Chapter 2 Chemical Engineering Calculations

Bin Liu E5-02-17 Cheliub@nus.edu.sg

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Objectives
SI,CGS,andAmericanEngineeringunits

Unitconversion Significantfigures Validateaquantitativeproblemsolution Samplemeanandstandarddeviation Dimensionalhomogeneity Linearinterpolationvs extrapolation Homogeneityofequations

UnitsandDimensions
Ameasuredorcountedquantityhasanumericalvalue andaunit.Inmostengineeringcalculations,itis essentialtoincludebothwhenexpressingthisquantity (e.g.,2seconds,0.5grams,3students).

ValueUnit 200.30cm
Mostnumericalvalueshaveaunit itisimportantand essentialtogivetheunitforthenumericalvalue! Adimensionisapropertythatcanbemeasured. time,length,mass,temperature orcalculatedbymultiplyingordividingdimensions velocity(length/time),density(mass/length3)
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UnitsandDimensions
Thenumericalvaluesoftwoquantitiesmaybeaddedor subtractedONLYiftheunitsarethesame. 3apples +2apples =5apples 3apples+2oranges=? Numericalvaluesandtheircorrespondingunitsmay alwaysbecombinedbymultiplicationordivision. 3.0grams/1.5cm3 =2.0g/cm3 4.0hours 55miles/hour=220miles(2.2102 miles) 1.0kg 9.8m/s2 =9.8kgm/s2 =9.8N (5.0kg/s)/(0.20kg/m3)=25m3/s

ConversionofUnits
Ameasuredquantitycanbeexpressedintermsofany unitshavingtheappropriatedimension. Theequivalencebetweentwoexpressionsofthesame quantitymaybedefinedintermsofaratio,knownasa conversionfactor. Examplesofconversionfactorswithequivalent numeratorsanddenominators
3600 s 1h 24 h 1 day 365 days 1 yr 1m 102 cm 1 km 103 m 103 m 1 km

SystemsofUnits
Baseunits mass,length,time,temperature,electricalcurrent,light intensity Multipleunits definedasmultiplesorfractionsofbaseunits(minutesand hoursaremultiplesoftheunitsecond) Derivedunits compoundunitsobtainedbymultiplyingand/ordividing baseormultipleunits definedasequivalentsofcompoundunits e.g.,1erg1gcm2/s2
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SystemsofUnits
SI(Systme Internationale dUnits) internationallyacceptedsystemofunits meter(length),kilogram(mass),second(time),Kelvin (temperature),ampere(electriccurrent),candela (luminousintensity) CGS(Centimetergramsecond)system identicaltoSI,withgandcmreplacingkgandmasbase unitsformassandlength,respectively. Americanengineeringsystem foot(length),poundmass(mass),second(time) conversionsnotbasedonmultiplesoften

SystemsofUnits

SystemsofUnits

MetricPrefixes
EachoftheSIbaseunitscanbemadesmallerorlargerinunitsoften byaddingtheappropriatemetricprefixesshownbelow:

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SystemsofUnits

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TheAmericanEngineeringSystemofUnits
PhysicalQuantity Length Mass Time Temperature Molaramount NameofUnit foot Pound(mass) Symbol ft lbm

Second,minute,hour, S,min,h,day day DegreeRankine or Fahrenheit Poundmole RorF lbmol

SomeconversionfactorsforconvertingtheAmericanEngineering SystemtotheSI: 1ft=0.305m,1lbm =0.454kg,1lbmol =454mol. 1Btuisenergyneededtoraise1poundofwaterby1oF.1Btu= 1055J=252cal.

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ConversionFactors Sourcesofunitconversionfactors PerrysChemicalEngineersHandbook Onlineconversion.com Processofconvertingunits unitconversionfactorsmaybefoundintablesorfrom electronicresources. theprocessofconvertingunitsmaybeperformed manuallyorelectronically. Itisexpectedthatyouwillbecapableofeither.

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ConversionFactors
Quantity Mass Length Equivalentvalues 1kg=1000g=0.001metricton=2.20462 lbm =35.27392oz 1lbm =16oz =453.593g 1m=100cm= 1000mm=106m=1010 =39.37inch=3.2808ft = 1.0936yard=0.0006214mile 1ft =12in.=1/3yd =0.3048m=30.48cm 1m3 =1000L=106 cm3 =106 mL=35.3145ft3 =264.17gallon 1ft3 =1728in.3 =28.317L 1N=1kgm/s2 =105 dynes=105 gcm/s2 =0.22481lbf 1lbf =32.174lbmft/s2 =4.4482N=4.4482105 dynes 1atm =1.01325105 N/m2 (Pa)=101.325kPa =1.01325bar=1.01325 106 dynes/cm2 =760mmHgat273K(torr)=10.333mH2Oat4C= 14.696lbf/in.2 (psi)=33.9feetH2Oat4C=29.921in.Hgat0C 1J=1Nm=107 ergs=107 dynecm =2.778107kWh =0.23901cal = 0.7376ftlbf =9.486 104 Btu 1W=1J/s=0.2390cal/s=0.7376ftlbf/s=9.486104Btu/s=1.314 103hp

Volume Force Pressure

Energy Power

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ExamplesofUnitConversions
1 Kg = 2.2 lbm 1 Kg 9.8 m = 9.8 N F= 2 s F= 2.2 lbm 32.2 ft s2 lbf s2 32.2 lbm ft = 2.2 lbf

1 N = 0.22 lbf

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ExamplesofUnitConversions
Toconvertaquantityintermsofoneunittoitsequivalent intermsofanotherunit,multiplythegivenquantityby theconversionfactor,whichisnewunit/oldunit.

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ExamplesofUnitConversions
convertaccelerationunitofcm/s2 tokm/yr2
1 cm s2 36002s2 242h2 3652day2 12h2 12day2 12year2 1m 102cm 1 km 103 m = 9.95 x 109 km/yr2

convertdensityunitsoflbm/galtokg/m3
lbm gal 264 gal 0.454 kg 1 m3 1 lbm = 1.20 x 102 kg/m3

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ExamplesofUnitConversions

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ForceandWeight
Newtons2ndlawofmotiondefinesforce(F)tobe proportionaltotheproductofmass(m)andacceleration (a,length/time2) F=ma SI:kg m/s2 1newton(N) CGS:gcm/s2 1dyne(dyne) AES: 2.174lbm xft/s2 1poundforce(lbf) gc isusedtodenoteconversionfactorfromnaturaltoderived forceunits
gc = 1kgxm/s2 1N
=

32.174lbm xft/s2 1lbf

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ForceandWeight
Theweight(W)ofanobjectofmass(m)istheforce exertedontheobjectbygravitationalattraction

W=mg
wherethegravitationalacceleration(g)varieswiththe massoftheattractingbody(whichwillbetheEarthin mostcasesinthiscourse).Thevalueofgatsealevel and45 latitudeis9.8066m/s2 or32.174ft/s2.

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WeightandMass
Example:Waterhasadensityof62.4lbm/ft3.Howmuchdoes 2.000ft3 ofwaterweigh (1)atsealeveland45 latitude(go) (2)atlocationxwherethealtitudeis4002ft,32.3 Nlatitude. Solution:Gravitationalaccelerationgh isafunctionofheight abovesealevel(h)accordingtotheexpression wherere isthe meanradius re oftheEarth, g h = g0 ( )2 re + h 6371km(3959mi)

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WeightandMass Waterhasadensityof62.4lbm/ft3.Howmuchdoes2.000ft3 of waterweigh(1)atsealevel: Determinethemassofthewater M=V=62.4lbm/ft3x2.000ft3=124.8lbm Calculatetheweightofthewater W=mg=124.8lbm x32.174ft/s2 1lbf x=124.8lbf 32.174lbm ft/s2

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WeightandMass Atlocationxwhereh=4002feet
re g h = g0 ( re + h )2 = 32.174 ft ( ft )2 = 32.162 1 mile s2 3959 mile + 4002 ft ( ) 5280 ft 3959 mile

s2

Calculatetheweightofthewater W=mg=124.8 lbm x 32.162

ft s2 1 lbf x =124.8 lbf 32.174 lbm ft/s2

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WeightandMass Example:Calculate a)theweightinlbf ofanobjectof25.0lbm. b)Themassinkgofanobjectthatweights25newtons. c)Theweightindynesofanobjectof10tons.

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NASAsMetricConfusionCausedMarsOrbiterLoss September 30, 1999 CNN NASA lost a 125 million Mars orbiter because one engineering team used metric units while another used English units for a key spacecraft operation, according to a review finding released Thursday. For that reason, information failed to transfer between the Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft team at Lockheed Martin in Colorado and the mission navigation team in California.

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DimensionalHomogeneity Dimensionalhomogeneity:anequationhavingquantitiesof sameunitsonbothsides. Avalidequationinphysicsmustbedimensionally homogeneous. But,beinghomogeneousdoesnotnecessarilymeanthe equationwillbetrue,sinceitdoesnottakeintoaccount numericalfactors. Example:y(m)=ax(s)+b Tomaintaindimensionalhomogeneity,thedimensionofamust bem/s whilethedimensionofconstantbmustbem
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DimensionlessQuantities(orgroups)
Dimensionlessquantities(nounit):scaleindependent.
Reynolds number Re = vD = m m kg s 1 m3 1 Pa s 1 Pas = 1 kg/(ms)

v: mean fluid velocity of the fluid; d: diameter of the pipe; : density; : dynamic viscosity of the fluid

Nusselt number

Nu =

hD

J m2sK

smK J

h: convective heat transfer coefficient; D: characteristic length; : thermal conductivity of the fluid

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ScientificNotation
Scientificnotation:aconvenientmeanstoexpressvery largeandverysmallnumbersasaproductoftenraised toapower. 123,000,000=12.3107 =1.23108 =0.123109 0.000028=0.28104 =2.8105 =28106

Standardscientificnotationformiswrittensuchthat thereisonedigittotheleftofthedecimal. Engineeringscientificnotationformiswrittensuchthat theexponentisafactorof3.

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SignificantFigures Thesignificantfiguresofanumberarethedigitsfromthefirst nonzerodigitonthelefttoeither lastdigit(zeroornon)ontherightifthereisadecimal,or lastnonzerodigitofanumberifthereisnodecimal.

2300or2.3103 has2 significantfigures 2300.or2.300103 has4 significantfigures 2300.0or2.3000103 has5 significantfigures 23,040or2.304104 has4 significantfigures 0.035or3.5102 has2 significantfigures 0.03500or3.500102 has4 significantfigures

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PurposeofSignificantFigures Thenumberofsignificantfiguresprovidesindicationofthe precisionofmeasuredorcalculatedvalues. Ifyoureportavalueofameasuredquantitywith3significant figures,youindicatethatthevalueofthethirdofthesefiguresmay beoffbyasmuchasahalfunit. i.e.,8.3gmeansbetween8.25gand8.35g whereas,8.300gmeansbetween8.2995gand8.3005g Forexample,2300mmeansthelengthisbetween2250and 2350m 1.200mmeansthelengthisbetween1.1995and1.2005m. 2.232cm 1cmisthisOK? 0.5kcal=2.093kJisthisOK?
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RolesofSignificantFigures(I) Whentwoormorequantitiesarecombinedbymultiplication and/ordivision,thenumberofsignificantfiguresintheresult shouldequalthelowestnumberofsignificantfigures ofanyof themultiplicandsordivisors. Ifseveralcalculationsaretobeperformedinsequence,itis advisabletokeepextrasignificantfiguresofintermediate quantitiesandtoroundoffonlythefinalresult.

(3) (4) (7) (3.57)(4.286) = (15.30102) (3) 15.3 (2) (2) 3.2 x 102 = 320
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(2) (4) (3) (9) (5.2 x 10-4)(1.635 x 106)/(2.67) = 318.426966

MoreExamples
(2) (5) (5) (2)

(2.2)x(1.2345)=(2.7159)(2.7)
(3) (5) (3) (5) (3)

(3.51)x(5.2345)/(5.43)=(3.3836)(3.38)
(2) (4) (5) (2)

(98)/(93.01)=(1.0537)(1.1)

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RolesofSignificantFigures(II) When two or more numbers are added/subtracted, the positions of the last significant figures of each number relative to the decimal point should be compared. Of these positions, the one farthest to the left is the position of the last permissible significant figure of the sum or difference.

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EngineeringScientificNotation AnumberwritteninEngineeringNotationiswritteninthe form:a=bx10n bisanumberfrom1tolessthan1000 nisamultipleofthree Towriteanumberinengineeringnotation: shiftthedecimalpointingroupsofthreeplacestogivea numberbetween1and1000 multiplybyapowerof10equaltothenumberofplaces thedecimalpointhasbeenmoved. Examples: 16350000000=16.351090.00000045=450109
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RoundingOff
Roundingupmeansthatweincreasetheterminatingdigitbya valueof1anddropoffthedigitstotheright.Ifthenextplace beyondwhereweareterminatingthedecimalisgreaterthanfive, weroundup.Forexample,5.475.5. Ifthenumbertotherightofourterminatingdecimalplaceisfour orless(4,3,2,1,0),werounddown.Thisisdonebyleavingour lastdecimalplaceasitisgivenanddiscardingalldigitstoitsright. Forexample,6.7346.73. Forroundingoffnumbersinwhichthedigittobedroppedisa5,it isalwaystomakethelastdigiteven.Forexample,1.25>1.2;1.35 >1.4;but1.2501>1.3;1.35001>1.4

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StandardDeviationsandSignificantFigures X sx Thestandarddeviationprovidesanestimateofhowwellyou knowaparticularmeasurement.Inmostcases,thestandard deviationshouldbeexpressedtoONE significantfigure. Thenumbermodifiedbythesignificantfigureshouldbe expressedtoagreeinplacewiththestandarddeviation. Forexample,avalueresultingfromaspreadsheetcalculation ofanaverageandstandarddeviationmightbe10.1298 0.2595.Thisshouldbeexpressedas10.1 0.3
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StandardDeviationsandSignificantFigures Very low standard deviations: If your calculated standard deviation is less than 1 in the last significant figure, round up to 1. For example, 2.34 0.0002 would be expressed as 2.34 0.01. More examples: Wrong Right 555.15983 0.0289435555.16 0.03 555.159 0.000234555.159 0.001 555.15983 28.9435560 30

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ValidatingResults Approachestovalidateresults: backsubstitutionofyoursolutionintotheequation(s)to makesureitworks orderofmagnitudeestimation applyingatestofreasonableness

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SampleMean Supposewecarryoutachemicalreaction:Aproducts, startingwithpureAinthereactorandkeepingtemperature constantat45C. Aftertwominutes,wedrawasamplefromthereactorand analyzeittodetermineX,thepercentageoftheAfedthat hasreacted.

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SampleMean

Variationsinsamplingandchemicalanalysisprocedures(e.g temperature,time)introducescatterinmeasuredvalues. WhatisthetruevalueofX? Valueobtainedat45.0000Cand2.0000min? ORthevaluecalculatedbyaveragingXoveraninfinite numberoftrials?

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SampleMean Samplemean:toestimatethetruevalueofX:

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SampleVariance&StandardDeviation Toexpresstheextenttowhichvaluesofarandomvariablescatter abouttheirmean,weuse: Range:differencebetweenthehighestandlowestvaluesinaset SampleVariance

Samplestandarddeviation

Thehigherthevalueofsx,themoredeviationfromthemean.
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DistributionofMeasuredValues Accuracyvs Precision

68%

95%

99%

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ExampleCalculation 500batchesofapigmentareproducedeachweek.Inthe plantsqualityassuranceprogram,eachbatchissubjectedto aprecisecoloranalysistest.Ifabatchdoesnotpassthetest, itisrejectedandsentbackforreformulation. Companypolicydictatesthataslongastherearenomore badbatches(Y)than3standarddeviationsabovethemean, operationisnormal.IfYexceedsthisquantity,theprocess mustbeshutdownformaintenance. Howmanybadbatchesinaweekwouldittaketoshutdown theprocess?
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ExampleCalculation

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ExampleCalculation Twothermocouplesweretestedbyinsertingtheirprobes inboilingwater,recordingthereadings,removingand dryingtheprobes,thendoingitagain.Theresultsof5 measurementsaregivenbelow: A(oC)72.473.172.672.873.0 B(oC)97.3101.498.7103.1100.4 1)Calculatetherange,thesamplemean,andthesample standarddeviationofthetwothermocouples. 2)Whichthermocouplereadingsexhibitsahigherdegree ofscatter?
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ExampleCalculation 1)Calculatetherange,thesamplemean,andthesample standarddeviationofthetwothermocouples

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AnalysisofProcessData Measureddatamaybeobtainedindiscretequantities. Fromcalibrationdata,acontinuumcanbeapproximatedusing thetechniquesof interpolation:estimatebetweendatapoints extrapolation:estimatebeyondtherangeofdatapoints twopointstraightlinefitlinearinterpolation

b = y1-mx1 = y2 mx2

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FittingData:InterpolationandExtrapolation
Inengineering,onevariableisoftenobtainedbymeasuring

anothervariable. Variableycanbeobtainedbymeasuringvariablex.Buty mayvarywithxlinearlyandnonlinearly.

Forexample: Whatisthepressureifthetemperatureis400Kandthe volumeis1m3 (2setvalues)

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FittingData:InterpolationandExtrapolation

Interpolation:thevalueofyforavalueofxiswithinthe

rangeofthetabulateddata; Extrapolation:thevalueofyforavalueofxisoutsidethe rangeofthetabulateddata.

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TwoPointLinearInterpolation Supposeychangeslinearlywithxonrectangularaxes, thenwecanwrite:y=ax+b y2 y1 Theslopeis:a= x2 x1 Theinterceptis:b=y1 ax1 orb=y2 ax2 Afterobtainingaandb,theycanbesubstitutedintothe equationforpredictingthemeasureddata

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TheLeastSquareMethod
(seeAppendixA.1ofFelder)

Thedifferencebetweenmeasuredvalue(yi)andpredicted value(axi +b),denotedasdi,isgivenbydi =yi (axi +b),the residualoftheith point.

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TheLeastSquareMethod The leastsquares method produces the best through the data of n points, thus minimizing sum of the squares of the residuals. The task is thus to find a and b that minimizes

aandbaredeterminedbydifferentiatingwithregardto bothaandb,settingthederivativesequaltozero,namely,

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TheLeastSquareMethod Thesolutionsforaandbare:

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TheLeastSquareMethod Nonlinear equations y = ax2 y2 = a(1/x) + b 1/y = a(x2 4) Sin y = a(x + 3) Linear plot y vs x2 y2 vs 1/x 1/y vs (x2 4) Sin y vs (x + 3)

Ifaninitialequationisnotinaproperform,itcanberearranged.

y=a*exp(bx)lny =lna +bx y=axb lny =lna +b*lnx

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LogarithmicScales

y=a*exp(bx)lny =lna +bx

y=axb

lny =lna +b*lnx

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Example (Problem2.18ofFelder) AconcentrationC(mol/L)varieswithtimet(min)asC= 3.00*exp(2.00t). (a)Whataretheunitsof3.00and2.00? (b)Supposetheconcentrationismeasuredatt=0andt=1 min.Use2pointlinearinterpolationtoestimateCatt= 0.6minandtatC=0.1mol/Lfromthemeasuredvalue andcomparetheseresultswiththetruevaluesofthese quantities. (c)SketchacurveofCversust,andshowgraphicallythe pointsyoudeterminedin(b).
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(a) 3.00mol/L;2.00min1 (b)t=0C=3.00exp[(2.00)(0)]=3.00mol/L t=1C=3.00exp[(2.00)(1)]=0.406mol/L Fort=0.6min,useequation: 0.406 3.00 Cint =3.00+(0.6 0)=1.4mol/L 1 0 Cexact =3.00exp[(2.00)(0.6)]=0.9mol/L

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ForC=0.10mol/L: tint 10 =(0.10 3.00)+0=1.12min 0.406 3

texact =

1 ln C = 2.00 3.00

1 ln 0.10 2.00 3.00

=1.70min

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Example (Problem2.40ofFelder) A solution containing a hazardous waste is charged into a storage tank and subjected to a chemical treatment, which is supposed to decompose the waste into harmless products. The concentration of the waste, C, has been reported to vary with time as C = 1/(a+bt). When sufficient time has elapsed for C to drop to 0.0100 g/L, the contents of the tank are discharged into a river that passes by the plant. The following data are taken for C and t:
T(h) C(g/L) 1.0 1.43 2.0 1.02 3.0 0.73 4.0 0.53 5.0 0.38

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(a) If the given formula is correct, what plot would yield a straight line that would enable you to determine a and b? (b) Estimate a and b using the leastsquares method. Check the goodness of fitting by generating a plot of C versus t that shows both the measured and predicted value of C. (c) Using the results of part (b), estimate the initial concentration of the waste in the tank and the time required for C to research its discharge level. (d) You should have very little confidence in the time estimated in part (c). Explain why. (e) There are other potential problems with the whole waste disposal procedure. Suggest several of them.

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(a) 1/Cvs t,slope=b,intercept=a (b) b=slope=0.477L/gh;a=intercept=0.0823L/g

(c)C=1/(a+bt)=1/[0.0823+0.477(0)]=12.2g/L t=(1/C a)/b=(1/0.01 0.0823)/0.477=209h (d)t=0andC=0.01areoutoftherangeoftheexperimentaldata (e)Theconcentrationofthehazardoussubstancecouldbeenough tocausedamagetothebioticresourcesintheriver:thetreatment requiresanextremelylargeperiodoftime. 62