1

The University of Hong Kong

Department of Civil Engineering
Theory and Design of Structures I
Reinforced Concrete Design

Scope
Rectangular singly and doubly reinforced beams
Elastic design
Limit state design concepts; material strength and loading
Flexural strength and shear strength of beams; one-way slabs

References
1. BS8110: 1985, Structural use of concrete Part 3: Design charts for singly reinforced
beams, doubly reinforced beams and rectangular columns, British Standard Institution,
London, 1985.
2. BS8110: 1997, Structural use of concrete Part 1: Code of practice for design and
construction, British Standard Institution, London, 1997.
3. Code of practice for structural use of concrete 2004, second edition, Buildings
Department, Hong Kong, 2008.
4. Design of structural elements: concrete, steelwork, masonry and timber design to British
standards and Eurocodes, 2nd ed., C. Arya, Spon Press, London, 2003.
5. Reinforced concrete design, 5th ed., W.H. Mosley, J.H. Bungey and R. Hulse, Macmillan
Press, Basingstoke, 1999.
6. Reinforced concrete designers handbook, 10th ed., C.E. Reynolds and J.C. Steedman, E.
& F.N. Spon, London, 1988.
7. Reinforced concrete design to BS8110: simply explained, A.H. Allen, E. & F.N. Spon,
London, 1988.
8. Structural design in concrete to BS8110, L.H. Martin, P.C.L. Croxton and J.A. Purkiss,
Edward Arnold, London, 1989.

Introduction
A plain concrete beam cannot support much loading because of the low tensile strength. The
introduction of steel tension reinforcement can effectively strengthen a concrete beam. In a
reinforced concrete (RC) beam, the concrete carries compression while the steel
reinforcement mainly carries tension.











Figure 1(a) Plain concrete beam under loading.
f
c
f
c

b
d
Z = b d
2
/ 6

Figure 1(b) Reinforced concrete beam under loading.
Section
(cracked)
C
T
a
M = Ca = Ta
2











Properties of steel
The stress is proportional to the strain up to the yield point. At the yield point, steel becomes
plastic and the stress remains practically constant while the strain increases. Finally owing to
work hardening, there is another increase in stress but not in proportion to strain.

Properties of concrete
It has no clearly defined yield point. Nor is stress ever proportional to strain exactly.
However, that portion of the stress-strain curve below 1/3 of the ultimate strength is very
nearly a straight line and is assumed to be so. Beyond 1/3 of the ultimate strength, the
concrete is in the elasto-plastic state, and the stress is no longer proportional to strain.

Methods of design
The following methods of design are available:
1. Based on elastic theory (elastic theory method in CP114 and previous Hong Kong codes)
2. Based on ultimate load (load factor method in CP114 and previous Hong Kong codes)
3. Based on limit states design philosophy (BS8110, CP110 and present Hong Kong
concrete code)

Elastic method
When the elastic method is adopted, the structural members are reinforced so that at working
load, the maximum stress in the concrete is a certain fraction of the cube strength and the
maximum stress in the steel is a certain fraction of the yield stress. The ratio of the yield
stress (or cube strength) to the permissible stress in steel (or concrete respectively) is called
the stress factor of safety.
When a structure is designed on an elastic basis with a stress factor of 2, it does not mean
that the structure will carry twice the working load before it fails. The reason is that at
stresses slightly greater than the permissible values, the concrete structure no longer behaves
in a linear manner. Therefore, the stress factor of safety is no real guide to the true safety
margin of the structure.

Ultimate load design method
When the ultimate load design method is adopted, the structure is designed so that the
working load is some fraction of the ultimate load. The load that the structure can carry is
calculated. The ratio of the ultimate load to the working load is called the load factor of
safety, and hence ultimate load design method is often called load factor design method.
In the previous Hong Kong concrete code and CP114, the load factor is 1.8.

s
t
r
e
s
s

strain
Concrete
s
t
r
e
s
s

strain
Steel
Y.P.
Figure 2. Stress-strain curves for concrete and steel.
3
Elastic Design of an RC Section
Notations:
= b breadth
= h total depth
= d effective depth
= x neutral axis depth
=
s
A area of tension reinforcement
=
cb
p permissible compressive stress in
concrete due to bending
=
st
p permissible tensile stress in steel
= =
c s e
E E modular ratio

Taking moment about N.A. (uniform stress creates a resultant through N.A.)
( ) x d A bx
s e
=
2
2
1

0
2
1
2
= + d A x A bx
s e s e

( ) ( )( )
b
d A b A A
x
s e s e s e
2 ) 4 (
2
+ +
=
b
d A
b
A
b
A
s e s e s e
2
2
+
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
( )
2 3
3
1
x d A bx I
s e
+ =

At top fibre, At steel level,
x
I
Z
c
=
( )
e
s
x d
I
Z

=
I
My
=
cb
c
cb
p
I
Mx
Z
M
f = =
( )
st
e
s
st
p
I
x d M
Z
M
f

= =



Design resistance moment is the smaller of
x
p I
Z p M
cb
c cb c
= =
( ) x d
p I
Z p M
e
st
s st s

= =

Case 1:
st st
p f = ,
cb cb
p f < Under-reinforced
Case 2:
st st
p f < ,
cb cb
p f = Over-reinforced
Case 3:
st st
p f = ,
cb cb
p f = Balanced

d

b
h
A
s
b
x

e
A
s
N.A.
Figure 3. Assumptions in elastic design.
4
Example: Elastic design of reinforced concrete slab
A 225mm thick reinforced concrete slab spans an effective distance of 7.5m between two
brick walls. The slab is designed to support an imposed load comprising a uniformly
distributed load and a transverse line load at mid-span. The main reinforcement is T20/150
and the secondary reinforcement is T12/300. The cover provided to the main reinforcement is
15mm. The screeding and ceiling finish together weigh 0.5kN/m
2
and the density of
reinforced concrete is assumed to be 24kN/m
3
. (Question 5, May 2000 Examination)
(a) Using the elastic method, calculate the maximum safe bending moment per unit width
that can be carried by the slab if
permissible tensile stress in steel = 250N/mm
2
;
permissible bending stress in concrete = 13.3N/mm
2
; and
modular ratio = 15.
(b) If the uniformly distributed imposed load is 5kN/m
2
, determine the maximum safe
transverse line load that can be carried at mid-span.
(c) Calculate the maximum stresses in concrete and steel if the slab is subjected to a
uniformly distributed imposed load of 5kN/m
2
and a transverse line load of 6kN/m at
mid-span. Draw a sketch showing how the stresses are distributed along the depth of the
mid-span section.

Solution:

(a) Maximum safe bending moment per unit width

Consider 1m width of slab. The dimensions are
span = 7.5m, b = 1000mm, h = 225mm and cover = 15mm.

The reinforcement is
Main reinft.: T20/150
Secondary reinft.: T12/300

Effective depth mm 200 2 / 20 15 225 = = d
Sectional area of reinft. ( ) /m mm 2094
150
1000
20
4
2 2
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

s
A
Allowable stresses
2
N/mm 250 =
st
p
2
N/mm 3 . 13 =
cb
p
Modular ratio 15 =
e

Let the neutral axis depth be x.
Taking moment about the neutral axis,
( )( ) ( )( )( ) x x = 200 2094 15 1000
2
2
1

0 6282000 31410 500
2
= + x x
mm 0 . 85 = x
The second moment of area is
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
2 3
3
1
0 . 85 200 2094 15 0 . 85 1000 + = I
4 6
mm 10 1 . 620 =
5
The section moduli are
3 6
6
mm 10 295 . 7
0 . 85
10 1 . 620
=

= =
x
I
Z
c

( ) ( )( )
3 6
6
mm 10 3595 . 0
15 0 . 85 200
10 1 . 620
=

=
e
s
x d
I
Z

The maximum safe moment is the smaller of
( )( ) kNm 02 . 97 Nmm 10 02 . 97 3 . 13 10 295 . 7
6 6
= = =
c
M
( )( ) kNm 88 . 89 Nmm 10 88 . 89 250 10 3595 . 0
6 6
= = =
s
M
Hence the maximum safe moment is 89.88kNm and the section is under-reinforced.

(b) Maximum safe transverse line load at mid-span

Self-weight ( )( )( ) kN/m 4 . 5 225 . 0 0 . 1 24 = =
Screeding and ceiling finish kN/m 5 . 0 =
Total DL kN/m 9 . 5 5 . 0 4 . 5 = + =
2
kN/m 5 UDLL = Let kN/m KELL P =
Moment caused by DL and LL
( )( )( ) ( ) ( ) 5 . 7 5 . 7 5 9 . 5
4
1
2
8
1
P + + =
( )kNm/m 875 . 1 64 . 76 P + =
88 . 89 875 . 1 64 . 76 = + P
Maximum kN/m 06 . 7 = P

(c) If
2
kN/m 5 UDLL = and kN/m 6 KELL = = P

Bending moment ( )( ) kNm/m 89 . 87 6 875 . 1 64 . 76 = + = M
The stresses are
2
6
6
N/mm 05 . 12
10 295 . 7
10 89 . 87
=

= =
c
cb
Z
M
f
2
6
6
N/mm 5 . 244
10 3595 . 0
10 89 . 87
=

= =
s
st
Z
M
f


85
200
12.05N/mm
2
244.5N/mm
2
Figure 4. Stress distribution
(not to scale).

6
Limit State Design of RC Structures
The general philosophy of limit state design applies. The particular requirements are
highlighted below. Unless otherwise stated, the design code is Code of Practice for
Structural Use of Concrete 2004 Second Edition (the Hong Kong Concrete Code).

Partial safety factors for load
f

The partial safety factors for load
f
for ultimate limit state (ULS) are shown in Table 1. A
partial safety factor of
f
= 1.0 is usually applied to all load combinations at the serviceability
limit state (SLS). Define the following symbols for the common types of loading.
G
k
= characteristic dead load
Q
k
= characteristic imposed load
W
k
= characteristic wind load















The design loads should be combined such that they give the most severe condition to the
structure or cross section being considered. Whether the larger or smaller value should be
used depends on which gives the more critical condition.
For Load Combination 1 (i.e. dead + imposed), the design load effects at ULS should
normally be calculated based on (1.4 G
k
+ 1.6 Q
k
). For Load Combination 2 (i.e. dead +
wind), the corresponding design load effects should be calculated based on 1.4 (G
k
+ W
k
). For
Load Combination 3 (i.e. dead + imposed + wind), the corresponding design load effects
should be calculated based on 1.2 (G
k
+ Q
k
+ W
k
). However in the rough check of stability of
a building of breadth B and height H against overturning, the criterion should be
1.0 G
k
B > 1.4 W
k
H
At SLS, the design load effects for Load Combinations 1, 2 and 3 are (G
k
+ Q
k
), (G
k
+ W
k
) and
(G
k
+ Q
k
+ W
k
) respectively.

Partial safety factors for strength of material
m

The partial safety factors for strength of materials
m
for ULS are shown in Table 2.







Table 1. Load combinations and values of
f
for ultimate limit state
(Table 2.1 in Hong Kong Concrete Code)

Table 2. Values of
m
for ultimate limit state (Table 2.2 in Hong Kong Concrete Code)

7

d h
b
At working load
(stress condition
for elastic design)
Beyond
working load
At failure (stress
condition for ultimate
load design)
Figure 5. Stress development in a reinforced concrete section.

Stress development in RC section
Because of the non-linear stress-strain relationship of concrete, the stress distribution in an
RC section varies with the applied bending moment.












Flexural Strength of RC Sections

The following notations are used:
= b breadth
= h total depth
= d effective depth of tension reinforcement
= d depth to compression reinforcement
= x neutral axis depth
=
s
A area of tension reinforcement
=
s
A area of compression reinforcement
=
cu
f characteristic strength of concrete
=
st
f stress in tension reinforcement
=
sc
f stress in compression reinforcement
=
y
f characteristic strength of reinforcement
=
cc
maximum compressive strain in concrete
=
st
tensile strain in tension reinforcement
=
sc
compressive strain in compression reinforcement
8
The following assumptions are made for the ultimate strength design of reinforced concrete
sections:
1. The strain distribution across the section is linear.
2. The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
3. The compressive strain of concrete is the criterion for failure of the RC beam section.
The ULS of the section is reached when the concrete strain at the extreme compression
fibre
cc
reaches a specified ultimate value of
cu
where 0035 . 0 =
cu
for 60
cu
f MPa
and 60 00006 . 0 0035 . 0 =
cu cu
f for 60 >
cu
f MPa.
4. From the short-term design stress-strain curve for normal-weight concrete as shown in
Figure 6, the maximum concrete compressive stress at failure is taken to be (0.67f
cu
)/
m
,
which is equal to 0.45f
cu
noting that
m
= 1.5 for concrete in flexure.
5. At failure of the RC beam section, the distribution of concrete compressive stress may be
defined by the idealized stress-strain curve in Figure 6 (i.e. parabolic plus rectangular) or
the simplified rectangular stress block as shown in Figure 7.














6. The stresses in the reinforcement are derived from the stress-strain curve as shown in
Figure 8. The maximum steel stress is taken to be f
y
/
m
, which is equal to 0.87f
y
noting
that
m
= 1.15 for reinforcement. Assuming a Youngs modulus of E
s
= 200000 N/mm
2
,
the yield strain of the design stress-strain curve is therefore 200000 87 . 0
y
f .













7. Where a section is designed to resist flexure only, the lever arm should not be greater
than 0.95d, where d = effective depth (Clause 6.1.2.4(a) of Hong Kong Concrete Code).

f
y
/
m
f
y
/
m

Tension
Compression
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s

200 kN/mm
2
Figure 8. Short-term design stress-strain curve for
reinforcement (Fig. 3.9 of Hong Kong Concrete Code)
Strain Stress
Neutral Axis
Figure 7. Simplified stress block for concrete at ultimate
limit state (Fig. 6.1 of Code of Practice for Structural Use
of Concrete 2004 Second Edition)

cu
0.67 f
cu
/
m

x

0035 . 0 =
cu

for 60
cu
f MPa
60 00006 . 0 0035 . 0 =
cu cu
f
for 60 >
cu
f MPa

s

s = 0.9x
for
cu
f 45 MPa
s = 0.8x
for 45 <
cu
f 70 MPa
s = 0.72x
for 70 <
cu
f 100 MPa

c m c u
E f 34 . 1
Parabol ic
curve
Strain cu
S
t
r
e
s
s

m cu
f 67 . 0
Figure 6. Short-term design stress-strain curve for
normal-weight concrete (Fig. 3.8 of Code of Practice for
Structural Use of Concrete 2004 Second Edition)
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = 3.21 46 . 3
m
cu
c
f
E

kN/ mm
2

for 20MPa
cu
f 100MPa
0035 . 0 =
cu

for 60
cu
f MPa
60 00006 . 0 0035 . 0 =
c u cu
f
for 60 >
c u
f MPa
c
9
Figure 9 shows the cross-section of an RC member subjected to bending and the resultant
strain diagram together with three different types of stress distribution in concrete.














Classification of RC sections
An RC section may be: (1) Under-reinforced; (2) Critical / balanced; or (3) Over-
reinforced.

(1) Under-reinforced section
If the tension reinforcement is smaller than a certain amount known as the balanced steel
content, the section is regarded as an under-reinforced section. Upon loading, the tension
reinforcement will reach the yield strength before the concrete reaches its compression
capacity. The steel strain must not be less than that corresponding to the yield stress when the
section fails. After yielding has commenced, the stress in the steel remains constant while the
strain increases. It is assumed that at failure, the steel stress is the design yield stress. The
large plastic elongation of the tension reinforcement causes the concrete in the tension zone to
crack. The serious cracking and excessive deflection serve as warning signals before the
imminent failure of the member. This kind of tension failure is ductile and it allows
redistribution of forces to other parts of the structure if it is statically indeterminate.











(2) Balanced section
A balanced or critical section has exactly the balanced steel content. At the failure of a
balanced section, the concrete reaches the maximum strain
cu
at the same time when the steel
reaches the yield strain.


Figure 9. Section with strain diagrams and stress blocks.
(b)
Rectangular
parabolic
Stress Blocks
(a)
Triangular
Neutral
axis
x
(c)
Equivalent
rectangular
s

Strains
cc

sc

st

d
d
'
A
'
s
A
s
Section
b

cc
<
cu

st
> yield strain
F
st

F
cc
Figure 10. Under-reinforced section.

cc
=
cu

st
= yield strain
F
st

F
cc
Figure 11. Balanced section.
10
(3) Over-reinforced section
If the tension reinforcement is more than a certain amount known as the balanced steel
content, the section is regarded as an over-reinforced section. Upon loading, the concrete
may reach its compression capacity before the tension reinforcement reaches its tensile
strength. In an over-reinforced section, the concrete reaches the maximum strain
cu
while the
steel strain is still below the yield strain. Members with over-reinforced sections will fail
suddenly in a brittle manner if the concrete is not properly confined. There may be little
visible warning prior to failure. The characteristics of failure are the crushing of concrete in
the compression zone, small deflection, and absence of cracking in the tension zone. The
failure is called compression failure. To prevent a brittle failure without warning, some
design codes (such as BS8110) specify that the design neutral axis depth x cannot exceed half
of the effective depth d, no matter how much reinforcement is provided. The Hong Kong
Concrete Code introduces the following restrictions:
d x 5 . 0 for 45
cu
f N/mm
2
;

d x 4 . 0 for 70 45 <
cu
f N/mm
2
; or

d x 33 . 0 for 100 70 <
cu
f N/mm
2
and no moment redistribution.











Ultimate moment of resistance of a singly reinforced rectangular section













For the design of most RC structures, it is usual to design for the ULS first, followed by
checks to ensure that the structure is adequate for the SLS without excessive deflection or
cracking. In most cases, the simplified rectangular stress block is used for design at the ULS.
The following demonstrates how simple reinforced concrete sections can be analyzed. For
simplicity, it is assumed that the concrete grade does not exceed 45 and therefore one has
0035 . 0 =
cu
and d x 5 . 0 .
Figure 13. Singly reinforced section with rectangular stress distribution (f
cu
45).
F
cc

0.67f
cu
/
m
0.45 f
cu

Stress
distribution
F
st
s
/
2

z

s

=

0
.
9
x

d
b
Section
A
s
x

st
Strain
distribution
Neutral
axis

cu

cc
=
cu

st
< yield strain
F
st

F
cc
Figure 12. Over-reinforced section.
11









(1) Under-reinforced section

The bending of a singly reinforced section will induce a resultant tensile force F
st
in the
steel reinforcement and a resultant compressive force in the concrete F
cc
that acts through the
centroid of the effective area of concrete in compression. Assume a neutral axis depth x
measured from the top extreme compression fibre, the depth of equivalent stress block is 0.9x.
The resultant compressive force in concrete F
cc
is given by
( ) ( ) x b f bx
f
x b
f
F
cu
cu
m
cu
cc
402 . 0 9 . 0
5 . 1
67 . 0
9 . 0
67 . 0
= = =

Assuming that the steel reinforcement has yielded, the resultant tensile force F
st
in the steel
reinforcement is

s y s
y
s
m
y
s st st
A f A
f
A
f
A f F 87 . 0
15 . 1
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

Equating the compression F
cc
to tension F
st
, we have

s y cu
A f bx f 87 . 0 402 . 0 =

b f
A f
x
cu
s y
164 . 2 = (1)
It is necessary to check if the steel reinforcement has actually yielded.

To ensure that the steel reinforcement has actually yielded, check if

s y st
E f 87 . 0 >
which may be worked out as

s y cu
cu
E f d
x
87 . 0 +
<

It shows that the maximum value of the neutral axis depth ratio x/d is dependent on f
y
, subject
to additional requirement of the Hong Kong Concrete Code (Clause 6.1.2.4(b)) limiting the
ratio x/d to a maximum of 0.33 to 0.5 depending upon the concrete cube strength f
cu
.

The lever arm z can be worked out as
x d x d z 45 . 0 2 ) 9 . 0 ( = = (2)
Applying Eq. (2) and assuming a concrete cube strength f
cu
not exceeding 40N/mm
2
(thus
5 . 0 / d x ) gives
d d d x d z 775 . 0 2 / 45 . 0 45 . 0 = = , i.e. d z 775 . 0
The Hong Kong Concrete Code (Clause 6.1.2.4(a)) also specifies that, where a section is
designed to resist only flexure, the lever arm z should not be assumed to be greater than 0.95
times the effective depth d. Therefore the ratio z/d lies within the following limits.
95 . 0 775 . 0 d z

x

cc
=
cu

st
> 0.87 f
y
/ E
s

d
Figure 14. Strain distribution of an
under-reinforced section at failure.
12
The ultimate moment M of the section can be worked out in terms of the concrete stress
as
z F M
cc
=
z x b f
cu
402 . 0 =
z
z d
b f
cu
|
.
|

\
|

=
45 . 0
402 . 0
( )z z d b f M
cu
= 9 . 0 (3)

The ultimate moment M of the section can also be worked out in terms of the steel stress
as
z F M
st
=
z A f
s y
87 . 0 =
On substituting the lever arm z from Eq. (2) and the neutral axis depth x from Eq. (1), the
above equation appears as
( ) x d A f M
s y
45 . 0 87 . 0 =

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b f
A f
d A f
cu
s y
s y
164 . 2 45 . 0 87 . 0

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b f
A f
d A f M
cu
s y
s y
974 . 0 87 . 0 (4)
Dividing Eq. (4) throughout by
2
bd gives

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
d b
A
f
f
d b
A
f
d b
M
s
cu
y
s
y
974 . 0 1 87 . 0
2


|
|
.
|

\
|
=
cu
y
y
f
f
f
d b
M
974 . 0 1 87 . 0
2
(5)
where the tension reinforcement ratio is defined as bd A
s
= . Eq. (5) gives the relationship
between M and for the construction of part of the design charts.

The limiting moment of resistance for a singly reinforced concrete section can be worked
out by setting x/d = 0.5 or z/d = 0.775 and invoking Eq. (3)

2
156 . 0 bd f M
cu
= (6)
Considering both steel yielding and concrete crushing, the ultimate moment M based on steel
yielding is given by

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
b f
A f
d A f M
cu
s y
s y
974 . 0 87 . 0
while the moment M based on concrete crushing is given by

2
156 . 0 bd f M
cu
=
The actual ultimate moment is the smaller of the above two values. If the applied moment
exceeds
2
156 . 0 bd f
cu
, compression reinforcement is required.

In the design of an RC section, it is necessary to establish whether it can be designed as a
singly-reinforced section by checking the K value that is defined as
2
d b f M K
cu
= . If K
does not exceed 0.156, it can be designed as a singly reinforced section. It is normally
13
designed as an under-reinforced section. If K exceeds 0.156, compression reinforcement is
necessary. Alternatively, the section may be enlarged or the material strengths may be
increased.

(2) Balanced section
At the failure of a balanced section, the concrete reaches the maximum strain
( 0035 . 0 =
cu
for 45
cu
f N/mm
2
) at the same time when the steel reaches the design yield
strain of
s y
E f 87 . 0 . From the strain distribution shown in Figure 15, one can write

s y
E f x d
x
87 . 0
0035 . 0
=

where E
s
is the Youngs modulus of steel, which is around 200,000 MPa. The neutral axis
depth ratio x/d can therefore be worked out as

0035 . 0 87 . 0
0035 . 0
+
=
s y
E f d
x

Equating the compression F
cc
to tension F
st
, we have

s y cu
A f bx f 87 . 0 402 . 0 =
The tension reinforcement ratio for a balanced section defined as bd A
s b
= can be worked
out as

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
0035 . 0 87 . 0
0035 . 0
462 . 0 462 . 0
87 . 0
402 . 0
s y y
cu
y
cu
y
cu s
b
E f f
f
d
x
f
f
d f
x f
d b
A
(7a)
The ultimate moment M of the section can be calculated from Eq. (5) by setting to be
b
.

Alternatively, in connection with the use of the simplified stress block, a simpler
definition of a balanced section is one having a neutral axis depth ratio x/d of 0.5 while the
steel reaches the design yield strain of
s y
E f 87 . 0 . The balanced tension reinforcement ratio
can be calculated as

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
y
cu
y
cu
y
cu s
b
f
f
d
x
f
f
d f
x f
d b
A
231 . 0 462 . 0
87 . 0
402 . 0
(7b)

An RC section with tension reinforcement ratio below
b
is under-reinforced, while that
with tension reinforcement ratio above
b
is over-reinforced.



x

cc
= 0.0035

st
=

design yield strain in steel
= 0.87 f
y
/ E
s

d
Figure 15. Strain distribution of
a balanced section at failure.

x

cc
= 0.0035

st
< 0.87 f
y
/ E
s

d
Figure 16. Strain distribution of an
over-reinforced section at failure.
14
(3) Over-reinforced section

An over-reinforced section fails by crushing of concrete while the tension reinforcement
remains elastic, i.e.
y s
f f 87 . 0 < . The steel stress may be determined by considering the strain
distribution diagram in Figure 16.

s
x d
x

0035 . 0
=

|
.
|

\
|

=
x
x d
s
0035 . 0

|
.
|

\
|

= =
x
x d
E E f
s s s st
0035 . 0
Equating the compression F
cc
to tension F
st
, we have

|
.
|

\
|

=
x
x d
A E bx f
s s cu
0035 . 0 402 . 0
0 ) ( 0035 . 0 402 . 0
2
= + d x A E bx f
s s cu
(8)
After solving for the neutral axis depth x from Eq. (8), the lever arm z can be worked out from
Eq. (2). The ultimate moment M of the section can then be calculated from Eq. (3).


Ultimate moment of resistance of a doubly reinforced rectangular section

Compression reinforcement is required when 156 . 0
2
> = d b f M K
cu
. Depending on the
reinforcement areas, their positions and strength, the tension and compression steel of a
doubly reinforced section may or may not reach the design yield stress when the ultimate
moment of the section is reached. However for convenience in design, it is normally assumed
at first that all the reinforcement has yielded. This is subsequently modified in case some or
all of the reinforcement does not reach the design yield stress. For simplicity, the area of
concrete in compression has not been deducted to allow for the concrete displaced by the
compression reinforcement. It is also assumed that the concrete grade does not exceed 45 and
therefore one has 0035 . 0 =
cu
and d x 5 . 0 .















Figure 17. Doubly reinforced section with rectangular stress distribution (f
cu
45).
d
b
Section
A
s

A'
s

d'
x

=

d
/
2

st
Strain
distribution
Neutral axis

cu
= 0.0035

sc
F
cc

0.67f
cu
/
m
=0.45 f
cu

Stress
distribution
F
st
s

=

0
.
9
x

z
F
sc

15
Assuming first that all reinforcement has yielded, the compressive force carried by
concrete F
cc
, the resultant compressive force F
sc
in the compression reinforcement and the
resultant tensile force F
st
in the tension reinforcement are given as
( ) ( ) x b f bx
f
x b
f
F
cu
cu
m
cu
cc
402 . 0 9 . 0
5 . 1
67 . 0
9 . 0
67 . 0
= = =

s y s
y
s
m
y
s sc sc
A f A
f
A
f
A f F =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = 87 . 0
15 . 1


s y s
y
s
m
y
s st st
A f A
f
A
f
A f F 87 . 0
15 . 1
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

For equilibrium of the section in Figure 17,

sc cc st
F F F + =
so that with the reinforcement at yield

s y cu s y
A f x b f A f + = 87 . 0 402 . 0 87 . 0

( )
b f
A A f
x
cu
s s y
402 . 0
87 . 0
= (9)
Once the neutral axis depth x is obtained, the strain distribution of the section can be defined.
The stresses
st
f and
sc
f of the tension and compression reinforcement respectively should be
the design yield stress provided that the respective strains
st
and
sc
satisfy the following
conditions:

y st
f f 87 . 0 = if
s
y
st
E
f
x
x d
87 . 0
0035 . 0
|
.
|

\
|
= (10)

y sc
f f 87 . 0 = if
s
y
sc
E
f
x
d x
87 . 0
0035 . 0
|
.
|

\
|

= (11)
If the above conditions are satisfied, the assumption that all the reinforcement has reached the
design yield stress is correct. The ultimate moment M of the section can be obtained by
taking moment about the centroid of the tension reinforcement as
) ( ) 45 . 0 ( d d F x d F M
sc cc
+ =
) ( 87 . 0 ) 45 . 0 ( 402 . 0 d d A f x d bx f M
s y cu
+ = (12)

When the above checks reveal that not all the reinforcement has yielded, the value of
neutral axis depth x calculated from Eq. (9) is incorrect. The actual reinforcement stresses
and neutral axis depth x have to be recalculated from the equilibrium equation and the strain
diagram as follows:

b f
A f A f
x
cu
s sc s st
402 . 0

= (13)

|
.
|

\
|

= =
x
x d
E E f
s st s st
0035 . 0 (14)

|
.
|

\
|

= =
x
d x
E E f
s sc s sc
0035 . 0 (15)
16
Once the neutral axis depth x is obtained, the ultimate moment M of the section can be
obtained by taking moment about the centroid of the tension reinforcement as
) ( ) 45 . 0 ( d d F x d F M
sc cc
+ =
) ( ) 45 . 0 ( 402 . 0 d d A f x d bx f M
s s cu
+ = (16)

In a doubly reinforced section, tension or compression failure may occur. In tension
failures, the tension reinforcement yields, while in compression failures, the tension
reinforcement remains elastic. In both types of failure, the compression reinforcement may or
may not yield when the section fails.

In the normal design process, the coefficient K is checked to see whether compression
reinforcement is required. If K exceeds 0.156, it means that the concrete section alone is
insufficient to resist the compression. Compression reinforcement is provided such that the
neutral axis depth x remains at the maximum permitted value of 0.5d.


Summary of procedures for flexural design of reinforced concrete beams
( 45
cu
f N/mm
2
)

1. Classification of section
Let the required ultimate moment be M.
Work out K where
2
d b f M K
cu
=
If 156 . 0 K , no compression reinforcement is needed and the section may be
designed as a singly-reinforced section.
If 156 . 0 > K , compression reinforcement is needed and the section must be designed
as a doubly-reinforced section.

2. Singly-reinforced section
z F M
cc
=
z x b f
cu
402 . 0 =
z
z d
b f
cu
|
.
|

\
|

=
45 . 0
402 . 0
( )z z d b f
cu
= 9 . 0
( )( ) d z d z d b f M
cu
/ / 1 9 . 0
2
=
Substituting
2
d b f M K
cu
= ,
0 9 . 0 / ) / ( ) / (
2
= + K d z d z
( ) 9 . 0 / 25 . 0 5 . 0 / K d z + =
( ) | | 9 . 0 / 25 . 0 5 . 0 K d z + =
Having solved for z, the steel area A
s
may be determined from
z A f z F M
s y st
87 . 0 = =

z f
M
A
y
s
87 . 0
=

17
3. Doubly-reinforced section
) ( ) 45 . 0 ( d d F x d F M
sc cc
+ =
) ( ) 45 . 0 ( 402 . 0 d d A f x d bx f
s sc cu
+ =
Assume that 2 / d x =

2
156 . 0 ) 45 . 0 ( 402 . 0 bd f x d bx f
cu cu
=
Assume that the compression steel has yielded, i.e.

y sc
f f 87 . 0 =
Therefore
) ( 87 . 0 156 . 0
2
d d A f bd f M
s y cu
+ =

) ( 87 . 0
156 . 0
2
d d f
bd f M
A
y
cu
s

=
Check whether the compression steel has yielded or not. If

s
y
sc
E
f
d
d d
x
d x
87 . 0
2 /
2 /
0035 . 0 0035 . 0
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
.
|

\
|

= ,
then the compression steel has yielded, i.e.
y sc
f f 87 . 0 = .
To compute the required tension steel, note the equilibrium condition

sc cc st
F F F + =

s y cu s y
A f x b f A f + = 87 . 0 402 . 0 87 . 0

y
s y cu
s
f
A f d b f
A
87 . 0
87 . 0 201 . 0 +
=


Shear Strength
The shear force is numerically equal to the rate of change of bending moment. Hence the vast
majority of structural members have to resist shear forces. Shear transfer in RC beams relies
heavily on the tensile and compressive strength of concrete. A shear failure is in general non-
ductile. To suppress this type of failure, the shear strength of a member must be somewhat in
excess of that associated with the maximum flexural strength it can possibly develop.

Types of shear failure
The mechanism of shear failure in RC structures is complicated. Generally, there are five
types of failure related to shear and flexure for RC beams. The behaviour of shear failure
depends on the ratio of shear span a
v
to the effective depth d (i.e. the shear-span / depth ratio
a
v
/d) where a
v
is the distance between the point load and the nearest support.
18





















Type I: a
v
/d > 6
The bending moment is large compared to the shear force. The failure is similar to that
expected in pure bending. Normally the tension reinforcement is close to yield or has already
yielded. Only minimum shear reinforcement is required.

Type II: 2 < a
v
/d < 6
The initial flexural cracks become inclined early in the loading process. At failure, horizontal
cracks will appear running along the tension reinforcement. These horizontal cracks reduce
the shear resistance of the section by destroying the dowel force and also reduce the bond
stress between the steel and concrete. Normally the tension reinforcement does not reach
yield.

Type III: a
v
/d < 2
This is a typical form of shear failure. Flexural cracks do not develop but shear cracks at
roughly 45 suddenly appear leading to collapse. Normally the tension reinforcement does
not reach yield.

Type IV: a
v
/d 0
This arrangement normally leads to punching shear failure. The shear resistance of the
section is at a maximum. The addition of shear reinforcement in the form of vertical links
does not increase the shear resistance above the punching shear value.

Type V: Shear reinforcement provided
The shear reinforcement increases the shear resistance against failure types I, II and III.
Diagonal cracks normally develop. At failure, the shear reinforcement and the longitudinal
reinforcement yield, provided that the reinforcement is anchored well and the member is not
over-reinforced.
Figure 18. Types of shear failure in reinforced concrete beams.
(b) Type II 6 > a
v
/d > 2
V
d

Dowel force crack
leading to bond failure
Compression zone fails
a
v

(a) Type I a
v
/d > 6
V
d

Shear crack
Bending crack
Beam fails when
compression zone crushes
a
v

(c) Type III a
v
/d < 2
V
d

Shear crack suddenly
appears followed by
failure in compression
zone
a
v

(d) Type IV a
v
/d = 0
Punching shear
V
(e) Type V With shear reinforcement
V
Vertical links
Bent-up bars
Shear cracks
19





















Components of shear resistance
The shear resistance V of an RC section may be broken down into several components as
follows (Figure 19(c)):
Concrete compression zone: shear carried by the uncracked concrete compression zone
V
cz
(20-40%)
Aggregate interlock: vertical component of aggregate interlock across the diagonal crack
V
a
(35-50%)
Dowel action: shear force carried by the dowel action of longitudinal tension
reinforcement V
d
(35-50%)
Shear reinforcement: shear force carried by shear reinforcement or web reinforcement
(stirrups / links, or bent-up bars) V
s
(maximum 50%)

The above can be expressed as
( )
s c s d a cz
V V V V V V V + = + + + = (19)
where V
c
represents the shear carried by the concrete ( )
d a cz
V V V + + . The interaction among
these shear components is complicated. The design recommendations given in the common
design codes (e.g. Hong Kong Concrete Code) are therefore a lower-bound fit to experimental
results.

Shear reinforcement
The provision of shear reinforcement (Figures 19(a) and 19(b)) increases the ductility of the
beam and considerably reduces the likelihood of a sudden and catastrophic failure, which
often occurs in beams without shear reinforcement. Links or stirrups are the most common
type of shear reinforcement. They are sometimes used in combination with bent-up bars.
Only the use of links is discussed in this course.

Figure 19(a). Links or stirrups.
C
L
Figure 19(b). Combined system
with links and bent-up bars.
C
L
Figure 19(c). Shear transfer in
beam with web reinforcement.
V
cz
V
d
V
s
Concrete
compression

Steel
tension

V
a

20
The stresses in the shear reinforcement are often analysed by the truss analogy. Links
contribute to the shear strength by the following means:
Improving the contribution of the dowel action: A link can effectively support a
longitudinal bar that is being crossed by a flexural shear crack close to a link.
Suppressing flexural tensile stresses in the concrete by means of the diagonal
compressive force resulting from truss action.
Limiting the opening of diagonal cracks within the elastic range, thus enhancing and
preserving the shear transfer by aggregate interlock.
Providing confinement, when the links are sufficiently closely spaced, and thus
increasing the strength of the concrete core.
Preventing the breakdown of bond when splitting cracks develop in anchorage zones
because of dowel and anchorage forces.

Derivation of shear stress in links

The following additional notations are used:
=
sv
A total cross sectional area of links at the neutral axis at a section
=
v
b breadth of section
=
yv
f characteristic strength of links (not to be taken as more than 460 N/mm
2
)
=
v
s spacing of links along the member
= v design (average) shear stress at a cross section ( d b V v
v
/ = )
=
c
v design concrete shear stress











To derive the design equations using the truss analysis, consider the equilibrium of the
free body to the left of a section line parallel to the concrete struts. The shear resistance V
s

is contributed by the tension
sv yv m sv yv
A f A f 87 . 0 = in the links that are crossed by the
section line, where A
sv
is the area of both legs of each link and f
yv
is the characteristic strength
of the links.
=
sv yv s
A f V 87 . 0 (Number of links crossed by section line)

( )
(

=
v
sv yv
s
d d
A f
cot
87 . 0
cot 87 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
sv yv
s
d d
A f
( ) cot 87 . 0
v sv yv s
s d A f V

Figure 20. Truss analogy.
C
L
A
A

s
v
b
v
d'
d
21
where is the angle between the compression strut and the axis of the beam. Experiments
have led to the recommendation that could be taken as 45, giving

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
sv yv s
s
d
A f V 87 . 0 (20)
From Eq. (19),
c s
V V V = , and introducing d vb V
v
= and d b v V
v c c
= , the above equation
becomes
( )
v
sv yv
v c
s
A f
b v v
87 . 0
=

( )
yv
c v
v
sv
f
v v b
s
A
87 . 0

= (21)
Note that d b V v
v
/ = is the average shear stress at a cross section and v
c
is the ultimate shear
stress that can be resisted by the concrete. The design concrete shear stress v
c
can be obtained
from Table 6.3 of Hong Kong Concrete Code and it is derived from

(
(

|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
m v
s
c
d d b
A
k k v

1 400 100
79 . 0
4 / 1
3 / 1
2 1
(22)
where
k
1
= an enhancement factor equal to 2d/a
v
for shear-span / depth ratio (a
v
/d) less than 2
(Clause 6.1.2.5(g)); otherwise k
1
= 1
k
2
= ( )
3 / 1
25
cu
f for concrete with cube strength f
cu
> 25MPa, but f
cu
should not be taken
as greater than 80 N/mm
2

d b
A
v
s
100
= tensile steel percentage which should not be taken as greater than 3
d
400
= a ratio that should not be taken as less than 1. The code should be consulted for
details.
m
= partial safety factor for strength of materials taken as 1.25

To avoid web crushing or compression zone failure, the code specifies that the average
shear stress v should not exceed
cu
f 8 . 0 or 7.0 N/mm
2
, whichever is the smaller. The
provision of shear reinforcement should be in accordance with the following (Table 6.2 of
Hong Kong Concrete Code). Note that the design shear resistance v
r
provided by minimum
links is taken as 4 . 0 =
r
v N/mm
2
for 40
cu
f N/mm
2
and ( )
3 2
40 4 . 0
cu r
f v = N/mm
2
for
40 >
cu
f N/mm
2
.
(a)
c
v v 5 . 0 < throughout the beam
Provide minimum links in beams of structural importance. Minimum links may be
omitted in members of minor structural importance.
(b) ( )
r c c
v v v v + < < 5 . 0
Provide minimum links equivalent to additional shear strength of v
r
, i.e.

yv
v v r
sv
f
s b v
A
87 . 0

22
(c) ( )
cu r c
f v v v 8 . 0 < < + or 7.0 N/mm
2

Provide links according to

( )
yv
c v v
sv
f
v v s b
A
87 . 0



Procedure for designing of beams for shear
1. Calculate the design shear stress at the section from d b V v
v
= .
2. Check whether the design shear stress v is within the upper limit (Clause 6.1.2.5(a)), i.e.
cu
f v 8 . 0 < or 7.0 N/mm
2
.
3. Calculate the percentage of longitudinal tension reinforcement and determine the design
concrete shear stress v
c
from Table 6.3 of Hong Kong Concrete Code or the associated
equation.
4. Determine the form and area of shear reinforcement, if any, from Table 6.2 of Hong
Kong Concrete Code.
5. Choose suitable link size and spacing s
v
, ensuring that d s
v
75 . 0 (Clause 6.1.2.5(d)).
6. At least 50% of the shear resistance provided by the steel should be in the form of links.

Span-effective depth ratios
Hong Kong Concrete Code specifies a set of basic span / effective depth ratios to control
deflections. For spans less than 10m, the basic span / effective depth ratios are given in Table
3. These ratios are normally more critical for slabs.


Table 3. Basic span / effective depth ratios for
rectangular sections with spans less than 10m
Cantilever 7
Simply supported 20
Continuous 26

The above basic ratios are modified to account for the amounts of tension and
compression reinforcement and the stresses there. The modification factor for tension
reinforcement can be calculated by
Modification factor for tension reinforcement =
( )
( )
0 . 2
9 . 0 120
477
55 . 0
2

+

+
bd M
f
s
(23)
where M is the design ultimate moment at the centre of the span or at the support of a
cantilever, and f
s
is the service stress of tension reinforcement there. They are also tabulated
in Table 7.4 of Hong Kong Concrete Code. The design service stress in the tension
reinforcement in a member may be estimated from

b prov s
req s y
s
A
A f
f

1
3
2
=
where
req s
A is the area of compression reinforcement required,
prov s
A is the area of
compression reinforcement provided and
b
is the ratio

tion redistribu before section at moment
tion redistribu after section at moment
=
b

that is used with moment redistribution.
23
Similarly the modification factor for compression reinforcement can be calculated by
Modification factor for compression reinforcement
= 5 . 1
100
3
100
1
|
|
.
|

\
|

+

+
bd
A
bd
A
prov s prov s
(24)
where
prov s
A is the area of compression reinforcement provided.

Design of slabs
Concrete slabs behave primarily as flexural members, and therefore the design is similar to
that for beams. In addition, the shear stresses are usually low in a slab except when there are
heavy concentrated loads. Compression reinforcement is seldom required except at supports.

The common methods of analysis of slabs include
(a) Elastic analysis
(b) Yield line theory by Johansen
(c) Strip method by Hillerborg
In this course, only approximate elastic analysis will be covered. Depending on the aspect
ratio (longer side / shorter side), a slab is classified as one-way or two-way slab. If the aspect
ratio is greater than 2, the slab can be treated as a one-way slab that is assumed to be spanning
in the direction of the shorter side only. If the aspect ratio is between 1 to 2, the slab should
be treated as a two-way slab spanning in both directions. Only one-way slabs will be
discussed here.

One-way slabs
The slab is often assumed to be built up of parallel strips (beams) of 1m width (i.e.
b=1000mm). The calculation for the required main reinforcement follows that used in beam
design. The area of tension reinforcement is z f M A
y s
87 . 0 = . A suitable bar diameter and
spacing can be worked out by
s
A bar) one of (area 1000 = spacing maximum . The main
reinforcement is in the direction of the span. The main reinforcement should form the outer
layer of reinforcement to give the maximum lever arm. The secondary reinforcement or
distribution steel is required normal to the main direction. The minimum areas of
reinforcement are as follows:
100 13 . 0 bh for high yield steel (f
y
= 460 MPa)
100 24 . 0 bh for mild steel (f
y
= 250 MPa)

The calculation of shear stress v is similar to that of beams, i.e.

cu v
f d b V v 8 . 0 = or 7.0 MPa
It is difficult to provide shear reinforcement in a slab, and hence it is not advisable to use
shear reinforcement in slabs (less than 200 mm thick). The shear stresses in slabs are seldom
critical. Therefore for v < v
c
, no shear reinforcement is required.

24
Example 1: Design of a singly reinforced rectangular section
A rectangular beam of breadth 260 mm and effective depth to tension reinforcement 440 mm
is required to resist an ultimate bending moment 185 kNm. Determine the area of tension
reinforcement A
s
required given the characteristic material strengths are f
y
= 460 MPa and f
cu

= 30 MPa. Hence determine the shear reinforcement using mild steel with characteristic
strength f
yv
= 250 MPa if the ultimate shear force is 150 kN.

Design data:
M = 185 kNm
V = 150 kN
b = 260 mm
d = 440 mm
f
cu
= 30 MPa
f
y
= 460 MPa
f
yv
= 250 MPa

The K factor is
156 . 0 123 . 0
30 440 260
10 185
2
6
2
< =


= =
cu
f bd
M
K
and therefore compression steel is not required. The lever arm z can be calculated as
( ) mm 368 9 . 0 25 . 0 5 . 0 = + = K d z

The area of tension reinforcement required A
s
is

2
6
mm 1256
368 460 87 . 0
10 185
87 . 0
=


= =
z f
M
A
y
s

Provide 4T20, giving A
s prov
= 1257mm
2
O.K.

The shear design is carried out as follows
MPa 31 . 1
440 260
10 150
3
=

= =
d b
V
v
v
< MPa 38 . 4 8 . 0 =
cu
f O.K.
10 . 1
440 260
1257 100 100
=

=
d b
A
v
s

1 909 . 0
440
400 400
< = =
d
; take 1
( ) 80 20 . 1
25
30
25
= =
cu
cu
f
f

25 . 1 =
m


( ) ( ) ( )
MPa 31 . 1 MPa 69 . 0
25 . 1
1
20 . 1 1 10 . 1 79 . 0
1
25
400 100
79 . 0
3 / 1 4 / 1 3 / 1
3 / 1 4 / 1
3 / 1
= < =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
f
d d b
A
v
m
cu
v
s
c

MPa 09 . 1 4 . 0 69 . 0 MPa 31 . 1 = + = + > =
r c
v v v
Let s
v
= 200 mm

( )
2
mm 148
250 87 . 0
) 69 . 0 31 . 1 ( 200 260
87 . 0
=

yv
c v v
sv
f
v v s b
A
Provide R10 links at 200 mm spacing (A
sv
= 157 mm
2
) O.K.
25
Example 2: A singly reinforced rectangular section with different amounts of tension
reinforcement
A rectangular beam has a breadth 250 mm and an effective depth to tension reinforcement
460 mm. The concrete has a characteristic strength of 25 MPa. The steel reinforcement has a
modulus of elasticity of 200,000 MPa and a yield strength of 320 MPa. Calculate the section
moment capacity of the following tension steel areas: (a) balanced steel area; (b) 2500mm
2
;
and (c) 5160mm
2
.

Design data:
b = 250 mm
d = 460 mm
f
cu
= 25 MPa
f
y
= 320 MPa
E
s
= 200000 MPa

(a) Balanced section
The neutral axis depth x can be worked out by considering the strain distribution as

( )
s y
E f x d
x
87 . 0
0035 . 0
=

mm 329
0035 . 0 87 . 0
0035 . 0
=
+
=
s y
s
E f
d E
x
The lever arm z is therefore
mm 312 45 . 0 = = x d z

The balanced steel ratio
b
can be obtained from equilibrium consideration as

s y cu
A f bx f 87 . 0 402 . 0 =
( )( ) 0258 . 0 462 . 0 = = d x f f
y cu b


2
mm 2969 =
s
A

The moment capacity M is
kNm 9 . 257 87 . 0 = = z A f M
s y


(b) Section with A
s
= 2500 mm
2

The tension reinforcement ratio is
0258 . 0 0217 . 0 = < = =
b s
bd A
Therefore this section is under-reinforced and tension failure occurs.

The neutral axis depth x can be worked out from equilibrium as

s y cu
A f bx f 87 . 0 402 . 0 =
( )( ) mm 277 164 . 2 = = b A f f x
s cu y

The lever arm z is therefore
mm 335 45 . 0 = = x d z

26
The moment capacity M is
kNm 2 . 233 87 . 0 = = z A f M
s y


(c) Section with A
s
= 5160 mm
2

The tension reinforcement ratio is
0258 . 0 0449 . 0 = > = =
b s
bd A
Therefore this section is over-reinforced and compression failure occurs.

The neutral axis depth x can be worked out from equilibrium as

s s cu
A E
x
x d
bx f
|
.
|

\
|

= 0035 . 0 402 . 0
( ) 0 0035 . 0 402 . 0
2
= + d x A E bx f
s s cu

0 10 66 . 1 3612000 5 . 2512
9 2
= + x x
mm 367 = x

The lever arm z is
mm 295 45 . 0 = = x d z

The moment capacity M is based on compression in concrete, namely
kNm 8 . 273 ) ( 9 . 0
2
= = z dz b f M
cu


The steel strain is checked to make sure that it has indeed not yielded

s s cu
A f bx f = 402 . 0
( ) 001392 . 0 87 . 0 000892 . 0
402 . 0
= < = = =
s y
s s
cu
s
s
s
E f
A E
bx f
E
f
O.K.

The following graph shows the relationship between moment capacity and the amount of
tension reinforcement.
Variation of moment capacity with amount of
tension reinforcement
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Tension reinforcement ratio

M
o
m
e
n
t

c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

(
k
N
m

27
Example 3: A doubly reinforced rectangular section with different concrete grades
A rectangular beam has a breadth of 280 mm and an effective depth to tension reinforcement
of 510 mm. The depth to compression reinforcement is 50 mm. The areas of tension and
compression reinforcement are 2580 mm
2
and 650 mm
2
respectively. The steel reinforcement
has a modulus of elasticity of 200,000 MPa and a yield strength of 330 MPa. Calculate the
moment capacity if the concrete has a characteristic strength of (a) 35MPa ( 0035 . 0 =
cu
,
d x 5 . 0 and x s 9 . 0 = ); and (b) 70MPa ( 0033 . 0 =
cu
, d x 4 . 0 and x s 8 . 0 = ).

Design data:
b = 280 mm
d = 510 mm (depth to tension reinft.)
d' = 50 mm (depth to compression reinft.)
A
s
= 2580 mm
2

A'
s
= 650 mm
2

f
y
= 330 MPa
E
s
= 200000 MPa

(a) Concrete cube strength f
cu
= 35 MPa
Assuming that all reinforcement reaches design yield stresses, the forces acting on the section
are
N 6 . 3939 402 . 0 x bx f C
cu c
= =
N 186615 87 . 0 = =
s y s
A f C
N 740718 87 . 0 = =
s y
A f T

Consider the equilibrium of forces
T C C
s c
= +
740718 186615 6 . 3939 = + x
mm 141 = x

Check steel strains:
001436 . 0 87 . 0 002259 . 0 0035 . 0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= > =
|
.
|

\
|

=
s
y
y s
E
f
x
d x

Therefore the compression steel has yielded.
001436 . 0 87 . 0 009160 . 0 0035 . 0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= > =
|
.
|

\
|
=
s
y
y s
E
f
x
x d

Therefore the tension steel has also yielded. The previous assumptions are valid.

The moment capacity M is
( ) ( ) kNm 9 . 333 87 . 0 45 . 0 402 . 0 = + = d d A f x d bx f M
s y cu


28
(b) Concrete cube strength f
cu
= 70 MPa
Assuming that all reinforcement reaches design yield stresses, the forces acting on the section
are
N 7 . 7003 3573 . 0 ) 8 . 0 )( 5 . 1 / 67 . 0 ( x bx f bx f C
cu cu c
= = =
N 186615 87 . 0 = =
s y s
A f C
N 740718 87 . 0 = =
s y
A f T

Consider the equilibrium of forces:
T C C
s c
= +
740718 186615 7 . 7003 = + x
mm 79 = x

Check steel strains:
001436 . 0 87 . 0 001211 . 0 0033 . 0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= < =
|
.
|

\
|

=
s
y
y s
E
f
x
d x

Therefore the compression steel has NOT yielded.
001436 . 0 87 . 0 018004 . 0 0033 . 0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= > =
|
.
|

\
|
=
s
y
y s
E
f
x
x d

Therefore the tension steel has yielded. The previous assumptions have to be amended.

The steel compressive force C
s
and neutral axis depth x are updated assuming that the
compression steel remains elastic.

x x
d x
E A E A C
s s s s s s
7
10 145 . 2
429000 ) 0033 . 0 (

=
|
.
|

\
|

= =
N 7 . 7003 x C
c
=
N 740718 = T
T C C
s c
= +
0 10 145 . 2 311718 7 . 7003
7 2
= x x
mm 82 = x

Check steel strains:
001436 . 0 87 . 0 001288 . 0 0033 . 0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= < =
|
.
|

\
|

=
s
y
y s
E
f
x
d x

Therefore the compression steel has NOT yielded.
001436 . 0 87 . 0 017224 . 0 0033 . 0 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= > =
|
.
|

\
|
=
s
y
y s
E
f
x
x d

Therefore the tension steel has yielded. The revised assumptions are valid.

The moment capacity M is
( ) ( ) kNm 1 . 351 4 . 0 3573 . 0 = + = d d A E x d bx f M
s s s cu

29
Example 4: Design of a reinforced rectangular slab
Design an R.C. slab to span between two 230 mm brick walls 4.5 m apart c/c to carry a live
load of 3.0 kN/m
2
. Assume the floor finishes and ceiling loads to weigh 1.0 kN/m
2
. The
characteristic material strengths are f
cu
= 30 MPa, f
y
= 460 MPa (high-yield steel) and f
y
= 250
MPa (mild steel). Take the basic span-effective depth ratio as 20. Try the following two
cases: (a) using high-yield steel; and (b) using mild steel.










Design data:
Span L = 4500 mm
Wall thickness t = 230 mm
Breadth b = 1000 mm
Basic span / effective depth ratio = 20
f
cu
= 30 MPa
f
y
= 460 MPa (high-yield steel)
f
y
= 250 MPa (mild steel)
Cover = 25 mm (for mild exposure)
Density of R.C. = 24 kN/m
3

Floor finishes & ceiling loads = 1.0 kN/m
2

Live load = 3.0 kN/m
2


(a) Using high yield steel
Assume modification factor (m.f.) = 1.3
Minimum effective depth d = span / (20 m.f.) = 173 mm
Try effective depth d = 180 mm
Assume bar diameter = 10 mm
Overall depth of slab h = effective depth + bar diameter / 2 + cover
= 210 mm
Self-weight of slab = overall depth density = 5.04 kN/m
2


Total dead load G
k
= 6.04 kN/m
2

Live load Q
k
= 3.0 kN/m
2

Ultimate load w = 1.4 G
k
+ 1.6 Q
k

= 13.26 kN/m
2


For unit width of slab,
M = wL
2
/ 8
= 33.55 kNm


4500 mm
Main reinforcement
Secondary reinforcement
Cross section of a slab

30
Span / effective depth ratio:
MPa 04 . 1
2
= bd M
Assume design service stress f
s
= 460 2/3 = 307 MPa
Modification factor

( )
0 . 2 28 . 1
9 . 0 120
477
55 . 0
2
< =
+

+ =
bd M
f
s

Limiting span / effective depth ratio = 20 1.28 = 25.6
Actual span / effective depth ratio = 4500 / 180 = 25.0 < 25.6 O.K.

The K factor is
156 . 0 035 . 0
2
< = = bd f M K
cu

Therefore compression steel is not required.

The lever arm z is then determined:
960 . 0 9 . 0 25 . 0 5 . 0 = + = K d z > 0.95
Take 95 . 0 = d z
mm 171 = z

The area of tension reinforcement A
s
is
m / mm 490
87 . 0
2
= =
z f
M
A
y
s


Provide T10 at 150mm centres
A
s prov
= 524 mm
2
/m O.K.

The next step is to check for shear. At the face of support, the shear force V and shear stress v
are worked out as follows.
( ) kN 3 . 28 2 = = t L w V
MPa 38 . 4 8 . 0 157 . 0 = < = =
cu v
f d b V v
291 . 0
180 1000
524 100 100
=

=
d b
A
v
s

1 22 . 2
180
400 400
= =
d

( ) 80 20 . 1
25
30
25
= =
cu
cu
f
f

25 . 1 =
m


( ) ( ) ( )
MPa 157 . 0 MPa 543 . 0
25 . 1
1
20 . 1 22 . 2 291 . 0 79 . 0
1
25
400 100
79 . 0
3 / 1 4 / 1 3 / 1
3 / 1 4 / 1
3 / 1
= > =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
f
d d b
A
v
m
cu
v
s
c

Therefore no shear reinforcement is required.

31
The required amount of distribution steel is then determined.
Area of transverse high yield steel reinforcement = 0.13 bh / 100 = 273 mm
2
/m
Provide T10 at 250 mm centres, A
s prov
= 314 mm
2
/m O.K.

(b) Using mild steel
Assume modification factor (m.f.) = 1.7
Minimum effective depth d = span / (20 m.f.) = 132 mm
Try overall depth of slab h = 180 mm
Assume bar diameter = 12 mm
Effective depth d = overall depth of slab cover bar diameter / 2
= 180 25 12 / 2
= 149 mm O.K.
Self-weight of slab = overall depth density = 4.32 kN/m
2


Total dead load G
k
= 5.32 kN/m
2

Live load Q
k
= 3.0 kN/m
2

Ultimate load w = 1.4 G
k
+ 1.6 Q
k

= 12.25 kN/m
2


For unit width of slab,
M = wL
2
/ 8
= 31.01 kNm

Span / effective depth ratio:
MPa 40 . 1
2
= bd M
Assume design service stress f
s
= 250 2/3 = 167 MPa
Modification factor

( )
0 . 2 67 . 1
9 . 0 120
477
55 . 0
2
< =
+

+ =
bd M
f
s

Limiting span-effective depth ratio = 20 1.67 = 33.4
Actual span-effective depth ratio = 4500 / 149 = 30.2 < 33.4 O.K.

The K factor is
156 . 0 047 . 0
2
< = = bd f M K
cu

Therefore compression steel is not required.

The lever arm z is then determined:
945 . 0 9 . 0 25 . 0 5 . 0 = + = K d z
mm 141 = z

The area of tension reinforcement A
s
is
m / mm 1011
87 . 0
2
= =
z f
M
A
y
s


Provide R12 at 100mm centres
A
s prov
= 1131 mm
2
/m O.K.

32
Re-check modification factor using the updated service stress in the tension reinforcement f
s
:
( )( )
b prov s req s y s
A A f f 1
3
2
= where 1 =
b

MPa 0 . 149 =
s
f

( )
0 . 2 74 . 1
9 . 0 120
477
55 . 0 . .
2
< =
+

+ =
bd M
f
f m
s

Revised limiting span-effective depth ratio = 20 1.74 = 34.8 > 30.2 O.K.

At the face of support, the shear force V and shear stress v are worked out as follows.
( ) kN 2 . 26 2 = = t L w V
MPa 38 . 4 8 . 0 176 . 0 = < = =
cu v
f d b V v
759 . 0
149 1000
1131 100 100
=

=
d b
A
v
s

1 68 . 2
149
400 400
= =
d

( ) 80 20 . 1
25
30
25
= =
cu
cu
f
f

25 . 1 =
m


( ) ( ) ( )
MPa 176 . 0 MPa 784 . 0
25 . 1
1
20 . 1 68 . 2 759 . 0 79 . 0
1
25
400 100
79 . 0
3 / 1 4 / 1 3 / 1
3 / 1 4 / 1
3 / 1
= > =
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
f
d d b
A
v
m
cu
v
s
c

Therefore no shear reinforcement is required.

The required amount of distribution steel is then determined.
Area of transverse mild steel reinforcement = 0.24 bh / 100 = 432 mm
2
/m
Provide R10 at 150 mm centres, A
s prov
= 524 mm
2
/m O.K.