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Diversity of Organisms

Evolutionary Patterns and Natural Selection

Introduction

1. Individuals do not evolve. Populations do.
Evolve: change in population trait mean over time
Evolution: traits in lineages change over time

2. Darwins Theory of Natural Selection
a) evolution: traits in lineages change over time.
anagenesis = evolution within a lineage
b) Common descent: species diverge from a common ancestor (cladogenesis)
c) Gradualism: differences between species evolved by small steps (intermediate forms)
[vs. saltation]
d) Population change: the proportion of individuals in population with a specific trait changes over
time. (variational evolution)
e) Natural selection: changes in proportion are caused by differences in the ability to survive and
reproduce.
Darwins finches differed in shape and size of beak! organisms use certain parts of their body, that
body part becomes modified.

3. Directional selection


4. Adaptation: traits evolved for a particular function through natural selection
Examples: camouflage for a narrow headed frog native in Madagascar, woodpecker beaks

5. Descent with modification
a) morphological homology: any structure within a creatures body that is similar in shape, placement,
and/or function. Ex: forearms of whales, frog, human, horse, lion, bat and bird have homologous
structures.
b) vestigial organs: genetically determined structures or attributes that have apparently lost most or all
of its ancestral function in a given species. Ex: tail in humans, and appendix.
c) developmental homology: gill slits in all vertebrates

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d) universal genetic code: all have the same genetic code.

6. Homology: similar structures in shape, placement and/or function among different species




7. Modern synthesis (1930-40)
a) phenotype (observed trait) differs from genotype (genes coding for trait)
b) acquired characteristics are not inherited. ! environmental effects on phenotype do not effect genes
passed onto offspring but can effect gene expression
c) genes maintain their identity and do not blend. Discrete traits (eye color) or continuous traits (height)
d) Alleles: alternate forms of a gene due to mutation. Recombination among alleles at different loci
increase genetic variation
e) within a population, proportions of individuals with certain genotypes can change
f) Rate of mutation is low, but evolution can occur fast if coupled with natural selection or genetic drift
g) Natural selection accounts for small and large differences/adaptations among species and within species
h) new phenotypes arise through natural selection ! increase freq. of alleles that recombine with other
genes affecting a specific trait
i) populations have genetic variation so can evolve rapidly with environmental change
j) population of a species in different locations can differ genetically
k) differences are often adaptive and evolve through natural selection due to environmental factors
l) species evolve through small steps (gradualism: along traits among species, also seen in fossils)

Recombination: crossing over during meiosis. Independent assortment of alleles

Species: group of interbreeding individuals that do not exchange genes with other groups and can create
viable fertile offspring

Speciation: different species originating from a common ancestor.

8.
a) Exaptations: ex: feathers were an adaptation for warmth not for flight. Sutures of the skull.
b) Biological species concept: groups of potentially interbreeding populations, which are
reproductively isolated from other suck groups. Disadvantages: asexual reproduction and hybrids.
Hybrid zone: area where genetically distinct populations interbreed.
Sympatric hybridization: partial gene exchange between sympatric populations.
Phylogenetic species concept: Applies to asexual and sexual species, hybrids, and fossil species.

c) Allopatric speciation: due to a geographic/physical barrier.
Sympatric speciation: occurs in same geographic area. High gene flow, evolutionary change occurs
in characteristics of organisms. Genetic differences result in reproductive solation.
d) Gradualism: large differences in character evolved through
intermediates
punctuated equilibrium: long periods of stasis interrupted
by brief periods of rapid change.
saltation: mutations with large effects on phenotype underlie
larger differences in character (no intermediates).


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Why might there be long periods of stasis in fossil record?
a) tissues did not fossilize










Phylogeny and Patterns of Evolution: evolutionary history of organisms
Kingdom ! Phylum ! Class ! Order ! Family ! Genus ! Species

1. Different species have particular traits in common due to
a) derived character state (anapomorphy)
b) ancestral character states (symplesiomorphy)
c) share character states that have independently evolved. (synapomorphy)

2. Convergent evolution: independent origin of a derived character state in two or more taxa
ex: additional segments of digits (adaptation for swimming), vertebrate and octopus eye, beak length
in different bird families.
Divergent evolution: initially similar organismal types accumulate differences over time

3. Monophyletic: derived from one common ancestor
Paraphyletic: monophyletic group that is missing some of its members.
Polyphyletic: does not have one common ancestor

Example of paraphyletic: reptiles that excludes birds.

4. Plesiomorphy: ancestral character state
Apomorphy: derived character state

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syn - shared
aut not shared/unshared derived character
synapomprhy: shared derived character states among taxa
sympleisomorphy: traits of ancestral organisms
anapomorphy: derived trait on one group on the tree

5. Homoplasy:
Homoplasious: character state that independently evolved in two or more taxa. Example: wings of
bats and insects

6. Vertebrate vs. Cephalopod eyes.
Vertebrate eyes: axons of retinal cells converge into optic nerve. Lens contracts.
Octopus eyes: axons run into optic ganglion. Lens move back and forth.



7. Batesian mimicry: palatable species that mimics unpalatable species
Ex: red spotted purple butterfly mimics coloring of poisonous swallowtail
Mullerian mimicry: two or more unpalatable species have evolved similar warning signs.
Ex: wasps and bees

8. Evolutionary reversals: an inherited trait reverting back to an earlier form over the course of many
generations. Ex: loss of radula in bivalves.

9. Maximum parsimony: infers a phylogenetic tree by minimizing the total number of evolutionary
steps/changes

10. out-group (sister group): is a monophyletic group of organisms that serve as a reference group for
determination of the evolutionary relationship among three or more monophyletic groups of organisms.


Porifera

1. Out-group (Sister group) to animals: Choanoflagellates ! solitary or colonial protists. ovoid cells with a
collar of microvilli surrounding one flagellum. Synthesize collagen
Similarity: sponges have choanocytes (ovoid cells with a color of microvilli surrounding one
flagellum) lining canals and chambers. [may indicate a close relationship]

2. Subkingdom Parazoa ! Porifera and Placazoans
Multicellularity and cell specialization
Placazoans: small nuclear genome, large mitochondrial
genome. Only four cell types, cell-cell junctions. Not a true
epithelium ! no true tissues. Cilia on bottom cells to move
along sea floor and can re-aggregate to form functioning
animal.

3. Polytomy: evolutionary relationships at a particular node that is not resolved. There is a polytomy for
Porifera and Placozoa because neither have true tissues.
4. No real tissues in porifera:

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5. Sponge synapomorphies:
a) Choanocytes: collared flagellated feeding cells
b) System to pump water with external pores
c) Calcium carbonate or spicules (skeleton)
d) High cellular mobility and totipotency

Sponge symplesiomorphies: no neurons, no muscles, no cell-cell junction, no gut, and no reproductive
organs.


6. Porifera definitions
a) Spongocoel: large inner cavity lined with chanocytes which pill water through.
b) Chanocytes: ovoid cells with a collar of microvilli surrounding one flagellum. Sticks out of
mesohyl. Trapped food particles slide down mucus and are phagocytized by cell body.
c) Spicules: skeleton made of calcium carbonate spicules.
d) Ostia: incurrent pores
e) Osculum excurrent pores
f) Mesohyl: gelatinous matrix within the sponge.
g) Pinacocytes: muscle and nervous-like tissue/ external surface. Some contain myosin and actin. Can
close osculum. Respond to glutamate.
h) Archaeocytes: amoeboid cells move throughout mesohyl. Phagocytize food particles at external
epithelium and digest particles trapped by chanocytes.

7. Choanocytes:
Trapped food particles slide down (mucus) and are phagocytized by cell body.
Greater exit velocity due to cross-sectional area of choanocytes, whose total cross-sectional area are
thousands of times greater than the cross section of the exit current areas


8. Principle of continuity: flagella. Despite low velocity produced by flagetllated chanocyted, water speed at
osculum is increasing by manipulating/reducing cross section.
Spongocoel osculum cross section


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9. Archaeocytes: for digestion.
Three types with three functions: Secretes spicules, sponging fibers of skeleton and fibrillar
collagen, form gemmules for asexual reproduction

10. Canal Systems (be able to sketch each)
a) Asconoids: flagellated spongocoels. simplest body form. Small and tube shaped. Water enters
through porocytes to a large cavity (spongocoel).

b) Syconoids: flagellated canals. Larger with a thicker body wall. Wall contains chanocyte lined radial
canals tat empty into spongocoel (increasing surface area). Water enters through prosopyle (between
radial canals), and through apopyle to the spongocoel.


c) Leuconoids: flagellated chambers. Most complex are large. Clusters of flagellated chambers are
dilled from incurrent canals and discharge to excurrent canals








Asconoid Syconoid


Leuconoid

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11. Advantages of syconoid over asconoid: increased surface area, wall thicker.
Advantage of leuconoid over syconoid: increased surface area, larger.

12. Limits thickness of mesophyll! 1 mm rule: allows easy diffusion of oxygen across mesophyll.

13. Reproduction
a) Asexual reproduction: external buds break off after attaining a certain size. Internal buds/gemmules
formed by archaeocytes collect in mesohyl. Reaggregation: sponge cells are totipotent.
b) Sexual reproduction: most sponges produce eggs and sperm. One-sponge releases sperm which
enters pores of another sponge ! sperm is phagocytized, transferred to oocytes, nourished until
release as ciliated larva. Other sponges, can release both sperm and egg in water, and a zygote will
form outside parent.

14. Larva of sponges is flagellated, can migrate to interior and become choanocytes.

15. Four classes of sponge: monophyletic group
Calcarea: calcium carbonate spicules
Demospongiae: spicules made or sponging
Hexactinellida: spicules with 6 rays
Homoscleromorpha: spicules made of silica or no spicules.


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Calcarea: spicules of calcium carbonate. Small. Tube or vase shape.
Canals: Asconoid, syconoid or leuconoid.
Demospongiae: spicules of siliceous, sponging or both. Size ranges. All leuconoid
Hexactinellida: spicules with 6 rays in lattice structure. Deep-sea forms. Syconoid.
Homoscleromorpha: sponges without skeleton or spicules.
Syncytial trabecular reticulum lots of nuclei leading to spongocoel

Cnidaria and Ctenophora
Gastrulation, tissue-level organization, muscle tissue, nervous tissue

Polyp form: tubular body with mouth directed upward and surrounded by tentacles. Mouth leads to
gastrovascular cavity. Aboral end attached to substrate. Reproduce asexually by budding of fission

Medusa form: umbrella shaped, usually free swimming, mouth directed downward, tentacles may extend
downwards. Some medusa equipped with statocysts and ocelli.

1. Tissues: First sense organs, nervous system (nerve net)

2. Synapomorphies for Cnidarians:
cnidocytes with nematocysts = stinging cells. Radial symmetry,
diploblastic body, blind gut, polyp and medusa form, planula
larvae, nerve net, colonial living and polymorphism




3. Tentacles and body contain cnidocytes.
a) Nematocysts: penetrating harpoon like structure.
b) Spirocysts: filament wraps itself around prey, like a lasso.

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5. Digestion is primarily extracellular. (no respiratory or extracellular organs)

Intracellular digestion in gastrodermis:








7. Life cycle of cnidarians:
zygote develops into planula larva ! settles and metamorphoses into polyp ! polyp produced medusa !
medusa are male or female (dioecious) and reproduce sexually (gametes)

8. cnidarians do not have true muscle tissue:

9. Swimming: contraction of body (velum) pushing water out and propelling the body forward.

10. Velum: a muscular shelf increases surface area and muscular force increasing the amount of water
pushed out and propelling the medusa forward.

11. nervous system: nerve net diffuse nervous system ! most neurons are non-polar allowing
transmission in both directions. No myelin sheath on axons








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5 Classes of Cnidarians
a) Class Anthozoa: polyps. Sometimes colonial. Have septa. (sea fan, sea pen)
Lifecycle: polyps reproduce asexually or sexually.
b) Class Staurozoa: polyps are hollow septa. Primary polyp tentacles are hollow. Planula without
cilia.
c) Class Scyphozoa: motor nerve net medusa body form, polyp reduced or lost, strobilation. Rhopalia
(with ocelli).
Life cycle: medusa ! zygote ! ciliated planula larvae ! planula settles ! strobilia ! immature
medusa
d) Class Cubozoa: boxlike medusae body, velarium, complex eyes. One polyp and one medusa. Nerve
net.
e) Class Hydrozoa:
a. Medusa: by lateral budding. Velum. Statocytst and ocelli.
b. Polyps: colonial and specialized. Hollow polyps (no septa)

14. Acontia: stinging threads at the lower end of a septal filament and bears nematocysts.

15. Strobilation: sessile polyp stage of life cycle in which immature medusae bud off in layers.

16. Rhopalia: eyes that can form images. See specific points of light.
ocelli: light-sensitive organs that do not form images but which can detect light, and are used to
determine up from down

17. Note: Class cubozoa has a nerve ring! Some of their rhophalia have eyes!

18. Polyps of Class Hydrozoa: polyps are connected by a shared gastrovascular cavity.
Some are reduced to gonadal tissue. Male and female gonozooids. (reproduction, defense, digestion)

19. siphonophore: (modified hydrozoan variation) form floating colonies/modified polyps

20. Ctenophorans (comb jellies) : differ from cnidarians
a) radial symmetry but bilateral tendencies.
b) Use combs of cilia for movement.
c) Do not have cnidocytes.
d) Capture food in colloblasts (glue cells)
e) Statocyst: balance sensory receptor

21. true muscles ! independent emergence of a mesoderm












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Worms

1. bilateral symmetry: associated with cephalization. Concentration of nervous and sense organs in a head.

2. Radial vs. Spiral cleavage
a) radial cleavage: cleavage produce tiers or layers of cells on top of
each others. Occurs with regulative development.
b) Spiral cleavage: Tightly packed. Top layer lies in the furrows of
bottom layer. Most have a form of mosaic development.
(most worms, and all mollusks)

3.
a) Mosaic development: organ-forming determinants in the
egg cytoplasm are strictly localized in the egg. If early
blastomeres are separated, each will continue to develop
for a time until becoming defective larvae.
b) Regulative development: each blastomere of the early
embryo, if separated from the others, can adjust or
regulate its development in to a complete embryo.

4. Development from zygote to blastula to gastrula





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5.
a) Protosomes: spiral cleavage. Blastopore becomes the
mouth. Formation of a coelom by schizocoely. (Worms are
protostomes)
b) Deuterosomes: radial regulative cleavage. Blastopore
becomes the anus. Formation of a coelom by enterocoely.




7. Coelom bodies
acoelomate: flatworms
pseudocoelomate: nematodes
Eucoelomate: nematodes








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9. Mesoderm lining
a) Schizocoely: early mesodermal cells are located in the blastocoel.
b) Entrocoely: mesoderm is pouched out from gastrula endoderm.








10. Acoelomorphs: acoelomate, bilateral, no cleavage pattern, radial pattern of nerves, no digestive cavity.

11. Platyhelminthes: acoelomate, triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, free-living, ciliated epidermis.
Parasitic (syncytial epithelium).
Digestion: incomplete gut. Branched. Muscular pharynx.
Excretory system: water is moved through by beating flagella and wastes exits through pores

Class Turbellaria- Flatworms most are free living, small to large (2 ft. long).
Predators or scavengers.
Movement: cilia and mucous to glide, twisting and turning
Reproduction: fission, regeneration, sexual (penis fencing)

Class Trematoda: flukes. Glycoproteins on surface, for protection from hosts immune system.
Two suckers: oral ! attach to hosts organs. Ventral ! attach to hosts tissues.

Class Monogenea: ectoparasites of fish and have complex posterior attachment structure. larvae are
ciliated.


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Class Cestoda tapeworms internal parasite, scolex (posterior attachment organ), no digestive
organ, and glycoprotein.


12. protonephridia flame cells ! beating flagella moved water through excretory system
13. rheoreceptors: A sensory receptor that is sensitive to the flow of the surrounding water

14. Ganglia at anterior end:
Receptors: Ocelli, Statocysts, Rheoreceptors, and Chemoreceptors

15. Reproduction: asexual by fission or regeneration. Primarily male and female (hermaphroditic).

16. syncytial tegument (epidermis):

17. Two suckers: oral ! attach to hosts organs. Ventral ! attach to hosts tissues

General trematode life cycle: miracidium(ciliated larva) ! penetrates first intermediate host ! sporocyst
does asexual reproduction leading to more sporocysts or rediae ! rediae do asexual reproduction !
cercariae penetrate second intermediate host ! form cysts in fish ! definitive hosts eats raw fish, immature
worms will move to small intestine then bile duct ! definitive host- eggs leave in the poop go in water
source.

18. Class Monogenea: ectoparasites of fish and have complex posterior attachment structure. larvae are
ciliated.

19. Class Cestoda tapeworms internal parasite, scolex (posterior attachment organ), no digestive
organ, and glycoprotein.

20.
a) Asexual reproduction: producing many copies of itself, a parasite can increase its odds of finding a
host.
b) Morphological manipulation: by altering morphology, the parasite can increase the chances thats
its intermediate host will be consumed by the definitive hosts.
c) Behavioral manipulation






21. lophotrochozoa: trochopore larvae
all worms, except nematodes are Lophotrochozoans.

22. Nemertea: like Platyhelminthes they are flat. They have a rhychocoel- a body cavity that is separate
from the mouth cavity, proboscis is housed until it is everted for feeding. Closed circulatory system and
complete gut (like annelids) . move using cilia! dorsoventrally flattened, ladder-like nervous systems.

23. Phylum Sipuncula peanut worms: true coelom, no segmentation. Extend introvert to explore and
feed. No circulatory or respiratory system. Synapomorphy: anterior retractable introvert.

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24. Annelids: segmentation (metamerism), true coelom, closed circulatory system (in some),

Former phylum Echiura: burrowed into mud or sand, long proboscis extends out to deposit feed, not
segmented, large coelom, most have close circulatory system.
Synapomorphy: non retractable proboscis in front of mouth.

25. Phylum Annelida: body triploblastic, bilateral, segmented (metameric), true coelom divided by septa,
complete gut, trochophore larvae, parapodia on each segment and setae, closed circulatory system, no
respiratory system, more centralized nervous system.

26. Segmentation (Metamerism) : serial repetition of internal and external organs: somite contains
components of most organ systems. Not everything is segmented.


28. True coelom, separated by septa: coelom forms via schizocoely. Peritoneum lines coelom and forms
septa(separate segments) and mesenteries (hold guts in place). Circular and longitudinal muscles. Gut and
longitudinal blood vessels extend through the septa (not segmented).

More advantages of a coelom: distribution of materials throughout the body. Provides storage area for
waste products. More efficient locomotion because it acts as a hydrostatic skeleton ! locomotion
(burrowing, crawling, swimming)

Movement:
-contraction of longitudinal muscles causes body to shorten and expand
-contraction of circular muscles causes body to narrow and lengthen
parapodia: paired paddle like appendages on most segments
setae: tiny chitinous bristles

29. Annelid head:
a) prostomium- surface covered with a thin outer layer of non chitinous cuticle
b) peristonium- first segment no parapodia

30. Closed circulatory system:
double transport system ! blood and coelomic fluid carry food wastes and respiratory gases.

31. Annelids respiration: through gills (branchiae), skin and parapodia. Excretion of wastes! nephridia
for each segment removes waste from blood as well as coelom.

32. brain ! cerebral ganglia. Single central nerve cord with paired ganglia in each segment. Most
annelids have giant axons! large fibers in nerve cord for fast responses.

33. Polychaeta
1. errant polychaetes: free moving, burrowing or crawling (predators and scavengers)
a. segment differentiation: tend to have segments very much alike, well developed head, but
generally little differentiation of segments
2. sedentary polychaetes: filter and deposit feeders.
a. More differentiation in some body regions-adaptation for sedentary living.

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b. Tube dwelling filter feeders, parchment

34. Clitellata: form monophyletic group. Clitellum and loss of parapodia. Ring of secretory cells found in a
band around the body. Lack parapodia.

35. Specialization in the earthworm. Food moistened by mouth and drawn in by a muscular pharynx, food
is stored in a thin-walled crop. Muscular gizzard grinds food into small pieces. Digestion and absorption
occur in intestine.

36. earthworm reproduction ! Green Porno


37. Class Hirudnida-Leeches: loss of setae, anterior and posterior body sucker, reduced septal walls.
Coelomic cavity filled with connective tissue and muscle. Gut specialized for storage of large quantities of
blood.

38. phylum Acanthocephala: spiny head worms ! comes from the spines of their proboscis used to
penetrate the hosts intermediate. Parasites of many arthropods.

39. Convergence evolution ! multiple hosts , specialized attachment structures, loss of digestive system
(surface area)



40. Nematodes ! Roundworm.

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Unsegmented, pseudocoelom (filled with fluid, extremely high hydrostatic pressure), longitudinal muscles
(act against hydrostatic pressures) , thick, flexible cuticle. No circulatory or respiratory system. Nervous
system= dorsal and ventral nerve cords, nerve ring.

41. Nematomorpha, or hairworms! parasitize insects.


Mollusks
1. Mollusks are lophotrochozoa, like the Platyhelminthes, Annelids and Acanthocephala.
2. Ancesteral characters: posterior mantle cavity with 1 or more pair of gills, radula, chambered heart with
atria and ventricles, muscular foot, calcerous spicules, mantle, reduction of coelom.
HAM: hypothetical ancestral mollusk

3. Traits common in mollusks:
1. bilateral symmetrical unsegmented coelomate protostomes (coelom reduced),
2. body= ventral head-foot region and dorsal visceral mass
a. foot: muscular. Used for locomotion and attachment to a substrate.
Highly modified in squid = siphon (funnel) and tentacles, clam = hatchet foot for burrowing.
3. Mantle: (derived from dorsal body wall) secretes shell (in most). Flushes out wastes.
Shell: (a) Nacre ! CaCO
3
sheets. (b) Prismatic ! thick CaCO
3
(c) periostraum: protects from
erosion, protein=conchiolin.
Mantle: (a) inner lobe ! muscular *ciliated* (b) Middle lobe ! sensory (c) outer love ! secretes
shell.
Middle lobe: sensory
Siphons: extensions of mantle (always inner lobe)
4. Complex digestive system: rasping radula.
Digestive glands secrete enzymes and absorb nutrients. Anus empties into mantle cavity.
5. Highly developed nervous/sensory systems: nerve ring around esophagus, two nerve cords in foot,
and two nerve cords in visceral mass.
Osphradia (chemosensory organs) in mantle sample the water for cues from prey
6. Excretion by metanephridia: fluid filled coelom (=pericardial cavity) enters kidney. Passes
through capillary network in kidney. Waste leave through nephridopore.
7. Gas exchange via gills, lungs, mantle, or skin; open circulatory system.

4. Chitons are not segmented, even thought their shell appears segmented.
Monoplacophoras rounded shell and creeping foot. Organs such as metanephridia, gonads and gills are
serially repeated. May be an indictor of an ancestral trait of segmentation.

5. Foot in a clam ! hatchet foot for burrowing.
Squid ! siphon funnel used for locomotion and attachment

6. Direct vs. retrograde locomotion
Direct waves: the waves move in the same direction as motion
Retrograde waves: The waves may move in the opposite direction to
motion

7.

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a) Mantle of clam ! mantle covers the gills, and the posterior edges of the mantle folds form dorsal
excurrent and ventral incurrent opening. Part of the mantle is drawn out into a long siphon allowing
the clam to burrow.
b) Mantle of squid ! covers the trunk, allowing water to be taken into mantle cavity. Mantle edges
contract, expelling water through the funnel.

8.
a) Shell:
Nacre ! CaCO
3
sheets.
Prismatic ! thick CaCO
3

periostraum: protects from erosion, protein=conchiolin.
b) Mantle:
inner lobe ! muscular *ciliated*
Middle lobe ! sensory (scallops has tentacles and eyes)
outer lobe ! secretes shell.

9. Radula : rasping, protrusible, tongue-like organ. Membrane, which is, mounted rows of tiny chitinous
teeth that point backward. Protractor and retractor muscles move the radula for feeding. Scrape, pierce, tear
or cut particles of food.

10. Mantle cavity ! products from the digestive, excretory and reproductive systems empty into the mantle
cavity. In aquatic mollusks, water current kept moving by cilia or mucus 1) supplies oxygen and some food,
2) flushes out wastes, 3) carries reproductive products out to the environment.
a) mantle usually equipped with chemoreceptors.
b) cephalopod ! muscular mantle create jet propulsion.

11. Highly developed nervous system
Osphradia (chemosensory organs) in mantle sample the water for cues from prey

12. molluscan kidney ! fluid from coelom enters a capillary network. Waste leaves through nepridopore.

13. Diverse body forms in phylum Mollusca :
Both gastropods and cephalopods have expanded visceral mass.
Gastropods ! mantle cavity is brought towards head by torsion.
Cephalods ! mantlecavity extended ventrally. Evolution of a chambered shell allowed cephalods to
swim.
Scaphopods and bivalves ! expanded mantle cavity. Adaptations for burrowing: spatulate foot and
reduction of the head and sense organs.
Due to adaptations to different habitats and modes of life and to wide variety of feeding methods.

14. Respiration: gas exchange via gills (ctenidia), lungs, mantle or skin.
Thin filaments resulting in greater surface area to volume ration
Cilia move water through filaments counter to the flow of hemolymph (blood)


16.
open circulatory system with a three chambered heart! oxygen carrying hemolymph dumped
into sinuses. Gills are relatively far from the heart

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closed circulatory system of cephalopods ! with a network of vessels and blood flows through
gills via capillaries. Branchial (gill) hearts increase blood pressure in the gills allowing more rapid
gas exchange for their active lifestyle.

17. Dioecy is characterized by a species having distinct male and female organisms.(ancestral)
Monoecy: state of having both male and female sex organs
Snail dart sac: connected with the reproductive organs of land snails, which contains a dart.

18. trochophore larvae ! veliger larva: free living, planktonic larvae. includes a shell that surrounds the
visceral organs of the larva and a ciliated velum used for both swimming and particulate food collection.

19.


20. Classes Caudofoveata and Solenogastres ! worm like but possess a mantle that secrete calcareous
spicules and have a radula. Caudofoveate feed on detritus and plankton, and Solenogastres feed on coral
and jellyfish.

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21. Class Polyplacophora: Chitons ! dorsoventrally flattened with 7-8 dorsal plates.
Class Monoplacophora: deep sea. Repeated organs: gills, metanephridia, gonads, pedal nerves.

22. Class Gastropoda : increased cephalization, use radula, spiral shell and torsion

23. Torsion: a 180 degree twist of the visceral mass resulting in the anus above the head.


Adv of torsion: allows entire body to be pulled into shell. Puts
ctenidia on anterior end and can sample water from front

Disadvantage: sanitation, but it is solved by water flow


24. lungs of land snail/pulmonates: lost gills altogether and
the vascularized mantle wall has evolved to function as a lung.
Anus and nephridiopore open near the opening of the lung to
the outside, and waste is expelled forcibly with air or water
from the lungs.

25. Pneumostome of pulmonates: anus and nephridopore
open near opening of lung. Opening to cavity

26. Detorted mollusks: sea slugs,hares,angels.
Organelle and symbiont stealers. Some breathe through dorsal
projections called cerata. Different body forms

27. Cerata: dorsal and lateral outgrowths of the upper surfaces
of the body. Aid is respiration as well as defense: eat
cnidocytes, and can convert pigment from food into chemical
waste.

28. Cephalopods : jaw like beaks and radula . Radula is between the beak.
Shell ! pen is reduced.

29. Cephalopod eye: cornea, iris and lens. Lens moved in and out
Vertebrate eye: cornea, iris and lens. Lens changes shapes.

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Note: Cephalopods have chromtophores: pigment cells that can be expanded by muscle cells. Under neural
control! camouflage and signaling.

30. Group of Cephalopoda
Subclass Nautiloidea
Subclass Coleoidea: Orders include Cuttlefish, Squid, Octopus and Vampyromorpha (Vampire Squids)

31. Class Bivalvia: oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops. Lost radula and use gills for filter feeding
Active filter feeders: gills (ctenidia) . water moves counter
current to gills. Gland cells on gills and labial palps secrete
copious amounts of mucus, entangles food particles
suspended in water entering gill pores. Ciliary tract moves
particles to mouth.

32. Bivalves have no cephalization. But adductor muscles
are strong holding hinged shells together.

33. Tusk shells: mantle wrapped around viscera, gills are
lost, feed on detritus and protozoans living in substrate.


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Phylogenetic
Classification

Porifera:

Class Hexactenillida: glass sponges
Radial symmetry
Spicules made up silicic acid:
made of 6 rays
Syncytial reticulum



Class Demospongiae: 80% of all sponges.
Leuconcoid
Spicules not with 6 rays
sponging network often present

Orange devils fingers (asconoid)
Ostia: located along (smaller holes)
Osculum: larger white openings located throughout body

Yellow Ball sponge (leuconoid)
Ostia: small opening on surface
Osculum: larger openings, not in uniformed pattern.


Class Calcarea: calcium carbonate exoskeleton
Can have all 3 types of canal systems

Grantia (Scypha): syconoid canal system
osculum located at tip.
Ostia located all over.
Spongocoel: inner chamber in body

Leucosolenia (Asconoid)


Spicules









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Canal Systems
Asconoid: simple. Water enters through dermal pores into large cavity called spongocoel lined with
choanocytes

Syconoid: single osculum with a layer of cells folded back and forth to make canals in spongocoel.
Water move to incurrent canals and then into radial canals

Leuconoid: clusters of flagellated chamber filled with incurrent canals and discharge water into
excurrent canals that lead to osculum

Ostia: canals for incoming water
Oscula: canals for outgoing water
Choanocytes: lines openings, maintain current of water through canals


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Cnidaria

Class Anthozoa: polyps with flowerlike appearance, no medusa stage.
Includes sea anemone

Aiptasia anemone:
Defense: tentacle retracts becoming stump and closer to body. Nematocysts
paralyze prey before digestion. Cnidocytes !
Prey capture: tentacles retracts pulling prey towards mouth
Acontia: threads found in lower ends of septal edges: contained nematocysts
and gland cells


sea whip and sea fan (a soft coral)
polyps of both have 8 tentacles.

Class Hydrozoa
Colonial, asexual polyp, sexual medusa stage
Gastrozooids: specialized for feeding/tentacles and mouth
gonozooids : specialized for reproduction of medusa/no tentacles
dactylozooids specialized to defend the colony with tentacles
with densely packed nematocysts.










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Class Scyphozoa: true jellies
Jellyfish. Medusa do not have velum
Ex: upside down jellyfish, Aurelia

Aurelia: radial symmetry. Oral-aboral.


Class Staurozoa: solitary polyp body

Class Cubozoa: cube jellies, medusa is predominan form, polyp
inconspicuous.





Note:
Nematocysts: stinging organelles that contain cnidocytes, stinging cells
Acontia: threads in anemones found in lower ends of septal edges containing nematocysts and gland
cells
Radial symmetry
Diploblastic
Incomplete gut














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Platyhelminthes
-bilateral, acoelomate, incomplete gut, triploblastic

Class Turbellaria: paraphyletic, non parasitic.
Epidermis has rhabdites, swell to form protective mucous sheath around
body.
Response to touch: shortens. Most sensitive midposterior region
Food: pharynx extends to feed.
In air: body pulls in tightly. Squirming.
Orientation to food: chemoreceptors on auricles recognize food
easier beside the worm.

Class Trematoda: parasitic flukes.
Organs for attachment (suckers and hooks)
Digenia: parasitize snails.

Class Monogenea: external parasites
Clamp onto gills of fish with hooked attachment organ (opisthaptor)

Class Cestoda: tapeworm
Long flat body
Scolex for attachment
Proglottids: reproductive units
Lack digestive system
Covered with microtriches to absorb nutrients



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Nematoda
Pseudocoelom, cuticle composed of collagen
Round worms
Longitudinal muscles
Some are parasites: hookworm, pinworms, ascaris

Dissection of Ascaris
Males are typically smaller, have a curved posterior end, and have two small, spiny projections
called spicules
the triradiate mouth parts (lips) surrounding the mouth.


Annelida (segmented)

Class Oligochaeta- earthworms
Setae: retract with movement
Organs of excretion- nephridia
Clitellum- reproduction
longitudinal muscles: allow for forward movement and
direction (allows it to get thicker and thinner)
circular muscles: allows for expansion of each segment
fluid filled coelom: more surface area, allows for specialized
internal organs.

Class Polychaeata
Paired paddle like appendages- parapodia

Errant: free moving, burrowing, and crawling
Clam Worm: large, developed head with palp.
Parapodium located laterally on each segment
Swimming: uses lateral body movement
Crawling: uses parapodium
Sedentary: mainly tube living, filter and deposit feeders
Feather dusters: feathery arms called radioles


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Mollusca
- coelomate protostomes
- not segmented
- mantle- thick sheet of epidermis and cuticle that excretes the shell
- ctenidia: gills

Class Caudofoveata and Solenogastres: wormlike, no shell, calcareous scales

Class Monoplacophora: small, low rounded shell, creeping
food, and display serial repetition.

Class Polyplacophora: Chitons
8 calcareous plates
Small mantle forms girdle around plates
3 chambered heart


Class Gastropoda:
-dart sac found near mouth: useu uuiing mating.
contains tiny calcaieous uaits useu to stimulate the snail's paitnei.
- Crop
- Stomach

Lightning Whelk (Busycon perversum) : It uses the edge of its shell to pry open the bivalves shells

!"#$%"&# ()&*$ +,%-)./01 232%0145 !"#$%&'&( foi piotection
o ietiactile "$!)!*%+*
o *+",!-. &*#0 1!$ '!%!(!2+!-3 1##0+-43 $#*"+$52+!-3 $#"$!0&%2+!-

67%%0*7 ,30#5 &) #"3318 /0% "&1%729 017 %$7"- :-"33; "#$#"%&'#<
o %=) 2&%7&&2>3"?7 1%-0*%0-71 2% %$7 2&%7-")- 7&9 2-7 *23379 $(')%"%$*+ *$7.)17&1)-;
1%-0*%0-71 :)-.79 /; 2 :)39"&# ): %$7 .2&%37<
o 6'#"2!"'5*27. piocess of stealing oiganelles

0thei examples: 6".@7% anu A2- 1&2"3

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8-5+' (!$",!'!47
2!$*+!-3 a uevelopmental piocess in which the posteiioi enu of the bouy is tuins 18u towaius
the anteiioi
9&%%5' :5**. phaiyngeal bulb


Class Bivalvia: no head, no radula, sedentary suspension feeders, two shells held together by adductor
muscles. Mussel attach by byssal threads.

Clams: labial palps: assist with eating and gathering food.


Atlantic Bay Scallop as well as Rigid Pen Shell

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Class Scaphopoda: tusk shells, gills lost


Class Cephalopoda: marine, predators, highly mobile
Pen: remnants of shell in squid
Ink sac
Swim by jet propulsion
Well developed eyes
Closed circulatory system
Foot: funnel for expelling water


Note:
Radula: rasping, tongue-like organ
Mantle cavity: houses gills or lungs
Shell: secreted by mantle for protection




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Arthropoda
- hard exoskeleton (molts)
- reduced coelom
- gas exchange via gills, book lungs (spiders) and tracheae(insects)
- jointed appendages: large source of serial homology
- complex mouthparts.

Subphylum Chelicerata
Class Merostomata: horseshoe crab,
Chelicerae (mouth parts)
1
st
legs are padipalps
2 tagmata
book gills,
telson: used to flip over body
Compound eyes

Class Arachnida: spiders, scorpions
Simple eyes
Tracheae
Book lungs

Sybphylum Myriapoda: 2 tagmata: head and trunk. Jointed appendages and antennae
Class Diplopoda: millipedes
2 legs per segment
Class Chilopoda: centipedes
One leg per segment

Subphylum Crustacea: two pairs of antennae, second pair biramous. 3 tagmata,
Class Branchipoda: fairy shrimp, brine shrimp
Ancesteral gills on many appendages, little tagmosis
Class Maxillapoda: barnacles, copepods.
Small, lack appendages
Class Malacostracta: amphipods, ispods, shrimp, decapods (lobster, crab)

CRAYFISH
2 tagmata: cephalothorax and abdomen
gills: behind carapace near walking legs
uropod: 6
th
pair of abdominal appendage (tail fan)
swimmerets: pleopods, swimming legs
chelae: claw
rostrum: extension of crayfish head
green gland: small gland found in anterior: excretory
pyloric chamber: filter pockets for digestion





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Subphylum Hexapoda: 6 legs, uniramous appendages, exoskeleton with scleroprotein, open circulatory
system, tracheae
Class Insecta
Hymenoptera- sawflies, wasps, 2 pairs of membranous wings. have a waist
Hemiptera: true bugs. Have proboscis for sucking liquids. Forewing: ! membrane, ! leathery.
Hindwing: all membranous
Lepidoptera: moths, butterflies, have proboscis
Coleoptera: lady bugs, beetles. Hard and chitonous forewings. Membranous hindwings.
Diptera: flies, mosquitoes. Single pair of wings.
Orthoptera: crickets, grasshoppers. Leathery forewing, mandible, can fold wings.

GRASSHOPPER
- 3 tagmata: head, thorax and abdomen
- malpighian tubules: for excretion
- gut: have crop gizzard and then stomach
- tracheae: for gas exchange



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Echinodermata

Class Crionoidea (sea lilies): more than 5 arms. No spines or madreporite, strong skeleton, sessile
suspension feeder

Class Asteroidea (sea stars): star shaped, tube feet with suckers, most
predatory two part stomach: cardiac and pyloric
Ring canal: ring in center ! water vascular
Radial canal: canals that lead down leg
Stone canal: water vascular. Leads from madreporite to ring
canal
Digestive caeca: branches out of stomach! digests food
Tube feet: small projections on oral surface
Ampulla: part of water vascular system: fill with water to help locomotion
Ambulacral grooves: tube feet protrude from here

Class Ophiuroidea (Brittle stars):
arms with highly articulated vertebrae,
Incomplete gut
Few tube feet
Reduced coelom

Class Echinoidea (Urchins)
No arms
Oral surface expanded over most of body
Aristotles lantern for feeding
Tube feet
Closed ambulacral grooves
Test: endoskeleton with madreporite at top center (large hole)
Pedicellariae (for defense and food capture)

Class Holothuroidea (Sea Cucumber)
Elongated oral aboral axis
Deposit feeders
No spine
Tentacles around mouth
Discharge cuverian tubules




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Chordata
- Notochord: flexible rod like structure
- Dorsal hollow nerve cord
- Pharyngeal pouches or slits
- Post anal tail
- Endostyle/thyroid gland

Subphylum Urochordata (tunicates): adults are
simplified. Keep endostyle and gill slits
Tunic: surrounds body, made of cellulose
Endostyle: secretes mucus for feeding
Pharynx: covered with ciliate cells allow plankton
to move down esophagus
Incurrent and excurrent siphon: incurrent is larger





Subphylum Cephalocordata (lancelets)
Suspension feeders
No true head
Have cirri in front of mouth to filter water
(sensory devices)




Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Petromyzotida(lamprey)
Adults have vertebrae
no jaw, sucker like oral disc
no paired appendages
7 pharyngeal slits
Chambered hear.



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Ecology, the Biosphere and Community Ecology

Ecology! the study between interactions between organisms and the environment. Determines both the
distribution of organisms and their abundance
Reveals the richness of the biosphere
Can provide a basic understanding that will help us to conserve and sustain that richness.


50.1.
Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and the environment
Ecology and Evolutionary Biology!
Events that occur in ecological time affect life on the scale of evolutionary time

Organisms and the Environment-!
Ecologists use observations and experiments to test explanations for the distribution and
abundance of species and other ecological phenomena. The environment of any organism
includes both abiotic and biotic biomes
o Abiotic! non living componentschemical and physical factors such as temperature,
light, water and nutrients
o Biotic! living components. Include other organisms that may compete with an
individual for food or change its physical and chemical environment

Subfields of Ecology ! study ranging from the ecology of individual organisms to the dynamics of
ecosystems and landscapes.
Organismal ecology: concerns how organisms structure, physiology and behavior meet the
challenged posed by the environment
Population ecology: concentrates on factors that affect how many individuals of a particular
species live in an area.
o Population: group of individuals of the same species living in a particular geographic
area.
Community ecology: deals with the whole array of interacting species in a community. Focuses
on the interactions such as predation, competition, disease and how they affect the community
structure and organization
o Community: consists of all the organisms of all species that inhabit a particular area.
Ecosystem ecology: emphasis on energy flow and chemical cycling among the various biotic
and abiotic components
o Ecosystem: consists of al the abiotic factors and the entire community of species in a
certain area
Landscape ecology: deals with arrays of ecosystems. Focuses on factors controlling exchanges
of energy, materials, and organisms among the ecosystem patches making the ecosystem.
o Patchiness: every landscape consists of a mosaic of different types of patches
Biosphere: global ecosystem. Broadest area of ecology includes the entire portion of Earth
inhabited by life: the atmosphere, the land, ocean depths

Ecology and Environmental Issues!
Provides the scientific understanding underlying environmental issues.

50.2.
Interactions between organisms and the environment limit the distribution of spices

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Dispersal and distribution!
Dispersal: movement of individuals away from centers of high population density or from their
area of origin.
Dispersal of organisms results in broad patterns of geographic distribution.
Natural range expansions expand their range by moving into area where they did not exist
previously
o Suggest hypotheses to explain why species are found where they are
Species Transplants observing the results of intentional or accidental transplants of a species to
areas where it was previously absent.
o Successful is the new species not only survives but reproduces there.

Behavior and Habitat Selection!
Some organisms do not occupy all of their potential range (all the areas where they could
potentially be successful). Species distribution may be limited by habitat selection behavior.

Biotic factors !
Biotic factors that affect the distribution of organisms include interactions with other species
such as predation and competition
The inability to survive and reproduce may be due to negative interactions with other organisms
in the form of predation, parasitism, disease or competition.
Survival and reproduction could be limited by the absence of other species on which the
transplanted species depends

Abiotic factors!
Temperature: cells may rupture if the water they contain freezes proteins of most organism
denature at temperatures above 45 degree C.
Water: freshwater or saltwater habitats by limited ability for osmoregulation.
Sunlight: provides the energy that drives all ecosystems. Intensity and quality of light limit the
distribution of photosynthetic organisms.
Wind: amplifies the effects of environmental temperature on organisms by increasing heat loss
due to evaporation and convection
Rocks and soil: physical structure, pH and mineral composition limit the distribution of plants
and thus of the animals that feed upon them.


Climate:
Macroclimate! Global, regional
Influenced by Bodies of water, topography (mountains) ex. The rain shadow effect, seasonality, latitudinal
effects on sunlight intensity, and air circulation and precipitation patterns
Microclimate! the difference in climate under a log vs. top of the log.
Climate is influenced by
Bodies of water: ocean current influence climate along the coasts of continents by heating or
cooling overlying air masses.
Latitudinal variation in sunlight intensity! sunlight strikes the tropics most directly
Seasonal variation in sunlight intensity! earths tilt causes seasonal variation in the intensity of
solar radiation. Tilt of 23.5 degrees. The seasonal variations of light and temperature increase
steadily toward the poles.

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Global air circulation and precipitation patterns: 6 cells that regulate the movement of moist and
dry air
Global wind patterns: air flowing close to earths surface creates predictable global wind
patterns. Due to the earth tilt, the winds at the equator blow more quickly and are diverged to the
west and east rather than the north or south.
Mountains: rain shadow effect. Warm moist air Approaches Mountain, air rises and cools,
releasing moisture on the windward side of the peak. On the leeward side of the mountain, cooler
dry air descends, absorbing moisture and producing a rain shadow

Aquatic Biomes: Stratified by:
Light and temperature: less light and cooler temperatures as depth increases
Distance from shore: photosynthetic life nears shore
Pelagic vs. benthic. Pelagic: open water vs. Benthic: bottom of biome
Availability of nutrients/oxygen (freshwater): more oxygen near photosynthetic organisms.

Aquatic Biomes
Intertidal zone: area of shore where ocean meets land
Pelagic zone: light penetrates deeper than neritic zone. Open blue water.
Benthic Zone: consists of the seafloor below the surface waters. Nutrients derived from debris.
Coral Reefs: found in warm waters above continental shelves. High oxygen levels.
Estuaries: rivers flow into the ocean.

Freshwater biomes
Lakes & Ponds: oligotrophic (nutrient poor and oxygen rich) or eutrophic (nutrient rich, depleted of
oxygen).
Littoral (shallow, well lighted) or limnetic (water is too deep to support aquatic plants)
Wetlands: area covered with water that can support aquatic plants.
Rivers and streams
Estuaries: transition area between river and sea

Ocean Lake

Terrestrial Biomes:
Area of integration is called ecotone
Tropical forest: cluster around equator. Rainfall relatively constant
Desert: occur in a band 30-degree north and south latitude. Precipitation is low.
Savanna: warm year round (24-9 degree C) scattered trees are thorny.
Chaparral: shrub land with cool rainy winters and dry hot summers.
Temperate grassland: precipitation is highly seasonal, dry winters and wet summers.
Coniferous forests: winters are cold and long. Summer may be hot. Dominated by a few species.

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Artic Tundra: treeless biome. Winters are long and cold. Summers are short. Frozen layer of soil!
permafrost
Temperate Broadleaf forests: distinct, highly diverse, vertical layers, including closed canopy, understory
trees, shrub layer and herbaceous stratum



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Community Ecology

Biological community! assemblage of populations of various species living close enough for potential
interaction

Relationships between species:
Competition
Predation & Herbivore
Symbiosis
Disease

Interspecific Interactions
1) Competition: occurs when species compete for a particular resource that is short supply
Competitive exclusion! local elimination of a competing species. States that two species
competing for the same limiting resources cannot coexist in the same place
Ecological Niches: niche= job. The total of a species use of biotic and abiotic resources

Two species cannot coexist in a community if their niches are identical
Fundamental niche! niche potentially occupied by that species
Realized niche! nice it actually occupies in a particular environment

Resource Partitioning: differentiation of niches that enables similar species to coexist in a
community
Character Displacement: tendency for characteristics to be more divergent in sympatric
populations of two species than in allopatric populations of the same two species.

2) Predation: refers to a +/- interaction between species in which one species ill and eats the other/prey/
Feeding adaptation of predators: claws, teeth, fangs, stingers, poison
Prey defensive adaptations:
Behavioral defenses! hiding, fleeing, self defense (squid), alarm calls (monkeys)
Morphological and Physiological defenses: cryptic coloration (tree frogs), mimicry, and
aposematic (warning) coloration
o Batesian mimicry- model is poisonous, mimic is not
o Mullerian mimicry- both are nasty.
Herbivory: consumption of plant material by animals, and herbivores are animals adapted to eat
plants


3) Parasitism: is a +/- interaction. The parasite derives nourishment from its host, which is harmed in the
process
Ectoparasites: parasites that feed on the external surface of a host. Ex ticks and lice
Endoparasites: parasites that live within the body of their host. Ex. Tapeworms and malaria.

4) Disease: effects of disease on populations and communities are similar to those of parasites.
Pathogens: disease causing agents, typically bacteria, viruses or protists.

5) Mutualism: interaction that benefits both species. Ex! clown fish & anemone or flashlight fish (patch
of bacteria that create light)

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6) Commensalism: one species benefits, and other is unaffected. (+/0)

Adaptations & Interactions: Coevolution: evolutionary adaptations of two interacting species

Species Diversity: variety of organisms that make up the community
Richness: the total # of different species in the community
Relative Abundance: the proportion each species represents of the total individuals in the community
Community with even species abundance= more diverse that one with one/two species abundant and other
rare.

Trophic Structure: feeding relationships between organisms
Food chains! link trophic levels from producers to top carnivores
Food webs! branching food chain with complex trophic interactions

Two Hypotheses:
Energetic hypothesis: suggests that the length of a food chain is limited by the inefficiency of energy
transfer along the chain. 10% rule
Dynamic stability hypothesis: long, food chains are less stable than short chains.

Dominant Species! most abundant and have highest biomass. Exert a powerful control over
the occurrence and distribution of other species.
Invasive species! species not native. Could cause damage in food chain
Keystone species! not necessarily abundant in community. Exert strong control over
community structure by their ecological niche.
Foundation species! exert influence by causing physical changes in the environment that
affect community structure. Example: beaver.

Bottom up model! organization proposes unidirectional influences from lower to higher levels.
Presence of absence of mineral nutrients determines community structure
Top down model! control comes from the trophic level above
Predators control herbivores, which in turn control producers.

DISTURBANCE: an event that changes a community, removes organisms from it and alters resource
availability.
Intermediate disturbance hypothesis: moderate levels of disturbance can foster higher diversity than low
levels of diversity.

Ecological Succession: sequence of community and ecosystem changes after a disturbance:
Primary succession! no soil exists when succession begins
Secondary succession! begins in an area where soil remains after disturbance
Pioneer species: first species to arrive
Early arriving species may facilitate appearance of later species! by making the environment
favorable. They may inhibit establishment of later species. May tolerate later species but have no
impact on establishment

Equatorial Polar Gradients: species richness declines along equatorial polar gradient
Richness is great in the tropics


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Climate main cause? ! I think so! Two climatic factors: solar energy & water availability
Measured by evapotranspiration:
Actual evapotranspiration: the evaporation of water from soil plus the transpiration of water from
plants
Potential evapotranspiration: a measure of energy availability but not water availability.
Determined by amount of solar radiation and temperature

Area Effects: All other factors being equal, the larger the geographic area of a community, the greater the
number of species. Explanation: large areas offer a greater diversity for habitats and microhabitats than
small areas.

Island Equilibrium Model: species richness depends on island size, distance from mainland, immigration
and extinction

Integrated Hypothesis: describes a community as an assemblage of closely linked species, locked into
association by mandatory biotic interaction that causes the community to function as an integrated unit.
^
River model: suggests that most of the species in a community are associated tightly with particular other
species in a web/linked in a tight web of interactions. The loss of even a single species has strong
repercussions for the community


Individualistic Hypothesis: depicts a plant community as a change assemblage of species found in the
same area simply because they happen to have similar abiotic requirements. (Temperature, rainfall, and soil
type)! communities are loosely organized associated of independent distributed species

Redundancy model: most of the species in a community are not tightly associated with one another and the
web of life is very loose. If a species is lost, other species will fill the gap






Biology SmaitReview
Behavioral Ecology and Ecosystems

Behavioral Ecology
Behavior! everything an animal does and how it does it
Ethology: study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments.

Fixed Action Patterns: sequence of unlearned behavioral acts. Unchangeable. Once initiated is carried to
completion. Triggered by external sensory stimulus (sign stimulus)

Imprinting: behavior that includes both learning and innate components.
Sensitive period: limited phase in an animals development that is the only time when certain
behaviors can be learned

Habituation: learning to ignore a repeated unimportant stimulus

Spatial learning: involves using landmarks to move through environment
May depend on internal map
Cognitive map: internal representation of spatial relationships of objects in the surroundings.

Associative learning: animals learns particular stimulus or response that is linked to award or punishment
Classic conditioning: arbitrary stimulus associated with response
operant conditioning: through trial and error, an animal learns to associate a behavior with a
response

Social learning: involves observation and imitation of others
Involves changes in behavior that result from the observation and imitation of others
o Mate choice copying: behavior which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of
others.

Cognition and problem solving: ability of an animals nervous system to perceive, store, process and use
information

Kinesis: change in activity in response to stimulus
Taxis: oriented movement toward or way from a stimulus. Positive vs. negative.
Foraging: recognizing, searching for, capturing, and consuming food.
o Cost benefit balance: energy to hunt, yet risk of predation

Mating Systems:
Promiscuous! no strong pair bonds or lasting relationships
Monogamous! mates remain together for longer period (one male + one female)
Polygamous! individual of one sex mating with several of the other.
Male competition for Mates: agonistic behavior! ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains
access to a resource, such as food or mates.

Social Behavior: interaction of two or more animals
Altruism: behavior that reduces an individuals fitness while increasing the fitness of others.

Population! group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area.

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Density! # of individuals per unit are of volume

Dispersion! pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population
o Patterns: Clumped, Random & Uniform
o Territoriality: defense of a bounded physical space against encroachment by others.

Demography!study of vital statistics of populations and how they change over time
o Birth rates and how they vary, and death rates.

Life tables: age specific summaries of the survival pattern of a population.
o Predict an individuals statistical chance of dying during each interval of the individuals
life.

Survivorship curves: plot of the proportion of numbers in a cohort still alive at each age.

Reproductive table: age specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population

Life History Diversity: life history! when reproduction begins, how they reproduce and how many
offspring
Big bang reproduction or semelparity! one shot at reproduction
Iteroparity! repeated reproduction

Exponential Model: J curve
Per capita rate of increase: change in population = births deaths (during time interval)
Zero population growth! occurs when the per capita birth and death rates are equal

Logistic Growth: S curve
Per capita rate of increase declines as carrying capacity is reached
Carrying capacity! symbolized as K, maximum pop size that a particular environment can
support.
K selection! density dependent selection. Selects for life history traits that are sensitive to
population density
o K species: small # of offspring, med-large animals, longer lifespan
R selection! density-independent selection selects or life history traits that maximize
reproduction
o R species: large # of offspring, short life span, no parental care, small.



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Density dependent population regulation:
Density dependent birth and death rates = negative feedback that regulate pop growth
Affected by factors: competition, territoriality, health, predation, toxic wastes, intrinsic factors

Stability and Fluctuation:
Metapopulation! groups of populations linked by immigration and emigration
Classic, mainland island, nonequilibrium and patchy.

Demographic Transition! movement from the first toward the second state
Age structure: the relative number of individuals of each age.
Infant mortality: number of infant deaths per 1000 live births
Life expectancy at birth: predicted average length of life at birth




Biology SmaitReview
Ecosystems
Ecosystem: consists of all the organisms living in a community as well the abiotic factors with which they
interact.
Energy and nutrients pass from primary producers (autotrophs) to primary consumers
(herbivores) to secondary consumers (carnivores) and so on.
Energy flow: enters as light, exits as heat.
10% rule! only 10% of energy is passed on to next trophic level

Decomposition: detritovres, mainly bacteria and fungi, recycle chemical elements to inorganic reservoirs

Primary productions: amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by autotrophs during a give
time period
Gross Primary Production (GPP)! amount of light energy converted to chemical energy by
photosynthesis per unit per time.
Net Primary Production (NPP)! equal to GPP minus the energy used by primary producers for
respiration. Represents the storage of chemical energy that will be available to consumers in the
ecosystem. Can be expressed as juler/meter2/year or biomass. Amount of new biomass added in
a giver period of time
o Terrestrial ecosystem: contribute about 2/3 of global NPP
o Marine ecosystems contribute about 1/3 of NPP.

Both light and nutrients control primary production:
Light: depth of light penetration affect primary prod b/c photosynthesis
Nutrients: more than light. Limit primary production. Example: nitrogen and phosphorous.
Concentrations of these nutrients are very low in the photic zone, where phytoplankton lives.
More abundant in deeper water, where it is too dark for photosynthesis

In terrestrial and wetland ecosystems! climatic factors affect primary production and soil nutrients have
local effects.

Secondary Production: amount of chemical energy in consumers food that is converted to his or her own
biomass during a giver time period. An organisms production efficiency is the fraction of energy stored in
food that is not used for respiration.

Trophic Efficiency: percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next. Range from
5% to 20%. 10% rule.
Pyramid of net production: loss of energy with each transfer in food chain.
Pyramid of biomass: ecological consequence of low trophic efficiencies. Each tier represents the standing
crop in one trophic level.

Green World Hypothesis: terrestrial herbivores consume relatively little plant biomass because they are
held in check by a variety of factors including predators, parasites and disease.
Most terrestrial ecosystems have lots of plants despite lots of herbivores-
Plant defenses-includes spines and noxious chemicals
Limited availability of essential nutrients-animals need certain nutrients, ex: organics nitrogen
Abiotic factors- unfavorable seasonal changes in temperature and moisture can set a carrying
capacity.

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Intraspecific: territorial behavior and other consequences of competition may maintain
herbivores populations densities below what the vegetation could feed
Interspecific competition: predators, parasites and disease are the most important factors
limiting the growth of herbivore populations.

Chemical Cycling: involve both biotic and abiotic components ! biogeochemical cycles.

Water Cycle: water is essential to all organisms and its availability influences rates of ecosystem processes,
particularly primary production and decomp in terrestrial ecosystems
Liquid water is the primary physical phase, some organisms harvest water vapor. Freezing of soil
water can limit availability
Reservoirs: Ocean contains 97%. 2% bound in glaciers and polar ice caps. 1% in lakes, rivers
and ground water.
Main process: evaporation of liquid water by solar energy, condensation of water vapors in
clouds and precipitation.
Transpiration by terrestrial plants moves volumes of water.
Surface and groundwater flow can return to oceans

Carbon Cycle: Carbon forms the framework for the organic molecules essential to organisms
Photosynthetic organisms utilize carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and convert the carbon to
organic forms that are used by consumers.
Major reservoirs: fossil fuel soils, the sediments of aquatic ecosystems, the oceans, plant and
animal biomass, and the atmosphere.
o Largest reservoir of sedimentary rock is limestone
Processes: photosynthesis by plants and phytoplankton removes substantial amount of
atmospheric carbon dioxide. Burning of fossil fuels add CO2 to atmosphere.


Nitrogen Cycle: component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Crucial and often limiting plant
nutrients
Plants and algae can use two organic forms of nitrogen: ammonia or nitrate. Various bacteria can
also use ammonia and nitrates as well as nitrites. Animals can utilize only organic forms of
nitrogen (amino acids or proteins)
Reservoirs: atmosphere has 80% of nitrogen gas. Other reservoirs are nitrogen in soils, sediments
in lakes, rivers and oceans. Dissolved in surface water and groundwater systems and biomass of
living organisms.
Processes: nitrogen fixation, the conversion of nitrogen by bacteria to forms that can be used to
synthesis nitrogenous organic compounds. Nitrogen also fixed by lightning. Nitrogen fertilizer,
precipitation and blowing dust.
Ammonification: decomposes organic nitrogen to ammonia
Nitrification: ammonia is converted to nitrates via nitrifying bacteria.

Phosphorous Cycle: require phosphorous as a major constituent of nucleic acids, phospholipids, and ATP,
and other energy storing molecules. Mineral constituent of bones and teeth
Biologically important inorganic from of phosphorous is phosphate, which plants absorb and use
to synthesize organic compounds
Reservoirs: largest reservoir is in sedimentary rock of marine origin. Also in soil, oceans and in
organisms.

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Processes: weathering of rocks adds phosphate to soil which leaches into ground and surface
water. Phosphate is taken up by producers and incorporated into biological molecules, which
may be eaten by consumers and distributed through food web. Returned to soil or water through
decomposition of biomass or excretion

Decomposition and Nutrient Recycling rates
Tropical rainforests! organic material decomposes in a few months to a few years
Temperate forests! decomposition takes 4 to 6 years
Difference is due to warmer temperature and more abundant precipitation in the tropical forests.
Temperature and water affect rates of decomposition and thus nutrient cycling times

Vegetation and Nutrient Cycling: vegetation strongly regulates nutrient cycling without damaging the
ecosystem

Nutrient Enrichment: human activity often intrudes in nutrient cycles by removing nutrients from one part
of the biosphere and adding them to another.
Nutrients in farm soil my run off into streams and lakes! resulting in nutrient depletion in one
area, excesses in another, and the disruption of the natural chemical cycles
Burning of fossil fuels! CO2 into the atmosphere
Agriculture and Nitrogen Cycling:
Nitrogen is main nutrient loss through agriculture.

Contamination of Aquatic Ecosystems
Critical load: amount of added nutrient, usually nitrogen or phosphorous that can be absorbed by
plants without damaging ecosystem integrity
Remaining nutrients can contaminate groundwater and aquatic ecosystems
Cultural eutrophication, excessive algal growth that can greatly harm

Acid Precipitation: burning of wood and of coal releases oxides of sulfur and nitrogen that react with water
in the atmosphere forming acids. Acid falls as rain, snow, sleet or fog (pH less than 5.6)
In New England: change in soil pH due to acid precipitation causes calcium and other nutrients
to leach from the soil. This affects the health of plants and limits their growth. Can also damage
plants directly by leaching nutrients from leaves
In freshwater lakes, fish populations decline dramatically.

Toxins in the environment: humans release many toxic chemicals that may persist in environment.
Organisms acquire toxic substances from the environment along with nutrients and water
Biomagnifications: toxins concentrate at higher trophic levels where biomass is lower. As a
result, the top-level carnivores tend to be the organisms most severely affected by toxic
compounds.

Atmospheric CO2.
Burning of fossil furls and other human activities has lead to rise in concentration of atmospheric
CO2.