The History of Quality Overview The quality movement can trace its roots back to medieval Europe, where

e craftsmen began organizing into unions called guilds in the late 13th century. ntil the early 1!th century, manufacturing in the industrialized world tended to follow this craftsmanship model. The factory system, with its emphasis on product inspection, started in "reat #ritain in the mid$1%&'s and grew into the (ndustrial )evolution in the early 1*''s. (n the early +'th century, manufacturers began to include quality processes in quality practices. ,fter the nited -tates entered .orld .ar ((, quality became a critical component of the war effort/ #ullets manufactured in one state, for e0ample, had to work consistently in rifles made in another. The armed forces initially inspected virtually every unit of product1 then to simplify and speed up this process without compromising safety, the military began to use sampling techniques for inspection, aided by the publication of military$specification standards and training courses in .alter -hewhart2s statistical process control techniques. The birth of total quality in the nited -tates came as a direct response to the quality revolution in 3apan following .orld .ar ((. The 3apanese welcomed the input of ,mericans 3oseph 4. 3uran and .. Edwards 5eming and rather than concentrating on inspection, focused on improving all organizational processes through the people who used them. #y the 1!%'s, .-. industrial sectors such as automobiles and electronics had been broadsided by 3apan2s high$quality competition. The .-. response, emphasizing not only statistics but approaches that embraced the entire

organization, became known as total quality management 6T748. #y the last decade of the +'th century, T74 was considered a fad by many business leaders. #ut while the use of the term T74 has faded somewhat, particularly in the nited -tates, its practices continue. (n the few years since the turn of the century, the quality movement seems to have matured beyond Total 7uality. 9ew quality systems have evolved from the foundations of 5eming, 3uran and the early 3apanese practitioners of quality, and quality has moved beyond manufacturing into service, healthcare, education and government sectors. :rom the end of the 13th century to the early 1!th century, craftsmen across medieval Europe were organized into unions called guilds. These guilds were responsible for developing strict rules for product and service quality. (nspection committees enforced the rules by marking flawless goods with a special mark or symbol. ;raftsmen themselves often placed a second mark on the goods they produced. ,t first this mark was used to track the origin of faulty items. #ut over time the mark came to represent a craftsman2s good reputation. :or e0ample, stonemasons2 marks symbolized each guild member2s obligation to satisfy his customers and enhance the trade2s reputation. (nspection marks and master$craftsmen marks served as proof of quality for customers throughout medieval Europe. This approach to manufacturing quality was dominant until the (ndustrial )evolution in the early 1!th century. The History of Quality - The Industrial Revolution

,merican quality practices evolved in the 1*''s as they were shaped by changes in predominant production methods/

;raftsmanship The factory system The Taylor system

Craftsmanship (n the early 1!th century, manufacturing in the nited -tates tended to follow the craftsmanship model used in the European countries. (n this model, young boys learned a skilled trade while serving as an apprentice to a master, often for many years. -ince most craftsmen sold their goods locally, each had a tremendous personal stake in meeting customers2 needs for quality. (f quality needs weren2t met, the craftsman ran the risk of losing customers not easily replaced. Therefore, masters maintained a form of quality control by inspecting goods before sale. The Factory System The factory system, a product of the (ndustrial )evolution in Europe, began to divide the craftsmen2s trades into specialized tasks. This forced craftsmen to become factory workers and forced shop owners to become production supervisors, and marked an initial decline in employees2 sense of empowerment and autonomy in the workplace. 7uality in the factory system was ensured through the skill of laborers supplemented by audits and<or inspections. 5efective products were either reworked or scrapped. The Taylor System =ate in the 1!th century the nited -tates broke further from European tradition and adopted a new management approach developed by :rederick .. Taylor. Taylor2s goal was to increase productivity without increasing the number of skilled craftsmen. >e achieved this by assigning factory planning to specialized engineers and by using craftsmen

and supervisors, who had been displaced by the growth of factories, as inspectors and managers who e0ecuted the engineers2 plans. Taylor2s approach led to remarkable rises in productivity, but it had significant drawbacks/ .orkers were once again stripped of their dwindling power, and the new emphasis on productivity had a negative effect on quality. To remedy the quality decline, factory managers created inspection departments to keep defective products from reaching customers. (f defective product did reach the customer, it was more common for upper managers to ask the inspector, ?.hy did we let this get out@A than to ask the production manager, ?.hy did we make it this way to begin with@A The History of Quality - The arly !"th Century

The beginning of the +'th century marked the inclusion of ?processesA in quality practices. , ?processA is defined as a group of activities that takes an input, adds value to it and provides an output, such as when a chef transforms a pile of ingredients into a meal. .alter -hewhart, a statistician for #ell =aboratories, began to focus on controlling processes in the mid$1!+'s, making quality relevant not only for the finished product but for the processes that created it. -hewhart recognized that industrial processes yield data. :or e0ample, a process in which metal is cut into sheets yields certain measurements, such as each sheet2s length, height and weight. -hewhart determined this data could be analyzed using statistical techniques to see whether a process is stable and in control, or if it is being affected by special causes that should be fi0ed. (n doing so, -hewhart laid the foundation for control charts, a modern$day quality tool.

-hewhart2s concepts are referred to as statistical quality control 6-7;8. They differ from product orientation in that they make quality relevant not only for the finished product but also for the process that created it. . Edwards 5eming, a statistician with the .-. 5epartment of ,griculture and ;ensus #ureau, became a proponent of -hewhart2s -7; methods and later became a leader of the quality movement in both 3apan and the nited -tates. The History of Quality - #orld #ar II ,fter entering .orld .ar (( in 5ecember 1!B1, the nited -tates enacted legislation to help gear the civilian economy to military production. ,t that time, military contracts were typically awarded to the manufacturer that submitted the lowest bid. Croducts were inspected on delivery to ensure conformance to requirements. 5uring this period, quality became an important safety issue. nsafe military equipment was clearly unacceptable, and the .-. armed forces inspected virtually every unit produced to ensure that it was safe for operation. This practice required huge inspection forces and caused problems in recruiting and retaining competent inspection personnel. To ease the problems without compromising product safety, the armed forces began to use sampling inspection to replace unit$by$unit inspection. .ith the aid of industry consultants, particularly from #ell =aboratories, they adapted sampling tables and published them in a military standard, known as 4il$-td$1'&. These tables were incorporated into the military contracts so suppliers clearly understood what they were e0pected to produce. The armed forces also helped suppliers improve quality by sponsoring training courses in .alter -hewhart2s statistical quality control 6-7;8 techniques.

#ut while the training led to some quality improvement in some organizations, most companies had little motivation to truly integrate the techniques. ,s long as government contracts paid the bills, organizations2 top priority remained meeting production deadlines. .hat2s more, most -7; programs were terminated once the government contracts came to an end. The History of Quality - Total Quality The birth of total quality in the nited -tates was in direct response to a quality revolution in 3apan following .orld .ar ((, as maDor 3apanese manufacturers converted from producing military goods for internal use to producing civilian goods for trade. ,t first, 3apan had a widely held reputation for shoddy e0ports, and their goods were shunned by international markets. This led 3apanese organizations to e0plore new ways of thinking about quality. 5eming, 3uran and 3apan The 3apanese welcomed input from foreign companies and lecturers, including two ,merican quality e0perts/ .. Edwards 5eming, who had become frustrated with ,merican managers when most programs for statistical quality control were terminated once the war and government contracts came to and end. 3oseph 4. 3uran, who predicted the quality of 3apanese goods would overtake the qualiy of good produced in the nited -tates by the mid$1!%'s because of 3apan2s revolutionary rate of quality improvement. 3apan2s strategies represented the new ?total qualityA approach. )ather than relying purely on product inspection, 3apanese manufacturers focused on improving all organizational processes through the people who used them. ,s a result, 3apan was able to produce higher$quality

e0ports at lower prices, benefiting consumers throughout the world. ,merican managers were generally unaware of this trend, assuming any competition from the 3apanese would ultimately come in the form of price, not quality. (n the meantime, 3apanese manufacturers began increasing their share in ,merican markets, causing widespread economic effects in the nited -tates/ 4anufacturers began losing market share, organizations began shipping Dobs overseas, and the economy suffered unfavorable trade balances. Everall, the impact on ,merican business Dolted the nited -tates into action. The ,merican )esponse ,t first .-. manufacturers held onto to their assumption that 3apanese success was price$related, and thus responded to 3apanese competition with strategies aimed at reducing domestic production costs and restricting imports. This, of course, did nothing to improve ,merican competitiveness in quality. ,s years passed, price competition declined while quality competition continued to increase. #y the end of the 1!%'s, the ,merican quality crisis reached maDor proportions, attracting attention from national legislators, administrators and the media. , 1!*' 9#;$TF 9ews special report, ?(f 3apan ;anG .hy ;an2t .e@A highlighted how 3apan had captured the world auto and electronics markets. :inally, .-. organizations began to listen. The chief e0ecutive officers of maDor .-. corporations stepped forward to provide personal leadership in the quality movement. The .-. response, emphasizing not only statistics but approaches that embraced the entire organization, became known as Total 7uality 4anagement 6T748. -everal other quality initiatives followed. The (-E !''' series of quality$management standards, for e0ample, were published in 1!*%. The #aldrige 9ational 7uality Crogram and 4alcolm #aldrige 9ational 7uality ,ward were

established by the .-. ;ongress the same year. ,merican companies were at first slow to adopt the standards but eventually came on board. The History of Quality - $eyond Total Quality #y the end of the 1!!'s Total 7uality 4anagement 6T748 was considered little more than a fad by many ,merican business leaders 6although it still retained its prominence in Europe8. .hile use of the term T74 has faded somewhat, particularly in the nited -tates, quality e0pert 9ancy Tague says/ ?Enough organizations have used it with success that, to paraphrase 4ark Twain, the reports of its death have been greatly e0aggerated.A 6see The 7uality Toolbo0, ,-7 7uality Cress, +''&8. ,s the +1st century begins, the quality movement has matured. Tague says new quality systems have evolved beyond the foundations laid by 5eming, 3uran and the early 3apanese practitioners of quality. -ome e0amples of this maturation/

(n +''' the (-E !''' series of quality management standards was revised to increase emphasis on customer satisfaction. #eginning in 1!!&, the 4alcolm #aldrige 9ational 7uality ,ward added a business results criterion to its measures of applicant success. -i0 -igma, a methodology developed by 4otorola to improve its business processes by minimizing defects, evolved into an organizational approach that achieved breakthroughs H and significant bottom$line results. .hen 4otorola received a #aldrige ,ward in 1!**, it shared its quality practices with others.

7uality function deployment was developed by IoDi ,kao as a process for focusing on customer wants or needs in the design or redesign of a product or service. -ector$specific versions of the (-E !''' series of quality management standards were developed for such industries as automotive 67-$!'''8, aerospace 6,-!'''8 and telecommunications 6T= !''' and (-E<T- 1J!B!8 and for environmental management 6(-E 1B'''8. 7uality has moved beyond the manufacturing sector into such areas as service, healthcare, education and government. The 4alcolm #aldrige 9ational 7uality ,ward has added education and healthcare to its original categories/ manufacturing, small business and service. 4any advocates are pressing for the adoption of a ?nonprofit organizationA category as well.

Continuous Improvement ;ontinuous improvement is an ongoing effort to improve products, services or processes. These efforts can seek ?incrementalA improvement over time or ?breakthroughA improvement all at once. ,mong the most widely used tools for continuous improvement is a four$step quality modelKthe plan$do$ check$act 6C5;,8 cycle, also known as 5eming ;ycle or -hewhart ;ycle/

%lan& (dentify an opportunity and plan for change. 'o& (mplement the change on a small scale. Chec(& se data to analyze the results of the change and determine whether it made a difference.

)ct& (f the change was successful, implement it on a wider scale and continuously assess your results. (f the change did not work, begin the cycle again.

Ether widely used methods of continuous improvement K such as -i0 -igma, =ean, and Total 7uality 4anagement K emphasize employee involvement and teamwork1 measuring and systematizing processes1 and reducing variation, defects and cycle times. Continuous or Continual* The terms continuous improvement and continual improvement are frequently used interchangeably. #ut some quality practitioners make the following distinction/ Continual improvement: a broader term preferred by .. Edwards 5eming to refer to general processes of improvement and encompassing ?discontinuousA improvementsKthat is, many different approaches, covering different areas.

Continuous improvement/ a subset of continual improvement, with a more specific focus on linear, incremental improvement within an e0isting process. -ome practitioners also associate continuous improvement more closely with techniques of statistical process control.

+alcolm $aldri,e -ational Quality )ward The #aldrige ,ward is presented annually by the Cresident of the nited -tates to organizations that demonstrate quality and performance e0cellence. Three awards may be given annually in each of five categories/

4anufacturing -ervice company -mall business Education >ealthcare

Established by ;ongress in 1!*% for manufacturers, service businesses and small businesses, the 4#97, was designed to raise awareness of quality management and recognize .-. companies that have implemented successful quality$ management systems. The education and healthcare categories were added in 1!!!. The 4#97, is named after the late -ecretary of ;ommerce 4alcolm #aldrige, a proponent of quality management. The .-. ;ommerce 5epartmentLs 9ational (nstitute of -tandards and Technology manages the award and ,-7 administers it. Erganizations that apply for the 4#97, are Dudged by an independent board of e0aminers. )ecipients are selected based on achievement and improvement in seven areas, known as the $aldri,e Criteria for %erformance .cellence& 1. /eadership& >ow upper management leads the organization, and how the organization leads within the community. 2. Strate,ic plannin,& >ow the organization establishes and plans to implement strategic directions. 3. Customer and mar(et focus& >ow the organization builds and maintains strong, lasting relationships with customers. 4. +easurement0 analysis0 and (nowled,e mana,ement& >ow the organization uses data to support key processes and manage performance. 5. Human resource focus& >ow the organization empowers and involves its workforce. 6. %rocess mana,ement& >ow the organization designs, manages and improves key processes. 7. $usiness1or,ani2ational performance results& >ow the organization performs in terms of customer satisfaction, finances, human resources, supplier and partner performance, operations, governance and social responsibility, and how the organization compares to its competitors.

ISO 3""" and Other Standards 7uality professionals use the term ?standardsA to mean many things, such as metrics, specifications, gages, statements, categories, segments, groupings or behaviors. #ut usually when they talk about standards, they2re talking about quality management. 4anagement standards address the needs of organizations in training, quality auditing and quality$management systems. The (-E !''' -eries, for e0ample, is a set of international standards for quality management and quality assurance. The standards were developed to help companies effectively document the elements they need to maintain an efficient quality system. They are not specific to any one industry. The ISO 3""" Series (-E !''' can help a company satisfy its customers, meet regulatory requirements and achieve continual improvement. #ut it2s a first step, many quality professionals will tell you, the base level of a quality system, not a complete guarantee of quality. (-E !''' :acts Eriginally published in 1!*% by the (nternational Erganization for -tandardization 6(-E8, a specialized international agency for standardization composed of the national standards bodies of !' countries. nderwent maDor revision in +'''. 9ow includes (-E !'''/+''' 6definitions8, (-E !''1/+''' 6requirements8 and (-E !''B/+''' 6continuous improvement8. The revised (-E !'''/+''' series of standards is based on eight quality management principles that senior management can apply for organizational improvement/ 1. ;ustomer focus

+. =eadership 3. (nvolvement of people B. Crocess approach &. -ystem approach to management J. ;ontinual improvement %. :actual approach to decision$making *. 4utually beneficial supplier relationships (-E !''' resources/ (-E2s :requently ,sked 7uestions on (-E !''' The eight quality management principles of (-E !''' Cublicizing an (-E !''' certification Other Standards -tandards addressing the specialized needs and circumstances of certain industries and applications also e0ist/ nvironment4 The (-E 1B''' series of international standards integrate environmental considerations into operations and product standards. The standards specify requirements for establishing an environmental policy, determining environmental impacts of products or services, planning environmental obDectives, implementation of programs to meet obDectives, corrective action and management review. )erospace4 ,-!1'', the international quality management standard for the aerospace industry, was released in 9ovember 1!!!. )utomotive4 There are three popular standards used in the automotive industry/ 7-$!''' is a quality management system developed by 5aimler$;hrysler, :ord and "eneral 4otors for suppliers of production parts, materials and services to the automotive industry. (-E<T- 1J!B!, developed by the (nternational ,utomotive Task :orce, aligns e0isting ,merican, "erman, :rench and (talian automotive quality standards within the global automotive industry.

(-E 1B''1 environmental standards are being applied by automotive suppliers as a requirement from :ord and "eneral 4otors.

Statistics4 -tatistical standards provide methods for collecting, analyzing and interpreting data. ,9-(<,-7 M1.B$ +''3 establishes sampling plans and procedures for inspection by attributes. ,9-(<,-7 M1.!$+''3 establishes sampling plans and procedures for inspection by variables. Telecommunications4 T= !''' defines the telecommunications quality system requirements for the design, development, production, delivery, installation and maintenance of products and services in the telecommunications industry. (t uses (-E !''' as a foundation but goes a step further to include industry$ specific requirements and metrics. Si. Si,ma -i0 -igma is a fact$based, data$driven philosophy of quality improvement that values defect prevention over defect detection. (t drives customer satisfaction and bottom$line results by reducing variation and waste, thereby promoting a competitive advantage. (t applies anywhere variation and waste e0ist, and every employee should be involved. (n simple terms, -i0 -igma quality performance means no more than 3.B defects per million opportunities. -everal different definitions have been proposed for -i0 -igma, but they all share some common themes/

se of teams that are assigned well$defined proDects that have direct impact on the organization2s bottom line. Training in ?statistical thinkingA at all levels and providing key people with e0tensive training in advanced statistics and proDect management. These key people are designated black belts 6C5:, %&&N#8.

Emphasis on the 54,(; approach 6define, measure, analyze, improve and control8 to problem solving. , management environment that supports these initiatives as a business strategy.

'ifferin, opinions on the definition of Si. Si,ma& Si. Si,ma is a philosophy5 This perspective views all work as processes that can be defined, measured, analyzed, improved and controlled. Crocesses require inputs 608 and produce outputs 6y8. (f you control the inputs, you will control the outputs/ This is generally e0pressed as y O f608. Si. Si,ma is a set of tools5 The -i0 -igma e0pert uses qualitative and quantitative techniques to drive process improvement. , few such tools include statistical process control 6-C;8, control charts, failure mode and effects analysis and flowcharting. Si. Si,ma is a methodolo,y5 This view of -i0 -igma recognizes the underlying and rigorous approach known as 54,(; 6define, measure, analyze, improve and control8. 54,(; defines the steps a -i0 -igma practitioner is e0pected to follow, starting with identifying the problem and ending with the implementation of long$lasting solutions. .hile 54,(; is not the only -i0 -igma methodology in use, it is certainly the most widely adopted and recognized. E0cerpted from 5onald .. #enbow and T. 4. Nubiak, The ;ertified -i0 -igma #lack #elt >andbook, ,-7 7uality Cress, +''&, pages 1$+. $enchmar(in, #enchmarking is the search for best practices, the ones that will lead to superior performance. Establishing operating targets based on the best possible industry practices is a critical component in the success of every organization. The 6asic steps of 6enchmar(in,&

Nnow your operation. Iou need to accurately assess your strengths and weaknesses.

Nnow your industry leaders or competitors. Iou must understand, and compare yourself to, the best practices in the industry and<or its leaders. (ncorporate the best. =earn from industry leaders and your competition. (f they are strong in given areas, uncover why and how they got that way. :ind best practices wherever they e0ist and do not hesitate to copy or modify and incorporate them in your own operation. Emulate their strengths. "ain superiority. (f careful investigations of best practices have been performed, and if the best of those best practices have been installed, then you will have incorporated the best of the best.

$enchmar(in, can 6e divided into two parts& 1. Cractices/ the methods that are used. +. 4etrics/ the quantified effect of installing the practices. #enchmarking should be approached by investigating industry practices first. The metrics can be obtained or created later. Ene cannot determine why a gap e0ists from the metrics alone/ Enly the practices on which the metric is based will reveal why. Essential to the benchmarking process are carefully designed communications throughout the organization and concerted management support. There is also a definite place for employee involvement in benchmarking/ The findings need to implemented. .hat better way to do so smoothly than through the efforts of those closest to the work process@ E0cerpted from )obert ;. ;amp, #enchmarking/ The -earch for (ndustry #est Cractices That =ead to -uperior Cerformance, ,-7 7uality Cress, 1!*!, pages B$J. /ean >enry :ord defined the lean concept in one sentence/ ?.e will not put into our establishment anything that is useless.A

=ean manufacturing is a system of techniques and activities for running a manufacturing or service operation. The techniques and activities differ according to the application at hand but they have the same underlying principle/ the elimination of all non$value$adding activities and waste from the business. =ean enterprise e0tends this concept through the entire value stream or supply chain/ The leanest factory cannot achieve its full potential if it has to work with non$lean suppliers and subcontractors. Types of #aste 1. Everproduction +. .aiting, time in queue 3. Transportation B. 9on$value$adding processes &. (nventory J. 4otion %. ;osts of quality/ scrap, rework and inspection E0cerpted from .illiam ,. =evinson and )aymond ,. )erick, Lean Enterprise: A Synergistic Approach to Minimizing Waste, ,-7 7uality Cress, +''+, pages 0iii$0iv, 3*.