t h e fourth. The f i r s t t w o r e a s o n s

were the most i m p o r t a n t a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o P a r r y , t h e most

rewarding i n t h e d o c t o r s ' eyes.
v i c t i m s of
'I..

O f t h o s e who d i e d , a l l were

.such diseases as t y p h u s f e v e r , c h o l e r a , and

small pox, d i s e a s e s t h a t s w e p t away more human l i v e s t h a n were

l o s t on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . S e v e r a l of t h o s e t h a t s u r v i v e d

r e t u r n e d t o u s e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e westward e x p a n s i o n of
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and f o r b o t h s i d e s i n t h e C i v i l War.
24
22

I n t h e c a t e g o r y of p e d d l e r s , s e v e r a l s o u r c e s mention t h e a c t i v i t y of Samuel C o l t , the i n v e n t o r of t h e r e v o l v e r t h a t

bears h i s name, who went t o R u s s i a t o o f f e r h i s improved arms

t o the Russians. 2 3

"Americans i n the Crimean War" by

24

E u f r o s i n a Dvoichenko-Markov, men l i k e C o l t . "...expert

d e t a i l s t h e p r e s e n c e of s e v e r a l

Accompanying C o l t , f o r example, was a n American

r125

i n m e c h a n i c a l matters,..

named Dickerson.

In

September, 1 8 5 5 , a b o u t f i f t e e n American mechanics a r r i v e d i n R u s s i a t o work i n t h e workshops of t h e Moscow r a i l r o a d , and Americans w i t h e x p e r i e n c e i n s m e l t i n g i r o n were s o u g h t t o work i n a f a c t o r y s u p p l y i n g r a i l r o a d r a i l s . American steam-

s h i p s were o r d e r e d by t h e R u s s i a n government w i t h s h i p timber. 2 7

T h e s e American e f f o r t s may have been p u r e l y f o r economic rea-

sons and n o t o u t of s u p p o r t f o r t h e R u s s i a n w a r e f f o r t , b u t
c o u l d o n l y have b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d as s u c h by t h e A l l i e s .
A s e v i d e n c e t h a t commerce p a i d no heed t o p u b l i c o p i n -

i o n , one " o r i g i n a l " s o u r c e book w r i t t e n by a p a r t i c i p a n t i s

An American T r a n s p o r t i n t h e C r h e a n War, by C a p t a i n John

Codman

.**

Codman claimed t o have commanded one of t h e f i r s t

American s t e a m s h i p s p l y i n g t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n t r a d e i n 1854.
H e set out w i t h h i s family intending t o carry passengers, but

ended up c a r r y i n g t r o o p s and s u p p l i e s f i r s t i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n and t h e n i n t h e Black Sea from C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t o t h e

A l l i e d forces besieging Sebastopol.

H i s steamer was t h e f i r s t

American b o a t , s o h e claimed, c h a r t e r e d by t h e French government, While Codman c a r r i e d f o r t h e French and e v e n t u a l l y

25

t h e T u r k s , h e had no l o v e f o r t h e B r i t i s h
of t h e o p i n i o n s a t home.

perhaps r e f l e c t i v e

B e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e realm of u n o f f i c i a l American a c t i v i t y , i t may be a p p r o p r i a t e t o d i s c u s s American r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e Ottoman Empire. What o f f i c i a l Ottoman-American r e l a t i o n s

t h a t d i d t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g t h e d e c a d e s b e f o r e t h e Crimean W a r

were p r i m a r i l y a r e s u l t of t h e u n o f f i c i a l r e l a t i o n s of t r a d e r s ,
p h i l a n t h r o p i s t s and m i s s i o n a r i e s , and t h e American government's attempt t o p r o t e c t its c i t i z e n s involved i n those activities. The Anglo-American c o l o n i e s c o n d u c t e d commercial

a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of B r i t i s h
men-of-war tion. u n t i l t h e American r e v o l u t i o n c u t o f f t h a t p r o t e c t h e Mediterranean appeared t o

A f t e r t h e revolution,

hold t h e g r e a t e s t promise b u t it also h e l d o b s t a c l e s i n t h e form of p i r a t e s from t h e Barbary s t a t e s of t h e North A f r i c a n

littoral.
f o r ransom.

American vessels had b e e n s e i z e d and c i t i z e n s h e l d Thomas J e f f e r s o n , as S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e , a r g u e d

t h a t r a i s i n g a navy t o p r o t e c t o u r s h i p p i n g would b e less e x p e n s i v e t h a n t r i b u t e , w h i l e V i c e P r e s i d e n t John Adams f a v o r e d tribute. E v e n t u a l l y , i t w a s a c o m b i n a t i o n of b o t h t h a t b r o u g h t ,

and m a i n t a i n e d , t r e a t i e s w i t h A l g i e r s i n 1794, T r i p o l i i n 1 7 9 6 , and T u n i s i n 1797. 2 9 J e f f e r s o n ' s navy had begun w i t h a n a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r s i x f r i g a t e s i n 1 7 9 4 f o r u s e a g a i n s t A l g i e r s . 30 These and

a d d i t i o n a l vessels e v e n t u a l l y made up t h e i n i t i a l M e d i t e r r a n e a n
26.

Squadron t h a t k e p t t h e t r e a t i e s i n f o r c e and r e n e g o t i a t e d them "from t h e mouth of a cannon" whenever Barbary t r o u b l e f l a r e d . 3 1 T h i s s q u a d r o n h a s b e e n i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , w i t h b r i e f exceptions

since that t i m e . T r i b u t e was e x p e n s i v e , p a i d i n gun powder, f i e l d

p i e c e s , small arms, and n a v a l s t o r e s , b u t t r a d e i n c r e a s e d . 3 2 The M e d i t e r r a n e a n Squadron p r o t e c t e d commercial t r a f f i c u n t i l

i t had t o be withdrawn i n 1 8 0 7 , when t h e European w a r b r o u g h t

i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e on t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

As s o o n a s t h e squad-

r o n was gone and t h e merchant men were on t h e i r own, p i r a c y f l a r e d and c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h the War of 1 8 1 2 . 3 3
L e s s t h a n a week a f t e r t h e S e n a t e r a t i f i e d t h e T r e a t y

of Ghent (1815), P r e s i d e n t James Madison a s k e d Congress for

a u t h o r i t y t o move o n t h e Barbary s t a t e s .

W i t h i n a f e w days

a f t e r t h e Mediterranean Squadron's a r r i v a l i n the Mediterrane a n , t h e f i g h t i n g w a s o v e r and t r e a t i e s of a " l i b e r a l and e n l i g h t e n e d " n a t u r e were n e g o t i a t e d .

34

A t t h e f a r end of t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n l a y t h e

e m p i r e of t h e Ottoman S u l t a n , o s t e n s i b l e o v e r l o r d of t h e r e g e n t s of Barbary , c u s todi a n of t h e r i c h e s o f t h e L e v a n t , and guardi a n of t h e e n t r a n c e t o t h e Black Sea, and h e r e again t h e prospect w a s promising. (Commodore) Bambridge , b r i n g i n g t r i b u t e from A l g i e r s , had b e e n f l a t t e r i n g l y r e c e i v e d ; i n Egypt, E a t o n had b e e n g i v e n h e l p f u l a s s i s t a n c e by t h e Ottoman a u t h o r i t i e s . Consuls and n a v a l o f f i c e r s had r e p e a t e d l y urged t h e commercial and p o l i t i c a l d e s i r a b i l i t y of a t r e a t y of a m i t y and commerce w i t h t h e Grand S i g n i o r , w h i l e d i p lomatic reports f r o m St. Petersburg, information from m e r c h a n t s i n t h e L e v a n t , and t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e N a v y i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n
27.

uniformly indicated a receptive a t t i t u d e on t h e p a r t of t h e Ottoman government.35 The way was opened t o t h e Ottoman Empire. Everything

p o i n t e d t o a w i l l i n g n e s s t o t r a d e and n e g o t i a t e a t r e a t y .
T h e Turks wanted a commercial and p o l i t i c a l t r e a t y

w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , and American a g e n t s had b e e n p e r i o d ically sent t o investigate possibilities. However, t h e d i s -

r u p t i o n s of t h e Napoleonic e r a and t h e t u r m o i l of t h e Greek Revolution caused t h e U.S. t o f a i l t o negotiate successfully

u n t i l 1 8 2 9 when newly e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t Andrew J a c k s o n s o u g h t

t o expand t r a d e .

P r e s i d e n t John Quincy A d a m s had e a r l i e r s e n t

n e g o t i a t o r s b u t t h e s e e f f o r t s f a i l e d when t h e Ottoman P o r t e t i e d a t r e a t y t o o b t a i n i n g U.S. b u i l t ships.

Adams'

instruc-

t i o n s were t o n e g o t i a t e a commercial t r e a t y o n l y t o be no compromise of American n e u t r a l i t y .

t h e r e was

Jackson's instruc-

t i o n s a l s o a l l o w e d no compromise of n e u t r a l i t y , b u t t h e S u l t a n
w a s a n x i o u s f o r a t r e a t y and R u s s i a n s u p p o r t outweighed
B r i t i s h i n t r i g u e s . 36

The t r e a t y was s i g n e d on 7 May 1830 and c o n t a i n e d a most f a v o r e d n a t i o n c l a u s e , a p r o v i s i o n f o r e x t r a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y f o r American c i t i z e n s , and a s e c r e t a r t i c l e r e q u i r i n g t h e American m i n i s t e r s t o h e l p t h e Ottoman government make s h i p b u i l d i n g agreements w i t h t h e U.S. and a c q u i r e s h i p t i m b e r .

The t r e a t y was r a t i f i e d by t h e S e n a t e on 1 F e b r u a r y 1 8 3 1 w i t h o u t t h e secret a r t i c l e because it w a s said t o v i o l a t e t h e poli c y of non-involvement a d v o c a t e d by t h e American government. 3 7

B y August of t h e same y e a r , Commodore David P o r t e r a r r i v e d i n

28.

C o n s t a n t i n o p l e as t h e f i r s t American Charge d ' A f f a i r s .

In

a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e secret a r t i c l e , t h e S u l t a n ' s government w a s d i s a p p o i n t e d by the l o w l y r a n k of t h e American representative. The f a c t t h a t h e w a s a b l e t o g a i n access t o

t h e S u l t a n h i m s e l f a t t e s t s t o t h e h i g h r e g a r d i n w h i c h America

was held. 38

P h i l a n t h r o p i s t s had p l a y e d a major r o l e a l r e a d y i n American-Ottoman r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e i r a c t i o n s d u r i n g t h e Greek r e v o l t of 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 2 8 .

I t was u n o f f i c i a l l y A m e r i c a ' s f i r s t s u s -

t.ained o v e r s e a s p h i l a n t h r o p i c v e n tu re

Philhellenism swept

America w h i l e t h e p u b l i c and m e m b e r s of Congress a g i t a t e d f o r

d i r e c t government i n v o l v e m e n t .

Though t h e government e x p r e s s e d

sympathy f o r t h e Greek c a u s e , i t a v o i d e d i n v o l v e m e n t o u t of
f e a r t h a t i t would p r o v i d e t h e Holy A l l i a n c e w i t h a n e x c u s e t o

a s s i s t S p a i n t o r e g a i n h e r l o s t c o l o n i e s i n South America. 3 9 American c i t i z e n s r a i s e d f u n d s and v o l u n t e e r s s e r v e d w i t h

Greek f o r c e s , c a u s i n g t h e Ottomans d i f f i c u l t y i n comprehending

t h e d i f f e r e n c e between a c t s of c i t i z e n s and those of government. American r e l i e f s u s t a i n e d t h e Greeks u n t i l European

40

i n t e r v e n t i o n a t N a v a r i n o i n 1 8 2 7 i n s u r e d independence.

Although p r i m a r i l y s e c u l a r , t h i s p h i l a n t h r o p i c a c t i v i t y t o o k on t h e c r u s a d e r ' s z e a l a g a i n s t t h e unholy Turk. 4 1

L a t e r p h i l a n t h r o p i c a c t i v i t y w a s i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h the m i s s i o n -

a r y e f f o r t u n t i l t h e p e r i o d of p r o f e s s i o n a l p h i l a n t h r o p i e s i n t h e l a t e r decades of t h e c e n t u r y . T h i s t o o k t h e form o f mediAlthough t h e p r i m a r y

c a l care and e d u c a t i o n i n b o t h cases.

29

o f f i c i a l i n t e r e s t i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t w a s t r a d e , t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l f a c t o r i n sustaining r e l a t i o n s w a s the missionary e f f o r t and t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t o p r o t e c t them. By 1823 m i s s i o n a r i e s were i n B e i r u t and i n 1824 m i s s i o n a r y wives opened a c l a s s f o r a small number of Arab c h i l dren. By y e a r ' s end t h i s had expanded s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
42

S i n c e t h e i r r e l i g i o n w a s s c r i p t u r a l l y based, a l i t e r a t e a u d i ence w a s necessary.

As s u c h , wherever m i s s i o n a r i e s w e n t ,

schools w e r e soon t o follow. Between t h e s i g n i n g of t h e American-Ottoman T r e a t y and t h e Mexican War, t h e r e w a s a r a p i d e x p a n s i o n of m i s s i o n a r y work. Permanent s t a t i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e I n 1833 t h e

and U r m i a , and t h e S y r i a n e f f o r t w a s renewed.

m i s s i o n p r e s s e s w e r e moved from Malta t o Smyrna and i n 1834 t h e A r a b i c s e c t i o n w a s moved t o B e i r u t . c o u p l e s a r r i v e d t o augment a l l s t a t i o n s . opened i n U r m i a .

T h e m i s s i o n a r i e s i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e opened s c h o o l s f o r

Additional missionary I n 1836 a school was

G r e e k s and Armenians, and i n 1833 t h e y were a s k e d t o s e t up

s c h o o l s t o t e a c h T u r k i s h o f f i c e r s w r i t i n g , c i p h e r i n g , and t o p ography. s e v e n , 43 By 1834 t h e number of these s c h o o l s had grown t o E v e n t u a l l y s c h o o l s and p r i n t i n g p r e s s e s were r e a c h i n g

a l l areas of m i s s i o n a r y a c t i v i t y and m i s s i o n a r i e s began t o m e e t

w i t h p e r s e c u t i o n from t h e l e a d e r s of t h e C h r i s t i a n sects and

from t h e empire. The era of t h e Crimean W a r b r o u g h t l i t t l e change t o

30 ,

t h e o f f i c i a l r e l a t i o n s between t h e Ottoman Empire and t h e

United States.

Although p u b l i c o p i n i o n , w e have s e e n , was

d e c i d e d l y w i t h " C h r i s t i a n " R u s s i a a g a i n s t " h e a t h e n " Turkey, peddlers continued t o p l y t h e i r t r a d e s , missionaries continued

t o p r e a c h and t e a c h , and o f f i c i a l America t r i e d n o t t o g e t t o o

deeply involved i n t h e c o n f l i c t .

As a b r i d g e from t h e u n o f f i c i a l realm of i n d i v i d u a l
a c t i o n s t o t h e realm of o f f i c i a l U n i t e d S t a t e s government r e l a t i o n s , it may be a p p r o p r i a t e here t o a d d r e s s t h e e n d e a v o r s of
three i n d i v i d u a l s s e n t t o o b s e r v e t h e m i l i t a r y c o n f l i c t i n t h e

Crimea.

T h i s three man commission of m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s was

s e n t under t h e o r d e r s of t h e S e c r e t a r y of W a r , J e f f e r s o n D a v i s , i n a n o f f i c i a l c a p a c i t y , b u t t h e o f f i c e r s were l e f t t o t h e i r own d e v i c e s t o complete t h e i r m i s s i o n .

L i t t l e h a s been w r i t -

t e n a b o u t t h e commission s o some b a s i c f a c t s , s u c h a s who t h e y were; where t h e y went; and what were the r e s u l t s of t h e i r t r i p , s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d . The commission c o n s i s t e d of three commissioned o f f i c e r s , e a c h selected f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n some f i e l d of m i l i t a r y endeavor.
T h e c h i e f of t h e commission w a s a Major R i c h a r d

D e l a f i e l d , Corps of E n g i n e e r s , who was s e r v i n g on t h e Board of E n g i n e e r s on Armament and F o r t i f i c a t i o n s and w a s l a t e r t o

become t h e Chief of E n g i n e e r s d u r i n g t h e C i v i l War.
Major A l f r e d Mordecai, Ordnance Corps.

Next was

Mordecai was p r o b a b l y

t h e f o r e m o s t e x p e r t on a r t i l l e r y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

C a p t a i n George B . McClellan,

l a t e r of t h e Army of t h e Potomac 31.

fame, w a s t h e j u n i o r man on t h e commission.

McClellan had

r e c e n t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d h i m s e l f by s u r v e y i n g American n o r t h w e s t r a i l r o a d r o u t e s and n a v a l bases i n S a n t o Doming0 b e f o r e t r a n s f e r r i n g from t h e E n g i n e e r s t o t h e C a v a l r y ,

H e was a l s o t h e

o n l y one on t h e commission t o have s e e n a c t i v e combat i n t h e Mexican War.

44

The commission d e p a r t e d Boston on A p r i l 11, 1 8 5 5 and

s a i l e d t o London, where t h e y were g r a c i o u s l y r e c e i v e d and g i v e n passes t o i n s p e c t B r i t i s h f o r c e s i n t h e C r i m e a .

They were n o t

as l u c k y i n F r a n c e , where p e r m i s s i o n t o v i s i t French f o r c e s

would n o t be g i v e n u n l e s s t h e commission a g r e e d n o t t o go on t o t h e enemy camp.

T h e commission c o u l d n o t agree t o t h a t

arrangement and d e p a r t e d , i n t e n d i n g t o go by way o f B e r l i n and

Warsaw d i r e c t l y t o the C r i m e a .

I n W a r s a w t h e y found t h e Rus-

s i a n commander u n a b l e t o g r a n t p e r m i s s i o n t o t r a v e l t o t h e R u s s i a n camp. Only t h e T s a r i n S t . P e t e r s b u r g , where t h e y

t r a v e l e d n e x t , c o u l d p r o v i d e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n and h e p r o c r a s t i n a t e d u n t i l t h e commission s e t o u t t o e n t e r t h e C r i m e a from Constantinople. They a r r i v e d t o o l a t e t o w i t n e s s t h e f i n a l

s t o r m i n g of S e b a s t o p o l , b u t were allowed t o i n s p e c t t h e r u i n s . 4 5 I n t h e C r i m e a t h e B r i t i s h , T u r k s , and S a r d i n i a n s

allowed t h e three o f f i c e r s t o i n s p e c t camps, d e p o t s , p a r k s ,

and workshops.

A f t e r l e a v i n g t h e C r i m e a , t h e commissioners

t r a v e l e d back t h r o u g h A u s t r i a where t h e y were allowed t o inspect various military i n s t a l l a t i o n s . While t h e i r e f f o r t s t o

v i s i t French and R u s s i a n encampments i n t h e Crirnea were n o t

32.

s u c c e s s f u l , t h e y had been a b l e t o i n s p e c t e x t e n s i v e l y i n F r a n c e and t h e area around S t . P e t e r s b u r g as w e l l a s P r u s s i a n and P o l i s h sites. I n t h e s p r i n g o f 1 8 5 6 , t h e commission r e t u r n e d T h i s commission w a s t h e o n l y o f f i c i a l Every o t h e r a c t i v i t y

t o t h e United States. 46

government i n v o l v e m e n t d u r i n g t h e w a r .

. i n v o l v i n g t h e c o n f l i c t seemed, on the s u r f a c e , t o be i n r e a c tion t o foreign efforts

While o f f i c i a l p o l i c y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g t h e Crimean W a r w a s s t r i c t n e u t r a l i t y , i n a c t u a l f a c t t h e government seemed t o f a v o r R u s s i a . Frank A. Golder, i n t h e a r t i c l e

"Russian-American R e l a t i o n s During t h e Crimean War" ,4 7 s t a t e s

l i k e Alan Dowty and o t h e r s t 4 * t h a t t h i s

"... w a r

of f r i e n d s h i p . . . I '

between t h e two n a t i o n s

I)..

. w a s b a s e d almost a l t o g e t h e r on
'I4'

a n t a g o n i s m t o w a r d s England and on s e l f - i n t e r e s t .
work,

Dowty's

one very c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to h i s Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , 50

s e e k s t o show t h a t America w a s n o t the i s o l a t i o n i s t " h a l f p i n t " t h a t it i s o f t e n portrayed as, b u t an aggressive, selfi n t e r e s t - s e e k i n g n a t i o n t h a t u s e d t h e Crimean W a r t o t w i s t t h e g r e a t powers' t a i l s when t h e y were l e a s t l i k e l y t o r e t u r n t h e favor.
H e e m p h a s i z e s t h e Pierce a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s e x p a n s i o n -

i s t i c t e n d e n c i e s and i t s a p p o i n t m e n t o f l i k e minded p o l i t i c -

i a n s , s u c h as Pierre Soul;,

n o t e d for h i s advocacy of the

He s u g g e s t s

s e i z u r e of Cuba, t o a m b a s s a d o r s h i p s i n Europe.

t h a t t h e Pierce a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o u g h t t o g a i n t h e a d v a n t a g e i n

i t s q u e s t f o r e x p a n s i o n i n t o Cuba and C e n t r a l America by p l a y i n g on t h e f r i e n d s h i p w i t h Russia.

33

R e l a t i o n s w i t h R u s s i a p r i o r t o t h e war have b e e n p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , s o it w i l l n o t be n e c e s s a r y t o r e i t e r a t e
them here,
What i s i m p o r t a n t i s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o Gol der , t h e

f i r s t t h i n g Russian diplomatic representatives did w a s attempt t o draw t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t o t h e c o n f l i c t by s t i r r i n g up

commercial r i v a l r i e s w i t h England.

They o f f e r e d r e d u c e d t a r -

i f f s on goods t r a d i t i o n a l l y c a r r i e d i n E n g l i s h b o t t o m s , knowing that

' I . .

.Americans w i l l go a f t e r a n y t h i n g t h a t has enough money

'I

i n it.,.

.5 1

They a l s o q u i e t l y a t t e m p t e d t o d i s c o v e r t h e

American s t a n d on p r i v a t e e r i n g , t h e g r a n t i n g of " l e t t e r s of marque" t o p r i v a t e v e s s e l s commissioning them t o s e i z e v e s s e l s o f t h e enemy o r n e u t r a l s c a r r y i n g c o n t r a b a n d i t e m s . Since t h i s

a c t i v i t y was i n c o n f l i c t w i t h American n e u t r a l i t y l a w s , Count

Nesselrode, t h e R u s s i a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r , a d v i s e d h i s r e p r e -

s e n t a t i v e s t o back-off

and do n o t h i n g t h a t would endanger

Russo-American f r i e n d s h i p . 5 2 During t h e w a r , R u s s i a a c q u i e s c e d t o t h e American

d e s i r e t o annex t h e Sandwich I s l a n d s ; a s s i s t e d t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s i n p r o c u r i n g a commercial t r e a t y w i t h P e r s i a , i n r i v a l r y w i t h E n g l i s h i n t e r e s t s ; and agreed t o s i g n a t r e a t y c o v e r i n g t h e r i g h t s of n e u t r a l s i n t i m e of w a r .

The United

S t a t e s had p r e s s e d f o r t h i s l a s t c o n c e s s i o n a l m o s t from t h e

b e g i n n i n g o f Russo-American d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s ,

As a sign

of g o o d w i l l , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f f e r e d t o mediate t h e Crimean

c o n f l i c t , but Russia refused, fearing t h a t i f t h e o f f e r w e r e t o come from pro-Russian America

i t would be t a k e n by t h e A l l i e s

as a s i g n of R u s s i a n weakness, 5 3

American r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e A l l i e s were p r i m a r i l y d e a l i n g w i t h t h e B r i t i s h and t h e s e r e f l e c t e d t h e unharmonious p a s t . C o n d i t i o n s between t h e mother-country and h e r ex-colony w e r e

seldom a g r e e a b l e and o c c a s i o n a l l y f l a r e d i n t o armed c o n f l i c t ,
as i n 1812.

The s u r p r i s i n g t h i n g i s t h a t t h e r i v a l r y d i d n o t The d e c a d e of t h e t h i r t i e s w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y

e r u p t more o f t e n .

v o l a t i l e when American c i t i z e n s i n v o l v e d t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e Canadian r e b e l l i o n of 1837.

There w e r e a l s o problems concern-

i n g American s t a t e s d e f a u l t i n g on B r i t i s h l o a n s d u r i n g t h e f f i n a n c i a l p a n i c of 1837. The Maine boundary d i s p u t e also

flared occasionally u n t i l its settlement i n 1842.

B r i t i s h s u p p o r t of t h e a b o l i t i o n i s t movement h a s been mentioned p r e v i o u s l y , b u t t h e p h y s i c a l a t t e m p t t o c u r b t h e s l a v e t r a d e by t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h t h e r i g h t t o s e a r c h A m e r i c a n merchant s h i p s i n peacetime came n e a r t o w r e c k i n g t h e Webster-Ashburton T r e a t y n e g o t i a t i o n s This t r e a t y not only

s o l v e d some of t h e minor b u t e x p l o s i v e s i t u a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d above, b u t a l s o paved t h e way f o r s o l u t i o n s t o f u t u r e c o n t r o v e r s i e s i n t h e 1840s, s u c h as t h e Oregon s e t t l e m e n t . With t h e r e c e i p t of i t s s h a r e of Oregon, a l l of C a l i f o r n i a , and t h e d i s c o v e r y of g o l d i n C a l i f o r n a , t h e United
S t a t e s renewed i t s i n t e r e s t i n a n I s t h m i a n c a n a l .

The Ameri-

cans g a i n e d a t o e h o l d i n C e n t r a l America and t h e Isthmus of Panama by s i g n i n g a t r e a t y w i t h New Granada ( l a t e r C o l u m b i a ) , g r a n t i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t r a n s i t r i g h t s i n exchange f o r U . S . g u a r a n t e e s of t h e " n e u t r a l i t y " and f r e e t r a n s i t of t h e r o u t e 35

across t h e I s t h m u s .

The B r i t i s h , a l r e a d y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e

outcome of t h e Mexican W a r , f e a r e d t h a t t h i s U n i t e d S t a t e s e x p a n s i o n i n t o C e n t r a l America would c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e i r own interests there. The Clayton-Bulwer T r e a t y o f 1850 w a s t o

h a v e s o l v e d t h i s s o u r c e of c o n c e r n f o r b o t h p a r t i e s by establ i s h i n g t h a t n e i t h e r would a t t e m p t t o expand i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , S i n c e b o t h sides showed l i t t l e i n c l i n a t i o n toward l i v i n g up t o

t h e agreement, t h e t r e a t y i t s e l f became a s o u r c e of b i c k e r i n g

d u r i n g t h e decades of t h e f i f t i e s and s i x t i e s .

B r i t i s h dis-

i n c l i n a t i o n t o g i v e up i t s Mosquito p r o t e c t o r a t e on t h e c o a s t
of Nicaragua o r t h e Honduran Bay i s l a n d s , and u n o f f i c i a l A m e r i -

can s u p p o r t f o r f i l i b u s t e r e r s , n e a r l y caused c o n f l i c t .

54

These d i f f i c u l t i e s , and t h e Anglo-American c o n f l i c t of i n t e r -

e s t i n Cuba, mentioned above, were s i g n i f i c a n t r e a s o n s f o r t h e

a n t i - B r i t i s h f e e l i n g s i n America. During t h e t i m e of t h e Crimean War, t h e r e were two

B r i t i s h policies t h a t affected o f f i c i a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e

United States.

T h e f i r s t r e g a r d e d t h e r i g h t s of n e u t r a l s , and

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o p r o t e c t i t s r i g h t as a

n e u t r a l t o c a r r y on l e g i t i m a t e commerce.

The second p o l i c y

concerned t h e r e c r u i t i n g of American c i t i z e n s f o r the B r i t i s h Army i n v i o l a t i o n of American n e u t r a l i t y l a w s .

The B r i t i s h p o l i c y concerning n e u t r a l r i g h t s agreed
t h a t t h e n e u t r a l f l a g would p r o t e c t t h e c a r g o , e x c e p t f o r

contraband.

T h i s p o l i c y s u i t e d America's needs. 55

A t the end

of t h e w a r i n 1856, t h e famous D e c l a r a t i o n of P a r i s c o n c e r n i n g 36,

t h e r i g h t s of n e u t r a l s on t h e seas w a s s i g n e d by t h e European powers and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s i n v i t e d t o s i g n .

declared t h a t :
T h e document

"1.

P r i v a t e e r i n g i s and r e m a i n s , a b o l i s h e d ;

2.

The n e u t r a l f l a g c o v e r s enemy's goods w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n

3.

of c o n t r a b a n d of w a r ;

N e u t r a l goods w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of

t h e c o n t r a b a n d of w a r , a r e n o t l i a b l e t o c a p t u r e under enemy's

flag; 4 .

B l o c k a d e s , i n order t o be b i n d i n g , must be e f f e c The U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s i n f u l l a c c o r d w i t h a r t i c l e s

tive

two, t h r e e , and f o u r , b u t f e l t t h a t g i v i n g up p r i v a t e e r s would

p u t i t s c o m p a r a t i v e l y weak navy a t t h e mercy of s t r o n g e r m a r i -

t i m e nations

namely England.

S e c r e t a r y of S t a t e W i l l i a m

Marcy a t t e m p t e d t o have a f i f t h a r t i c l e added t h a t w o u l d l i m i t

maritime warfare t o armed s h i p s , l e a v i n g commerce f r e e from

i n t e r f e r e n c e and making p r i v a t e e r s u s e l e s s .

T h e European

powers, l e d by G r e a t B r i t a i n , f e l t t h a t w a s n o t i n t h e i r

interest.

Without t h i s a r t i c l e , which t h e powers would n o t

57

a c c e p t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o u l d n o t accede t o t h e d e c l a r a t i o n .

T h e o t h e r B r i t i s h a c t i v i t y t h a t c a u s e d a c t i v e American

o f f i c i a l r e s p o n s e concerned t h e e n l i s t m e n t c o n t r o v e r s y ment i o n e d above. I n the e a r l y s t a g e s of t h e w a r , s t a g g e r i n g

losses of s o l d i e r s due t o mismanagement c a u s e d the B r i t i s h

p a r l i a m e n t t o p a s s a b i l l known as t h e F o r e i g n E n l i s t m e n t A c t .
T h i s a u t h o r i z e d t h e e n l i s t m e n t and commissioning of f o r e i g n -

ers i n t o the B r i t i s h army.

R e s u l t a n t a t t e m p t s t o e n l i s t those

s o l d i e r s i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s i n c o n t r a v e n t i o n t o the U.S.

N e u t r a l i t y Laws of 1 8 1 8 , c a u s e d t h e e v e n t u a l d i s m i s s a l of t h e
37

B r i t i s h M i n i s t e r t o Washington, John F. Crampton, and t w o

lesser o f f i c i a l s

c h a r g e d w i t h v i o l a t i o n of t h e s e l a w s ,

T h e s t o r y o f t h i s c o n t r o v e r s y developed i n t o a c o n t r o -

v e r s y of s o r t s i t s e l f ,

I t was o r i g i n a l l y t o l d by Henry B a r r e t t

Learned i n Samuel F l a g g B e m i s ' American Secretaries of S t a t e and T h e i r Diplomacy. Learned c o n t e n d e d t h a t Crampton, asked

by h i s government t o check i n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of r e c r u i t i n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and b a s i c a l l y p o o r l y informed on t h e e x t e n t of t h e N e u t r a l i t y Law, o v e r - z e a l o u s l y began a r e c r u i t i n g scheme, t h a t n e t t e d m o s t l y o u t of work r i f - r a f , Learned

p o r t r a y e d Crampton a s t h e prime mover i n t h e e f f o r t s t o r e c r u i t and a c c u s e d him of p r o v i d i n g s c a n t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s i t u a t i o n t o t h e B r i t i s h government.

A f e w y e a r s a f t e r p u b l i c a t i o n of L e a r n e d ' s work,

J. B a r t l e t B r e b n e r , i n a n a r t i c l e t i t l e d " J o s e p h Howe and t h e

Crimean War E n l i s t m e n t C o n t r o v e r s y Between Great B r i t a i n and

the United States"

produced f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e , u s i n g Howe's In

p a p e r s , t h a t Crampton may n o t have been fully t o blame.

B r e b n e r ' s a r t i c l e , Howe, a n i m p o r t a n t f i g u r e i n Nova S c o t i a ,

i s p o r t r a y e d as the r e a l z e a l o t and d e v i s e r o f t h e r e c r u i t i n g

scheme

.
S t i l l l a t e r , R i c h a r d Van A l s t y n e a u t h o r e d a n a r t i c l e

t i t l e d "John F, Crampton, C o n s p i r a t o r o r Dupe", 6 o

Using

Lord C l a r e n d o n ' s p a p e r s , Van A l s t y n e expanded on h i s prede-

cessors' works and showed t h a t Crampton had h i s hands f u l l t r y i n g t o c o n t r o l H o w e , b u t d i d keep t h e f o r e i g n o f f i c e

informed.

C l a r e n d o n ' s p a p e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e approved

Crampton's methods i n c a r r y i n g o u t a n u r g e n t f o r e i g n o f f i c e r e q u e s t t o p r o v i d e r e c r u i t s f o r t h e army. Wherever t h e f a u l t ,

t h e f a c t s t i l l remains t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n c a u s e d s u c h a s t i r
a s t o n e a r l y p r e c i p i t a t e a n armed c o n f l i c t o v e r t h e d i s m i s s a l

of t h e B r i t i s h M i n i s t e r and t h e two c o n s u l s .

Fortunately f o r

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , B r i t a i n had n o t been p r e p a r e d for t h e war

t h e y were a l r e a d y i n v o l v e d i n l e t a l o n e a s e c o n d , s o c o o l e r heads p r e v a i l e d .
As was s t a t e d i n t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e r e i s a p a u c i t y of

g e n e r a l works c o v e r i n g American involvement i n t h e Crimean

War.
T h i s c h a p t e r has i d e n t i f i e d some t h a t d e a l w i t h s p e c i f i c

a s p e c t s of American i n v o l v e m e n t , b u t as w e have s e e n , e v e n
these a r e f e w .
reasons These works have shown t h a t , f o r a v a r i e t y of
sympathy w a s w i t h R u s s i a .

, American

Offically, the

government remained u n i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o n f l i c t , b u t managed t o u s e it t o g a i n t h e n e u t r a l r i g h t s i t so desired. Unofficial

America, on t h e o t h e r hand, w a s i n v o l v e d i n n e a r l y e v e r y

a s p e c t of t h e c o n f l i c t s p i r i t of a d v e n t u r e

b o t h f o r commercial g a i n and f o r t h e America

on both s i d e s of t h e c o n f l i c t .

was n e u t r a l , b u t America w a s n o t i s o l a t e d n o r u n i n v o l v e d . One t o p i c on which l i t t l e h a s been w r i t t e n i s t h e

work of t h e o f f i c i a l U.S.

M i l i t a r y Commission t o t h e Crimean

War.

The remainder of t h i s work w i l l be t o c o n s i d e r t h e

e f f o r t s of t h a t commission and a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r t h e p u r p o s e o f i t s g o i n g and what i t s v a l u e was t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

39

NOTES

'Thomas A . B a i l e y , A D i p l o m a t i c H i s t o r y of t h e American People. (Englewood C l i f f s : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , Inc.) 1 0 t h ed; 1980.

2Robert H .

(New York:

F e r r e l l , American Diplomacy: W. W. Norton) 1959.

A History.

3America's enemy t h e n b e i n g England.

4Eugene A n s c e l , ed. The American Image of R u s s i a (New York: F r e d e r i c h Ungar Pub. C o . ) 1 9 7 4 ; 1775-1917. Thomas A. B a i l e y , America Faces R u s s i a : Russian-American (Ithaca: Cornell R e l a t i o n s From E a r l y T i m e s t o Our Day. Univ. P r e s s ) 1950; and Benjamin P. Thomas "Russo-American R e l a t i o n , 1815-1867", John Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y S t u d i e s i n H i s t o r i c a l and P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e . (Baltimore: T h e John Hopkins Press, X L V I I I , N o . 2 ) 1 9 3 0 .
~~

51'American" i n t h e Canadian s e n s e , meaning t h e North American C o n t i n e n t ' A l b e r t A. Woldman, L i n c o l n and t h e R u s s i a n s . The World P u b l i s h i n g C o . ) 1952. (Cleveland:

7See the c o l l e c t i o n s of P a p e r s and M e m o i r s of t h e s e Diplomats i n : G . T i c h n o r C u r t i s , L i f e of James Buchanan, 2 V o l s . (New York: Harper and B r o s . ) 1883; Susan D a l l e s , ed. D i a r y of George M i f f l i n D a l l a s : While U.S. M i n i s t e r t o R u s s i a 1837 t o 1839 and t o England 1856 t o 1 8 6 1 ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J . B . L i p p i n c o t t C o . ) 1892; George M. D a l l a s , Letters From London: W r i t t e n from t h e Year 1856-1860, J u l i a Dallas, e d . (London: R i c h a r d B e n t l y ) 2 v o l s . , 1 8 7 0 ; Andrew D . White, Autobiography of Andrew Dickson W h i t e , v o l . 1 ( N e w York: The C e n t u r y C o . ) 1905.

'Alan Dowty, The L i m i t s of American I s o l a t i o n : The U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e Crimean W a r . (New York: New York U n i v e r s i t y Press) 1971, p. 85.
'Ibid.,

p . 57.
40.

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261bid., p. 140. 271bid., p. 105.

28

C a p t a i n J o h n Codman, An American T r a n s p o r t i n t h e (New York: B o n n e l l , S i l v e r and C o o > 1896. Crimean War.

29James A. F i e l d , America and t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n World 1776-1882 ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 6 9 ) p . 38.

3 0 1 b i d , p. 37. 311bid., conflicts. pp. 47-55 c o n t a i n s e x c e l l e n t d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e

3 2 1 b i d . , p.

42.

3 3 1 b i d . , pp. 56-57. 3 4 1 b i d . , p . 58. 3 5 1 b i d . , pp. 65-66. 361bid., p. 1 4 9 . 37Thomas A. B r y s o n , American D i p l o m a t i c R e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e Middle E a s t 178401975: A S u r v e y ( N . J . S c a r e c r o w P r e s s , I n c . , 1977) p . 1 8 . 380p. c i t . , F i e l d , p . 1 6 5 . 3 9 P a r t i a l l y i n r e s p o n s e t o Greek r e q u e s t s f o r a i d , t h e Monroe D o c t r i n e w a s pronounced i n December 1823. I b i d . , B r y s o n , pp. 1 1 - 1 2 . 4 0 1 b i d . , pp. 8-15; and op. c i t . , F i e l d , pp. 1 2 1 - 1 2 9 ; also see R o b e r t L. D a n i e l , American P h i l a n t h r o p y i n t h e Near E a s t 1 8 2 0 - 1 9 6 0 ( A t h e n s : Ohio U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 7 0 ) pp. 1 - 1 2

410p. c i t . , F i e l d , p . 1 2 9 .

4 2 1 b i d . , p . 1 0 2 ; and op. c i t . , D a n i e l , p . 36.

42.

4 3 1 b i d . , F i e l d , p p . 1 6 8 and 177-178. 4 4 R i c h a r d W e i n e r t , "The Year M c C l e l l a n S t u d i e d War i n E:urope", C i v i l W a r T i m e s I l l u s t r a t e d , Vol. 2 , N o . 2 , May 1 9 6 3 , E). 39. 4 5 C o l o n e l R . D e l a f i e l d , R e p o r t o n the A r t of War i n

Elurope, U.S. C o n g r e s s , House, 3 6 t h C o n g r e s s , 2nd S e s s i o n 1 8 6 1 461bid. 47Golder, p. 462. 48D~~ty Thomas, , Dvoichenko-Markov 49Golder, p.
462.

A - R e a p p r a i s a l of N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y

5 0 A l a n Dowty, The U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e Crimean War: U . S . I s o l a t i o n (Ph-D. C l i s s e r t a t i o n , Univ. of C h i c a g o ) 1 9 6 4 . 51Golder, p . 5 2 1 b i d . , pp. 531bid. 465. 465-469. 467-471. 199-278. 465.

, pp.

5 4 B a i l e y , pp. 5 5 G o l d e r , p.
3b

S e n a t e , Cong. R e c o r d , 3 4 t h C o n g r e s s , 1st S e s s i o n , 1 8 5 6 ,

p.

3. 5 7 1 b i d . , p.

4-14;

Thomas, pp. 118-119.

8H. B L e a r n e d , " W i l l i a m L e a r n e d Marcy" , The American S e c r e t a r i e s of S t a t e a n d T h e i r Diplomacy, Samuel F. B e m i s , e d . ,

(New York:
A l f r e d A. Knopf) 1 9 2 8 .

5 9 J . B a r t l e t B r e b n e r , " J o s e p h Howe and t h e Crimean War E n l i s t m e n t C o n t r o v e r s y Between Great B r i t a i n a n d the U n i t e d S t a t e s " , C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l Review, V o l . X I , N o . 4 , D e c . 1 9 3 0 .

43.

6 0 R i c h a r d W. V a n A l s t y n e , " J o h n F. C r a m p t o n , C o n s p i r a t o r o r D u p e " , The American H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , V o l . XLI, N o . 3 , A p r i l 1936.

44.

CHAPTER 3
THE U.S.

MILITARY C O M M I S S I O N

Although t h e o f f i c i a l p o l i c y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (jovernment was one of s t r i c t n e u t r a l i t y d u r i n g t h e Crimean War, many p r i v a t e American c i t i z e n s became i n v o l v e d i n t h a t c o n f l i c t e i t h e r f o r p r o f i t o r f o r t h e want of a d v e n t u r e .
The s i n g l e group t h a t was i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o n f l i c t under t h e

o f f i c i a l sponsorship

of t h e

U.S.

government was the M i l i I t is impor-

t a r y Commission s e n t by t h e S e c r e t a r y of War.

t a n t t o s t u d y t h e Commission by d i s c u s s i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which i t w a s d i s p a t c h e d , t h e membership of t h e Commiss i o n , where the Commission went, and what i t s a w . This dis-

c u s s i o n may i n d i c a t e t h e r e a s o n why t h e Commission was s e n t

and the r e s u l t s of i t s j o u r n e y .
C O N D I T I O N S I N THE U.S.
~ ~~~~~

The m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s a p e r i o d when the C'nited States expanded t e r r i t o r i a l l y t o t h e c o n t i n e n t a l l i m i t and e s t a b l i s h e d i t s n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n b o u n d a r i e s by d i p l o macy and c o n f l i c t .
I t was a time when s e t t l e r s moved a c r o s s

t h e G r e a t P l a i n s i n t o t h e newly a c q u i r e d t e r r i t o r i e s and

began t o f i l l i n t h e m i d d l e r e g i o n s of t h e n a t i o n .

Migration

t o T e x a s , C a l i f o r n i a , and t h e Oregon c o u n t r y had s t a r t e d

e a r l i e r and w i t h the boundary s e t t l e m e n t s i n t h o s e a r e a s ,

45

more s e t t l e r s f l o o d e d t h e r e .

I n 1 8 4 7 t h e Mormons, f l e e i n g

r e l i g i o u s p e r s e c u t i o n i n I l l i n o i s and M i s s o u r i , began t o s e t t l e t h e Great B a s i n , w h i l e g o l d d i s c o v e r e d i n 1849 a t S u t t l e r s M i l l opened t h e ' f l o o d g a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a e m i g r a t i o n . I n a l l of t h i s e x p a n s i o n and s e t t l e m e n t , t h e U a S . Army p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t role.

N o t only i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e s of

o p e n i n g new t e r r i t o r y and k e e p i n g t h e p e a c e , b u t i n mapping

t h e new t e r r i t o r i e s and s u r v e y i n g t h e r o a d s and r a i l r o a d s t h a t would p r o v e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t of t h e expand-

ing nation. The Army of t h e 1850s had j u s t emerged from t h e Mexic a n W a r and h a d , as u s u a l , been r e d u c e d t o a peacetime f o o t ing. The a n n u a l r e p o r t s of t h e S e c r e t a r y of War from 1853 t o

1856 show a n a u t h o r i z e d s t r e n g t h of t h e Army v a r y i n g from

1 3 , 8 2 1 t o 1 7 , 8 9 4 , w i t h an a c t u a l s t r e n g t h c o n s i s t i n g of from

7 5 t o 85 p e r c e n t of t h e s e f i g u r e s r e s p e c t i v e l y . '

Of t h e

1 0 , 4 1 7 men i n t h e Army i n 1853, 8,378 were p o s t e d t o t h e

f r o n t i e r departments.

These l i m i t e d manpower r e s o u r c e s were I n t h e 1855

charged w i t h the d e f e n s e of a v a s t t e r r i t o r y .

a n n u a l r e p o r t of t h e S e c r e t a r y of W a r , a n a b s t r a c t from t h e r e p o r t of t h e Q u a r t e r m a s t e r G e n e r a l p u t t h e Army's m i s s i o n i n t o t h i s perspective: Our small army c o v e r s more g r o u n d , and i t s opera t i o n s are more e x t e n d e d , t h a n t h e armies of all t h e n a t i o n s of c o n t i n e n t a l Europe, w e s t of R u s s i a , i n c l u d i n g a l l t h e c o l o n i e s of t h o s e n a t i o n s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r European t e r r i tories

46

N o army i n Europe c a n keep t h e f i e l d a s i n g l e week, f i f t y miles from t h e s e a c o a s t , u n l e s s i t o b t a i n s t h e g r e a t e r p a r t of i t s s u p p l i e s by d a i l y c o n t r i b u t i o n upon t h e c o u n t r y i n which i t o p e r a t e s , w h i l e o u r t r o o p s o p e r a t e f o r many months many hundred m i l e s from t h e s o u r c e of s u p p l y , and i n p o r t i o n s of c o u n t r y w i t h no r e s o u r c e s t h a n a s c a n t y crop of w i l d grass 3

How was t h e Army, w i t h i t s l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s , t o ful: E l l 1 i t s m i s s i o n of d e f e n d i n g t h i s v a s t t e r r i t o r y ?

In the

Q u a r t e r m a s t e r G e n e r a l ' s a n a l y s i s , t e c h n o l o g y w a s t h e answer.
T o r e t a i n o u r v a s t t e r r i t o r i e s , and s u c c e s s f u l l y d e f e n d them, t h e r e i s o n l y one measure by which t h e e x p e n s e c a n be m a t e r i a l l y reduced: t h a t i s , t o a d o p t a system of r a i l road communication i n o u r exposed t e r r i t o r i e s o u t s i d e t h e S t a t e s , Such a system i s r e q u i r e d n o t o n l y f o r t h e economy and e f f i c i e n c y of o u r I n d i a n o p e r a t i o n s and f r o n t i e r d e f e n s e , b u t t o s e c u r e u s from European comb i n a t i o n and a g g r e s s i o n . 4

Obvious l y , t h e t h r e a t was from h o s t i l e I n d i a n s inhabi t i n g f o u r of t h e f i v e m i l i t a r y d e p a r t m e n t s o r d i v i s i o n s of

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b u t a f o r e i g n t h r e a t c o u l d n e v e r be d i s -

c:ounted,

S e c r e t a r y of W a r J e f f e r s o n D a v i s , i n r e p o r t i n g t o

t h e P r e s i d e n t and Congress i n 1854, described t h e t h r e a t i n this way:

W e have a sea-board and f o r e i g n f r o n t i e r of

more t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 m i l e s , a n I n d i a n f r o n t i e r , and r o u t e s t h r o u g h the I n d i a n c o u n t r y , r e q u i r i n g c o n s t a n t p r o t e c t i o n , of more t h a n 8000 miles, and a n I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n of more t h a n 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 , of whom, p r o b a b l y , oneh a l f , o r 4 0 , 0 0 0 w a r r i o r s , are i n i m i c a l , and o n l y w a i t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o become a c t i v e enemies. 5 I n S e c r e t a r y Davis' e v a l u a t i o n t h e f o r c e was
47

"..,entirely

i n a d e q u a t e t o t h e p u r p o s e s for which w e m a i n t a i n and h e u r g e d e x p a n s i o n . But t h e s i z e

any s t a n d i n g army ...If

of t h e f o r c e was n o t t h e o n l y problem t h a t t h e S e c r e t a r y of
W a r saw.

I n a d d i t i o n t o problems of p a y , r a n k s t r u c t u r e , t h e

s t r u c t u r e of t h e G e n e r a l S t a f f , and t h e s y s t e m of f r o n t i e r and c o a s t a l f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , S e c r e t a r y Davis s a w t h e U.S. lag-

g i n g b e h i n d i n t h e development and p r o d u c t i o n of armaments. 7

A q u o t e from h i s 1 8 5 4 a n n u a l r e p o r t g i v e s a n i n d i c a t i o n of

t h e S e c r e t a r y ' s o p i n i o n on t h e l a t t e r .

Though o u r arms have h e r e t o f o r e been c o n s i d e r e d t h e best i n u s e , r e c e n t i n v e n t i o n s i n Europe have produced c h a n g e s i n s m a l l arms, which a r e now b e i n g u s e d i n w a r , w i t h s u c h i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t s as have c a u s e d them t o be n o t i c e d among t h e remarkable i n c i d e n t s of b a t t l e s , and i n d i cate t h a t m a t e r i a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s will be made i n t h e f u t u r e armament o f t r o o p s . * With t h e s e f a c t s i n mind, i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t under t h e e n l i g h t e n e d l e a d e r s h i p of S e c r e t a r y D a v i s , himself a W e s t P o i n t g r a d u a t e , and w i t h t h e f u l l s u p p o r t of P r e s i d e n t Frankl i n Pierce, a former g e n e r a l , a commission w a s formed t o go "...to Europe and s t u d y t h e l a t e s t developments i n m i l i t a r y
I9

t h o u g h t and t o w i t n e s s t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e Crimean W a r . THE MILITARY COMMISSION

~~~~ ~

As p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , t h e Commission c o n s i s t e d of
t h r e e commissioned o f f i c e r s , e a c h selected f o r e x c e l l e n c e i n one o r a n o t h e r f i e l d of m i l i t a r y e n d e a v o r , Major Richard

D e l a f i e l d , Corps o f E n g i n e e r s , w a s t h e chief of t h e Cormnission

48

a n d , a t t h e t i m e of h i s a p p o i n t m e n t t o t h e Commission, was s e r v i n g on t h e Board of E n g i n e e r s on Armament and F o r t i f i c a t i o n s , and was S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of t h e d e f e n s e of New York Harbor. H e had a t t e n d e d W e s t P o i n t and had g r a d u a t e d f i r s t i n

h i s 1818 c l a s s .

The second o f f i c e r a s s i g n e d t o t h e CommisHe also

s i o n was Major A l f r e d Mordecai, Ordnance Corps.

g r a d u a t e d a t t h e t o p o f h i s W e s t P o i n t c l a s s i n 1823

and,at

khe t i m e of h i s s e l e c t i o n t o the Commission,was commandant of

1:he Washington A r s e n a l .

A t t h e t h e , Mordecai was p r o b a b l y

;:he

f o r e m o s t e x p e r t on a r t i l l e r y i n t h e U.S.

Army and i n

:L841,

had p u b l i s h e d a book, A r t i l l e r y f o r t h e Land S e r v i c e of

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . lo F i n a l l y , t h e j u n i o r member of t h e Comm i s s i o n w a s a l s o a West P o i n t g r a d u a t e of t h e c l a s s of 1 8 4 6 . George B r i n t o n McClellan g r a d u a t e d s e c o n d i n h i s class t h e stummer before h i s t w e n t i e t h b i r t h d a y ( 1 8 2 6 ) . McClellan d i s -

t i n g u i s h e d h i m s e l f d u r i n g t h e Mexican War, e a r n i n g b o t h a h r e v e t f i r s t l i e u t e n a n t c y and a c a p t a i n c y for g a l l a n t r y i n action. Having been commissioned i n t h e Engineer C o r p s , h e

conducted e x t e n s i v e s u r v e y s of railroad r o u t e s i n the n o r t h -

west t e r r i t o r i e s and i n s p e c t i o n s of p o s s i b l e n a v a l bases on

S a n t o Domingo. Immediately p r i o r t o h i s appointment t o t h e
11

Commission, he t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e C a v a l r y .

How d i d t h e S e c r e t a r y of War come t o s e l e c t t h e s e men

f x t h e Commission t o s t u d y t h e war i n t h e C r i m e a ?

Obviously

S l x r e t a r y Davis knew, o r a t l e a s t knew of these t h r e e men, o r

49

h e would n o t have a p p o i n t e d them t o t h i s i m p o r t a n t t a s k .

r e v i e w of t h e S e c r e t a r y ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e v e r i f i e s t h a t h e had a t l e a s t c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h Major Mordecai, and had p e r s o n -

a l l y a s s i g n e d C a p t a i n McClellan t o s u r v e y and c o n s t r u c t
'I.

.. t h e

m i l i t a r y road from Walla-Walla t o Steilacomb, P u g e t ' s

Sound..

.", 1 3 ..
IJ4

and t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e

I'.

.. p r a c t i c a b i l -

i t y of a r a i l r o a d from t h e M i s s i s s i p p i t o t h e P a c i f i c Ocean.. With the S e c r e t a r y ' s i n t e r e s t i n t h e s e a f f a i r s

i t seems l o g i c a l t h a t Mr. Davis would have known of Major

D e l a f i e l d t h r o u g h t h e l a t t e r ' s a s s i g n m e n t t o the Board of E n g i n e e r s on Armament and F o r t i f i c a t i o n s

Although t h e o r d e r a p p o i n t i n g t h e Commission and prov i d i n g i t s m i s s i o n w a s i s s u e d o v e r t h e s i g n a t u r e of t h e Secret a r y of War, it i s a p p a r e n t t h a t the P r e s i d e n t had e i t h e r

d i r e c t e d i t s p r o m u l g a t i o n o r had a t l e a s t h e a r t i l y approved
t h e Commission's f o r m a t i o n and t a s k .
Each of t h e S e c r e t a r y

of War's a n n u a l r e p o r t s from 1 8 5 3 t h r o u g h 1855 e x p r e s s e s t h e need f o r b e t t e r p a y , a more e q u i t a b l e r a n k and command s t r u c t u r e , and improvement i n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and armaments. l5
It

i s d i f f i c u l t t o b e l i e v e t h a t the f o r m e r g e n e r a l , now p r e s i d e n t ,

would t u r n a deaf ear t o s u c h l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g as:

"Happily

w e may p r o f i t by t h e e x p e r i e n c e of o t h e r s w i t h o u t s u f f e r i n g t h e e v i l s t h a t a t t e n d t h e p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n of s u c h problems. 11 16
More c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t a t l e a s t approved

of t h e Commission and i t s e f f o r t s comes from a l e t t e r from

50

S e c r e t a r y of War Davis t o James Buchanan, U n i t e d S t a t e Minis-

t e r t o Great B r i t a i n , i n A p r i l 1855.
t h e "...important
IZas t ' ,

The l e t t e r s t a t e s t h a t

m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e ' w a r of t h e t h e President t o dispatch..

...i n d u c e d

I'

t h e Commis-

:;ion l7

Second, i n h i s r e p o r t t o t h e P r e s i d e n t and Congress

of 1 8 5 6 , t h e S e c r e t a r y s p e a k s of s e n d i n g t h e commission w i t h
t h e President I s "approbation".
18

The o r d e r a p p o i n t i n g t h e o f f i c e r s t o t h e commission ( r e p r o d u c e d a t Appendix A ) and p r o v i d i n g t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n ,

was i s s u e d under t h e d a t e of 2 A p r i l 1855.

t.he t h r e e by name, t h e o r d e r began:

A f t e r addressing

You h a v e been selected t o form a commission t o v i s i t Europe f o r t h e p u r p o s e of o b t a i n i n g u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o the m i l i t a r y service i n g e n e r a l , and e s p e c i a l l y t h e p r a c t i c a l working of t h e changes which have b e e n i n t r o d u c e d , of l a t e y e a r s , i n t o t h e m i l i t a r s y s t e m s of t h e p r i n c i p a l n a t i o n s of Europe. 1 9 S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e Commission w a s i n s t r u c t e d t o s t u d y t h e
'I.

.. o r g a n i z a t i o n

of armies.

..

'I,

the

I'

... k i n d s

of arms, ammuni-

t i o n and a c c o u t r e m e n t s u s e d i n e q u i p p i n g t r o o p s of t h e v a r i o u s b r a n c h e s of s e r v i c e

... , t h e

'I.

.. p r a c t i c a l

a d v a n t a g e s and d i s -

a d v a n t a g e s a t t e n d i n g t h e u s e of t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f r i f l e d

arms

...

'I,

and t h e

"

... c o n s t r u c t i o n

of permanent f o r t i f i c a t i o n s ,

t h e arrangement of new s y s t e m s of sea-coast and l a n d d e f e n s e s ,

a:nd t h e k i n d s of Ordnance u s e d i n t h e armament of them.

. .. 2 0
I1

They were a l s o i n s t r u c t e d t o s t u d y t h e

'I..

. u s e of camels f o r

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , and t h e i r a d a p t a t i o n t o cold and mountainous countries

. 21
11

51

As a n a s i d e , this l a s t i t e m of s t u d y i n d i c a t e s t h e d e s i r e and w i l l i n g n e s s o f J e f f e r s o n Davis t o s e a r c h o u t and

t r y i n n o v a t i v e ideas t o improve t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e U . S . Army.

A f t e r receiving a report

"...on

t h e u s e of C a m e l s and
II

Dromedaries f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and M i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s . . .

22

p r e p a r e d by Major Henry C . Wayne, 2 1 November 1853, i n h i s n e x t a n n u a l r e p o r t i n December 1 8 5 3 , Davis s u g g e s t e d t h a t "...provision b e made f o r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a s u f f i c i e n t

number of b o t h v a r i e t i e s of t h i s a n i m a l , t o t e s t i t s v a l u e and a d a p t a t i o n t o o u r c o u n t r y and o u r service. The P r e s i -

d e n t and Congress must have approved t h e scheme, f o r on

1 0 May 1 8 5 5 , Secretary Davis, speaking of a law of Congress,

a s s i g n e d Major Wayne t h e t a s k of g o i n g t o t h e Middle E a s t f o r t h e p u r p o s e of i m p o r t i n g camels f o r m i l i t a r y t e s t i n g . 2 4

To

a s s i s t Wayne i n h i s e f f o r t s , L i e u t e n a n t David D . P o r t e r , U.S. Navy, and t h e s t o r e s h i p "Supply", were d e t a c h e d from t h e Navy t o t r a n s p o r t t h e b e a s t s . 25

Major D e l a f i e l d m e n t i o n s i n h i s r e p o r t of t h e Commis-

s i o n that t h e t w o o f f i c e r s were i n t h e C r i m e a d u r i n g h i s s t a y , 2 6 s o w e know t h e y must have s a i l e d .

A l e t t e r from Sec-

r e t a r y Davis t o Major Wayne on 5 J u l y 1 8 5 6 , 2 7 and t h e a n n u a l r e p o r t of 1856 ,28 i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i r t y - t w o of t h e a n i m a l s a r r i v e d i n Texas i n J u n e 1 8 5 6 . These were moved i n l a n d f o r
29

t e s t i n g , and L i e u t e n a n t P o r t e r w a s s e n t back f o r f o r t y more. The e x p e r i m e n t e v e n t u a l l y f a d e d and t h e r e a s o n , whether due

52

to t h e f a i l u r e of t h e camels t o a d a p t c l i m a t i c a l l y o r t o t h e

d i v e r s i o n of t h e C i v i l W a r , i s beyond t h e scope of t h i s work. WHERE D I D THEY GO AND WHAT D I D THEY SEE The o f f i c e r s c o n s t i t u t i n g t h e Commission t o t h e C r i mean War were g a t h e r e d t o Washington w h e r e t h e y r e c e i v e d t h e i r j.nstructions

They a l s o r e c e i v e d l e t t e r s of i n t r o d u c t i o n from
T h e Com-

2.11 b u t t h e F r e n c h government r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t h e r e .

m i s s i o n s a i l e d from B o s t o n on 11 A p r i l 1855 and a r r i v e d i n

Great B r i t a i n on 2 7 A p r i l 1855.

The B r i t i s h government, v e r y

h o s p i t a b l y , provided t h e m with introductory letters t o the commanders of t h e f l e e t i n t h e B a l t i c and i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .

The F r e n c h , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , would n o t p r o v i d e t h e p a s s e s

n e c e s s a r y t o i n s p e c t t h e i r camps i n t h e area of t h e c o n f l i c t u n l e s s the Commissioners would agree n o t t o go t o t h e enemy camp t h e r e a f t e r . T h i s t h e Commission c o u l d n o t agree t o .

The Commission w a s allowed, however, t o i n s p e c t m i l i t a r y and n a v a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s i n F r a n c e 30

On t h e 2 8 t h of May, t h e Commission l e f t P a r i s f o r

B e r l i n , w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n of g o i n g t h r o u g h P r u s s i a t o the R u s s i a n camps i n t h e C r i m e a .

Like the B r i t i s h , t h e P r u s s i a n s

w e r e v e r y h o s p i t a b l e , a n d made a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r the Commission

t o 'I...visit
a l l s u c h p l a c e s as t h e Commission would name on

i - k s r o u t e i n t o P r u s s i a on r e t u r n i n g from S t .

Petersburg, it

hi2ving b e e n e x p l a i n e d . . . t h e i n t e n t i o n of f i r s t g o i n g t o t h e
Cicimea, via Warsaw,

and t h e r e a f t e r S t . P e t e r s b u r g
53

.... 3 1
I1

T h e Commission a l s o v i s i t e d t h e R u s s i a n m i n i s t e r i n B e r l i n

and r e c e i v e d h i s " i n d o r s e m e n t " t o p r o c e e d t o t h e C r i m e a , v i a

Warsaw and Kiev.

Upon a r r i v i n g i n Warsaw on t h e 4 t h of J u n e , 1855, t h e Commission found some c o n f u s i o n and d e l a y .
The Russian m i l i -

t a r y commander w a s away from t h e c i t y a t t h e t i m e and no one

e l s e c o u l d g i v e p e r m i s s i o n f o r t h e Commission t o p r o c e e d w i t h
i t s mission.

Upon h i s r e t u r n t o Warsaw on 9 J u n e , h e gave

t h e Commission a u t h o r i t y t o v i s i t t h e f o r t i f i c a t i o n of W a r s a w

and Modlin, b u t informed t h e Commission t h a t h e c o u l d n o t g i v e them t h e a u t h o r i t y t o go from W a r s a w t o t h e Crimea. The

Commission would h a v e t o t r a v e l t o S t . P e t e r s b u r g , "...where

a l l n e c e s s a r y a u t h o r i t y rested.
T s a r . 32

.I1

t o g e t p e r m i s s i o n from t h e

The o n l y compensation the Commission f e l t i n t h e

d e l a y f a c e d by g o i n g t o St. P e t e r s b u r g r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t l y t o Sebastopol, w a s the

'I.

.. p r o b a b i l i t y

of w i t n e s s i n g a bom-

bardment o f t h e works of C r o n s t a d t by t h e a l l i e d f l e e t , .

..
'I

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f a c t of o u r i n s t r u c t i o n s r e q u i r i n g a s t u d y and e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e s e i m p o r t a n t sea-coast d e f e n s e s . . . .
33

The Commission a r r i v e d i n S t . P e t e r s b u r g o n 1 9 J u n e , and m e t w i t h t h e R u s s i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r , Count N e s s e l r o d e , on t h e 25th. The Commission informed t h e Count of t h e i r

" , . . d e s i r e t o see the d e f e n s e s of C r o n s t a d t and o t h e r m i l i t a r y

e s t a b l i s h m e n t s a b o u t S t . P e t e r s b u r g , a s a l s o of H e l s i n g f o r s , Sweaborg and R e v e l . . . , They a l s o a s k e d p e r m i s s i o n t o go

54

t o Sebastopol, t o examine t h e works t h e r e , and v i s i t t h e armu i n t h e f i e l d , a s w e l l as any o t h e r p l a c e t h e y might p a s s t h r o u g h , s u c h as Odessa, N i c h o l a e v or P e r i c o p .

t h e i r r e q u e s t w a s a l o n g t i m e i n coming. 3 5

The answer t o

The n e x t d a y , 26 J u n e , t h e Commission m e t T s a r Nichol a s and w i t h h i m reviewed some

"... t h o u s a n d s

of t r o o p s . .

..

II

36

While t h e y w a i t e d f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o proceed t o t h e Crimea,

t h e Commission examined C r o n s t a d t , v i s i t e d some o t h e r m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s around S t . P e t e r s b u r g , and r e c e i v e d perm i s s i o n t o v i s i t Moscow t o examine t h e Kremlin and o t h e r
s i t e s there.

F i n a l l y , a f t e r w a i t i n g some 2 5 d a y s , the Corn-

m i s s i o n w a s informed t h a t t h e i r r e q u e s t t o v i s i t S e b a s t o p o l and t h e army i n t h e C r i m e a , as well as Sweaborg and R e v e l ,

was d e n i e d .

A f t e r a few days r e v i s i t i n g C r o n s t a d t and

o b s e r v i n g some c a v a l r y d r i l l , on 1 9 J u l y t h e Commission d e p a r t e d f o r Moscow. 3 7 From Moscow the Commission t r a v e l e d back t o St. Petersb u r g , t h e n t o Konigsburg, i n P r u s s i a , and t h e n t o the f o r t i f i e d c i t y of " D a n t z i g " , where t h e three o f f i c e r s examined t h e o l d and new d e f e n s e s of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l e n g i n e e r s .
By midoAugust

t h e Commission a r r i v e d a t Posen, and t h e n went on t o t h e mouth

of t h e Oder R i v e r t o see some sea coast d e f e n s e s u n d e r c o n s t r u c -

tion.

By 2 5 August t h e Commission w a s back i n B e r l i n where

t h e y waited u n t i l 8 September before r e c e i v i n g p e r m i s s i o n t o i n s p e c t e l e v e n m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s i n B e r l i n and Spandau,

55

and b e i n g p r o v i d e d w i t h drawings o f b a r r a c k s , t h e a r s e n a l a t Spandau, and books of r e g u l a t i o n s .

38

B y t h i s t i m e , a c c o r d i n g t o r e p o r t s from t h e s c e n e ,

t h e seige a t S e b a s t o p o l a p p e a r e d t o be coming t o a c r i s i s and t h e Commission decided t o go t h e r e w i t h a l l p o s s i b l e h a s t e . Having r e c e i v e d no a u t h o r i z a t i o n from t h e F r e n c h , t h e y decided t o r e l y on t h e l e t t e r s a l r e a d y r e c e i v e d f o r t h e E n g l i s h commanders. P a s s i n g t h r o u g h Vienna, Dresden, L a i b a c h , T r i e s t e ,

and Smyrna, t h e Commission a r r i v e d a t C o n s t a n t i n o p l e on

1 6 September 1 8 5 5 .

C a t c h i n g t h e f i r s t steamer p r o v i d e d by

t h e B r i t i s h navy, t h e y a r r i v e d a t B a l a k l a v a on t h e 8 t h of O c t o b e r , h a v i n g missed t h e f i n a l s t o r m i n g of S e b a s t o p o l . 3 9 The Commission remained i n t h e C r i m e a u n t i l 2 November when i t r e t u r n e d t o C o n s t a n t i n o p l e .

T h e e n t i r e t i m e i n the

C r i m e a t h e B r i t i s h army made e v e r y e f f o r t t o a s s i s t t h e Com-

mission w i t h i t s mission.

The F r e n c h commander, on t h e o t h e r

h a n d , would n o t see t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s , e v e n a f t e r r e c e i p t of t h e a u t h o r i z a t i o n from t h e French government. "The r e s u l t w a s

t h a t t h e Commission c o n f i n e d i t s e x a m i n a t i o n t o t h e camps,

d e p o t s , p a r k s , workshops, e t c .

of t h e E n g l i s h , S a r d i n i a n , and

T u r k i s h armies, n e v e r e n t e r i n g t h e French camps i n t h e C r h e a , e x c e p t on v i s i t s of c o u r t e s y . I1 40

After i n s p e c t i n g t h e A l l i e s '

h o s p i t a l s and d e p o t s i n

C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , t h e Commission d e p a r t e d f o r Vienna, v i a
T r i e s t e , on 1 3 November, a r r i v i n g t h e r e o n 1 6 December.

In

56

Vienna t h e Commission v i s i t e d m i l i t a r y and n a v a l f a c i l i t i e s

as w e l l as t h o s e i n V e n i c e , Verona, Mantua, and M i l a n , stay-

i n g u n t i l 2 5 J a n u a r y 1856.

P a s s i n g back t h r o u g h F r a n c e , w i t h

a u t h o r i t y t o i n s p e c t f a c i l i t i e s t h e r e , and B r i t a i n , v i s i t i n g n a v a l and l a n d f a c i l i t i e s

t h e Commission embarked t o r e t u r n

t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s on 1 9 A p r i l 1856. 4 1
REPORTS

Upon t h e i r r e t u r n t o t h e United S t a t e s , e a c h of t h e Commission's members wrote a n e x t e n s i v e r e p o r t c o v e r i n g a p o r t i o n of S e c r e t a r y Davis ' i n s t r u c t i o n s d e l a y e d somewhat due t o t h e " . . . n e c e s s i t y
of t h e o f f i c e r s t o o t h e r d u t y

.'

These r e p o r t s were of a s s i g n i n g some

....

'I4*

J u s t what d u t y , the

S e c r e t a r y does n o t e l a b o r a t e , b u t D e l a f i e l d w r o t e a l e t t e r

t o t h e S e c r e t a r y i n August 1856, from " F o r t Richmond, Harbor

of New York".
H i s d e t a i l e d r e p o r t of t h e Commission's i t i n -

e r a r y i s d a t e d 1 9 November 1860, and h i s " s i g n a t u r e b l o c k " i n d i c a t e s h i s a s s i g n m e n t a s "Colonel of E n g i n e e r s , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of M i l i t a r y Academy" a t W e s t P o i n t .

43

M o r d e c a i ' s r e p o r t is also p r e f a c e d by a l e t t e r t o S e c r e t a r y of War John B. F l o y d , D a v i s ' s u c c e s s o r , d a t e d

30 March 1858, and w r i t t e n a t W a t e r v l i e t Arsenal-near

Albany

and T r o y , N e w York.

H e d o e s s t a t e t h a t upon t h e Commission's

r e t u r n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , h e was ' L - f i r s t a s s i g n e d t o s p e c i a l d u t y i n t h e W a r O f f i c e , and t h e n t o the command of t h i s , t h e p r i n c i p a l a r s e n a l of c o n s t r u c t i o n .

57

Mordecai

a l s o p r o v i d e s t h e i n s i g h t t h a t t h e Commission's

'I.

..observa-

t i o n s of t h a t r e m a r k a b l e s e i g e ( a t S e b a s t o p o l ) were l i m i t e d
t o t h e r e s u l t s which were a p p a r e n t a month a f t e r t h e evacua-

t i o n of t h e p l a c e by t h e R u s s i a n s .

H i s o b s e r v a t i o n s were

d i m i n i s h e d even more by a n i l l n e s s t h a t c o n f i n e d him t o .camp d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t h e i r s t a y i n t h e C r h e a .

46

McClellan's r e p o r t i s dated 1 4 January 1857, b u t g i v e s u s no c l u e a s t o h i s a s s i g n m e n t upon r e t u r n i n g from Europe

.4 7

H i s p r i n c i p a l d u t y may have been w r i t i n g t h e

r e p o r t , s i n c e h e w a s t o r e s i g n h i s Army commission s h o r t l y thereafter.

fined.
48

Where h e w r o t e t h e r e p o r t , however, i s unde-

Because of t h e comprehensive n a t u r e of S e c r e t a r y D a v i s ' i n s t r u c t i o n s , it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e Commission members

each took a p o r t i o n of what t h e y had s e e n , r e l a t i n g t o t h o s e

i n s t r u c t i o n s , t o r e p o r t on.

Each of t h e r e p o r t s w e r e s u b s e -

q u e n t l y p u b l i s h e d by Congress and p r o b a b l y p r o v i d e d t h e m o s t comprehensive g u i d e t o European m i l i t a r y s c i e n c e i n t h e m i d nineteenth century.

To t h e Commission's c h i e f , Major D e l a f i e l d , f e l l t h e

t a s k o f r e p o r t i n g t h e o v e r a l l n a r r a t i v e of i t s t r a v e l s .

After

a p r e f a t o r y l e t t e r t o t h e S e c r e t a r y of W a r , of which more w i l l
be s a i d l a t e r , D e l a f i e l d jumped r i g h t i n t o a d i s c u s s i o n of

armaments, b o t h f i e l d p i e c e s and i n d i v i d u a l weapons. stated t h a t :

He

58

T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e l o n g gun t o f i r e s h e l l s h o r i z o n t a l l y , both for l a n d and sea

s e r v i c e , with a tendency t o increase t h e c a l i b e r s ; and of t h e r i f l e , w i t h v a r i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s f o r all small arms, may now be c o n s i d e r e d a s the s e t t l e d p o l i c y and p r a c t i c e of a l l t h e m i l i t a r y powers o f Europe. According t o D e l a f i e l d , i t w a s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of these l o n g guns and heavier f i e l d p i e c e s t h a t allowed t h e R u s s i a n s t o hold o u t so long a t Sebastopol.
A f t e r some s e v e n t e e n pages

d i s c u s s i n g t h e s i z e of g u n s , and t h e s i z e and s h a p e of t h e v a r i o u s p r o j e c t i l e s experimented w i t h , D e l a f i e l d concluded t h a t even though t h e u s e of r i f l e d armaments was the a c c e p t e d p o l i c y and p r a c t i c e of t h e Europeans, no s i n g l e t y p e o r s y s -

t e m had been a c c e p t e d as b e s t .
D e l a f i e l d t h e n t u r n e d h i s d i s c u s s i o n t o European f o r -

t i f i c a t i o n s i n g e n e r a l , and those a t C r o n s t a d t and S e b a s t o p o l specifically.

H e d i s c u s s e d t h e s p e c i f i c d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c -

t i o n of these f o r t i f i c a t i o n s i n t e r m s p r o b a b l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e by o t h e r e n g i n e e r s , and seemed t o c o n c l u d e t h a t the d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of C r o n s t a d t , S e b a s t o p o l and Cherbourg were

the b e s t i n Europe.

50

Cronstadt had held o u t a g a i n s t t h e

a l l i e d f l e e t , and a l t h o u g h t h e R u s s i a n s e v a c u a t e d Sebastopol,
t h e a l l i e d f l e e t s i n f l i c t e d l i t t l e damage t o t h e f o r t i f i c a -

tions there. 51

D e l a f i e l d t h o u g h t t h a t t h e U.S.

could l e a r n

much from t h e s e examples i n t h e d e f e n s e of i t s h a r b o r s .

D e l a f i e l d ' s l e t t e r t o t h e S e c r e t a r y of War c o n t a i n s

some i n t e r e s t i n g i n s i g h t s i n t o h i s p e r c e p t i o n of w a r f a r e and
59

t h e m i l i t a r y a r t s i n Europe, and s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e m i s s i o n

t h e Commission was s e n t t o f u l f i l l ( h i s l e t t e r h a s b e e n r e p r o duced a t Appendix B ) .

H e began t h e l e t t e r w i t h t h i s i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s of t h e Commission's m i s s i o n : The c o n t e s t t h a t commenced, i n 1 8 5 4 , between t h e p r i n c i p a l m i l i t a r y and n a v a l powers of Europe, gave r i s e , d u r i n g i t s p r o g r e s s , t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e a r t of w a r had undergone some m a t e r i a l changes s i n c e t h e days of Napoleon and W e l l i n g t o n , and t h a t new p r i n c i p l e s of a t t a c k and d e f e n s e had b e e n r e s o r t e d t o , i n t h e p r o l o n g e d d e f e n s e by t h e R u s s i a n s of t h e l a n d and sea f r o n t s of S e b a s t o p o l , and i n the g r e a t p r e p a r a t i o n s made by the a l l i e s f o r r e d u c i n g t h e s e a - d e f e n s e s of Crons t a d t and Sebas t o p o l .

On e x a m i n a t i o n , t h i s change w i l l be found m a i n l y i n t h e i n c r e a s e d magnitude of t h e e n g i n e s of w a r , and t h e p e r f e c t i o n t o which t h e y have been b r o u g h t by t h e u n c e a s i n g a p p l i c a t i o n of t a l e n t and s k i l l t o t h e i r improvement, accomplished by t h e a c c u r a c y and r a p i d i t y of workmanship by the machinery of t h e a r s e n a l s of t h e p r e s e n t d a y , and t h a t f e w new p r i n c i p l e s have b e e n i n t r o d u c e d w i t h much s u c c e s s i n the l a t e c o n t e s t . 5 2
D e l a f i e l d g o e s on t o comment on t h e w a r l i k e f o o t i n g

t h e European powers had t a k e n on, and how t h e a r t of w a r had become a n a v o c a t i o n of t h e s o n s of t h e n o b i l i t y and the r e i g n i n g f a m i l i e s of Europe. S i n c e t h e form of government engen-

dered by t h a t m i l i t a r i s t i c tendency was a n t a g o n i s t i c t o o u r

own, and s i n c e t h e U.S.

w a s s u r r o u n d e d by t h e c o l o n i e s of

t h e s e powers, D e l a f i e l d c o n c l u d e d t h a t America c o u l d n e v e r
l e t its g u a r d down and s h o u l d make e v e r y e f f o r t t o improve i t s

c a p a b i l i t y i n t h e a r t and s c i e n c e of w a r .

60

O f t h e t h r e e r e p o r t s , Major Mordecai's w a s t h e l e a s t

a n a l y t i c a l and o f f e r s l i t t l e by way of c o n c l u s i o n ,

I t was a

s t r a i g h t r e p o r t of t e c h n i c a l f a c t s , seeming t o a l l o w t h e
reader t o draw h i s own c o n c l u s i o n s .

The i n i t i a l p o r t i o n d i s -

c u s s e d t h e m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n of e a c h of t h e f i v e g r e a t powers of Europe England.

R u s s i a , P r u s s i a , A u s t r i a , F r a n c e and

I t t h e n moved q u i c k l y i n t o Mordecai's f i e l d of s p e c -

ialization-ordance

and armament.

I n each a r e a of armament

t h a t he d i s c u s s e d , h e d i d s o by each of t h e n a t i o n s l i s t e d

above, sometimes a d d i n g o n e o r t w o a n d / o r d e l e t i n g o n e o r t w o .

For example, o n l y w h i l e d i s c u s s i n g " F i e l d A r t i l l e r y " d i d he s t i c k t o t h e o r i g i n a l f i v e , while under t h e t o p i c s "Arsenals

of C o n s t r u c t i o n and M a n u f a c t u r i n g E s t a b l i s h m e n t s " and " S p h e r i c a l Case S h o t and F u z e s " , he added t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
His

d i s c u s s i o n of " G a r r i s o n A r t i l l e r y " deleted E n g l a n d . t h a t d i d n o t d i s c u s s t h e t o p i c by n a t i o n were:

Sections

" R i f l e Cannon",
He

"Cannon of Large C a l i b e r " , and "Fuzes f o r Common S h e l l s " .

a l s o i n c l u d e d a s e c t i o n on " M i s c e l l a n e o u s " when h e d i s c u s s e d

" S m a l l Arms I' by n a t i o n ,

I n c l u d e d i n Mordecai's r e p o r t , i n a d d i t i o n t o a s p e c i a l s e c t i o n on "Ordnance a t t h e Seige of S e b a s t o p o l " , were

t h r e e o t h e r s p e c i a l s e c t i o n s t h a t were of i m p o r t a n c e t o
o f f i c i a l s of h i s d a y , and are of i n t e r e s t t o d a y .
The f i r s t

w a s a l i s t i n g of books, d r a w i n g s , maps, and "Specimens of

A r m s and Equipments" t h a t t h e Cammission b r o u g h t b a c k from

61

Europe.

Books were i n E n g l i s h , F r e n c h , German, and R u s s i a n ,

and i n c l u d e d a " R u s s i a n and E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y " a s w e l l as r e g u l a t i o n s and i n s t r u c t i o n s on w i d e l y v a r i e d m i l i t a r y t o p i c s

(See Appendix C )

The second s p e c i a l s e c t i o n of Mordecai's r e p o r t was

titled,

"Report of t h e French M i n i s t e r of W a r t o t h e Emperor,

on t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Arrangements f o r t h e War i n t h e E a s t " .

A s the t i t l e implies,

t h i s r e p o r t p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s e n t o u t , number k i l l e d , wounded, f u e l , food, clothing,

Besides b e i n g of

p e r s o n n e l figures-number

m i s s i n g , e t c . ; materiel-ammunition,

e t c . ; and t h e means of sea t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .

i n t e r e s t t o t h e French emperor, t h e i n f o r m a t i o n could have been of some u s e t o t h e m i l i t a r y p l a n n e r of t h e day; n o t o n l y t o know what u n i t s were d e p l o y e d , b u t what were t h e e f f e c t s of disease and new weapons on p e r s o n n e l l o s s e s . The f i n a l s p e c i a l s e c t i o n of Mordecai's r e p o r t i s a t r a n s l a t i o n of a book by a P r u s s i a n o f f i c e r on r i f l e d i n f a n t r y arms u s e d by European armies.
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e

t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o Mordecai, e v e n though r i f l e d arms had drawn much i n t e r e s t and e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n i n Europe,

'I.

..the

g r e a t body of t h e i n f a n t r y of a l l t h e armies engaged u s e d t h e o r d i n a r y musket....

it5 3

C a p t a i n McClellan began h i s r e p o r t w i t h a n a r r a t i o n and a n a l y s i s of o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e C r i m e a .

A s the p o i n t of

r e f e r e n c e f o r h i s a n a l y s i s , h e used h i s own e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e

62

Mexican War and c o n s i d e r e d t h e i n v e s t i t u r e of S e b a s t o p o l by t h e a l l i e s somewhat p o o r l y done when compared w i t h t h e U . S . o p e r a t i o n a t Vera Cruz.

54

H i s criticism w a s not directed

s o l e l y a t t h e A l l i e s , however.

McClellan e v i d e n c e d no f a v o r -

i t i s m when h e c h a r g e d t h a t t h e R u s s i a n commander f a i l e d t o be

s u f f i c i e n t l y aware of e v e n t s under h i s c o n t r o l . 5 5 Recognizing t h a t i t i s i n f i n i t e l y e a s i e r t o c r i t i c i z e a f t e r t h e operation is over than it is t o the time..

It..

. d i r e c t them a t
'I.

'I,

McClellan c r i t i c i z e d , h e s a i d ,

.. w i t h

the

hope t h a t i t may s e r v e t o draw t h e a t t e n t i o n of o u r o f f i c e r s t o t h e same p o i n t s , and, p e r h a p s , a s s i s t i n p r e v e n t i n g s i m i l a r

errors on o u r own p a r t h e r e a f t e r ,

1156

With h i s background i n b o t h f i e l d s , i t n e x t f e l l t o McClellan t o r e p o r t on e n g i n e e r t r o o p s and c a v a l r y - t o t h e United States c a v a l r y . include

Concerning t h e l a t t e r , w i t h h i s 'for the field

r e p o r t , h e s u b m i t t e d a s e t of " . . . r e g u l a t i o n s
service of c a v a l r y i n time of w a r . .
.'I,

which h e claims t o

have t r a n s l a t e d from t h e o r i g i n a l R u s s i a n .

'

McClellan I s

r e p o r t on t h e European n a t i o n s ' u s e of c a v a l r y , t h e a d a p t e d R u s s i a n r e g u l a t i o n s , and h i s own recommendations, a c c o r d i n g t o R i c h a r d W e i n e r t , p r o b a b l y p l a y e d a major p a r t i n t h e reorg a n i z a t i o n of American c a v a l r y underway a t the time. 5 8 One

t h i n g i s s u r e , the McClellan s a d d l e a d o p t e d l a t e r by the U.S. c a v a l r y , w a s of Hungarian d e s i g n t h a t h e s a w used by P r u s s i a n cavalry.

59

63

F i n a l l y , McClellan's r e p o r t contained a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of t h e e n t i r e R u s s i a n army and a r e p o r t on t h e F r e n c h , A u s t r i a n , P r u s s i a n , and S a r d i n i a n i n f a n t r y .

RESULTS

The Commission s p e n t one y e a r i n Europe i n s p e c t i n g m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t s and f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , and s t u d y i n g t h e "new" weapons of w a r and t h e i r u s e i n t h e Crimean c o n f l i c t .
T h i s , t h e n , w a s t h e p u r p o s e f o r which t h e Commission was

sent:

t o s t u d y t h e a r t and s c i e n c e of w a r f a r e i n Europe t o
c

d e t e r m i n e i f there might be some a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Army.

T h e American t y p e of government p u r p o s e l y k e p t The only

t h e army s m a l l even though i t s m i s s i o n w a s v a s t .

t h i n g a n e n l i g h t e n e d S e c r e t a r y of War, l i k e J e f f e r s o n Davis I c o u l d do w a s t o see i f t h e new " e n g i n e s of w a r " t h a t had been e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h , and were now under t e s t i n Europe, c o u l d r e d u c e t h e problem of q u a n t i t y by i n c r e a s i n g t h e q u a l i t y of

arms--a

s u b j e c t n o t unknown t o d a y . Upon t h e i r r e t u r n , e a c h member of t h e Commission p r i -

m a r i l y r e p o r t e d on what t h e y s a w w i t h i n h i s own area of e x p e r tise.

C o l l e c t i v e l y , these r e p o r t s p r o b a b l y p r o v i d e d t h e most Many

comprehensive g u i d e t o European warfare of t h e p e r i o d .

of t h e Commission's f i n d i n g s and recommendations had been o v e r t a k e n by events-such a s t h e u s e of l i m i t e d numbers of r i f l e d

small arms--and

many more p r o b a b l y would have b e e n implemented

64

e v e n t u a l l y , had i t n o t b e e n f o r t h e immediate needs of t h e C i v i l War.

For t h e most p a r t , many of t h e Commission's f i n d -

i n g s were i n c o n c l u s i v e , s i n c e even though r i f l e d arms, b o t h i n d i v i d u a l and cannon, improved r a n g e and accuracy, t h e y were
l i t t l e used i n t h e c o n f l i c t i n t h e C r i m e a .
I t is i r o n i c t h a t

t h e f i r s t real t e s t they should r e c e i v e i n t h i s country w a s i n c i v i l strife. The o n l y immediate change i n f l u e n c e d by t h e

Commission seems t o have b e e n M c C l e l l a n ' s i n t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of c a v a l r y , and t h a t w a s i n p r o g r e s s a l r e a d y .

65

NOTES

'See t h e a n n u a l " R e p o r t s of t h e S e c r e t a r y o f War" f o r 1853-1856 i n Dunbar Rowland, e d . , J e f f e r s o n D a v i s , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t , H i s L e t t e r s , P a p e r s and S p e e c h e s , Vol. I1 (New York: J. J. L i t t l e and I v e s Co., 1923) pp. 2 9 2 , 389, and 552; and V o l . 111, p. 68. '"Report 11, p . 2 9 2 .
of t h e S e c r e t a r y of War, 1 8 5 3 , " Rowland, Vol.

3U.S. Congress , S e n a t e , C o n g r e s s i o n a l Record, 3 4 t h Congress, 1st S e s s i o n , 1855.

'Ibid

.
of t h e S e c r e t a r y of War, 1854", Rowland, V o l .

'"Report
11, p . 3 9 3 .
%bid.

7See a n n u a l " R e p o r t s of t h e S e c r e t a r y o f W a r " f o r 18531 8 5 6 , Rowland, V o l s . I1 and 111. *"Report of t h e S e c r e t a r y of W a r , 1 8 5 4 , " Rowland, Vol.
11, p . 4 1 0 .

'Richard P. W e i n e r t , "The Year M c C l e l l a n S t u d i e d War i n Europe,'' C i v i l War T i m e s I l l u s t r a t e d , V o l . 2 , N o . 2 , May 1963, p. 39. "Ibid., p. 39. Vol. 11, N 2 , p. 2 1 9 - 2 2 0 ; W e i n e r t , p. 39.

'lRowland,

' 2 n J e f f e r s o n Davis t o Major A . Mordecai,'' Rowland, V o l .

11, p . 14.

1 3 " J e f f e r s o n Davis t o George B. McClellan, Vol. 11, pp. 2 1 9 - 2 2 0 .

Rowland,

66

1 4 " J e f f e r s o n Davis t o George B. M c C l e l l a n , " Rowland, Vol. 11, p. 381. 1 5 R e p o r t s of S e c r e t a r y of War, 1853-1855, Rowland, V o l . 3 8 9 , and 5 8 2 . 16Rowland, V o l . 11, p . 4 1 0 . 1 7 a J e f f e r s o n Davis t o James Buchanan," Rowland, V o l . p. 451.
11,

11, pp. 2 9 2 ,

l8''Report of t h e S e c r e t a r y of War, i856," Rowland, V o l .

111, p .

85.

l g l l J e f f e r s o n Davis t o R . Delaf i e l d , A . Mordecai and George B. M c C l e l l a n , " Rowland, Vol. 11, p . 4 4 6 .

2oIbid., p . 447.
211bid.

221'H. C . Wayne t o J e f f e r s o n D a v i s , " Rowland, V o l . 11,

p . 288.

23'1Report of the S e c r e t a r y of War, 1 8 5 3 , " Rowland, V o l .

11, p.

321.
11,

2411Jefferson Davis t o Henry C. Wayne," Rowland, V o l .

p. 461.

2 5 " J e f f e r s o n Davis t o D . D. P o r t e r , " Rowland, V o l . 11, p. 464. 2 6 C o l o n e l R. D e l a f i e l d , R e p o r t on t h e A r t of W a r i n Europe, U.S. C o n g r e s s , House, 3 6 t h C o n g r e s s , 2nd S e s s i o n , 1 8 6 1 , p . xx. 2 7 n J e f f e r s o n Davis t o H. C . Wayne," Rowland, Vol. 111, p. 5 2 . 2811Report of t h e S e c r e t a r y of War, 1 8 5 6 , " Rowland, Vol.
111, p . 93.

67

291bid., p . 9 4 . 30Delafield, pp. XI1 and 311bid., p . XVI. 321bid., p . XVII. 31bid
XV.

341bid. 3sIbid., pp. XVII-XVIII. 361bid., p . XVIII. 371bid., p. XVIII-XIX. 381bid., p . XIX. 391b1d., p . XIX; Major Alfred Mordecai, Military Commission to Europe in 1 8 5 5 and 1 8 5 6 , U. S Congress, Senate, 36th Congress, 1st S e s s i o n , 1860, p . 3 .

40Delafield, p . XX. 411bid. , pp. XXI-XXIV. 42Rowland, Vol. 111, p. 86. 43Delafield , p

. XXIV.

44Mordecai, p. 3 . 451bid.

47Captain George B. McClellan, The Seat of War In Europe, 1855 and 1856, U . S . Congress, Senate, Special Session, 1 8 5 7 , p. 2 4 .
68

48G. S.

Hillard, Life and Campaigns of George B. McClellan,

J, B.

(Philadelphia: *'Delafield,

L i p p i n c o t t and Co.,

1 8 6 4 ) p . 81

p . 5.

50Del,afield, P o 26'lDelafield,

p. 24.

521bid., p . 1
53Mordecai, p . 1 7 6 .

5 4 ~ c ~ ~ e l l apn . , 5.
5 5 1 b i d . , p. 7 . 561bid., p . 5. 5 7 1 b i d . , p. 2 8 4 .

5 8 W e i n e r t , p . 41,
'Ibid

69

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION

I n a p e r i o d of r a p i d n a t i o n a l g r o w t h , and concerned a b o u t t h e s m a l l U . S . Army's a b i l i t y t o d e f e n d t h e n a t i o n , S e c r e t a r y of W a r J e f f e r s o n Davis began a p e r i o d of modernization. F e e l i n g t h a t i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o g e t c o n g r e s -

s i o n a l a p p r o v a l t o e n l a r g e t h e f o r c e , h e d e t e r m i n e d t o make
t h e small f o r c e as e f f e c t i v e as p o s s i b l e by s e n d i n g a m i l i t a r y

commission t o Europe

'I...

t o s t u d y t h e l a t e s t developments i n

m i l i t a r y t h o u g h t and t o w i t n e s s t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e C r i mean W a r .

'"

The reports written by the Commission provided

i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e c o n d u c t of w a r , and t h e new developments i n f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and armaments. The r e p o r t s also p r o v i d e d i n -

s i g h t s on t h e p e r s p e c t i v e from which war was viewed by t h e monarchies of Europe and American democracy.
To q u o t e from

Major D e l a f i e l d ' s l e t t e r t o t h e S e c r e t a r y of W a r :
For a l o n g p e r i o d , t h e c o n t i n e n t a l powers had

been o c c u p i e d i n p r e p a r i n g l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of m u n i t i o n s of war, on which t h e y had bestowed a l l t h e s k i l l and i n t e l l i g e n c e t h a t c o u l d be commanded from t h e f r u i t s o f t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l s e m i n a r i e s , T o s u c h an e s t a b l i s h e d i n e v e r y kingdom.... e x t e n t h a s i t been c a r r i e d on t h e c o n t i n e n t , t h a t the m i l i t a r y profession i s not only ind i s p e n s a b l e f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e e x i s t i n g governments a g a i n s t each o t h e r ' s e n c r o a c h ments, b u t p l a c e s t h e p r o f e s s i o n f i r s t i n i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e e s t i m a t i o n of t h e s o v e r e i g n power, t a k i n g r a n k and r e c e i v i n g honors t h e h i g h e s t i n the g i f t of t h e monarch t o bestow upon a s u b j e c t . 2
70

T h i s s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n of t h e m i l i t a r y was n o t t h e

case i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s where r e d u c t i o n of t h e f o r c e , i n

s t a t u s as w e l l as p e r s o n n e l , w a s t h e r u l e a f t e r any c o n f l i c t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h armaments and b u i l d i n g of f o r c e s had a s p i r a l l i n g e f f e c t . The c o n t i n e n t a l n a t i o n s are compelled t o keep l a r g e s t a n d i n g armies on f o o t , and g r e a t m i l i t a r y r e s o u r c e s p r e p a r e d , from t h e i r apprehens i . o n of each o t h e r . As o n e power i n c r e a s e s it.s m i l i t a r y e f f i c i e n c y , w h e t h e r by t h e invent i o n of t h e new weapon, o r by men and f o r tresses, t h e n e i g h b o r i n g n a t i o n s , as a means of s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n , a r e compelled t o do likewise

D e l a f i e l d g o e s on t o e x p l a i n how t h e m i l i t a r y a r t was

i n t h e hands of t h e n o b i l i t y and monied c l a s s , and even t h e European monarchs were t r a i n e d s o l d i e r s .

" W e s h o u l d n o t be

i n d i f f e r e n t s p e c t a t o r s of t h i s p e r f e c t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y a r t and i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e command of t h e h e warned.

So l o n g a s American d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s were " a n t a g o n i s t i c "

t o the European f o r m s of government,

". .we

c a n have NO

F R I E N D S P0:LITICALLY i n t h e g o v e r n i n g powers of t h e E a s t e r n

World

....'''

The same " c o m b i n a t i o n " p u t t o g e t h e r t o r e s t r a i n

t h e growing power of a n e i g h b o r c o u l d as e a s i l y be p u t t o g e t h e r t o r e s t r a i n the growing i n f l u e n c e of a n e x p a n d i n g America, and h e r i d e a l s . I n t h i s u n p r e p a r e d s t a t e , on o u r p a r t , [ r e f e r r i n g t o America's l a c k of m i l i t a r y p r e p a r e d ness] s e v e r a l of t h e powers of Europe h a v e steam t r a n s p o r t s and m u n i t i o n s , w i t h f l e e t s s u p e r i o r t o o u r own, r e a d y a t any moment t o t h r o w on our c o a s t , i n no l o n g e r t i m e t h a n i s 71

n e c e s s a r y t o steam a c r o s s the A t l a n t i c , d i s c i p l i n e d armies t h a t c o u l d l a n d i n s i x h o u r s a f t e r a n c h o r i n g , do u s i n j u r y and c r i p p l e o u r r e s o u r c e s t o a n e x t e n t t h a t would r e q u i r e a l o n g time t o r e s t o r e 3

A t this p o i n t , D e l a f i e l d went o n t o answer t h e ques-

t i o n of t h e e f f e c t t h e Commission had o n t h e c o u n t r y ' s m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t , and t o p r o p h e t i c a l l y describe t h i s n a t i o n ' s p o s i t i o n i n t h e s e v e r a l wars it would y e t f a c e . ...y e t with a b l i n d i n d i f f e r e n c e , professing a t t h e same t i m e t o be a l l p o w e r f u l , o u r p e o p l e n e g l e c t t h e many c a l l s and s t a t e m e n t s of t h o s e t h e y a p p o i n t t o s t u d y t h i s s u b j e c t , l e a v i n g u s a t t h e mercy, i n t h e f i r s t y e a r s of a c o n f l i c t , of e i t h e r of t h e n a v a l and m i l i t a r y powers of t h e O l d World.6 Even t h a t c o n f l i c t t h a t would t e a r a t t h e i n t e r n a l f o u n d a t i o n of t h e n a t i o n t h a t e r r u p t e d i n t h e same y e a r Delaf i e l d ' s r e p o r t was p u b l i s h e d (1861), found t h e n a t i o n illprepared.
I t w a s n o t u n t i l w e l l i n t o t h e c o n f l i c t t h a t many

of t h e " e n g i n e s " s e e n i n Europe, s u c h as r i f l e d cannon and a r t i l l e r y , were p u t t o u s e h e r e .

I t is also i r o n i c t h a t

McClellan would face t h e same t y p e of e a r t h w o r k s a t Yorktown i n a few y e a r s t h a t h e examined a t S e b a s t o p o l . The most v i s i -

b l e e f f e c t t h e Commission had on developments b e f o r e t h e C i v i l

W a r w a s t h e a d o p t i o n of t h e McClellan s a d d l e and t h e i n c o r p o r -

a t i o n of nany of M c C l e l l a n ' s recommended changes i n t h e reorg a n i z a t i o n of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c a v a l r y . 7 I n b r i n g i n g t h i s work t o a c l o s e , it may be of i n t e r -

e s t t o see what became of t h e t h r e e o f f i c e r s a f t e r t h e

72

Commission d i d i t s work and r e t u r n e d home.

Immediately upon

h i s r e t u r n from t h e European c o n t i n e n t , i t a p p e a r s t h a t Major D e l a f i e l d was p o s t e d t o " F o r t Richmond, Harbor of N e w York", s i n c e t h a t i s where h i s l e t t e r t o t h e S e c r e t a r y of War w a s w r i t t e n from.
L a t e r , i n 1 8 6 0 , h i s r e p o r t on t h e Commission's

i t i n e r a r y was s i g n e d as "Colonel of E n g i n e e r s , S u p e r i n t e n d e n t of M i l i t a r y Academy" and w a s p o s t e d from West P o i n t , New York. 8 During t h e C i v i l War, D e l a f i e l d rose t o t h e rank of b r i g a d i e r g e n e r a l arid s e r v e d a s Chief of E n g i n e e r s from 1 8 6 4 t o h i s r e t i r e m e n t - i n 1 8 6 6 w i t h a b r e v e t of major g e n e r a l . 9
As w e have s e e n p r e v i o u s l y , Major Mordecai w a s f i r s t

a s s i g n e d to t h e War O f f i c e upon h i s r e t u r n from Europe, t h e n t o o k command of W a t e r v l i e t A r s e n a l . l o I n 1 8 6 1 , t o r n between h i s d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e army of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t o which h e

had d e d i c a t e d s o much of h i s l i f e , and h i s n a t i v e s t a t e of North C a r o l i n a , Mordecai r e s i g n e d h i s commission and went t o

Mexico t o s i t o u t t h e b r o t h e r s ' w a r .
O f t h e t h r e e , C a p t a i n McClellan became the most w e l l

known.

S h o r t l y a f t e r w r i t i n g h i s r e p o r t of t h e Commission's

work, h e r e s i g n e d h i s commission and became c h i e f e n g i n e e r a n d , s h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r , v i c e - p r e s i d e n t of t h e I l l i n o i s Cent r a l Railroad.

It w a s i n t h i s capacity, responsible for the

b u s i n e s s of t h e company, t h a t h e became a c q u a i n t e d w i t h Abraham L i n c o l n , a p r a c t i c i n g S p r i n g f i e l d , I l l i n o i s l a w y e r , who o c c a s i o n a l l y p r o v i d e d h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l s e r v i c e s t o t h e

73

company.

I n August 1 8 6 0 , h e r e s i g n e d h i s p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e

I l l i n o i s C e n t r a l t o become p r e s i d e n t of t h e Ohio and Mississ i p p i Railroad.

H e h e l d t h a t p o s t u n t i l t h e C i v i l War b r o k e

o u t and h e r e t u r n e d t o a c t i v e service. 11
A t t h e o u t b r e a k of h o s t i l i t i e s i n 1 8 6 1 , M c C l e l l a n , a t

t h e a g e of 3 4 , w a s a p p o i n t e d m a j o r g e n e r a l of t h e Ohio Volunt e e r s , and g i v e n command of t h e Department of t h e O h i o , cons i s t i n g of Ohio, I n d i a n a , and I l l i n o i s .

A f t e r some r a p i d s u c -

cess i n w e s t e r n V i r g i n i a a g a i n s t i n f e r i o r o d d s , McClellan w a s commissioned major g e n e r a l i n t h e r e g u l a r army and, i n November 1 8 6 1 , w a s g i v e n command of t h e armies of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

As s u c h h e created and t r a i n e d t h e Army of t h e Potomac, b u t

h i s i n d e c i s i v e n e s s and i n a b i l i t y t o move r a p i d l y a g a i n s t Richmond b r o u g h t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h h i s command and h e w a s r e l i e v e d i n November 1862. 12 I n 1864 McClellan r a n as t h e Democratic nominee a g a i n s t Abraham L i n c o l n and was d e f e a t e d .
H e l a t e r served

as Governor of N e w J e r s e y from 1878 t o 1881.

McClellan d i e d

a t Orange, New J e r s e y , October 2 9 , 1895.

T h e Crimean War w a s b u t a s i n g l e e v e n t i n American

d i p l o m a t i c and m i l i t a r y h i s t o r y .

Although t h a t w a r i s n o t

a t o p i c g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h United States h i s t o r y , e v e n t s r e l a t i n g t o t h a t c o n f l i c t had some s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s and m i l i t a r y development of t h e nation.

74

The United S t a t e s w a s n o t an i s o l a t i o n i s t " h a l f - p i n t " ,

as some h i s t o r i a n s and s t a t e s m e n h a v e p o r t r a y e d h e r t o b e ,

but an aggressive, self-interest-seeking

n a t i o n t h a t used The con-

t h e g r e a t power c o n f l i c t s t o a c h i e v e i t s own e n d s .

f l i c t i n Crirnea, between t h e great powers, p r o v i d e d t h e backdrop for t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o press f o r r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e

r i g h t s of n e u t r a l s on t h e s e a , and t o n e a r l y d r a g i t i n t o a c o n f l i c t w i t h Great B r i t a i n o v e r t h e e n l i s t m e n t c o n t r o v e r s y . Al.though t h e o f f i c i a l p o l i c y of t h e United S t a t e s was

strict neckrality

, private

American c i t i z e n s i n v o l v e d them-

s e l v e s i n the c o n f l i c t i n t h e Crirnea f o r p r o f i t and a d v e n t u r e . The s i n g l e o f f i c i a l involvement of U . S . c i t i z e n s w a s t h e U.S.

M i l i t a r y Commission s e n t t o o b s e r v e t h e c o n d u c t of t h e w a r . I n a t i m e of r a p i d n a t i o n a l e x p a n s i o n and minimum m i l i t a r y manpower r e s o u r c e s , the three-man Commission was s e n t t o s t u d y t h e a r t of w a r as it w a s t h e n b e i n g p r a c t i c e d i n Europe. S e n t i n A p r i l 1855, t h e Commission s t u d i e d f o r t i -

f i c a t i o n s , improved armaments, and o r g a n i z a t i o n of armies i n a n e f f o r t t o i d e n t i f y ways t o improve t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s and c a p a b i l i t y of t h e U n i t e d States Army i n i t s r o l e of d e f e n d i n g

t h e v a s t new l a n d .

Although a g r e a t d e a l of e f f o r t went i n t o

t h e Commission's work and r e p o r t s on t h e i r f i n d i n g s , i t s h o u l d

be remembezed t h a t M c C l e l l a n ' s r e p o r t w a s p r e s e n t e d i n 1 8 5 7 ,
Mordecai's i n 1 8 6 0 , and D e l a f i e l d ' s - t h e

most comprehensive

of t h e three--was

n o t w r i t t e n u n t i l 1 8 5 8 and 1 8 6 0 , and n o t

75

published u n t i l 1861.

I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t s o f e w of

t h e i r f i n d i n g s and recommendations were implemented o r even a r e r u p t e d some few months a f t e r considered before the Civil W
t h e last r e p o r t w a s p u b l i s h e d ,

When t h e bombardment of F o r t

Sumter began on 1 2 A p r i l 1 8 6 1 , t h e n a t i o n w a s no more p r e -

p a r e d f o r w a r t h a n ever,

76

NOTES

'Richard W e i n e r t , "The Year M c C l e l l a n S t u d i e d War i n Europe,'' C i v i l W a r T i m e s I l l u s t r a t e d , V o l . 2 , N o . 2 , May 1 9 6 3 , p . 39. 'Colonel R. D e l a f i e l d , R e p o r t on t h e A r t of War i n Europe, C o n g r e s s , House, 3 6 t h Congress, 2nd S e s s i o n , 1861, p . 1.

U.S.

5 ~ b i t ~p ..
%bid.

3.

7Weinert, p. 4 1 .
8 D e l a . f i e l d , pp.

1 and XXIV.

'Weinert,

p . 41.

"Majc8r A l f r e d Mordecai, M i l i t a r y Commission t o Europe i n 1855 and 1 8 5 6 , U.S. C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , 3 6 t h C o n g r e s s , 1 s t S e s sion, 1 8 6 0 p . 3.

"G. S. H i l l a r d , L i f e and Campaigns of George B. M c C l e l l a n , ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J. B. L i p p i n c o t t and C o o , 1864), pp. 81-82; a s e c o n d s o u r c e , Dunbar Rowland, e d . , J e f f e r s o n Davis, C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t , H i s L e t t e r s , P a p e r s and S p e e c h e s , V o l . I1 (New York: J. J . L i t t l e and I v e s Co., 1923) N2, p. 2 2 0 , i n d i cates M c C l e l l a n w a s p r e s i d e n t of t h e S t . L o u i s and C i n c i n n a t i .

'*Hilliard,
l3 Ibid.

pp.

86-133;

Rowland, Vol. 11, N2, p . 2 2 0 .

Rowland.

77

APPENDIX A

THE SECRETARY OF WAR'S

INSTRUCTIONS

TO THE

MILITARY COMMISSION
WAR DLPARTMLNT, Washington,. d p d 2, 18%. form a commission to visit Europe, for the purpose of obmining infomation with re,pd to the military service in general, and especially the practical working of the changes which have been introduced of lnLe .years into :he military systems of the principal nations of Europe. Some of !hr mbjects to which it is peculiarly desimble t o direct your attention map be indicated M follows: Ti.<i.aF:Lt,,izaLio!l of nrtuies a11d of tlie cic;m-cmeiits far furnishill; sup;I:ic'p of all kinds to the trcmps, cspecidly i n field +:~-:Ic~. . Ti,! r n ~ i ~ i of ~ c dtstrii~u:iti; r .siipll!its. T r i p firritip up of rcssels for transporung inen and Iiorscs, aud the arrangements for embarking and diremharkillg :nem. The nicdical and hospital nrracgements, both in permanent hospitals and i n the field. T h e h n d of m i ~ u i 3 n c e s or odler means used for transporting the sick and wounded. T h e kind of clothing and camp equipage used for service in the field. T h e kinds of arms, ammunition, and accouterments used in equipping troops for the various branches of service, and tlleir odaptauon to the purposes intended. In this respect, the arms and equipmenu of cavalry of all kinds will claim your partrcular atlention. T h e pracLiwl advantages and disadvantages attending the use of the rarious kinds of rifie arms which IIAW been lateiv introduced csieiisively in European wnriare. T h e nnture and efficiency of ordnance And ammunition employed for field nnd siege operations, and the practicni erect of the late clinnges partially made i n rhe French field artillery. The rmstruction of permanent fortifications, the arrangement of new Rystems of sea-coant and land defenses, and the kinds of ordriancc used in thc armament of them-the Lancaster gun, and other rifle cannon, if any are ured.' T h e composition of trains for siege operations, the kind and quantity of ordnance, Llie engineering operations of a siege i n all its branches, both of attack and defense. T h e composidon of bridge traine, kinds of boats, wagons, &c. T h e coiistruction of casemated forts, and the effects produced on them in attacks by land and water. T h e USE of camels for transporuition, and their adaptation LO cold and mountainous countrier. T o accomplish the objects of your expedition most effectually in the shortest time, it appeam u) be advisable that y m should proceed aa soon a8 possible to the theater of war in the Crimea, for the purpose of obrerving the actire opemtionr in that quarter. You will then present yourselves to the commanders of the several armies and requemt from them such authority and faciliucs as they may be pleased to grant for enabling you to make the necessary observations and inquiries. T o u may find it prncticable to enter Scbastopol and to proceed through Russia to St. Petersburg, with the riew of visiting the works and seeing tile operations which may be carried on in the Baltic. Should it not be porsible o r advisable to enter P.ussia ir! this WRY, you may be able to nccomplish the same object b y passing through Auatria and Prursia. In prurning from Russia, you will have an opportunity of seeing the military eatablishmenta of Prueria, Auitria, F r a n c s ,and England. T h e arrangements of your journey muRt be regulated i n a general measure by the state of affairs exirting on your arrival in Europe and the information you m a r acquire there. Letters are herewith furnished to you for our Ninirtrrs i n Europe, requesting them to afford you the aid in their power in accljmplishing the objects of your mission. F m d r for defraying the expeluer of your journey are placed in the handr of Major Mod&, r ho will dirbum nnd n c m m t for them. You are auhoriztd to UIC a podon of these fuadr in purchasing for thir dqmnment new bookr, drawingm, and patrernr of a m r and equipmenu, which you may consider of rufficient value in o u r service to -2 the expcoditure. . . . -wing until your r e c m to the U n i t e d Stam a'full accouat of your erpedilion and the infornutian you may obtain, you a i l 1 nport to the Secre,ycg of W a r from time to time, a s opportunity map oifer, the progresr of your journey, and ramarks on the subjects within the scope of yovr instruction3 which you may wish to communicnte. 111 correspondence of this kind, proceeding either from the Commission jointly or from a n y member o f it, will be fQrwarded, according to military us-and regulations, through the senior o!?icer present. (Major Delafield w a s tht: w n i o r member of the Commission.) It i s desimble that you should return home b y the 1st of November, 1853. If you should find it essential h r 1:rfccting :be objecu of your mission in a satisfactory manner to remain longer than that time, you will report the circumamnces, so as to give t i m e for a n answer, in due season. R 4 l h c e is placed on your judgment and discretion to conduct your movements in such a manner as to give no rcnsonable ground for suspicion o r otfense to the military o r other government authorities with whom YOU mag have intercourse. Very .respectfully, your obedient servant,
GESTLEMES: YOU have been selected
to
'

JEFFERSON DAVIS,
Sccrrtaq of War.

Major R. DELAFIZLD, Major A. ,MORDECAI, Captain G. B. MCCLELUN,

Uniltd Statas A m y .

79

APPENDIX B

DELAFIELD'S LETTER TO THE SECRETARY OF WAR

-ip -

5-

FORT RICHMOAP, HARBOR OF Smv TOM, August 11, 1266.

SIE : I desire now t o 18.y before you a general outline of the notes a n d observations, with other information collected by me as a member of the Military Commission to the Crimea, &c., instituted bp your special order of the 2d April, 1855, with the hope you may not be disappointed in the expectations then formed of deriving therefrom 6ome advantages for our military serrice and general welfare of the country. The contest t,hat commenced, in 1S54, between the principal military and naval powers of Europe: Fare rise: during its progress, t.0 t h e belief that t h e a r t of war had undergone some ::1iii+:yikl than ges since tile days ijf Snpclleclri a r ~ d TTelli 1; g o n . [luti t h a t new prixi!,les cttack . . ;.!iLt LL?:C!I.GV hail w e n resoxed to, in tile 1)rl.llongecl ilcicuse Ly the Eussians 01' the land and sea Ticjnts of Sebastopol, and in the great preparations made by tlie allies for reducing the seadefenses of Cronstadt and Sebastopol. On examination, this change will be found mainly i n the increased magnitude of the engines of war, and the perfection t o which they have been brought by the unceasing application of talent and skill to their improvement, accomplished by the accuracy and rapidity of workmanship by the machinerF of' the arsenals of t h e present day, and that f'em new principles h a r e heen introduced with much success in the late contest. For a long period the continental powers had been occupied in preparing large quantities of \ munitions of war, on which they had bestored all the skill and intelligence t h a t could be commanded from the fruits of the various theoretical and p r a c h l seminaries, established i n every kingdom. Like attention was given to the personal of their armies. Oficers: non-commissioned officers, and private soldiers, as well as the ausiliary branches of the profession, such as t h e medical, reterinary, transport, commissariat, ponton , topographical, engineer, and other branches of service, mere, as a general rule, all provided with G P E C W SCHOOLS of instruction, both theoretical and practical. To such a n extent has i t been carried on the continent, t h a t the militarF profession is not only indispensable for the protection of the existing governments against each other's encroachments, but plwes t h a t profession first in importance in the estimation of the sovereign power, taking rank and receiving honors the highest in the gift of the -- . monarch to bestow upon a subject. It is important w e should understand this in connection wit.h i t i bearing upon tlie welfare of' our country in a political as well as military point of' view. T h e continental nations are compelled to keep large standing armies on foot, and great military resource8 prepared, from their appreliension of each other. As one power increases its military efficiency, whether by-the . invention of a new weapon, or b r men a n d fortresses, the neighboring nations, a6 a means of self-preserration, are compelled to do l&e,wise. The tendency is thus constantly to incretrse ; although clearly and well iinderstood..&yhe ...- *. various governments to be impoverishing tlic
1 -

81

+? 4-f-v- ' ; < s .,- . 8- ',>. I-na%ion,by withdrawing so much inkmtry from .,*
-'&;'

-.-

+-,-

- L&TEB
. a
a
.

.-

. c

.* +TO THE SECBETAR;.

I

OF WAB.
.

-.

..rY

the soil, m-anufactnres, and commerce, while it Increases the expenses of the State; at the same time that it &minishes its ability tocreate wealth to fill its coffers. We must for a long time to come look to this continued preparation in the art of mar as an established fact, and study its consequences in our relations with the Eastern, World. We must bear in mind, that so important is the military profession, or the a r t of self-defense, as it has now become, with the neighboring powers of Europe, that the youth of the nobles? M well as the princes of the reigning families, receive military educations. BYa consequence, the reigniug monarchs are professionally educated soldiers, with ability to judge understandingly of the merits of any improvements. proposed in the art of war, and capable of commanding either as infantry, cavalry, or engineer officers, with a lalent and skill equal to any of their generalu, only snrpassed by such as posfiess that genius with which nature alone gifts the mind. The three Emperors of the continent a t the present time, to wit : of Russia,.Austria, and France, are unquestionably highly educated statesmen and soldiers. One of them is a writer, and inventor of military science and art. They are not mere instruments of royalty, controlled by counselors of state of superior intellect, but hold in their hands the pover and resources of their respective nations, governed only by their best judgments and council of ministers of state. This great preparation a n d resources for \;Far esist, and must continue to esist, as a precautionary measure, with a tendency to increase by all that a r t and science can bring to its aid, (lirected bp the minds of a few individiiala, with power to apply it with all the celerity that singleness of purpose can effect, wheresoever the governing spirit may be influenced, either by interest, the blind infatuation and wickedness of the human mind, or self-defense. We should not be indifferent spectators of this perfection of the military a r t and its concentration in command of the fern. The moneyed interest, as a general rule, is in the haucts of t h e nobles and aristocracy. Their welfare aiicl happiness is that of the monarchy. EreTT principle :~pon which that form of government esists is ~ n ~ ; L ~ - J i i i ~t~ oi oiir c ; t lown. Ever7 policicxl le:~d:r, or friendly aud social one, written from our c o u n t q to an European, carries information o i the privileges and rights of man and property, as here understood and practiced, entirely at variance with those governing the. nations of Europe. The foundation of their system, and the prosperityand happiness of the wealthy classes, is constantly warred upon by our individuality of thought, and its espression in the freedom of o u r press. It must not $hen be surprising that me can have xo m s POLITICULY in the governing powers of the Eastern World, and it requires no stretch of the imagination to look forrard to a combination of the powers of those aniagonistic forms of governuient to attempt to check the growing influence that ,constantly, though slowly, tends to crush the ruling pricciple, and with it involve the governors, nobles, aristocracy, and monarchs in ruin. Their self-preservation E u s t always cauae them to look with anxiety and apprehension to our growth, and ere it becomes all powerful t o combine in. some way to prptect themselves. The peaceful arts are a counterpoise to the disturbance of amicable relations, yet they did not suffice to prevent the cornhination. of: several monarchies to restriin the growing power of one of their neighbors,' and may hare no stronger influence to prevent a combination against our Repnblic when its growth' in like manner endangers their prosperity. Our resources are unquestionably g p a t , and equal to severql of the powers of Europe combined, but our preparation in material, equipment, knowledge of the art of war, and other meting cdtlet'ense, is i1.J limitect and inefficient, as thei.rs is powerful and ~ W R rend?. ~ Y As a nation, other than in resources and general intelligence of our people, T T e are without the elements of military knowledge and esciency for sudden emergency ; while no nation on earth can more certainly put itself in a condition to set any hostile force a t defiance. We-possess a nucleus of m i h r y * k n o w I e d g e in the country barely sufficient for the wants of niir army in time of peace, mitholit facilities for practicing the arts of the several arms, pr 82

LETTER TO THE SECRETARY OF T A R .

nieans of forming, creating, or instructing any of the personnel than the officer. The auxiliary branches are not provided for. Our sea-coast defenses are not conducted with as much energy H S a n individual Ijest,ows i n building a residence for his family; the latter: in man? instances, expendiug more in a year on his dwelling than our people will authorize to be expended in the same time for the defknse of a city. It is undeniable that of the number of guns needed for the defense of our sea-coast the nation does not contain, including the whole standing army, men enough that know how to fire h o t and hollow shot to provide a single man for a sixth part of the guns. In this unprepared state, on ourpart, several of the powers of Eiirope have s t e a m transports and munitions, with fleets superior to our own, ready at any moment to throw on our cbast, in no longer time than is necessary to steam across t.he Atlantic, disciplined armies that could land in six hours after anchoring, do us injury and cripple our resources to an extent that would . . . . require a long time to restore. =-:The late European contest has shown how rapidly the continental powerscduld.krchtb the coast and embark detachments of from ten to twenty thousand disciplined troops in steam transports: accommodating a thousand u e n each: with supplies for a roTage equal to croseing to our shores; pet with a blind indifference, professing a t the same time to be all powerful, our people neglect the many.calls and statements of those they appoint to study this subject, leaving us a t the mercy, in the first years of a conflict, of either of the naval and military powers of the Old World. . .

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Kerning t,he subject in all its bearings, I am more impressed than ever with our comparative want of preparation and military knowledge in the county, and that the Secretary of War will dn a great good gemice to the nation by increasing- the mathriel and munitions. means of tIt.ft.iiw: auil the clifYueio:i of ixilitar,v information iu every possillle war t h a t our ii1etitutio:ls will permit, Titbout creating any more of a standing arm^ than the growth of the country calls for, preparatory to that great struggle which sooner or later-may be forced upon us, and to resist which, with our present means, we are comparatively unprepared. W i t h the hope that what it m a p be in my power to lay before you map conduce to suchend, .I herewith communicate the information collected by me under your :instructions of the 2d April, 1555.
.

..-

RICHARD DELAFIELD,
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. Najor o f Engineers. .

.Hen. JEFFERSON DAVIS,

Secretary
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of

War.
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83

APPENDIX C

LIST OF BOOKS.

DRAWINGS. MAPS. AND SPECIMENS

BROUGHT BY THE COMMISSION

L l S T OF B O O K S . D R A W I N G S . E T C . ,

Douglass on had GunneqEdinburgh Pceriew. April. 1 8 % Quecns Regulations for the A m y . and Addenda FcFrSRnnE Fnrtification 0 . .. Caralrp Ori tpost Duty ................................................................. : .................................................. Caralry Regulations Xolans Hislory and Tactics of Caralrp 3-oians C a n l r y RcmounL Horses Quartermaster Generals Instructions Thnckeray s 3 f a u u d of K d e F i r i n g Instructions felt Bf usketq- Firing ...................................................................................................... Platoon Exercise for Nusket and Rifle Pendcrgrasts Law for Officers of h e Army ........................................................................................ hlcnioir on Crimcan Expcdition. jtra.ns1ntr.d from Frcnc!)) ................................................................... Tile Xn!zkoE! Jr ..ker~~.=r;l. and Ki.!, c r n ............................................................................................... Am.17 List. 1 5 6............................................................................................................................. S a q - List. l S 5 .................................................. ........................................................................... Repcjrts of Sebastopol Comniittee of H o u s e of Conimons Report . on . thc Army in the Crirnea, and Appendix Xeport on t!le Capitulation of Ears Commissary General Faders Letter L c t t e n o f J.ords CarCigan and Lucan Report on Saidhursl Afilitary S-hool ............................................................................................... : Report of Small Arms Committee, and Indcx Report of Conixission G I ~Manufacture of Ordnance on t : ; c Continent df Europe-Presentcd b y 1 3 G i I . Pllr . a50 D sell Report of Commission on Machincry i n the Uniled States-Pmented IJJ H o n Mr hfonic ll Rursele Letters from the Crimea sapolcons S e w Sps:cm of Field Artillery Shirley on Transport of CoTairy Cardry Sword Exert;ee General Orders of the Army in thc East Suaiths Fortification Spccification of a F o r t on the Isle of Wight Report on Barrack Accommodation Repon on the P a r i s Exposition of Industry Ducketts Xilitary Dictionary, (German and English) P m p h l e t on h n b u l a o c e s Guide Book of Germany &&!c Book of Ruesin C;uidc Boolc of Grcccc ant! T u r k e y Guide Book of Northern Italy Guide PJool; of France.....................................................................................................................
.

............ .................................................................................................. 1 volume . ......................................................................................................... 1 ................................................................................ 2 Tolunco . .................................................................................................................1 rol . nnci a t l u. 1 yolumc . ........................................................................................................................ 1 ............................................................................................. 1 .................................................................................................... 1 ................................................................................................ 1

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1 rolume

1
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................................................................................................................................... 1 rolumc . . . ..................... 1 ...................................................................... .............................. 1 .......................................................................................... 1 ...................................................................................................... 1 .................................................................................................................. 1 ........................................................................................... 1 2 vol . and a h. .................................................................................................................. . ................................................................................................... 1 rclume . ....................................................................................... 1 ........................................................................ 1 ................................................................................................................. 1 .................................................................................................................. 1 .....................................................................................................................1 ................................................................................................... 1 ........................................................................................................ 1
1

French Books.
. Ordonname de C a ~ c r i c
Service In&eure

.........-........................................................................................................3 volumes.
.............................................................................................
85
I rnlumc .

dcr T r o n p 1 Chconl

LIST OF BOOKS. DRAWINGS. ETC

sl+ge

de Ec,mwsund........................................................................................................................ 1 volumc . Louis >.npo]&, n.>Ianuel dArtillerie.............................................................................................. 1 Vaucllc\]c-Cours d.i dminis.nttion .................................................................................................. 3 volumes . 0ri;onznrlcC sur scrrjce en Can;pcqne ............................................................................................. 1 uolumc . ~ . ~ c.ion ~ su: t ~1i .~ tir ,d u Fusil dt: 1.2 Gnrde ImpCriolc .............................................................................. 1 & i.; n-E:ude5 SUr ] c. S e n i c e de Sant.2............................................................................................... 1 3 1 d j O t e r Puel--;Gd e.MiAnoire Medxo-legd dc IOfficier dc 1. D e j Plajes dArmcs 5 FCU 1 Boudin.&pmtions > f e d i d e s de hcrutement 1 &ure]41lirur,o ie K a r a l e : 1 R o u b a u d d u r les H6pitaux I : 1 Papdlon-De la Yenulation Apphqu6e ii 1HygiiCoe Militaire 1 Eoudin-Etudes uur le C h a u E w , &c., des tdiiices P u b l i c s 1 A n n u i r e bfilit&re, 1555 i 1 Systeme d&nbulances 1 Doudh-Ventilation des Hbpiraux 1 Verdu->Iines de Guerre 1 Projet di: tir des Csrabines d?infanterie 1 Instruction sur le tir des C h a s s e u n 3 Pied 1 c ~ . d ~a ~c r .e sur Ic Scrrice dts Places ................................................................................................. 1 . . ~rJounnrtce sur la Scrrice IntErieur ..... 1 E s s i s sur In Fortification Xoderne 1 rol and . atlas. 1ns:n:cticn s;v ;P tir dlrlillerie 1 volLme . Instructicns et Circulaires stii le Service des Subsistences 1 hIangin, 31Emoire sur 13 Fortification Polygonale 1 h? 1 t P c r i sur l&ole Pol~3echnique Journal X i l i t i r e 05citl-Annees lS51, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855 9 rolurnes. JIauricr de Sel!oc-Eturhs sur les Fortresses de Blayence e t Ulin ......................................................... 1 vol nnd . a~lna . DCfc~s!: S h : i < t i ; a ; p 4 e IAfi~i~t~rre.~ ........................................................................ 1 volume . PORU LC C h e n i e : s 1 S o t i c e sur les FL;S~CS .......................................................................................... 1 Examen du Sj-strmt de Cavaili 1 3iCmoire s u r h t a d t 1 YO] and . atias . blciorid de lEn$nicur 1 ool and . atlas. Mimorial 2e l0bcier du Ggnie-Tomes l 2 ,13, 11, 15, 16, et Table! de M ~ t i & r e s 6 volumcs . Baucher-Oeunes Completes, Equitation, &c 1 volume . C u m i e u C c i e n c e Hippique, i 1 DAidEFier-Tacrique de C a r d r r i e A 1 LamoriciCre-Phpport su: !US Hrrras 1 Caniirc-Force Nilikure de IAueichs 1 Guillot-Lcgislation et Adminismtion Militaires 1 Paishzns-C onsti.ution Sfilitaire de la France 1 Dupnrcq-Etudes sur In Pr~sac 1 Bonet Villaurnez-Pntail?es de T t r r e and dc hler 1 Robcr:-Si&cs Remarquzbles 1 Dupnrcq-Armfcs des Puissances e n o w&s d a m In questiou de IOrient 1 LYunE-XiZc.., IEnioire du GEnir 1 3 l h o r i ; l l d Arti!lkrie-Tories 5 , 6, i, et atlas 4 volumcs . . L o u i s Sapoleon-Etudes s u r IArllllerie 2 . Programme dc 1hseignement pour 1Ecole Polytechnique 1 volume . EIXY-.~ Kuu de Xorricr:, &c.-LitLopphie : : I - . Bouclws Fcu en Ironsc do t 1 Rig1en:e:it sur lcs Xlnncruwes d Arti!lerie, 1847 1 NCmoriaI dc 105cicr d l ~ h i t t r k and de Covalcrie 3 Bibiiothrquc du Sous Oiiicier 1 I z .Rouvri-;~;dc,-~Ii.moirc. d h t X n j o r 1 H d ~ ~ t - E q ~ id pi.~Ponts p :.,,. 1 rol and . atlm. . 1 volumr . Eirago do Cav-alli do : 1 . . AndrLossy4pEratior.a dcs Pontonniers Fmn+ ...-. 1 Slanucl FZgleair.ntairc dc lkcole dEtat Mcjor 1 nXrcnLcrg-DQfcnse di.3 Placcs 1 Z.7rrnii i -Fnrt i F l mt int i .................................................................................................................... 1 rol rnd . ntlns.

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86

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LIST OF KIOOKS. DRAWSGS. GTC .

Grivet-La Marine Dnns l'-iitaque dcs Plnws 1 volu1u r.. Sa~ez..A ppliwtion dc I'PiectricitE P la hlesurc de 13 Vitcsse des Projectiles ........................................... 1 Espr'ricnccs dc Eapnumc.-?rlincs. &c.............................................................................................. 1 Zotic.r-Epmu~c:re P o m t i w ............................................................................................................ 1 volamr . XzrLin dc.Ercttes-Projct dc Chronogmphc ....................................................................................... 1 La Fi\r-.4id e.3!.moirc d e I'lrtillcric Savnle ..................... i .............................................................. 1 Xangcot-Trait6 du Fusil de Chnsse 1 Chertier-Feus d'.4nifices a 1 Documcnts Relatifs nu Coton DEronant . 1 Rcmond-.A mes3 Feu Portatires 1 Anquctil-Pistcikts Tourmnts 1 Cours AbreE d'4rtifices 1 wl . a i d allas . B o n n a o a - S u r les Shrrrpnels : 1 ro!unie . Dclobcl-R8vue de Technologie Nilitaire 2 rolumcs. Decker-Experiences s u r Ics Shrnpncls : 1 v0lu1nc . De hiassas--?ri moire sur les C ui~rrs, &c 1 Experiences d'Artillerie, faites i L'Orient 1 3farion-Receail des Bouchcs f feu lee plus remarquables--1 25 planches c t texte . Bismark-Tactique de Clrralcrie 1 Emploi de la Canieric i la Guerre 1 Saiiir Anp-Cours d'flippologie 2 toluines . Cardini-Pictionnab? d 'Xlppiatrique 2 Mussot-Commentaircs sur 1'Equitation 1 rolumc . GuErL>-Ecolc de C a d e r i c DU hlanSge 1 D'Aure-Coun d 'Equitation Militaire 1 Livrct d u &Idst ci'l~~funterie, de Chasseurs H Pied, de Cnmlerie, d'Arullerie .......................................... 4 Tolum~s . D'Arboral-Dic:ionnaire de MEdecine et dc Chirurgic Vetirinaires 6 vols . nnd atlas . I n s t n d o n en Satation ........................................................................... 1 Tolume . Escr iFe ?L la Baioznctte .................................................................................................................. 1 Fi=.v&-Cocrs 2 T-iKromcs ................................................................................................................ 1 Has:iiacsen-z:cdi.s sur la Russie, (t!ni~slitlcdfrom thc German j ......................................................... 3 Toiurncs. Force liilitairc de l a Russic, (translated fropl t'hc German) ............................................... 1 yolumc . Paskiewitcb-Priae de Varsovie ..................................................................................................... 1 Teliakoffskj-Fortification pcrmmentc, (rmnslnted from the Russian) ......... 1 rol . and at!- . Burg-Deesin Giometrique 2 volunicr . Zastrow-MZmoirc sur la Fortification, traduit par D e &I1011 1 volume . D e u z i b e hlerooire b u r 1 'Erpidition cn Crimk ................................................................................. 1 Martin des Brettes-Etudcs sur Ics Appnrcils Elcctro.?cln,a .~iqucs 1 -4rti6ccs Ec.lairantcs ...1 Fonton-La P.ussie en -4sic Mineure 1 vol . nnd arlu s. hfanuci du Commis 3u V i n e s 1 T-olumc. Gillion-burs sur les Armee Portatircr 1 Instruction m r le MauEriel de I'ArriUerie Belge 1 Reglemtnt BUT les Exercises de l ' m l e r i e Belge 1 Tiliemy-Memoire sur le C h e d e t Relge 1 k z z i n s du Mat6ricl de I'Arrilleric Belge-Prerented by the Ninirter of W N. Mgmoria Sobre In Fabrica de h a s , LiCge, (in Spanish) 1 Memorial de'Iagenicroa, (Spanirb-from 1846 to 1855.). . . L e Blano-Aha VglCrinaire 1 Boulay et Raynal-Dietionnaire VCctrinain : ......... 1 Cours de hlarchalerie 1 Dilwart-Medecine Vterinake 1 3quinot de Presle-Coum d'Art Militairr 1 Block-Dictionnairc dc I'Adrninirtralion 1 ptlru 0 . Memoires 8ur I'HTgiEnie Vc'trinaire 6 volunicr . Emy-Fabrication dcs Armem Portativer. lithog 1 volumc . r.2suA-3 .ooucl d c 'XrtiGcicr ......................................................................................................... 1 Bellcr.cmtr c-Tir 3 Richochct, lirhog 1 3 ro1uinc.s. Artifices dc Guerre de la Marine. lithog P o n w l e t C o u r s dc M b n i q u e Appliquk. lithog 1 rolumc . Jourjon-(hum d'brt Mjlitaire, (fortification, ) lithog 1 A d a n c & ~ de Coontructioar, lithog 1 C u l m d u r Icr Chaur et Morticn, lithog 1

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87

LIST OF 000ES. DEAWISGS. ETC .

h'ouvelles Annales de Constructions, 1855, 1856 21 numbers. Cours de GFmnasiique 1 t o 1 and a h . Cours de Comruandes ...............................................................................5...... 1 volume .

................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................ ................................................ ................................_............................. C o u r s de JIGcaniquc e i de >.lacliines ......................................................................................... 1 Courj de Topogriiphie ............................................ .............................................................. 1 3l&oire sur le Tir Conwrgent des Vaisseaur .....................................................................................1 Chev(rt-Syst2me de hlusique Vocale . ; ............................................................................................... 1
i

Cours de 1 '&ole Polytechniquc. lirhog., viz: Cours dc P h p i q u e 2 rolunicy . Sommaire des Cours de Physique 1 volume . Cnrirs d'Astrfinninie et d e G6odGsie ...........................................................................................1 Ccqirs d'Art 3li!it3irc 1

.................................................................................. ................................................................................................................... ............................... . GamanBooh.

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Kmicke-Description and Drawings of the Pruvsriw Artillery Tent and plates. Descripuon and Dnrwings of the X e w Field Artillery of 1342 1 vol .and plates . Hofmsn-Course of Instruction for Officers. on Ordnance and Small Aims 1volume Djobeck-Engheers' Aide-MEmoire 1 SL-:! 2 .',i.t .9~ ?.Ir.:;~.fkctce o f G..?.p\vdc., (LransL:cc! !-I. a!~. .C !....:..I). ............................................. 1 TVit:ich's FortiEcauon .I Schminck 's Fortification 1 . Prussian A m p LisL 1 Prussian Articles of mar, (in French)' 'I Regulations for thc Gorernment of Hospitals 1 Haadbook fcr H o s p i d X ~ s i s ~ ~ t s 1 Schiifer-Circulars of the Surgeon General 2 volumes br~!.n!-Medicd Smite in the Field ............................................................................................. 1 r o l u l e. G--f.c--_?,rti!lery X o r s e Equipmcnts 1 EL.. Gbcsa., k of C a r a l r r Fieid & n i c e 1 M;Ns-.?L i d c J I h o i r e for Cavalry 1 Buschhk-Ficld Pocket-book 1 Regulauons for tbe Clothing of the Troops 1 Infantry Tactics 1 Cardry Tactics 1 Fleck-Punishmenu by Courts-Martial 1 Friccins-Nilitlry Laws from 1835 to 1850. Busch and HoCnxu+-PFrotechnF 1 S r i d l e r - O n Equiution 1 On B r e h g k i d Horses 1 K a m e k e - O n Pcrcussion Arms 1 KlcLlie-Explanation of l r t i c l e s of W a r 1 On 3 l i I i m Punishmen ~ 1 H e r s t a t t - C o r a l y Catechism i 1 Directions for Saddling and Pocking 1 Instmction for Li$t Cavalq1 Eserciws with Pistol and Cttrbine 1 . . ron Drill 1 Fuo J 1 Corzlry Commands . . ScIumuid-Covalry Percussioir Arms 1 Compendium for 05cer.p in the Field ; 1 'IFittich-Iustructions for thc 31arck 1 Mi!itnry V'ndc Mecum 1 Tactics of Light Percuvsion Arms 1 Schon-IiiIaniry RilL Arnir 1. 1 Hirtenfcld-Handbook of European Armics 7 Oficiai Regulations and Insiruc~ions:on Schools. TIcpairs of .4rnis. &c 1 p m 1 voluilie . O e n n l i u s e n - G u i d e for Rider and Horsc HertwiS-Core of the Horse 1 1 Velerinnrp Surgery V e t e r i n q Medicinc 1 1 ; Stir.r-S;iidies in 3 l y o i i r y

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LIST OF COOKS. D R A W X G S . ETC

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1 2 rolamts 1. 1.0. m e 1

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KalkstciD-The Prusoinn Army. (organization. &c.) Kdischniidt-German and Er,g!ish Dictionary Sc h \v c i I 1it z- E s pc d iii o n t o Eo Inm u n d Siegnim-Cnvalry Tactics ............................................................................................................... -. Rr s t o rf-T h c o r j- of F 1rc -a rni P .......................................................................................................... R us I ow-@ 11 i :I i6 1rill s ................................................ ;............................................................... Fescs-Trratise on Ei1ginwring Oclze-Xfaoual of Artillery Danmeyer-OfFirers Aide-hfhoite Regulation for C a d T Xfnnceur-era Tauhrt-Tactics of Field Artillery : i .-. Zastrow-Permanent Fortification Witrleben-Army and Infan t r y S e m c e : Du Fignau-& Iodibcationn Required in Field Artillery i Handbook for Engineer Service F6rster-Light Infantry Service . Defeoaes of D80tzk, (translated from Lhc Spanish) Description of wrought-iron Gun Camages-Presented by the Ninister of W a r Pro,pam me u d Regulations of the Engineer and Artillery School at Berlin Regulations of the Dirisinn School

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1

0th

Regulations for Pioneer Instruction 1 Regdatioils for Instruction of Engineer Troop8 1 Regulations for Esercises of Engineer Troops 1 Rrgulations for Rifle Drill ................................................................................................................ 1 FL;u;arions for Rifle S c n i c e ............................................................................................................ 1 Repittiions for Cnw!ry Exercises .................................................................................................... 1 Regulations for Cavalry Instruction 1 Smolrr-Handbook for -QrUIlerp Officers............................................................................................. 1 Dwyer-Field Pockct Book 1 Wasserthal-Pioneer Sen-ice : 1 HauakncchGuide for Marine Artillery 1 Birago-On Mililary Bridges 1 StrefReur-On the Arms of tlrc Austrian A m p ................................................................................. 1 Instructions for Infantry of die Line ................................................................................................. 1 Erolutions of Infantry of h e Line .................................................................................................... 1 Evoluiions of Car-alry i................ ............................................................... 1 Hauser-Fortifimtions 1 vol . and atlan . Treatise on Nilitvp Miner 1 K6segb-On Pressure of Earth 1 rolume WurmG-Milimrr Constructions 1 Strefileur-Military Inetructiona, &c ; 5 pans Dub-Military Orgnnization ; 1 rolume . Sindier-View of ilic Kern Spstcrn of Military Schoola 1 New Aurtrbn Rifled Arms 1 2 rolumer Grromeycr-3 filirary Medical Practice 2 paru . Isfordink-Nilitsry Medical Polica 1 1 rolurne A u r b M i l i tary H0spi mls Knu-3filitary Medical Service 1 . . H o f s i n g e r 4 a r a l r y &mi= 3 hadozy-on q u i t a t i o n 2 Bijll-On Internal Direaaea of the Horre 1 L a w s blrriirig to Military Puniahrnrnu 1 2 rols . and r d r r . Weia-Course of Conatruclionr 1 vol. u d adas . &&er-Rwds and Railways 1 TO] . and ailar 0 0 Conslrucliona 1 rolumr Ghep-Descriptjon and Views of the Gcmmering Railroad I r o l. and atlas . On R . i ) ~ . y r 1 volume . Kiih-Miliury Surveying 1 rol .and plater &I, cdbTopofm?by

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10

LIST OF BOOKS, DRATISGS, ETC.

hloering-Xotes on the United States Instructions for T r ian gulatjo11-P rcse n t from thc Geogrnph i cnl In 3ti tute T r i a n p l a d o n of the Papal States, do do ................................................. Instructions for Dnwin;, do do ................................................. Schemarismus, or.Xustrian A m y List for 1855 .................................................................................. Provisloij;ri Ilislruc;ion the Exercise of Garrison Gull3 .................................................................... O r q n i a t i o n of rile Austri.zn -4rtill~ry ; ................................................................ Sind-Vrtcrinory Art ...................................................................................................................... HuncnJorff--On Training Homes &umeister-On the Points of a Horse Gunher-Homoeopothic Treatment of Animals Course of h e Josephinum, or Army Medical College Organization of Miliurry Hospitals Fortification for Infiintry Officers

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1 volume.
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

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................................................................................................... ............................................................................................... ................................................................................. 1 .......................................................................... 1 .................................................................................................... 1. ............................... ....'................................................................... 1 rol.'and plater.

Russian Books.

Russinii niid English Dictionary 1 volume. Russian Ind English Grammar 1 Engineer Journal-J&2i to 1855 74 numbers. Bessel's Course of Artillery 1 volume. Resvoy's S o t e a on Artillery, with plates ........................................................................................... 3 parfq. Teiiakofsliy-Fortihc.?tion.; 3 Cavalry Tactics 6 Infitnrry Tocucs 6 Skirmish Drill 1 volume. Instructions for Markers and Guides ................................................................................................. 1 . Foot Artillery Drill .......................................................................................................................... 1 Engineer's and Sapper's Manual 1 Instructions for Sr.ppers and Pioneers...................................................................................... -.. .... 1 POI. and etlas. Cirii E2Zineer's ~ : : d Architect's 3lanual .......................................................................................... 2 Tolumr. 'c so 1 7 -3 :i 1i w y T o p 0 - m p h y ......................................................................................................... 1 Coriui~:nrinorT-Irnpro~-er~ient of Sma!l Arm.. ............ 1 1 On Metal Fuzes Laws for Field and Company Officers 1 M i l i t t q Organization and Ordinances, Ofiicial-Presented by the W a r Deptirtrnent 11 parts. . Programmes of Military Schools, do do 35 1 volume Regulations of 3Lilitary Asylum

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Maps.

Jamis's Map of the Crimeo Map of T u r k e r and the Seat of War 2 Maps of the Environs of Sebastopol. Cute de Sebaatopol, &c. Captah Sprau'~Map of the Defenses and Attack of Sebrutopol.

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-

10 s h e u .
8

Carte de la Crim& Naps of the Black Sea, with description, (in Itdirui.) Carte du Departemenr de Ia Seine. Plan of Cherburp. . . Plan of Lyons. Plan of Toulon. Plan of Strasburg. Plan of Bclfort. Plan of Mnpencc. Plan of Cohlenz. Plan of Posen. Plan of Vcnicc. Plaii of Verona. Plan of Montua. Plan of St: Petersburg. Plnn of Cronatadt. Map of Russia, showing the distribution of troop^.. Map of Runaia, mhowing poat mutca, &c. Map of Ccnvrl Europe.

90

JJST OF BOOKS, DRAWIKGS! ETC.

\,

Photographs of SeLastopol............................................................................................................... 31 sheets. Pian of the Arsenal at Vienna ........................................... :............................................................... 1 sheet. Bird's-eye view of the Arsciial at Vicnna ............................................................................................ 1 Bird s e r e view of the Arsenal at V e r a a 1 Photographs of the Arsenal at Verona, presented by Mr. Sicandabcrg, architect 27 sheet.. Views of the Semnieririg Railroad 30 S u r r e p and drawings from the Geographical Institute, Vienna 17 Specimens of printing from nature, (XaturaelbsUlruck)-Prercntcd by hlr. Aue:, director of the Imperial , printiag office, Vienna ; 1 rorumc. View of the Cadef School at Hainburg. ; 1 sheet. 1 Birds-eye view of the new Artillery and Engineer School at Wiener ncurtadt Ausm*sn Ordnance and Artillery 15 rhecu.

........................................................................................... ....................................... ........................................................... ........................................... ............................................................. ... ......................................... . ............................. ................................... ..................................................... ....................................... ......................................... ....................................................................................................... Ausuian Ambulanccr...................................................................................................................... 4 Drawings of Barracks a t Vienna ...................................................................................................... 7 Dmwhgs made by pupils of Ausuiun Schools, viz: Engineer Academy. ............................................................................... 24 Ardlery Academy .................................................................................. 10 Cadets School, Hainburg ........................................................................ 10 hlilitary Academy, Wiener Keuatadt ......................................................... 43 Artillery School Company, Vienna.....cr ..........-......................................... 47 Flotilla School ..................................................... -. 1................... 7 ............. Marine Academy .................................................................................... 16 Piates of Pmsuiaq wrought-iron Gun Cturiages, .lmbulancea, Pronaion TVagonr, ............................... 34 Saxon Artillery, Ambulances, &................................... i.................................................................. 14 rciforrns of Prussian -4rmr............................................................................................................. 6
&C

C a r n o n Foundery at S p u d a u ......................................................................................................... 1.I Barracks at Berlin ........................................................................................................................... 9 Drawings made by pupile of Prussian Military Schools, viz: Trorincial Military Schoolfi..................................................................... 15 Cadet Corps, Berlin 20 Artillery and Engineer School 18 Drawings of Russian wrought-iron Gun Carriage 4 uniforms of Russian Army 10 Drawings of the Arsenal, the Military Hosphd, and the Nil;- Asylum, at St. Petemburg-Prerenwd by t t e Minister of War. Drnwinp made by pupils at Rusriao Schools, viZ: EnginL.fr School, at St. Petemburg ............................................................ 11 First Corps of Cadets, at St. Petcnb 56 Mechanics Institutc, Moscow I21 Plates of Ordnance, &., relative u) the Cannon Foundery at Litge, (from Colonel Fdcrix) 20 Plates of French Barracks and Stables. P1a&r of English Ambulances 2 . , ;, .

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Spmmens o f A m and Equipmnts.
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AESTRIAN: 2 Rifled Muskets and appendagco-Presented by the govcrnmenr.

do. do. 2 Rifles, do. do. 1 Caralry Saber, 1 box Small Arm Caruidges, do. do. 1 Officers Undress Cap, do. .. do. Pmatam: I Cardry Saddle and equipment. 1 Infantry Knaprack and Canteen and Belt. 1 Offirxra K n a p d . 1 puir Cartridge Boxes and Wdat Belt. 1 pait Medicine Boxer on Wairt Belt. RLISIAY: 1 Cavdrg Belt. 1 Couack Cap. 2 pair Pandoonr, 2 Uniform Conta, 2 Stoekr, 2 Great Coats; @enr by the Minister of War.

of cIorhin,-Pmrntd

91

12

LIST OF DOOKS, DKAJYUGS, ETC.

B e L c i u : 1 Rifie Musket and appeudyneu.

1 Rifle, wid) Sword-bayonet. 1 Adains 6; Deanr'a Revolver. 1 Xorwegian Breech-loading Riflc. 1 Cniforin Cap of Chasseurs B Pied. FRENCH: . Specimens of Auzoux'8 Frcymrations of Anntoiny of tlic Horse, viz: Set of models of the teeth, nt various agcocv. h1odt.i of the leg and foot. Model of the hoof. ENGLLLW: Camp Equipage, p u r c b d for use in the Crirnea.

92

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS

Adye, J o h n , L i e u t - C o l o n e l . A R e v i e w of t h e Crimean W a r , t o t h e Winter of 1854-5. London: H u r s t and B l a c k e t t , Publ i s h e r s , 1860, 2 0 3 pp. A n s c h e l , Eugene, e d . , The American Image of R u s s i a , 177501917, New York: F r e d e r i c k Ungar Pub. C o . , 1 9 7 4 . B a i l e y , Thomas A. A D i p l o m a t i c H i s t o r y of t h e American P e o p l e . 1st e d ; New York: F. S. C r o f t s and C o . , 1 9 4 0 ; and l o t h e d ; Englewood C l i f f s : Prentice-Hall, I n c . , 1980, 979,

America F a c e s R u s s i a : Russian-American R e l a t i o n s From E a r l y T i m e s t o Our Day. Ithaca: Cornell U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 5 0 .

B a r k e r , A. J , The W a r A g a i n s t R u s s i a , 1854-1856. New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r d t , and Winston, 1970 ( F i r s t , P u b l i s h e d i n London under t h e t i t l e of The V a i n s l o r i o u s W a r ) . B e l o h l a v e k , J o h n M.

rician.

Univ. P a r k :

George M i f f l i n D a l l a s , J a c k s o n i a n P a t The Penn S t a t e Univ. Press, 1977.

B e m i s , Samuel Flagg, and Grace Gardner G r i f f i n . Guide t o t h e D i p l o m a t i c H i s t o r y of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , 1775-1921. Washington, D O C I : U.S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1951,
Diplomacy. The American S e c r e t a r i e s of S t a t e and t h e i r Vol. 6 , New York: A l f r e d Knopf, 1928.
rn

and Diplomacy,: 1959

:A W o r t - H i s t o r y of American F o r e i g n P o l i c y Ngw Uosk: Henry H o l t and C o . , I n c . I

B o l k h o v i t i n o v , Niko1a.i N$kolaevich. The B e g i n n i n g s o f RussianAmerican Relatioirj;s~~;-~~~lS5-1815, Elena L e v i n t r a n s . Cambridge : Harvard Univ Press , 1 9 7 5

Bryson, Thomas A. American D i p l o m a t i c R e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e Middle E a s t , 1784-19-75: A Survey. N.J.: Scarecrow Press, I n c . , 1 9 7 7 ,

Codman, John. A n American T r a n s p o r t i n t h e Crimean War, New York: B o n n e l l , S i l v e r and C o . , 1896, 198 p.

94

Cur ti. s , George T i c k n o r , L i f e of James Buchanan, F i f t e e n t h P r e s i d e n t of t h e United S t a t e s . 2 V o l s . , New York: Harper and Bros., 1883.

C u r t i s s , John S h e l t o n . R u s s i a ' s Crimean War. Univ. Press, 1 9 7 9 , 564 p.

Durham:

Duke

D a l l a s , George M i f f l i n . L e t t e r s from London, W r i t t e n from t h e Year 1856 t o 1 8 6 0 . J u l i a D a l l a s , e d . , 2 V o l s . , London: Richard B e n t l e y , 1 8 7 0 .

Da.11 a s , Susan, ed.

Diary of George M i f f l i n D a l l a s : While U.S. M i n i s t e r t o R u s s i a , 1837 t o 1839, and t o England, Philadelphia: J . B. L i p p i n c o t t Co., 1856 t o 1 8 6 1 . 1892.

D a n i e l , Robert L. American P h i l a n t h r o p y i n t h e Near E a s t , 1820-1960. Athens: Ohio Univ. Press, 1 9 7 0 .

Dowty, Alan. The L i m i t s of American I s o l a t i o n : The United New York: N.Y. Univ. P r e s s , S t a t e s and t h e Crimean W a r . 1971. F e r r e l l , Robert. American Diplomacy: W.W. Norton, 1959.
A History.

New York:

F i e l d , James A. America and t h e Mediterranean World, 1 7 7 6 1882. Princeton: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 6 9 . Gooch, B r i s o n D . The O r i g i n s of t h e Crimean W a r . D. C. Heath and Co., 1 9 6 9 , 1 0 7 p. Lexington:

Greaves, Rose L. B r i t a i n , Persia and I n d i a , 172201922. Unpublished monograph p r e p a r e d f o r t h e Cambridge H i s t o r y of I r a n S e r i e s . Hayes, P a u l . The N i n e t e e n t h . .Ceht;'rpry,. 1814-80. Malcolm Robi n s o n , gen. ed. , Modern EI&:Ptish_\. Foreign Policy. New York: S t . M a r t i n ' s Press, 1975.

J e l a v i c h , Barbara. A Century of R u s s i a n F o r e i g n P o l i c y , 1 8 1 4 1914. Philadelphia: J- B e L i p p i n c o t t Co., 1 9 6 4 , 308 p.

J e n s e n , O l i v e r . America and R u s s i a : A Century and a H a l f of Dramatic h n c o u n t e r s . New York: Simon and S c h u s t e r ,

1962.

95

K e l l y , John B. B r i t a i n and t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . Clarendon Press, 1968.

Oxford:

L a s e r s o n , Max M. The American Impact on R u s s i a Diplomatic and I d e o l o g i c a l 1784-1917. New York: The Macmillan C O O , 1950.

Lenczowski, George. The Middle E a s t i n World A f f a i r s . e d . , I t h a c a : C o r n e l l Univ. Press, 1980.

4th

The E a s t e r n Q u e s t i o n : An H i s t o r i c a l S t u d y Marriott, J.A.R. i n European Diplomacy. 4 t h ed., 6 t h p r i n t . , London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1940. P e r k i n s , D e x t e r . The E v o l u t i o n of American F o r e i g n P o l i c y . New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 4 8 . Rowland, Dunbar, ed. J e f f e r s o n D a v i s , C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t , H i s L e t t e r s , P a p e r s and Speeches. V o l s . I1 and 111, New York: J . J. L i t t l e and I v e s Co., 1923. Seaton, Albert. The Crimean War: A R u s s i a n C h r o n i c l e . New York: St. M a r t i n ' s Press, 1977, 232 p. S t a v r i a n o s , L o S. The Balkans S i n c e 1453. R i n e h a r d t and Winston, 1958, 9 7 0 p .
U l a m , Adam.

New York:

Holt,

Expansion and C o e x i s t e n c e : The H i s t o r y of S o v i e t F o r e i g n P o l i c y , 1917-1967. New York: Frederick Prager, 1968.

New York:

Warner, P h i l i p . T h e Crimean-War: A R e a p p r a i s a l . T a p l i n g e r Pub. C o o , 1973, 2 3 2 p. Wesson, R o b e r t G o The R u s s i a n D i l e m m a . R u t g e r s Univ. -Press, 1974.

New Brunswick:

White, Andrew D.' Auiobiaqraphy of Andrew Dickson White. 2 Vols., New York: 'The C e n t u r y C o o , 1905. Woldman, A l b e r t A. L i n c o l n and t h e R u s s i a n s . World Pub. C o . , , 1952.
.
'

New York:

The

PERIODICALS

Baylen, J o s e p h 0. , "Marx's D i s p a t c h e s t o Americans About R u s s i a and t h e W e s t , 1853-56," The S o u t h A t l a n t i c Quart e r l y , Vol. 5 6 , #1, Jan. 1957, pp. 20-26.

96

Brebner, J. B a . r t l e t . " J o s e p h Howe and t h e Crimean War E n l i s t ment C o n t r o v e r s y Between Great B r i t a i n and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , " C a n a d i a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w . V o l . X I , N o . 4, D e c . 1 9 3 0 , pp. 300-327. Dvoichenko-Markov, Euf r o s i n a . "Americans i n t h e Crimean War, I' The Russi.an Review, Vol. 1 3 , N o , 2 , A p r i l 1 9 5 4 , pp. 137145, Golder , Frank A.

Crimean War,"
1 9 2 6 , pp.

"Russian-American R e l a t i o n s During t h e American H i s t o r i c a l Review, Voli 31, May

462-476.

J o n e s , Horace P e r r y . " S o u t h e r n O p i n i o n On t h e Crimean War, The J o u r r a l of M i s s i s s i p p i H i s t o r y , V o l . 2 9 , N o . 2 , May 1 9 6 7 , p p . 95-117. I'American Doctors i n t h e Crimean W a r , I' The Parry, Albert S o u t h A t l a n t i c Q u a r t e r l y , Vol. 5 4 , N o . 4, O c t . 1 9 5 5 , pp. 478-490,

"Russo-American R e l a t i o n s , 1815Thomas, Benjamin P l a t t 1867 J o h n s Hopkins U n i v e r s i t y S t u d i e s i n H i s t o r i c a l and P o l Z . i c a l S c i e n c e , S e r i e s X L V I I I , N o . 2 , 1 9 3 0 , pp. 129-311.

Van A l s t y n e , F:ichard W. "John F. Crampton, C o n s p i r a t o r o r Dupe," The American H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w , Vol, X L I , N o . 3, A p r i l 1 9 3 6 , pp. 492-502.

W e i n e r t , Richa.rd P.

"The Year M c C l e l l a n S t u d i e d War i n E u r o p e , " C i v i l War T i m e s I l l u s t r a t e d , V o l . 2 , N o . 2 , May 1 9 6 3 , pp. 38-41.

" A c t of t h e B r i t i s h Parliament,,, to.,Permit F o r e i g n e r s t o b e E n l i s t e d a n d t o serve-&=-f%ficers and S o l d i e r s i n H e r

_"Convention B e tween t h e U S I -sand R u s s i a , R e s p e c t i n g t h e R i g h t s

of N e u t r a l s a t S e a , " B r i t i s h and F o r e i g n S t a t e P a p e r s , Vol, 4 5 , 1854-1855, pp. 125-126.
"Correspondencre Between t h e U S . and e t c . , R e s p e c t i n g t h e R i g h t s of N e u t r a l i t y , e t c . , " B r i t i s h and F o r e i g n S t a t e P a p e r s , Vol., 4 6 , 1 8 5 5 4 8 5 6 , pp. 821 843.
0

M a j e s t y ' s F o r c e s ," B r i t i s h ' and F o r e i g n S t a t e P a p e r s , Val. 45, 1854-1855, p e w,608-609. . _-

-_-

-- --

97

"Correspondence w i t h t h e United S t a t e s , Relative t o R e c r u i t i n g i n U.S., and t h e N e u t r a l i t y of t h e U.S. i n t h e W a r Between Great B r i t a i n , e t c . , & R u s s i a , " B r i t i s h and F o r e i g n S t a t e P a p e r s , Vol. 47, 1856-1857, pp. 358-474.

Report on The A r t of War I n D e l a f i e l d , R i c h a r d , Major. Europe i n 1 8 5 4 , 1 8 5 5 , and 1 8 5 6 , U.S. Congress, House of R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , 3 6 t h Congress, 2nd S e s s i o n , 1861.
IvlcClellan, George B.,

C a p t a i n , R e p o r t of One of t h e O f f i c e r s S e n t t o The S e a t of War i n Europe i n 1855 and 1 8 5 6 , U.S. Congress, S e n a t e , S p e c i a l S e s s i o n , 1857.

''Message of t h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( w i t h ) I n f o r m a t i o n R e s p e c t i n g t h e P r o c e e d i n g s of t h e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e European P o w e r s a t a C o n g r e s s Held a t P a r i s , R e l a t i v e t o N e u t r a l R i g h t s , I 1 U.S. C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , 3 4 t h Congress, 1 s t S e s s i o n , 1856.

"Message of t h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Communicating I n f o r m a t i o n C o n c e r n i n g t h e C e s s a t i o n of I n t e r c o u r s e w i t h t h e B r i t i s h M i n i s t e r s , I 1 U.S. C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , 3 4 t h Congress, 1st S e s s i o n , 1856.

"Message of t h e P r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s R e l a t i n g t o t h e C o r r e s p o n d e n c e Between The Governments of t h e U . S . a n d Great B r i t a i n , R e l a t i v e t o t h e E n l i s t m e n t s of t h e S o l d i e r s by t h e Agents of t h e L a t t e r Government w i t h i n t h e T e r r i t o r y of t h e U.S.," U S . Congress, S e n a t e , 3 4 t h C o n g r e s s , 1st S e s s i o n , 1856.
M o r d e c a i , A l f r e d , Major. M i l i t a r y Commission t o Europe i n 1855 and 1 8 5 6 , U.S. C o n g r e s s , S e n a t e , 3 6 t h C o n g r e s s , 1st S e s s i o n , 1860.

98

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION L I S T

1.

Combined Arms Research L i b r a r y U.S. Army Command and General S t a f f C o l l e g e F o r t Leavenworth, Kansas 6 6 0 2 7 Defense Technical Information Center Cameron S t a t i o n Alexandria, V i r g i n i a 2 2 3 1 4
LTC David Ivl. Glantz Combat S t u d i e s I n s t i t u t e U.S. Army Command and General S t a f f College F o r t Leavenworth, Kansas 6 6 0 2 7

2.

3.

4.

Larry Yates Combat S t u d i e s I n s t i t u t e U.S. Army Command and General S t a f f C o l l e g e F o r t Leavenwor t h , Kans a s 6 6 0 2 7
Dr.