2 - Soil Formation - Mitchell Soga

CHAPTER 2
Soil Formation
2.1
INTRODUCTION
The variety of geomaterials encountered in engineering problems is almost limitless, ranging from hard, dense, large pieces of rock, through gravel, sand, silt, and clay to organic deposits of soft, compressible peat. All these materials may exist over a wide range of densities and water contents. A number of different soil types may be present at any site, and the composition may vary over intervals as small as a few millimeters. It is not surprising, therefore, that much of the geoengineers effort is directed at the identication of soils and the evaluation of the appropriate properties for use in a particular analysis or design. Perhaps what is surprising is that the application of the principles of mechanics to a material as diverse as soil meets with as much success as it does. To understand and appreciate the characteristics of any soil deposit require an understanding of what the material is and how it reached its present state. This requires consideration of rock and soil weathering, the erosion and transportation of soil materials, depositional processes, and postdepositional changes in sediments. Some important aspects of these processes and their effects are presented in this chapter and in Chapter 8. Each has been the subject of numerous books and articles, and the amount of available information is enormous. Thus, it is possible only to summarize the subject and to encourage consultation of the references for more detail.
2.2
THE EARTHS CRUST
The continental crust covers 29 percent of Earths surface. Seismic measurements indicate that the continental crust is about 30 to 40 km thick, which is 6 to 8 times thicker than the crust beneath the ocean. Granitic
Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

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(acid) rocks predominate beneath the continents, and basaltic (basic) rocks predominate beneath the oceans. Because of these lithologic differences, the continental crust average density of 2.7 is slightly less than the oceanic crust average density of 2.8. The elemental compositions of the whole Earth and the crust are indicated in Fig. 2.1. There are more than 100 elements, but 90 percent of Earth consists of iron, oxygen, silicon, and magnesium. Less iron is found in the crust than in the core because its higher density causes it to sink. Silicon, aluminum, calcium, potassium, and sodium are more abundant in the crust than in the core because they are lighter elements. Oxygen is the only anion that has an abundance of more than 1 percent by weight; however, it is very abundant by volume. Silicon, aluminum, magnesium, and oxygen are the most commonly observed elements in soils. Within depths up to 2 km, the rocks are 75 percent secondary (sedimentary and metamorphic) and 25 percent igneous. From depths of 2 to 15 km, the rocks are about 95 percent igneous and 5 percent secondary. Soils may extend from the ground surface to depths of several hundred meters. In many cases the distinction between soil and rock is difcult, as the boundary between soft rock and hard soil is not precisely dened. Earth materials that fall in this range are sometimes difcult to deal with in engineering and construction, as it is not always clear whether they should be treated as soils or rocks. A temperature gradient of about 1C per 30 m exists between the bottom of Earths crust at 1200C and the surface.1 The rate of cooling as molten rock magma
1 In some localized areas, usually within regions of recent crustal movement (e.g., fault lines, volcanic zones) the gradient may exceed 20C per 100 m. Such regions are of interest both because of their potential as geologic hazards and because of their possible value as sources of geothermal energy.
6
100% 90% 80% 70%
SOIL FORMATION
Other <1% Sodium 2.1% Potassium 2.3% Calcium 2.4% Magnesium 4% Iron 6% Aluminum 8% Other <1% Sulfur 1.9% Nickel 2.4% Calcium 1.1% Magnesium 13%
Iron 35%
60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
Silicon 28%
Aluminum 1.1%
Earth's Crust
Figure 2.1 Elemental composition of the whole Earth and
the crust (percent by weight) (data from Press and Siever, 1994).
moves from the interior of Earth toward the surface has a signicant inuence on the characteristics of the resulting rock. The more rapid the cooling, the smaller are the crystals that form because of the reduced time for atoms to attain minimum energy congurations. Cooling may be so rapid in a volcanic eruption that no crystalline structure develops before solidication, and an amorphous material such as obsidian (volcanic glass) is formed.
2.3 GEOLOGIC CYCLE AND GEOLOGICAL TIME
The surface of Earth is acted on by four basic processes that proceed in a never-ending cycle, as indicated in Fig. 2.2. Denudation includes all of those processes that act to wear down land masses. These include landslides, debris ows, avalanche transport, wind abrasion, and overland ows such as rivers and streams. Weathering includes all of the destructive mechanical and chemical processes that break down existing rock masses in situ. Erosion initiates the transportation of weathering products by various agents from one region to anothergenerally from high areas to low. Weathering and erosion convert rocks into sediment and form soil. Deposition involves the accumulation of sediments transported previously

Silicon 15% Oxygen 46% Oxygen 30%
Figure 2.2 Geologic cycle.
Whole Earth
from some other area. Sediment formation pertains to processes by which accumulated sediments are densied, altered in composition, and converted into rock. Crustal movement involves both gradual rising of unloaded areas and slow subsidence of depositional basins (epirogenic movements) and abrupt movements (tectonic movements) such as those associated with faulting and earthquakes. Crustal movements may also result in the formation of new rock masses through igneous or plutonic activity. The interrelationships of these processes are shown in Fig. 2.3. More than one process acts simultaneously in nature. For example, both weathering and erosion take place at the surface during periods of uplift, or orogenic activity (mountain building), and deposition, sediment formation, and regional subsidence are generally contemporaneous. This accounts in part for the wide variety of topographic and soil conditions in any area.
Figure 2.3 Simplied version of the rock cycle.
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ROCK AND MINERAL STABILITY
Eon
Tertiary
Cenozoic
Phanerozoic Mesozoic
Paleozoic
Proterozoic Archean
2500 Precambrian
Figure 2.4 Stratigraphic timescale column. Numbers repre-
sent millions of years before the present.

Era Period Epoch
Quaternary Neogene Holocene Pleistocene Pliocene Miocene Oligocene Eocene Paleocene Paleogene Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic 0.01 1.6 5 23 35 57 65 146 208 245 290 323 363 409 439 510 570 Permian Pennsylvanian Mississippian Devonian Silurian Ordovician Cambrian
The stratigraphic timescale column shown in Fig. 2.4 gives the sequence of rocks formed during geological time. Rocks are grouped by age into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. Each time period of the column is represented by its appropriate system of rocks observed on Earths surface along with radioactive age dating. Among various periods, the Quaternary period (from 1.6 million years ago to the present) deserves special attention since the top few tens of meters of Earths surface, which geotechnical engineers often work in, were developed during this period. The Quaternary period is subdivided into the Holocene (the 10,000 years after the last glacial period) and the Pleistocene. The deposits during this period are controlled mainly by the change in climate, as it was too short a time for any major tectonic changes to occur in the positions of land masses and seas. There were as many as 20 glacial and interglacial periods during the Quaternary. At one time, ice sheets covered more than three times their present extent. Worldwide sea level oscillations due to glacial and interglacial cycles affect soil formation (weathering, erosion, and sedimentation) as well as postdepositional changes such as consolidation and leaching.
2.4
ROCK AND MINERAL STABILITY
Rocks are heterogeneous assemblages of smaller components. The smallest and chemically purest of these components are elements, which combine to form inorganic compounds of xed composition known as minerals. Hence, rocks are composed of minerals or aggregates of minerals. Rocks are sometimes glassy (volcanic glass, obsidian, e.g.), but usually consist of minerals that crystallized together or in sequence (metamorphic and igneous rocks), or of aggregates of detrital components (most sedimentary rocks). Sometimes, rocks are composed entirely of one type of mineral (say int or rock salt), but generally they contain many different minerals, and often the rock is a collection or aggregation of small particles that are themselves pieces of rocks. Books on petrography may list more than 1000 species of rock types. Fortunately, however, many of them fall into groups with similar engineering attributes, so that only about 40 rock names will sufce for most geotechnical engineering purposes. Minerals have a denite chemical composition and an ordered arrangement of components (a crystal lattice); a few minerals are disordered and without denable crystal structure (amorphous). Crystal size and structure have an important inuence on the resistance of different rocks to weathering. Factors controlling the stability of different crystal structures are considered in Chapter 3. The greatest electrochemical stability of a crystal is reached at its crystallization temperature. As temperature falls below the crystallization temperature, the structural stability decreases. For example, olivine crystallizes from igneous rock magma at high temperature, and it is one of the most unstable igneousrock-forming minerals. On the other hand, quartz does not assume its nal crystal structure until the temperature drops below 573C. Because of its high stability, quartz is the most abundant nonclay mineral in soils, although it comprises only about 12 percent of igneous rocks. As magma cools, minerals may form and remain, or they may react progressively to form other minerals at lower temperatures. Bowens reaction series, shown in Fig. 2.5, indicates the crystallization sequence of the silicate minerals as temperature decreases from 1200C. This reaction series closely parallels various weathering stability series as shown later in Table 2.2. For example, in an intermediate granitic rock, hornblende and plagioclase feldspar would be expected to chemically weather before orthoclase feldspar, which would chemically weather before muscovite mica, and so on.
SOIL FORMATION
Physical Processes of Weathering
Physical weathering processes cause in situ breakdown without chemical change. Five processes are important: 1. Unloading Cracks and joints may form to depths of hundreds of meters below the ground surface when the effective conning pressure is reduced. Reduction in conning pressure may result from uplift, erosion, or changes in uid pressure. Exfoliation is the spalling or peeling off of surface layers of rocks. Exfoliation may occur during rock excavation and tunneling. The term popping rock is used to describe the sudden spalling of rock slabs as a result of stress release. 2. Thermal Expansion and Contraction The effects of thermal expansion and contraction range from creation of planes of weakness from strains already present in a rock to complete fracture. Repeated frost and insolation (daytime heating) may be important in some desert areas. Fires can cause very rapid temperature increase and rock weathering. 3. Crystal Growth, Including Frost Action The crystallization pressures of salts and the pressure associated with the freezing of water in saturated rocks may cause signicant disintegration. Many talus deposits have been formed by frost action. However, the role of freezethaw in physical weathering has been debated (Birkeland, 1984). The rapid rates and high amplitude of temperature change required to produce necessary pressure have not been conrmed in the eld. Instead, some researchers favor the process in which thin lms of adsorbed water is the agent that promotes weathering. These lms can be adsorbed so tightly that they cannot freeze. However, the water is attracted to a freezing front and pressures exerted during the migration of these lms can break the rock apart. 4. Colloid Plucking The shrinkage of colloidal materials on drying can exert a tensile stress on surfaces with which they are in contact.3 5. Organic Activity The growth of plant roots in existing fractures in rocks is an important weathering process. In addition, the activities of worms, rodents, and humans may cause considerable mixing in the zone of weathering.
mineral is more stable than the one above it on the list.
Mineralogy textbooks commonly list determinative properties for about 200 minerals. The list of the most common rock- or soil-forming minerals is rather short, however. Common minerals found in soils are listed in Table 2.1. The top six silicates originate from rocks by physical weathering processes, whereas the other minerals are formed by chemical weathering processes. Further description of important minerals found in soils is given in Chapter 3.
2.5
WEATHERING
Weathering of rocks and soils is a destructive process whereby debris of various sizes, compositions, and shapes is formed.2 The new compositions are usually more stable than the old and involve a decrease in the internal energy of the materials. As erosion moves the ground surface downward, pressures and temperatures in the rocks are decreased, so they then possess an internal energy above that for equilibrium in the new environment. This, in conjunction with exposure to the atmosphere, water, and various chemical and biological agents, results in processes of alteration. A variety of physical, chemical, and biological processes act to break down rock masses. Physical processes reduce particle size, increase surface area, and increase bulk volume. Chemical and biological processes can cause complete changes in both physical and chemical properties.
A general denition of weathering (Reiche, 1945; Keller, 1957) is: the response of materials within the lithosphere to conditions at or near its contact with the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and perhaps more importantly, the biosphere. The biosphere is the entire space occupied by living organisms; the hydrosphere is the aqueous envelope of Earth; and the lithosphere is the solid part of Earth.

Figure 2.5 Bowens reaction series of mineral stability. Each
3 To appreciate this phenomenon, smear a lm of highly plastic clay paste on the back of your hand and let it dry.
WEATHERING
Table 2.1 Name Quartz Feldspar Mica
Common Soil Minerals Chemical Formula SiO2 (Na,K)AlO2[SiO2]3 CaAl2O4[SiO2]2 K2Al2O5[Si2O5]3Al4(OH)4 K2Al2O5[Si2O5]3(Mg,Fe)6(OH)4 (Ca,Na,K)2,3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(OH)2[(Si,Al)4O11]2 (Ca,Mg,Fe,Ti,Al)(Si.Al)O3 (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 Ca2(Al,Fe)3(OH)Si3O12 NaMg3Al6B3Si6O27(OH,F)4 ZrSiO4 TiO2 Si4Al4O10(OH)8 Mx(Si,Al)8(Al,Fe,Mg)4O20(OH)4, where M interlayer cation Si3Al4O12 nH2O Characteristics Abundant in sand and silt Abundant in soil that is not leached extensively Source of K in most temperate-zone soils Easily weathered to clay minerals and oxides Easily weathered Easily weathered Highly resistant to chemical weathering; used as index mineral in pedologic studies
Imogolite Gibbsite Goethite Hematite Ferrihydrate Birnessite Calcite Gypsum
Adapted from Sposito (1989).
Physical weathering processes are generally the forerunners of chemical weathering. Their main contributions are to loosen rock masses, reduce particle sizes, and increase the available surface area for chemical attack.
Chemical Processes of Weathering
Chemical weathering transforms one mineral to another or completely dissolves the mineral. Practically all chemical weathering processes depend on the presence of water. Hydration, that is, the surface adsorption of water, is the forerunner of all the more complex chemical reactions, many of which proceed simultaneously. Some important chemical processes are listed below. 1. Hydrolysis, probably the most important chemical process, is the reaction between the mineral and H and (OH) of water. The small size of

Si2Al4O10 5H2O Al(OH)3 FeO(OH) Fe2O3 Fe10O15 9H2O (Na,Ca)Mn7O14 2.8H2O CaCO3 CaSO4 2H2O Abundant in leached soils Most abundant Fe oxide Abundant in warm region Abundant in organic horizons Most abundant Mn oxide Most abundant carbonate Abundant in arid regions
Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine Epidote Tourmaline Zircon Rutile Kaolinite Smectite, vermiculite, chlorite Allophane
Abundant in clays as products of weathering; source of exchangeable cations in soils Abundant in soils derived from volcanic ash deposits
the ion enables it to enter the lattice of minerals and replace existing cations. For feldspar, Orthoclase feldspar: K silicate HOH
H silicate KOH (alkaline)
Anorthite:
Ca silicate 2HOH
H silicate Ca(OH)2 (basic)
As water is absorbed into feldspar, kaolinite is often produced. In a similar way, other clay minerals and zeolites (microporous aluminosilicates) may form by weathering of silicate minerals as the associated ions such as silica, sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium are lost into so-
10
SOIL FORMATION
K2[Si6Al2]Al4O20(OH)4 6C2O4H2 8H2O
2K 6C2O4Al 6Si(OH)40 8OH
Figure 2.6 Solubility of alumina and amorphous silica in
water (Keller, 1964b).

(hydrolysis) Oxidation of Fe(OH)2 gives
lution. Hydrolysis will not continue in the presence of static water. Continued driving of the reaction to the right requires removal of soluble materials by leaching, complexing, adsorption, and precipitation, as well as the continued introduction of H ions. Carbonic acid (H2CO3) speeds chemical weathering. This weak acid is formed by the solution in rainwater of a small amount of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere. Additional carbonic acid and other acids are produced by the roots of plants, by insects that live in the soil, and by the bacteria that degrade plant and animal remains. The pH of the system is important because it inuences the amount of available H, the solubility of SiO2 and Al2O3, and the type of clay mineral that may form. The solubility of silica and alumina as a function of pH is shown in Fig. 2.6. 2. Chelation involves the complexing and removal of metal ions. It helps to drive hydrolysis reactions. For example, Muscovite:
Oxalic acid (C2O4H2), the chelating agent, releases C2O42, which forms a soluble complex with Al3 to enhance dissolution of muscovite. Ring-structured organic compounds derived from humus can act as chelating agents by holding metal ions within the rings by covalent bonding. 3. Cation exchange is important in chemical weathering in at least three ways: a. It may cause replacement of hydrogen on hydrogen bearing colloids. This reduces the ability of the colloids to bring H to unweathered surfaces. b. The ions held by Al2O3 and SiO2 colloids inuence the types of clay minerals that form. c. Physical properties of the system such as the permeability may depend on the adsorbed ion concentrations and types. 4. Oxidation is the loss of electrons by cations, and reduction is the gain of electrons. Both are important in chemical weathering. Most important oxidation products depend on dissolved oxygen in the water. The oxidation of pyrite is typical of many oxidation reactions during weathering (Keller, 1957): 2FeS2 2H2O 7O2 2FeSO4 2H2SO4
FeSO4 2H2O Fe(OH)2 H2SO4
4Fe(OH)2 O2 2H2O 4Fe(OH)3 2Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 nH2O (limonite)
The H2SO4 formed in these reactions rejuvenates the process. It may also drive the hydrolysis of silicates and weather limestone to produce gypsum and carbonic acid. During the construction of the Carsington Dam in England in the early 1980s, soil in the reservoir area that contained pyrite was uncovered during construction following the excavation and exposure of air and water of the Namurian shale used in the embankment. The sulfuric acid that was released as a result of the pyrite oxidation reacted with limestone to form gypsum and CO2. Accumulation of CO2 in construction shafts led to the asphyxiation of workers who were unaware of its presence. It is believed that the oxidation process was mediated by bacteria (Cripps et al., 1993), as discussed fur-
WEATHERING
11
CaMg(CO3)2 2CO2 2H2O
The dissolved components can be carried off in water solution. They may also be precipitated at locations away from the original formation.
Microbiological Effects
Several types of microorganisms are found in soils; there are cellular microorganisms (bacteria, archea, algae, fungi, protozoa, and slime molds) and noncellular microorganisms (viruses). They may be nearly round, rodlike, or spiral and range in size from less than 1 to 100 m, which is equivalent to coarse clay size to ne sand size. Figure 2.7a shows bacteria adhering to quartz sand grains, and Fig. 2.7b shows clay minerals coating around the cell envelope, forming what are called bacterial microaggregates.4 A few billion to 3 trillion microorganisms exist in a kilogram of soil near the ground surface and bacteria are dominant. Microorganisms can reproduce very rapidly. The replication rate is controlled by factors such as temperature, pH, ionic concentrations, nutrients, and water availability. Under ideal conditions, the generation time for bacterial ssion can be as short as 10 min; however, an hour scale is typical. These high-speed generation rates, mutation, and natural selection lead to very fast adaptation and extraordinary biodiversity. Autotrophic photosynthetic bacteria, that is, photoautotrophs, played a crucial role in the geological de-
Further details of how microorganisms adhere to soil surfaces are given in Chenu and Stotzky (2002).

Ca(HCO3)2 Mg(HCO3)2
ther in the next section. Many iron minerals weather to iron oxide (Fe2O3, hematite). The red soils of warm, humid regions are colored by iron oxides. Oxides can act as cementing agents between soil particles. Reduction reactions, which are of importance relative to the inuences of bacterial action and plants on weathering, store energy that may be used in later stages of weathering. 5. Carbonation is the combination of carbonate or bicarbonate ions with earth materials. Atmospheric CO2 is the source of the ions. Limestone made of calcite and dolomite is one of the rocks that weather most quickly especially in humid regions. The carbonation of dolomitic limestone proceeds as follows:
Figure 2.7 Microogranisms attached to soil particle sur-
faces: (a) bacteria attached to sand particle (from Robertson et al. 1993 in Chenu and Stotzky, 2002), (b) bacterial microaggregate [from Robert and Chenu (1992) in Chenu and Stotzky (2002)], and (c) biolm on soil surface (from Chenu and Stotzky (2002).
12
SOIL FORMATION
velopment of Earth (Hattori, 1973; McCarty, 2004). Photosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacteria, or blue-green bacteria evolved about 3.5 billion years ago (Proterozoic eraPrecambrian), and they are the oldest known fossils. Cyanobacteria use energy from the sun to reduce the carbon in CO2 to cellular carbon and to obtain the needed electrons for oxidizing the oxygen in water to molecular oxygen. During the Archaean period (2.5 billion years ago), cyanobacteria converted the atmosphere from reducing to oxidizing and changed the mineral nature of Earth. Eukaryotic algae evolved later, followed by the multicellular eukaryotes including plants. Photosynthesis is the primary producer of the organic particulate matter in shale, sand, silt, and clay, as well as in coal, petroleum, and methane deposits. Furthermore, cyanobacteria and algae increase the water pH when they consume CO2 dissolved in water, resulting in carbonate formation and precipitation of magnesium and calcium carbonates, leading to Earths major carbonate formations. Aerobic bacteria live in the presence of dissolved oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria survive only in the absence of oxygen. Facultative bacteria can live with or without oxygen. Some bacteria may resort to fermentation to sustain their metabolism under anaerobic conditions (Purves et al., 1997). For example, in the case of anaerobic conditions, fermenting bacteria oxidize carbohydrates to produce simple organic acids and H2 that are used to reduction of ferric (Fe3) iron, sulfate reduction, and the generation of methane (Chapelle, 2001). Microbial energy metabolism involves electron transfers, and the electron sources and acceptors can be both organic and inorganic compounds (Horn and Meike, 1995). Most soil bacteria derive their carbon and energy directly from organic matter and its oxidation. Some other bacteria derive their energy from oxidation of inorganic substances such as ammonium, sulfur, and iron and most of their carbon from carbon dioxide. Therefore, biological activity mediates geochemical reactions, causing them to proceed at rates that are sometimes orders of magnitude more rapid than would be predicted solely on the basis of the thermochemical reactions involved. Bacteria tend to adhere to mineral surfaces and form microcolonies known as biolms as shown in Fig. 2.7c. Some biolms are made of single-type bacteria, while others involve symbiotic communities where two or more bacteria types coexist and complement each other. For example, biolms involved in rock weathering may involve an upper aerobic layer, followed by an intermediate facultative layer that rests on top of the aerobic layer that produces the weathering agents

Weathering Products
(e.g., acids) directly on the rock surface (Ehrlich, 1998). Biolms bind cations in the pore uid and facilitate nucleation and crystal growth even at low ionic concentrations in the pore uid (Konhauser and Urrutia, 1999). After nucleation is initiated, further mineral growth or precipitation can occur abiotically, including the precipitation of amorphous ironaluminum silicates and poorly crystallized claylike minerals, such as allophone, imogolite, and smectite (Urrutia and Beveridge, 1995; Ehrlich, 1999; Barton et al., 2001). In the case of the Carsington Dam construction, Cripps et al. (1993) hypothesized that autotrophic bacteria greatly accelerated the oxidation rate of the pyrite, so that it occurred within months during construction. The resulting sulfuric acid reacted with the drainage blanket constructed of carboniferous limestone, which then resulted in precipitation of gypsum and iron hydroxide, clogging of drains and generation of carbon dioxide.
The products of weathering, several of which will generally coexist at one time, include: 1. Unaltered minerals that are either highly resistant or freshly exposed 2. Newly formed, more stable minerals having the same structure as the original mineral 3. Newly formed minerals having a form similar to the original, but a changed internal structure 4. Products of disrupted minerals, either at or transported from the site. Such minerals might include a. Colloidal gels of Al2O3 and SiO2 b. Clay minerals c. Zeolites d. Cations and anions in solution e. Mineral precipitates 5. Unused guest reactants
The relationship between minerals and different weathering stages is given in Table 2.2. The similarity between the order of representative minerals for the different weathering stages and Bowens reaction series given earlier (Fig. 2.5) may be noted. Contrasts in compositions between terrestrial and lunar soils can be accounted for largely in terms of differences in chemical weathering. Soils on Earth are composed mainly of quartz and clay minerals because the minerals of lower stability, such as feldspar, olivine, hornblende, and glasses, are rapidly removed by chemical weathering. On the Moon, however, the absence of water and free oxygen prevent chemical weathering. Hence, lunar soils are made up mainly of fragmented parent rock and rapidly crystallized
WEATHERING
13
Table 2.2 Representative Minerals and Soils Associated with Weathering Stages Weathering Stage
Effects of Climate, Topography, Parent Material, Time, and Biotic Factors
Representative Minerals
Typical Soil Groups
Early Weathering Stages 1 2 3 4 5 Gypsum (also halite, sodium nitrate) Calcite (also dolomite apatite) Olivine-hornblende (also pyroxenes) Biotite (also glauconite, nontronite) Albite (also anorthite microcline, orthoclase) Soils dominated by these minerals in the ne silt and clay fractions are the youthful soils all over the world, but mainly soils of the desert regions where limited water keeps chemical weathering to a minimum.
Intermediate Weathering Stages 6 7 8
Quartz Soils dominated by Muscovite (also illite) these minerals in the 21 layer silicates (inne silt and clay fractions are mainly those cluding vermiculite, of temperate regions expanded hydrous developed under grass mica) or trees. Includes the Montmorillonite major soils of the wheat and corn belts of the world. Advanced weathering stages
10 11 12 13
Many intensely weathKaolinite ered soils of the warm Gibbsite Hematite (also geothite, and humid equatorial regions have clay limonite) fractions dominated Anatase (also rutile, by these minerals. zircon) They are frequently characterized by their infertility.
From Jackson and Sherman (1953).
glasses. Mineral fragments in lunar soils include plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, ilmenite, olivine, and potassium feldspar. Quartz is extremely rare because it is not abundant in the source rocks. Carrier et al. (1991) present an excellent compilation of information about the composition and properties of lunar soil.

The rate at which weathering can proceed is controlled by parent material and climate. Topography, apart from its inuence on climate, determines primarily the rate of erosion, and this controls the depth of soil accumulation and the time available for weathering prior to removal of material from the site. In areas of steep topography, rapid mechanical weathering followed by rapid down-slope movement of the debris results in formation of talus slopes (piles of relatively unweathered coarse rock fragments). Climate determines the amount of water present, the temperature, and the character of the vegetative cover, and these, in turn, affect the biologic complex. Some general inuences of climate are: 1. For a given amount of rainfall, chemical weathering proceeds more rapidly in warm than in cool climates. At normal temperatures, reaction rates approximately double for each 10C rise in temperature. 2. At a given temperature, weathering proceeds more rapidly in a wet climate than in a dry climate provided there is good drainage. 3. The depth to the water table inuences weathering by determining the depth to which air is available as a gas or in solution and by its effect on the type of biotic activity. 4. Type of rainfall is important: short, intense rains erode and run off, whereas light-intensity, longduration rains soak in and aid in leaching.
Table 2.3 summarizes geomorphologic processes in different morphoclimatic zones. The nature and rate of these geomorphologic processes control landform assemblages. During the early stages of weathering and soil formation, the parent material is much more important than it is after intense weathering for long periods of time. Climate ultimately becomes a more dominant factor in residual soil formation than parent material. Of the igneous rock-forming minerals, only quartz and, to a much lesser extent, feldspar, have sufcient chemical durability to persist over long periods of weathering. Quartz is most abundant in coarse-grained granular rocks such as granite, granodiorite, and gneiss, where it typically occurs in grains in the millimeter size range. Consequently, granitic rocks are the main source of sand. In addition to the microbiological activities discussed previously, biological factors of importance include the inuences of vegetation on erosion rate and the cycling of elements between plants and soils. Mi-
14
SOIL FORMATION
Table 2.3
Morphoclimatic Zones and the Associated Geomorphologic Processes Mean Annual Temperature (C)
0
Morphoclimatic Zone Glacial
Mean Annual Precipitation (mm) 01000
Relative Importance of Geomorphologic Processes Mechanical weathering rates (especially frost action) high; chemical weathering rates low, mass movement rates low except locally; uvial action conned to seasonal melt; glacial action at a maximum; wind action signicant Mechanical weathering very active with frost action at a maximum; chemical weathering rates low to moderate; mass movement very active; uvial processes seasonally active; wind action rates locally high. Effects of the repeated formation and decay of permafrost. Chemical weathering rates moderate, increasing to high at lower latitudes; mechanical weathering activity moderate with frost action important at higher latitudes; mass movement activity moderate to high; moderate rates of uvial processes; wind action conned to coasts. Chemical weathering rates low to moderate; mechanical weathering, especially frost action, seasonally active; mass movement moderate and episodic; uvial processes active in wet season; wind action locally moderate. Mechanical weathering rates high (especially salt weathering), chemical weathering minimum, mass movement minimal; rates of uvial activity generally very low but sporadically high; wind action at maximum. Chemical weathering rates moderate to low; mechanical weathering locally active especially on drier and cooler margins; mass movement locally active but sporadic; uvial action rates high but episodic; wind action moderate to high. Chemical weathering active during wet season; rates of mechanical weathering low to moderate; mass movement fairly active; uvial action high during wet season with overland and channel ow; wind action generally minimum but locally moderate in dry season. High potential rates of chemical weathering; mechanical weathering limited; active, highly episodic mass movement; moderate to low rates of stream corrosion but locally high rates of dissolved and suspended load transport. Rates of all processes vary signicantly with altitude; mechanical and glacial action becomes signicant at high elevations.
Periglacial
Wet midlatitude
Dry continental
Hot dry (arid tropical)
Hot semidry (semiarid tropical)
Hot wetdry (humidarid tropical)
Hot wet (humid tropical)
Azonal Mountain zone
From Fookes et al. (2000).

1 to 2
1001000
020
4001800
010
100400
1030
0300
1030
300600
2030
6001500
2030
1500
Highly variable
Highly variable
ORIGIN OF CLAY MINERALS AND CLAY GENESIS
15
2.6 ORIGIN OF CLAY MINERALS AND CLAY GENESIS
There are three general mechanisms of clay formation by weathering (Eberl, 1984): (1) inheritance, (2) neoformation, and (3) transformation. Inheritance means that a clay mineral originated from reactions that occurred in another area during a previous stage in the rock cycle and that the clay is stable enough to remain in its present environment. Origin by neoformation means that the clay has precipitated from solution or formed from reactions of amorphous materials. Transformation genesis requires that the clay has kept some of its inherited structure while undergoing chemical reactions. These reactions are typically characterized by ion exchange with the surrounding environment and/or layer transformation in which the structure of octahedral, tetrahedral, or xed interlayer cations is modied. The behavior of nonclay colloids such as silica and alumina during crystallization is important in determining the specic clay minerals that form. Certain general principles apply.5
The considerations in Chapter 6 provide a basis for these statements.

Kaolinite Minerals Smectite Minerals
crobial decomposition of the heavy layers of organic matter in top soils formed through photosynthesis results in oxygen depletion and carbon oxidation back to CO2, which is leached by rainwater that penetrates into the subsurface. The high CO2 concentration, lowered pH, and anaerobic nature of these penetrating waters cause reduction and solutioning of iron and manganese minerals, the reduction of sulfates, and dissolution of carbonate rocks. If the moving waters become comingled with oxygenated water in the ground, or as groundwater emerges into rivers and streams, iron, manganese, and sulde oxidation results, and carbonate precipitation can occur (McCarty, 2004). The time needed to weather different materials varies greatly. The more unconsolidated and permeable the parent material, and the warmer and more humid the climate, the shorter the time needed to achieve some given amount of soil formation. The rates of weathering and soil development decrease with increasing time. The time for soil formation from hard rock parent materials may be very great; however, young soils can develop in less than 100 years from loessial, glacial, and volcanic parent material (Millar et al., 1965). Pyrite bearing rocks are known to break apart and undergo chemical and mineral transformations in only a few years.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Alkaline earths (Ca2, Mg2) occulate silica. Alkalis (K, Na, Li) disperse silica. Low pH occulates colloids. High electrolyte content occulates colloids. Aluminous suspensions are more easily occulated than siliceous suspensions. 6. Dispersed phases are more easily removed by groundwater than occulated phases.
Factors important in determining the formation of specic clay minerals are discussed below. The structure and detailed characterization of these minerals are covered in Chapter 3.
Kaolinite formation is favored when alumina is abundant and silica is scarce because of the 11 silicaalumina structure, as opposed to the 21 silica to alumina structure of the three-layer minerals. Conditions leading to kaolinite formation usually include low electrolyte content, low pH, and the removal of ions that tend to occulate silica (Mg, Ca, Fe) by leaching. Most kaolinite is formed from feldspars and micas by acid leaching of acidic (SiO2-rich) granitic rocks. Kaolinite forms in areas where precipitation is relatively high, and there is good drainage to ensure leaching of cations and iron. Halloysite forms as a result of the leaching of feldspar by H2SO4, which is often produced by the oxidation of pyrite, as shown earlier. The combination of conditions that results in halloysite formation is often found in high-rain volcanic areas such as Hawaii and the Cascade Mountains of the Pacic Northwest in the United States.
Smectites, because of their 21 silicaalumina structure, form where silica is abundant, as is the case where both silica and alumina are occulated. Conditions favoring this are high pH, high electrolyte content, and the presence of more Mg2 and Ca2 than Na and K. Rocks that are high in alkaline earths, such as the basic and intermediate igneous rocks, volcanic ash, and their derivatives containing ferromagnesian minerals and calcic plagioclase, are usual parent materials. Climatic conditions where evaporation exceeds precipitation and where there is poor leaching and drainage, such as in arid and semiarid areas, favor the formation of smectite.
Illite (Hydrous Mica) and Vermiculite
Hydrous mica minerals form under conditions similar to those leading to the formation of smectites. In addition, the presence of potassium is essential; so ig-
16
SOIL FORMATION
neous or metamorphic rocks and their derivatives are the usual parent rocks. Weathering of feldspar in cool climates often leads to the development of illite. Alteration of muscovite to illite and biotite to vermiculite during weathering is also a signicant source of these minerals. Interstratications of vermiculite with mica and chlorite are common. The high stability of illite is responsible for its abundance and persistence in soils and sediments.
Chlorite Minerals
guish. Their thickness may range from a few millimeters to several meters. The horizons may differ in any or all of the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Degree of breakdown of parent material Content and character of organic material Kind and amount of secondary minerals pH Particle size distribution
Chlorites can form by alteration of smectite through introduction of sufcient Mg2 to cause formation of a brucitelike layer that replaces the interlayer water. Biotite from igneous and metamorphic rocks may alter to trioctahedral chlorites and mixed-layer chlorite vermiculite. Chlorites also occur in low- to mediumgrade metamorphic rocks and in soils derived from such rocks.
Discussion
The above considerations are greatly simplied, and there are numerous ramications, alterations, and variations in the processes. One clay type may transform to another by cation exchange and weathering under new conditions. Entire structures may change, for example, from 21 to 11, so that montmorillonite forms when magnesium-rich rocks weather under humid, moderately drained conditions, but then alters to kaolinite as leaching continues. Kaolinite does not form in the presence of signicant concentrations of calcium. The relative proportions of potassium and magnesium determine how much montmorillonite and illite form. Some montmorillonites alter to illite in a marine environment due to the high K concentration. Mixedlayer clays often form by partial leaching of K or Mg(OH)2 from between illite and chlorite layers and by incomplete adsorption of K or Mg(OH)2 in montmorillonite or vermiculite. Further details of the clay minerals are given in Chapter 3. More detailed discussions of clay mineral formation are given by Keller (1957, 1964a & b), Weaver and Pollard (1973), Eberl (1984), and Velde (1995), among others.
2.7 SOIL PROFILES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT
All the horizons considered together, including the underlying parent material, form the soil prole.6 The part of the prole above the parent material is termed the solum. Eluviation is the movement of soil material from one place to another within the soil, either in solution or in suspension as a result of excess precipitation over evaporation. Eluvial horizons have lost material; illuvial horizons have gained material. Master horizons are designated by the capital letters O, A, B, C, and R (Table 2.4). Subordinate symbols are used as sufxes after the master horizon designations to indicate dominant features of different kinds of horizons, as indicated in the table. The O horizons are generally present at the soil surface under native vegetation, but they may also be buried by sedimentation of alluvium, loess, or ash fall. The A horizon is the zone of eluviation where humied organic matter accumulates with the mineral fraction. The amount of organic matters (bers to humic/fulvic acids) varies from 0.1 percent in desert soils to 5 percent or more in organic soils and affects many engineering properties including compressibility, shrinkage, strength and chemical sorption. The B horizon is the zone of illuviation where clay, iron compounds, some resistant minerals, cations, and humus accumulate. The R horizon is the consolidated rock, and the C horizon consists of the altered material from which A and B horizons are formed. Soil proles developed by weathering can be categorized into three groups on the basis of their mineralogy and chemical composition as shown in Fig. 2.8 (Press and Siever, 1994). Pedalfers, which are formed in moist climate, are soils rich in aluminum and iron oxides and silicates such as quartz and clay minerals. All soluble minerals such as calcium carbonate is leached away. They have a thick A horizon and can be found in much of the areas of moderate to high rainfall in the eastern United States, Canada, and Europe. Pedocals, which are formed in dry climate, are soils rich
In situ weathering processes lead to a sequence of horizons within a soil, provided erosion does not rapidly remove soil from the site. The horizons may grade abruptly from one to the next or be difcult to distin-

6 Residual soil proles should not be confused with soil proles resulting from successive deposition of strata of different soil types in alluvial, lake, or marine environments.
SOIL PROFILES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT
17
Table 2.4 Designations of Master Horizons and Subordinate Symbols for Horizons of Soil Proles Master Horizons O1 O2 A1 A2 A3 AB A and B AC B and A B Organic undecomposed horizon Organic decomposed horizon Organic accumulation in mineral soil horizon Leached bleached horizon (eluviated) Transition horizon to B Transition horizon between A and Bmore like A in upper part A2 with less than 50% of horizon occupied by spots of B Transition horizon, not dominated by either A or C B with less than 50% of horizon occupied by spots of A2 Horizon with accumulation of clay, iron, cations, humus; residual concentration of clay; coatings; or alterations of original material forming clay and structure Transition horizon more like B than A Maximum expression of B horizon Transitional horizon to C or R Altered material from which A and B horizons are presumed to be formed Consolidated bedrock Subordinate Symbols
in calcium from the calcium carbonates and other soluble minerals originated from sedimentary bedrock. Soil water is drawn up near the surface by evaporation, leaving calcium carbonate pellets and nodules. They can be found in the southwest United States. Laterite, which is formed in a wet, tropical climate, is rich in aluminum and iron oxides, iron-rich clays, and aluminum hydroxides. Silica and calcium carbonates are leached away from the soil. It has a very thin A ho-

B1 B2 B3 C R b ca cs cn f g h ir m p sa si t x II, III, IV A2, B2 Buried horizon Calcium in horizon Gypsum in horizon Concretions in horizon Frozen horizon Gleyed horizon Humus in horizon Iron accumulation in horizon Cemented horizon Plowed horizon Salt accumulation in horizon Silica cemented horizon Clay accumulation in horizon Fragipan horizon Lithologic discontinuities Second sequence in bisequal soil Adapted from Soil Survey Staff (1975).
rizon because most of the organic matter is recycled from the surface to the vegetation. Lithologic discontinuities may be common in landscapes where erosion is severe, and these discontinuities are often marked by stone layers from previous erosion cycles. In some places, soils have developed several sequences of A and B horizons, which are superimposed over each other. Superimposed soil sequences are likely the result of climate changes acting
18
SOIL FORMATION
(a)
on uniform geologic materials, or are the remnants of former soil proles (paleosoils) that have been buried under younger soils (Olson, 1981).
2.8 SEDIMENT EROSION, TRANSPORT, AND DEPOSITION
Streams, ocean currents, waves, wind, groundwater, glaciers, and gravity continually erode and transport soils and rock debris away from the zone of weathering. Each of these transporting agents may cause marked physical changes in the sediment it carries. Although detailed treatment of erosion, transportation, and depositional processes is outside the scope of this book, a brief outline of their principles and their effects on the transported soil is helpful in understanding the properties of the transported material.
Erosion
Erosion includes all processes of denudation that involve the wearing away of the land surface by me-

B
Some iron and aluminium oxides precipitated; all soluble materials, such as carbonates, leached away
Humus and leached soil (quartz and clay minerals present)
Humus and leached soil Calcium carbonate pellets and nodules precipitated
Thin or absent humus Thick masses of insoluble iron and aluminum oxides; occasional quartz Iron-rich clays and aluminum hydroxides Thin leached zone
Granite bedrock
Sandstone, shale, and limestone bedrock
Mafic igneous bedrock
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.8 Major soil types: (a) Pedalfer soil prole developed on granite, (b) Pedocal soil prole developed on sedimentary bedrock, and (c) Laterite soil prole developed on mac igneous rock (from Press and Siever, 1994).
chanical action. The transporting agents, for example, water, wind, and ice, are by themselves capable only of limited wearing action on rocks, but the process is reinforced when these agents contain particles of the transported material. Transportation of sediment requires rst that it be picked up by the eroding agent. Greater average ow velocities in the transporting medium may be required to erode than to transport particles. Particles are eroded when the drag and lift of the uid exceed the gravitational, cohesive, and frictional forces acting to hold them in place. The stream velocity required to erode does not decrease indenitely with decreasing particle size because small particles remain within the boundary layer adjacent to the stream bed where the actual stream velocity is much less than the average velocity. Relationships between particle size and average stream velocity required to erode and transport particles by wind and water are shown in Fig. 2.9. Ice has the greatest competency for sediment movement of all the transportation agents. There is no limit to the size of particles that may be carried. Ice pushes
SEDIMENT EROSION, TRANSPORT, AND DEPOSITION
19
Transportation
Figure 2.9 Comparison of erosion and transport curves for air and running water. The air is a slightly more effective erosional agent than streams for very small particles but is ineffective for those larger than sand (from Garrels, 1951).
material along in front and erodes the bottom and sides of the valleys through which it ows. In an active glacier (Fig. 2.10), there is continuous erosion and transport of material from the region of ice accumulation to the region of melting. A dead glacier has been cut off from a feeding ice eld.
Figure 2.10 Characteristics of glaciers (from Selmer-Olsen,
1964).
The different agents of sediment transport are compared in Table 2.5. The relative effect listed in the last column of this table denotes the importance of the agent on a geological scale with respect to the overall amount of sediment moved, with one representing the greatest amount. Movement of sediment in suspension by wind and water depends on the settling velocity of the particles and the laws of uid motion. Under laminar ow conditions, the settling velocity of small particles is proportional to the square of the particle diameter. For larger particles and turbulent uid ow, the settling velocity is proportional to the square root of the particle diameter. Particles stay in suspension once they have been set in motion as long as the turbulence of the stream is greater than the settling velocity. The largest particles that can be transported by water are carried by traction, which consists of rolling and dragging along the boundary between the transporting agent and the ground surface. Particles intermediate in size between the suspended load and the traction load may be carried by saltation, in which they move by a series of leaps and bounds. Soluble materials are carried in solution and may precipitate as a result of changed conditions. The combined effects mean that the concentration of sediment is not constant through the depth of the transporting agent but is much greater near the stream bed than near the top. Fine particles may be fairly evenly distributed from top to bottom; however, coarser particles are distributed mainly within short distances from the bottom, as shown in Fig. 2.11, which applies to a river following a straight course. The major effects of transportation processes on the physical properties of sediments are sorting and abrasion. Sorting may be both longitudinal, which produces a progressive decrease in particle size with distance from the source as the slope attens, and local, which produces layers or lenses with different grain size distributions. Reliable prediction of the sorting at any point along a sediment transport system is complicated by the fact that ow rates vary from point to point and usually with the seasons. Consequently, very complex sequences of materials may be found in and adjacent to stream beds. Particle size and shape may be mechanically modied by abrasive processes such as grinding, impact, and crushing during transportation. The abrading effects of wind are typically hundreds of times greater than those of water (Kuenen, 1959). In general, abrasion changes the shape and size of gravel size particles but only modies the shapes of sand and smaller size particles. Water-working of sands causes rounding and

20
SOIL FORMATION
Table 2.5
Comparison of Sediment Transport Agents Maximum Size Eroded by Average Velocity Sand
Agent Streams
Type of Flow Turbulent
Approximate Average Velocity A few km/h
Areas Affected All land
Max Load per m3 A few tens of kilograms
Type of Transport Bed load, suspended load, solution Same as streams Bed load, suspended load Bed load, suspended load, surface load Solution
Relative Effect 1
Waves Wind

Turbulent A few km/h Sand Coastlines Turbulent 15 km/h Sand Laminar A few m/yr Large boulders Arid, semiarid, beaches, plowed elds High latitudes and altitudes A few tens of kilograms A kilogram Hundreds of kilograms Laminar A few m/yr Colloids cm/yr to a few m/s Boulders Soluble material and colloids Steep slopes, sensitive clays, saturated cohesionless soils, unconsolidated rock A kilogram 2000 kg
2 3
Glaciers
Groundwater Gravity
3 3
Bed load
Adapted from Garrels (1951).
polishing of grains, and wind-driven impact can cause frosting of grains. The shape and surface character of particles inuences a soils stressdeformation and strength properties owing to their effects on packing, volume change during shear, and interparticle friction. Basic minerals, such as the pyroxenes, amphiboles, and some feldspars, are rapidly broken down chemically during transport. Quartz, which is quite stable because of its resistant internal structure, may be modied by mechanical action, but only at a slow rate. Quartz sand grains may survive a number of successive sedimentation cycles with no more than a percent or two of weight loss due to abrasion. The surface textures of quartz sand particles reect their origin, as shown by the examples in Fig. 2.12 for different sands, each shown to three or four magnications. The mechanical and chemical actions, associ-
ated with a beach environment, produce a relatively smooth, pitted surface texture. Aeolian sands exhibit a rougher surface texture, particularly over small distances. Some, but not all, river sands may have a very smooth particle surface that reects the inuence of chemical action. Sand that has undergone change after deposition and burial is termed diagenetic sand. Its surface texture may reect a long and stable period of interaction with the groundwater. In some cases, very rough surface textures can develop. Ottawa sand, a material that has been used for numerous geotechnical research investigations, is such a material. Some effects of transportation on sediment properties are summarized in Table 2.6. The gradational characteristics of sedimentary materials reect their transportation mode as indicated in Fig. 2.13. Sediments of different origins lie within specic zones of
21
the gure, which are dened by the logarithm of the ratio of 75 percent particle size to 25 percent particle size and the median (50 percent) grain size.
Deposition
Deposition of sediments from air and water is controlled by the same laws as their transportation. If the stream velocity and turbulence fall below the values needed to keep particles in suspension or moving with the bed load, then the particles will settle. When ice melts, the sediments may be deposited in place or carried away by meltwater. Materials in solution can precipitate when exposed to conditions of changed temperature or chemical composition, or as a result of evaporation of water. Sediments may be divided into those formed primarily by chemical and biological means and those composed primarily of mineral and rock fragments. The latter are sometimes referred to as detrital or clastic deposits. The deposition of sediments into most areas is cyclical. Some causes of cyclic deposition are: 1. Periodic earth movements 2. Climatic cycles of various lengths, most notably the annual rhythm 3. Cyclic shifting of tributaries on a delta 4. Periodic volcanism

stream.
Figure 2.11 Schematic diagram of sediment concentration with depth in a transporting
The thickness of deposits formed during any one cycle may vary from less than a millimeter to hundreds of meters. The period may range from months to thousands of years, and only one or many types of sediments may be involved. One of the best known sediments formed by cyclical deposition is varved clay. Varved clays formed in glacial lakes during the ice retreat stage. Each layer consists of a lighter-colored, summer-deposited clayey silt grading into a darker winter-deposited silty clay. Spring and summer thaws contributed clay and siltladen meltwater to the lake. The coarsest particles settled rst to form the summer layer. Because of the much slower settling velocity of the clay particles, most did not settle out until the quiet winter period. A photograph of a vertical section through a varved clay is shown in Fig. 2.14. The alternating coarser-grained, light-colored layers and ner-grained, darker layers are clearly visible. The shear resistance along horizontal varves is much less than that across the varves. Also, the hydraulic conductivity is much greater in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction. Extensive deposits of varved clays are found in the northeast and north central United States and eastern Canada. Detailed description of the geology and engineering properties of Connecticut Valley varved clay is given by DeGroot and Lutenegger (2003). Complex soil deposition processes occur along coastlines, estuaries, and shallow shelves in relation to
22
SOIL FORMATION
the location of the shoreline. Soil deposits include foreshore sand and gravels, which are sorted by wave actions, organic deposits, and clays preserved in lagoons, offshore ne sands, and muds. River channels may be overdeepened, and soft sediments then accumulate to form buried valleys. Most coastlines and estuaries of the world were subject to sea level changes in the Quaternary period. In particular, the post glacial rise of sea level, which ended about 6000 years ago, has had a worldwide inuence on the present-day coastal forms. Figure 2.15 shows alternating layers of marine (Ma) and uvial (Diluvial-D) sediments in the geotechnical prole down to 400 m depth below sea level at Osaka Bay, Japan (Tanaka and Locat, 1999). The observed variation corresponds well to the local relative sea level during its geological history up to 1 million years ago.

sand, (c) aeolian sand and (d) diagenetic sand (courtesy of Norris, 1975).
Figure 2.12 Surface textures of four sands of differing origins: (a) river sand, (b) beach
Chemical and biochemical sediments may consist of one or two kinds of materials. For example, calcium carbonate sediments are made of calcite, which originates from the shells of organisms in the deep sea (Fig. 2.16a). Some clays contain signicant amounts of microfossils due to the depositional environment as shown in Fig. 2.16b; such clays include Mexico City clay (Diaz-Rodriguez et al., 1998), Ariake clay (Ohtsubo et al., 1995), and Osaka Bay clay (Tanaka and Locat, 1999). The microfossils include diatoms (siliceous skeleton of eukarya cells in either freshwater or marine environments), radiolaria (found in marine environments and consisting mostly of silica), and formanifera (calcium carbonate shell secreted by marine eukarya). The presence of microfossils can have a profound effect on the behavior of the soil mass, confer-
23
ring unusual geotechnical properties that deviate from general property expectations, including high porosity, high liquid limit, unusual compressibility, and uniquely high friction angle. For examples, see Tanaka and Locat (1999) and Locat and Tanaka (2001). While streams and rivers produce deposits according to grain size, a glacier transports the nest dust and large boulders side by side at the same rate of movement. If the material remains unsorted after deposition, it is called till. A mixture of all grain sizes from boulders to clays is known as boulder clay, which is a difcult material to work with because large boulders may damage excavation equipment. Loess, which is a nonstratied aeolian deposit, is probably the single most abundant Quaternary deposit on land. It consists of silt with some small fraction of clay, sand, and carbonate. It originated during the Qua-

Figure 2.12 (Continued )
ternary period from glacial out wash and deglaciated till areas. The deposits are spread widely and blanket preexisting landforms. The deposits are up to 30 m thick in the Missouri and Rhine River Valleys, more than 180 m thick in Tajikistan, and up to 330 m thick in northern China.
Depositional Environment
The environment of deposition determines the complex of physical, chemical, and biological conditions under which sediments accumulate and consolidate. The three general geographical depositional environments are continental, mixed continental and marine, and marine. Continental deposits are located above the tidal reach and include terrestrial, paludal (swamp), and lacustrine (lake) sediments. Mixed continental and
24
SOIL FORMATION
Table 2.6
Effects of Transportation on Sediments Water Air Considerable reduction Ice Considerable grinding and impact Angular, soled particles Striated surfaces Gravity Considerable impact
Size
Shape and roundness Surface texture
Reduction through solution, little abrasion in suspended load, some abrasion and impact in traction load Rounding of sand and gravel Sand: smooth, polished, shiny Silt: little effect Considerable sorting
Sorting

Very little sorting
Figure 2.13 Inuence of geologic history on sorting of particle sizes (adapted from SelmerOlsen, 1964).
High degree of rounding Impact produces frosted surfaces Very considerable sorting (progressive)
Angular, nonspherical Striated surfaces
No sorting
Adapted from Lambe and Whitman (1969).
POSTDEPOSITIONAL CHANGES IN SEDIMENTS
25
Figure 2.14 Vertical section through varved clay from the New Jersey meadowlands (courtesy of S. Saxena).
Figure 2.15 Soil prole of Osaka Bay showing alternating
marine (Ma) and uvial (Diluvial-D) layers (modied from Tanaka and Locat, 1999).
marine deposits include littoral (between the tides), deltaic, and estuarine sediments. Marine deposits are located below the tidal reach and consist of continental shelf (neritic), continental slope and rise (bathyal), and deep ocean (abyssal) sediments. Table 2.7 summarizes main soil deposits that are formed in various types of

Figure 2.16 Biochemical sediments: (a) Dogs Bay calcium carbonate sand (courtesy of E. T. Bowman) and (b) diatoms observed in Osaka Bay clay (courtesy of Y. Watabe).
environments (Locat et al., 2003). Characteristic soil types and properties associated with these depositional environments are described in Chapter 8.
2.9 POSTDEPOSITIONAL CHANGES IN SEDIMENTS
Between the time a sediment is rst laid down and the time it is encountered in connection with some human activity, it may have been altered as a result of the action of any one or more of several postdepositional processes. These processes can be physical, chemical, and/or biological. They occur because the young sediment is not necessarily stable in its new environment
26
SOIL FORMATION
Table 2.7
Depositional Environment of Various Soil Deposits Deposits Environment Air Water Shallow river Shallow lake Deep lake Type Aeolian sand Fluvial (glacio-) Alluvial (glacio-) Littoral Muskeg Lacustrine (glacio-) Flow deposits Marls Estuarine Littoral Shelf Pelagic Oozescalcareous Oozessiliceous Flow Subglacial till Supraglacial till Tropical soils Saprolite Decomposed granite Colluvial soils Evaporites (sakkas) Evaporites Limestone Gas hydrates Texture Sand Sand and gravel Silt and sand Sand and gravel Peatorganic Silt and clay Clay to gravel Silt (fossils) Silt and clay Silt and sand Silt and clay Silt and clay Silt and clay Silt and clay Clay to gravel Clay to boulders Sand to boulders Clay to sand Clay to boulders Clay to boulders Clay to boulders
Transported
Residual
Chemical and biochemical
Adapted from Locat et al. (2003).
where the material is exposed to new conditions of temperature, pressure, and chemistry. An understanding of postdepositional changes is essential for understanding of properties, interpreting soil prole data, and in reconstructing geologic history. A brief outline of the processes is presented here; their effects on engineering properties are described in more detail in Chapter 8.
Desiccation
The drying of ne-grained sediments is usually accompanied by shrinkage and cracking. Precompression of the upper portions of clay layers by drying is frequently observed. The effects of desiccation on the strength and water content variations with depth in London clay from the Thames estuary are shown in Fig. 2.17. Care must be exercised in interpreting proles of this type because drying is only one of several possible causes of apparent overconsolidation (precon-

Shallow ocean Deep ocean Glacier Land Lake Sea Weathering
solidation pressure greater than present overburden effective pressure) at shallow depths. Other important mechanisms include partial consolidation under increased overburden and the effects of weathering.
Weathering and soil-forming processes are initiated in new sedimentary deposits after exposure to the atmosphere, just as they are on freshly exposed rock. In some instances, weathering can result in improvement in properties or protection of underlying material. For example, the weathering of uplifted marine clays can lead to the replacement of sodium by potassium as the dominant exchange cation (Moum and Rosenqvist, 1957). This increases both the undisturbed and remolded strength. Water content and strength data for a Norwegian marine clay prole are shown in Fig. 2.18. It may be seen that the upper 5 m of clay, which have been weathered, have water content and strength var-

Figure 2.17 Properties of Thames estuary clay. The overconsolidation in the upper 10 ft was caused by surface drying (Skempton and Henkel, 1953).
27
28
SOIL FORMATION
iation characteristics similar to those of the Thames estuary clay (see Fig. 2.17). In the case of the Norwegian clay, however, the plasticity values have also changed in the upper 5 m, providing evidence of changed composition. Weathering of the surface of some loess deposits has resulted in the formation of a relatively impervious loam that protects the underlying metastable loess structure from the deleterious effects of water.

Figure 2.18 Clay characteristics at Manglerud in Oslo, Norway (Bjerrum, 1954).
Consolidation and Densication
Consolidation (termed compaction in geology) of negrained sediments occurs from increased overburden, drying, or changes in the groundwater level so that the effective stress on the material is increased. Deposits of granular material may be affected to some extent in the same way. More signicant densication of cohesionless soil occurs, however, as a result of dynamic loading such as induced by earthquakes or the activi-
29
ties of humans. The usual effects of consolidation are to increase strength, decrease compressibility, increase swell potential, and decrease permeability. Even under constant effective stress conditions, structural readjustments and small compressions may continue for long periods owing to the viscous nature of soil structures. This secondary compression provides an additional source of increased strength with time.
Unloading
Erosion of overlying sediments due to glacial process leads to mechanical overconsolidation. A typical example of this is London clay, a marine clay deposited during the Eocene period. The erosion took place in late Tertiary and Pleistocene times and the amount of erosion is estimated to be about 150 m in Essex (Skempton, 1961) to 300 m in the Wraybury district (Bishop et al., 1965). After the unloading, small reloading occurred by new deposition of gravels in the late Quaternary period. Within the London clay, ve major transgressiveregressive cycles are recognized during its deposition. The postdepositional processes are site specic; that is, the degree of weathering and desiccation and the amount of erosion vary depending on location. This variation in depositional and postdepositional processes results in complex mechanical behavior (Hight et al., 2003).
Authigenesis, Diagenesis, Cementation, and Recrystallization
Authigenesis is the formation of new minerals in place after deposition. Authigenesis can make grains more angular, lower the void ratio, and decrease the permeability. Small crystals and rock fragments may grow into aggregates of coarser particles. Diagenesis refers to such phenomena as changes in particle surface texture, the conversion of minerals from one type to another, and the formation of interparticle bonds as a result of increased temperature, pressure, and time. Many diagenetic changes are controlled by the pH and redox potential of the depositional environment. With increasing depth of burial in a sedimentary basin, clayey sediments may undergo substantial transformation. Expansive clay minerals can transform to a nonexpansive form, for example, montmorillonite to mixed layer to illite, as a result of the progressive removal of water layers under pressure (Burst, 1969). Burial depths of 1000 to 5000 m may be required, and the transformation process appears thermally activated as a result of the increased temperature at these depths. Chlorite can form in mud and shale during deep burial (Weaver and Pollard, 1973).

Time Effects
The long-term stability of different clay minerals under conditions of elevated temperature and pressure and in different chemical environments is important relative to the use of clays as containment barriers for nuclear and toxic wastes. Diagenesis studies of locked sands show crystal overgrowths caused by pressure solution and compaction (Barton, 1993; Richards and Burton, 1999). Cementation has important effects on the properties and stability of many soil materials. Cementation is not always easily identied, nor are its effects always readily determined quantitatively. It is known to contribute to clay sensitivity, and it may be responsible for an apparent preconsolidation pressure. Removal of iron compounds from a very sensitive clay from Labrador, Canada, by leaching led to a 30-ton/m2 decrease in apparent preconsolidation pressure (Kenney et al., 1967). Coop and Airey (2003) show for carbonate soils that cementation develops soon after deposition and enables the soil to maintain a loose structure. Failure to recognize cementation has resulted in construction disputes. For example, a soil on a major project was marked on the contract drawings as glacial till. It proved to be so hard that it had to be blasted. The contractor claimed the soil was cemented because during digging failure took place through pebbles as well as the clay matrix. The owner concluded that this happened because the pebbles were weathered. Proper evaluation of the material before the award of the contract could have avoided the problem. Clay particles adhere to the surfaces of larger silt and sand particles, a process called clay bounding. Eventually the larger grains become embedded into a clay matrix and their inuence on the geotechnical behavior becomes limited. The clay bounding provides arching of interparticle forces, maintaining a large void ratio even at high effective stresses.
Even freshly deposited or densied sands can develop signicant increases in strength and stiffness over relatively short time periods, that is, by a factor of 2 or more within a few months (Mitchell and Solymar, 1984). Time effects and the aging of both cohesive and cohesionless soils are analyzed and reviewed by Schmertmann (1991). Uncertainty remains as to whether the mechanisms for the observed increases in apparent preconsolidation pressure, strength, and stiffness are chemical, physical, or both. Research is continuing on this important aspect of soil behavior so that it will be possible to predict both the amount and the rate of property changes for use in the analysis of geotechnical problems. The aging process is of particular
30
SOIL FORMATION
interest in connection with hydraulic lls and ground improvement projects, more details are given in Chapter 12.
Leaching, Ion Exchange, and Differential Solution
shock. Cracks up to 2 ft wide, of unknown depth, and spaced several meters apart have caused damage to buildings and highways.
Biological Effects
Jointing and Fissuring of Clay Soils
Some normally consolidated clays, almost all oodplain clays, and many preconsolidated clays are weakened by joints and ssures. Joints in oodplain clays result from deposition followed by cyclic expansion and contraction from wetting and drying. Joints and ssures in preconsolidated clays result from unloading or from shrinkage cracks during drying. Closely spaced joints in these types of clays may contribute to slides some years after excavation of cuts. The unloading enables joints to open, water to enter, and the clay to soften. Fissures have been found in normally consolidated clays at high water contents that could not have been caused by drying or unloading (Skempton and Northey, 1952), and increased brittleness has been observed in soft clay chunks that have been stored for some time. These effects may be caused by syneresis, which is the mutual attraction of clay particles to form closely knit aggregates with ssures between them. Similar behavior is many times observed in gelatin after aging. Weathering and the release of potassium may also result in ssuring. Vegetation, especially large trees, can cause shrinkage and ssuring of clays (Barber, 1958; Holtz, 1983). The root systems suck up water, causing large capillary shrinkage pressures. When rain falls on crusted surface layers of dried-up saline lakes, it is rapidly absorbed by capillarity. The air may become so compressed that it causes tension cracking or blowouts in a form similar in appearance to root holes. These sediments may also undergo severe cracking, apparently as a result of

Postdepositional changes in pore uid chemistry can result from the percolation of different uids through a deposit. This may change the forces between colloidal particles. For example, the uplift of marine clay above sea level followed by freshwater leaching can lead to both ion exchange and the removal of dissolved salts. This process is important in the formation of highly sensitive, quick clays, as discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. Materials can be removed from sediments by differential solution and subsequent leaching. Calcareous and gypsiferous sediments are particularly susceptible to solution, resulting in the formation of channels, sink holes, and cavities.
Biological activity affects soil particles by modifying their arrangement, aggregating them, weathering mineral surfaces, mediating oxidationreduction reactions, contributing to precipitation and dissolution of minerals, and degrading organic particles. The survival and activity of microorganisms are controlled partly by pore geometry and local physicochemical conditions. Therefore, apart from its impact on life itself, biological activity has inuenced the evolution of the earth surface, impacted mineral, sediment, and rock formation, accelerated the rate of rock weathering and altered its products, inuenced the composition of groundwater, and participated in the formation of gas and petroleum hydrocarbons. Bioturbance refers to the action of organisms living on or in sediments. By organic cementation, they modify grain size, density, or cohesion (Richardson et al., 1985; Locat et al., 2003). The aggregation activity of various worms densies deposits by changing the grain size of the sediment. Tubes that form can provide local drainage and decrease the bulk density. The active zone of bioturbance is usually to depths less than 30 cm. Sticky organic mucus or polymer bridging binds together claysilt particles, producing clusters. Chemical transformation processes are mediated by organisms. Some notable processes are summarized as follows (Mitchell and Santamarina, 2005): 1. Sulfur Cycle Elemental sulfur (S0) and suldes (S2) are the stable forms of sulfur under anaerobic conditions, whereas sulfates (SO42) are the stable forms of sulfur under aerobic conditions. Suldes form under anaerobic conditions from sulfates already present in seawater and sediments or introduced by diffusion and groundwater ow. The sulfate ion is not reduced to sulde at Earth surface temperature and pressure unless biologically mediated. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are anaerobic and grow best at neutral pH but are known to exist over a broad range of pH and salt content. When exposed to aerobic conditions, reduced sulfur compounds, hydrogen suldes (H2S), and elemental sulfur are used as an energy source by sulde-oxidizing bacteria and converted to sulfates. 2. Iron Cycle Iron in the subsurface exists predominantly in the reduced or ferrous (Fe2) state
31
or the oxidized ferric (Fe3) state. Several microorganisms such as the genus Thiobacillus mediate the iron oxidation reaction. Chapelle (2001) notes that bacteria are able to derive only relative little energy from oxidizing Fe2; therefore, they must process large amounts of Fe2 and produce large amounts of Fe3 to obtain sufcient energy to sustain their growth. One important consequence of the rapid oxidation of iron sulde in the presence of oxygen is the formation of acid rock drainage. Although Fe(OH)3 has low solubility, the formation of H2SO4 provides a source of important reactions in the solid and pore water phases. The total dissolved solids increases owing to the dissolution of carbonates in the soil. Gypsum can form, with an associated volume increase, at the expense of carbonate minerals. The precipitated ferric hydroxide is thermodynamically unstable and rapidly transforms to yellow goethite, FeOOH. Geothite, while stable under wet conditions, will slowly dehydrate to red hematite, Fe2O3, under dry conditions. Microorganisms have a limited effect on the formation of coarse grains. However, bioactivity can affect diagenetic evolution, promote the precipitation of cementing agents, cause internal weathering, and alter nes migration, lter performance, and drainage in silts and sands. Severely water-limited environments distress microorganisms and hinder biological activity. Nonetheless, there is great bacterial activity in the unsaturated organic surface layer of a soil where plant roots are found. Fierer et al. (2002) observed that bacterial activity decreases by 1 or 2 orders of magnitude by 2 m of depth. Horn and Meike (1995) conclude that microbial activity requires 60 to 80 percent saturation. Hence, there is less reduction in bacterial count with depth in saturated sediments. Hindered biological activities in unsaturated soils may reect lack of nutrients in isolated water at menisci, slow nutrient ow in percolating water paths, and increased ionic concentration in the pore uid as water evaporates and dissolved salts approach ion saturation conditions. The physical scales over which the physicochemical, bioorganic, and burial diagenetic processes act range from atomic dimensions to kilometers, and the timescales range from microseconds to years. Table 2.8 summarizes the processes, fabric characteristics, and scales associated with different mechanisms.
Human Effects
The global human population has grown from approximately 600 million at the beginning of the eighteenth
century to close to 6 billion today. Human activities are now at such a scale as to rival forces of nature in their inuence on soil changes. The activities include rapid changes in land use and the associated landforms, soil erosion related to forest removal, and soil contamination by urbanization, mining, and agricultural activities. Ten to 15 percent of Earths land surface is occupied by industrial areas and agriculture, and another 6 to 8 percent is pasture land (Vitousek et al., 1997). Mine wastes are the largest waste volumes produced by humankind. On October 21, 1966, 144 people, 116 of them children, were killed when a tip of coal waste slid onto the village of Aberfan in South Wales, United Kingdom. The collapse was caused by tipping of coal waste over a natural underground spring, and the coal slag slowly turned into a liquid slurry. The tragedy was caused by two days of continual heavy rain loosening the coal slag. As a result of the disaster at Aberfan, the Mines and Quarries Tips Act of 1969 was introduced. This act was passed in order to prevent disused tips from becoming a danger to members of the public. Over 8000 million tons of ore have been mined in the South African deep-level underground gold mining industry (Blight et al., 2000). Considerations for disposing these wastes into tailings ponds and dams include the physicochemical nature of the extracted minerals as well as the topography and climate of the disposal sites. Tailings dams have failed, resulting in destructive mudows (Blight, 1997). One reported case was the failure of the Merriespruit ring-dyke gold tailings dam in South Africa in 1994, which killed 17 people in a village nearby. Overtopping of the tailings dyke occurred after a signicant rainfall event, and approximately 500,000 m3 of tailings owed through this breach. The liqueed tailings owed for a distance of about 2 km. A large volume of tailings was in a metastable state in situ, and overtopping and erosion of the impoundment wall exposed this material, resulting in static liquefaction of the tailings and a consequent ow failure (Fourie et al., 2001). The urban underground in major cities is congested by utility lines, tunnels, and building foundations. Much may be more than 100 years old; for example, more than 50 percent of the water supply pipes in London were built using cast-iron during Victorian time. Aging infrastructure changes the in situ stress condition, as well as groundwater chemistry, and this can lead to changes in the stressstraintime behavior of the subsoil. Underground openings are sources or sinks of different environments; tunnels can act as a groundwater drain as well as source for air into the ground.

32
SOIL FORMATION
Table 2.8 Summary of Processes and of the Fabric Signature and Temporal Scales Associated with Various Mechanisms Fabric Signaturesa (predominant) EF
Processes Physicochemical
Mechanisms Electromechanical
Scales Atomic and molecular to 4 m Molecular to 0.2 mm

m to 0.5 mm
Physical Time
s to ms
Remarks Two particles may rotate FF Initial contacts EF then rotations to FF: common in selective environments Some large compound particles may be possible at high concentrations Some FF possible during bioturbation Some very large clay organic complexes possible New chemicals formed, some altered Can operate over large physical scales New minerals formed, some altered, changes in morphology
Thermomechanical
Bioorganic
Burial diagenesis
EF, edge-to-face; EE, edge-to-edge; FF, face-to-face. Adapted from Mitchell and Santamarina (2005) and Bennett et al. (1991).
Detailed studies of the geotechnical impacts of such problems have, so far, been limited (e.g., Gourvenec et al., 2005), and further studies of the impacts of aging on existing infrastructure are needed.
2.10
CONCLUDING COMMENTS
Knowledge of geologic and soil-forming processes aids in anticipating and understanding the probable composition, structure, properties, and behavior of a soil. Along with site investigation data, characterization of the landforms, that is, understanding of the former and current geomorphological processes associated with the past and present climatic conditions, often helps to dene ground conditions for designing geotechnical structures and anticipating the long-term performance. For example, the knowledge can be used

Interface dynamics FF and EF s Biomechanical EF Biophysical EE and FF
0.5 mm to 2.0 mm m to mm
FF (some EF)
ms to min
s to min
s to min
Biochemical
Mass gravity
Diagenesiscementation
Nonunique (unknown) FF localized swirl Nonunique (unknown)
m to mm
h to yr
yr yr
cm to km
Molecular
to infer clay mineral types, to detect the presence of organic and high clay content layers, to locate borrow materials for construction, and to estimate the depth to unaltered parent material. Pedological data can be used to surmise compositions and soil physical properties. Transported soils are sorted, abraded, and have particle surface textures that reect the transporting medium. Conditions of sedimentation and the depositional environment inuence the grain size, size distribution, and grain arrangement. Thus, knowledge of the transportation and deposition history provides insight into geotechnical engineering properties. In short, the soil and its properties with which we deal today are a direct and predictable consequence of the parent material of many years ago and of all the things that have happened to it since. The better our knowledge of what that parent material was and what the intervening events have been, the better our ability
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
33
to deal with the soil as an engineering material. Several examples are given in this chapter and more are given in Chapter 8.
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
7. Compare and contrast soil-forming processes on Earth and on the Moon in terms of the composition and engineering properties of the soils. Explain similarities and differences. What is the relative importance of physical, chemical, and biological soilforming processes on the Moon and on Earth? Why? 8. Considering rock and mineral stability, the types and characteristics of weathering processes, and the impacts of weathering on properties, what types of earth materials would you consider most suitable for use as chemical, radioactive, and mixed (chemical and radioactive) waste containment barriers? Why? 9. Prepare diagrams showing your estimates as a function of elevation of the following soil characteristics that you would expect to encounter between the bottom and the top of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. Give a brief explanation for each. a. Soil plasticity b. Soil gradation and mean particle size c. Angularityroundness of sand and gravel particles d. Iron content e. Cementation between particles f. Organic matter content g. Water content
1. At what depth below the ground surface does quartz start to crystallize? 2. What are some likely consequences of the different physical and chemical weathering processes on the mechanical and ow properties of the rocks and soils on which they act?
3. Describe the chemical reactions of pyrite oxidation and explain how bacteria can mediate the chemical processes. 4. Discuss what types of clay minerals are likely to be produced under each morphoclimatic zone listed in Table 2.3.
5. Using Stokess law, derive the sedimentation speeds of spherical particles with different sizes in freshwater under hydrostatic condition. Would they change in saltwater? Compare the results to the data given in Fig. 2.9 and discuss the comparison. 6. List and discuss human activities that may potentially change the properties of soils.


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CHAPTER 2

THE EARTHS CRUST

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Figure 2.1 Elemental composition of the whole Earth and

2.3 GEOLOGIC CYCLE AND GEOLOGICAL TIME

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Figure 2.2 Geologic cycle.

Figure 2.3 Simplied version of the rock cycle.

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ROCK AND MINERAL STABILITY

Figure 2.4 Stratigraphic timescale column. Numbers repre-

sent millions of years before the present.

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ROCK AND MINERAL STABILITY

Physical Processes of Weathering

mineral is more stable than the one above it on the list.

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Figure 2.5 Bowens reaction series of mineral stability. Each

Table 2.1 Name Quartz Feldspar Mica

Imogolite Gibbsite Goethite Hematite Ferrihydrate Birnessite Calcite Gypsum

Adapted from Sposito (1989).

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

H silicate KOH (alkaline)

H silicate Ca(OH)2 (basic)

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K2[Si6Al2]Al4O20(OH)4 6C2O4H2 8H2O

2K 6C2O4Al 6Si(OH)40 8OH

Figure 2.6 Solubility of alumina and amorphous silica in

water (Keller, 1964b).

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

FeSO4 2H2O Fe(OH)2 H2SO4

4Fe(OH)2 O2 2H2O 4Fe(OH)3 2Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 nH2O (limonite)

CaMg(CO3)2 2CO2 2H2O

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Figure 2.7 Microogranisms attached to soil particle sur-

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Effects of Climate, Topography, Parent Material, Time, and Biotic Factors

Typical Soil Groups

Intermediate Weathering Stages 6 7 8

From Jackson and Sherman (1953).

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Morphoclimatic Zone Glacial

Mean Annual Precipitation (mm) 01000

Hot dry (arid tropical)

Hot semidry (semiarid tropical)

Hot wetdry (humidarid tropical)

Hot wet (humid tropical)

Azonal Mountain zone

From Fookes et al. (2000).

Co py rig hte dM ate ria l

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ORIGIN OF CLAY MINERALS AND CLAY GENESIS

2.6 ORIGIN OF CLAY MINERALS AND CLAY GENESIS

The considerations in Chapter 6 provide a basis for these statements.

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2.7 SOIL PROFILES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT

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SOIL PROFILES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT