Ecosystem Management Plan

Sandilands Provincial Forest Management

Jennifer Bruneau Jordan Hanna Michael Hockett Rebecca Wroblewski

TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY & ROLES INTRODUCTION Goals & objectives PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SANDILANDS PROVINCIAL FOREST ECOLOGY ECOLOGICAL RESERVES AND PEST MANAGEMENT GOALS AND OBJECTIVES ECOLOGICAL RESERVES PEST MANAGEMENT ECOLOGY INDICATOR SPECIES Goals and Objectives Indicator Species Citizen Science Benefits of Indicator Species and Citizen Science The Use of Citizen Science to Monitor Invasive Species Implementation FORESTRY SUSTAINABILITY & ECONOMIC IMPACT Timber Harvesting Regeneration & Renewal Sustainability Certification STAKEHOLDER, COMMUNITY & ABORIGINAL INVOLVEMENT 15 16 17 18 10 10 12 12 13 14 14 6 6 7 10 4 5 6 3 4

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY & ROLES

Jordan Hanna is responsible for addressing economic issues associated with the Sandilands Forest, specifically the forestry industry and how to establish woodlot programs for surrounding communities in a sustainable, manageable manner. With proper selective and small-patch cutting, forest management can be done in a way that not only preserves biodiversity, but also boosts productivity and maintains the aesthetic qualities of the forest. Replanting standards and trends are also covered, with a management goal of reaching 72% replanting by 2025, so that growth can take place promptly. Proper harvesting and renewal processes are legitimized by certification standards by the SFI program, as well as collaboration with the MFA and surrounding communities through consultation. In this way, forestry can have a positive social, economic and environmental impact. Michael Hockett is responsible for the discussion on invasive species and citizen science programs. Creating better understanding and additional research of the Sandilands Forest allows for indicator species to be used in a way that dictates health and direction of the ecosystem. Indicator species are also useful for management because it allows for steps to be taken allowing mitigation of environmental harm rather than have difficult or irreversible changes. The addition of citizen science not only procures this research, but also allows for communities, students and academics to be involved in Sandilands. Citizen science additionally can help steer management decision-making with concerns to environmental health of the forest, by having a large body of research to determine proper assessments of ecosystem productivity. Jennifer Bruneau is responsible for addressing the issue of the maintenance and integrity of the three ecological reserves within the forest as well as that of pests specific to the tree ecology of Sandilands Provincial forest. The ecological reserves represent an opportunity to maintain and potentially increase biodiversity in the forest by extending the protected area boundaries. In addressing and managing pest issues, the quality, quantity, and viability of timber production and replanting programs in the forest will be increased. Rebecca Wroblewski is responsible for the discussion on stakeholders, community, and Aboriginal involvement. In order to create an ecosystem management plan for the Sandilands Provincial Forest, it is important to consider the goals and objectives of those who are most connected to the area. By consulting with stakeholders, the local community, and nearby Aboriginal communities, it is believed that a plan that encompasses all necessary knowledge can be created and implemented. The inclusion of all stakeholders will be accomplished by the creation of a local advisory group that includes members of government, industry, and the public and local Aboriginal communities. The local advisory group will be responsible for identifying key objectives and methods for sustaining the provincial forest, as well as incorporating traditional local and aboriginal knowledge as it pertains to the planning area. It is hoped that through effective involvement, the outcomes of the ecosystem management plan will benefit all respective parties ecologically, socially, and economically.

INTRODUCTION
Sandilands Provincial Forest is located in the southeastern portion of Manitoba, bordering onto Ontario. This 3,000km2 forest is home a diverse profile of hardwood and softwood trees, delicate indicator species, ecological reserves and the site of recreational use year-round. While no existing management plan is established for the region, management steps can be taken to ensure the forest maintains its health, aesthetics, and research potential and recreational use for the public. In addition to creating a management plan, woodlot establishment for forest harvest falls under management, and as such must go through rigorous assessment and certification to become a sustainable enterprise for communities. Furthermore, providing additional research at the hands of citizen-backed science programs and using them to assess environmental health through indicator species plays a large role in management and in public involvement. Public involvement, governing bodies such as the MFA and SFI and consultation with surrounding first nations are integral to moving forward with the Sandilands Provincial Forest management plan.

GOALS & OBJECTIVES

Promote a sustainable forestry program with surrounding communities. Improve replanting to a rate of 72% renewal by 2025. Utilize student-based citizen science as a means of providing ecological research of the region. Within the first year of implementation, goals of starting collaboration with Nature North and Manitoba Conservation to better develop a species atlas of Manitoba. To extend existing boundaries and monitoring of ecological reserves in the forest Reduce pest issues associated with species concerning timber Establish advisory group with volunteers to aid in sustaining health and recreation of the forest Increase Aboriginal involvement and economic benefit with timber harvest

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SANDILANDS PROVINCIAL FOREST

Sandilands Provincial forest is contained in the Lake of the Woods eco-region, which is contained in the Boreal Shield eco-zone. The area is bordered by and contains a portion of several distinct vegetational zones. As an extension of the Great Lakes- St. Lawrence forest, the eastern part of the forest is comprised mainly of jack pine.1 The forest contains extensive swamp areas, which are favourable to the growth of black spruce, tamarack, cedar, willow, and alder. Inland from rivers within the forest are large areas of balsam poplar, white spruce, balsam fir, and scatterings of tamarack while on riverbanks, white elm, basswood, maple, bur oak, and trembling aspen can be found.2 Physiographically, Sandilands forest can be broken down into two broad regions: the Bedford Hills (or upland) and the River Lowlands (or lowlands). The Whitemouth Lake Plateau separates these two regions. Jack pine populations with dry soils largely dominate both the upland and plateau physiographic regions. In the lowland areas, soils are moister with populations of poplar, spruce, Balsam fir, and willow.3 In reference to the climate of the region, it is more closely identified with the warmer, more humid southeastern mixed forest region than with the colder and drier mixed boreal forest to the north. This climate is marked by short, warm summers and long, cold winters. Precipitation varies highly from year to year giving the climate a classification of sub-humid to humid.4 Due to extensive peatlands in the region, the soils are primarily poorly drained soil types. Subsequently, agricultural practice is limited; this is also due to dense sub-soils and poor structure of clay soils, poor nutrient retention and water-holding capacity, coarse fragments, and the coarse surface texture of till soils.5 Additionally, the organic soils of the region have poor natural drainage and are slow to warm. These limitations on agriculture mean that the primary economic uses of natural resources in the area are pulpwood extraction and the associated paper industry as well as local saw-log industry.6

ECOLOGY ECOLOGICAL RESERVES AND PEST MANAGEMENT

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
The goal of increasing the ecological integrity of Sandilands Provincial forest can be divided into two separate goals. The first is to maintain the ecological integrity and potentially extend the boundaries of the three ecological reserves within the forest. In achieving the former, the reserves can continue to be used for the purpose of scientific research; this also ties into the educational goals of the ecosystem management plan. To achieve the latter, protected area proposals would have to be made, followed by review within the environmental, social, and economic sectors of the region. This process can take many years and thus falls under the category of a long-term goal for the plan. The second separate goal for increasing ecological integrity in the forest is to reduce pest issues. A number of pest issues exist within the forest that impact its health. The three that will be focused on are Jack Pine Budworm, Eastern Larch Beetle, and Dwarf Mistletoe. Other pest issues exist in southeastern Manitoba; however, these three appear to have the greatest impact on the tree ecology specific to Sandilands Provincial forest.

ECOLOGICAL RESERVES
The first ecological goal of the ecosystem management plan is to maintain and potentially extend the boundaries of the three ecological reserves in the forest (Wampum, Whitemouth Island, and Pocock Lake). An ecological reserve may only be established on Crown land and is intended to preserve unique and rare biological or geological features. They are set aside specifically for ecosystem and bio-diversity preservation, research, education, and nature study.7 Though parts of Sandilands forest may be used for recreation or resource harvesting, these activities cannot occur within the ecological reserves. Under the Ecological Reserves Act, permission must be granted by the Minister of Conservation to use the reserves for research or nature study.8 The ecosystem management plan proposes to first encourage the use of these protected areas for scientific research by students, and second to potentially extend their boundaries. This second proposal is a long-term goal and involves proposals to Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship. The review process for extension of these boundaries is led by Manitoba Conservation and involves extensive consultation with First Nations communities, the mining and energy industry, and the forestry industry as well as other stakeholders like residents and other conservation organizations.9 Since the soil type in the region limits agricultural practice, those practicing agriculture will be considered tertiary stakeholders in the achievement of this goal. 6

PEST MANAGEMENT
The first pest issue to be addressed is the Jack Pine Budworm (Choristoneura pinus pinus). This is a destructive insect that occurs in central Canada; it prefers jack pine but may also attack red pine and black spruce if they grow with the jack pine.10 In light and moderate infestations of the insect, only partial loss of the foliage, within the top part of the tree, will occur. However, in the case of an epidemic, much of the current foliage will be destroyed. After two to three years of severe defoliation, the trees may die. In the form of damage, reduced tree health and substantial growth loss can occur making the trees susceptible to secondary diseases and insects.11 An outbreak of Jack Pine Budworm can last two to four years. A population collapse will result from a reduction in pollen cone production following a period of sustained severe defoliation; the pollen is a necessary food source for young larvae. If this population collapse does not occur naturally, like in the situation described above, insecticide application may become necessary in order to prevent against things like timber loss.12 A loss such as this would be significant to the ecosystem management plan since softwood timber harvesting is an important source of funding for the Sandilands forest centre. Currently, the insecticides being used to treat the problem of Jack Pine Budworm when it reaches epidemic levels are Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies, kurstaki (a bacterial insecticide, commonly referred to as Btk) and tebufenozide (or Mimic).13 Btk is a bacterium found naturally in soils that produces a protein crystal during the spore-forming stage of its life cycle, which is toxic only to the larvae of caterpillars. For the toxins to be activated the alkaline conditions of the insects digestive system must exist and since these do not exist outside of the specific insect group that the jack pine budworm belongs to, Btk is not toxic to humans and mammals.14 Conversely, tebufenozide (or Mimic) has been shown to have moderate to high toxicity to certain aquatic species as well as certain planktonic crustaceans.15 As these organisms are obviously important components of the ecosystem, it is proposed for the ecosystem management plan that the use of Mimic be discontinued in Sandilands forest. Instead, an increase in the spraying of Btk will be performed to treat the problem of Jack Pine Budworm. The second pest issue to be addressed is that of Dwarf Mistletoes. These are parasitic plants that infect coniferous trees; there are two species that exist in Manitoba. The first is eastern dwarf mistletoe, which affects black spruce, white spruce, and to a lesser extent, tamarack larch. The second is lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe, which is a parasite of jack pine.16 All of these affected tree species are widespread through Sandilands forest. Dwarf Mistletoe develops and spreads quite slowly; this development extends over a five to six year cycle. A couple of initial signs (typically visible in the second year of the life cycle) are swellings and abnormal growth of infected branches called witches brooms as well as aerial shoots (visible in the third year) of the dwarf mistletoe plant protruding from the infected branches.17 18This plant will remove nutrients from the tree, starving it; eventually the portion of the branch growing beyond the point of infection will die. Additionally, the witches brooms are heavy and can break off, leaving the tree 7

susceptible to other diseases.19 Lastly, a major issue with the Dwarf Mistletoe plant occurs in the fourth and fifth year of its life cycle which is when it begins pollination, fertilization, and flowering and subsequently seeds are spread to other host trees nearby.20 In relation to the ecosystem management plan, dwarf mistletoe causes extensive damage in the form of a reduction in both the quantity and quality of timber as well as a reduction in the quality and viability of seed produced by the infected trees.21 This has a significant impact on replanting programs and timber harvesting in the forest. Additionally, dead and dying trees are potential fire hazards as well as safety hazards in regards to recreation use.22

Goal & Objective 1. Maintain ecological integrity and potentially extend the boundaries of the three ecological reserves in the forest

Method Encourage use of ecological reserves for the purpose of research on ecosystems and biodiversity Make proposals to Manitoba Conservation to extend boundaries of the reserves (area is currently recognized as a priority area for the next few years)

Implementation/monitoring Use of reserves must be done with permission given by the Manitoba Minister of Conservation; any person(s) hoping to carry out research or nature studies will have to attain this permission Work closely with Manitoba Conservation Protected Areas Initiative to ensure that recognition of Sandilands as a priority area continues After a three year period, tests will be performed to check for a year-to-year decline in budworm populations These will be managed by regularly checking trails for fallen trees after high winds or heavy snowfall Selective cutting will occur at the same time as unaffected areas This will occur annually in the spring when the plant becomes visible (second year of life cycle) Work with Manitoba Conservation to control burn areas that are infected with Dwarf Mistletoe and are beyond use as timber (too degraded) Harvesting of tamarack trees will occur annually before spring Put up signs reminding residents to debark and store firewood that is possibly infected away from potential host trees

2. Reduce certain pest issues in the forest in order to maintain the health and integrity of the trees in forest, specifically those used for timber harvesting

For Jack Pine Budworm, the insecticide Btk will be sprayed on a yearly basis in the spring (when the caterpillars are in their larval stage) Dwarf Mistletoe Manage dead and dying trees that are a safety hazard in regards to recreational use of trails in the forest Areas of the forest that are affected and are commercially viable will be selectively cut For areas that are environmentally sensitive (ecological reserves) pruning will be performed For areas that are neither environmentally sensitive or commercially viable, and when the plant is in the later stages of its life cycle, controlled burning will be performed to prevent the spread of seeds to other host trees Forest stands infected with Eastern Larch Beetle will be harvested Encourage residents to debark stored firewood

Currently, dwarf mistletoe is being managed by cutting down both host trees that are commercially desirable and undesirable. Thus, host trees can still potentially be used as timber.23 Fire is the most effective method of killing dwarf mistletoe; however, natural fires typically leave infected trees behind. These trees can be removed either mechanically or through the use of herbicides. Lightly infected trees can have the infected branches removed.24 In terms of how this ecosystem management plan proposes to reduce the issue of dwarf mistletoe, three different methods will be used. In areas where timber production is most important, clear-cutting is the method that will be used as trees affected by dwarf mistletoe are still viable to be used as timber. In the ecological reserve areas, pruning is the method that will be used since these areas are environmentally sensitive. The last method proposed is prescribed burning. This will be performed in areas that are neither environmentally sensitive nor productive in terms of timber. This method is the best way to prevent heavily infected stands from spreading into these areas.25 The last pest issue to be addressed is the eastern larch beetle. This beetle is typically a secondary pest, burrowing into the bark of tamarack trees that are already impacted by age, defoliation, drought, fire, or flooding. However, during an infestation, healthy tamarack trees can be affected as well. Infested trees will typically die within two years but under heavy attack they can die within a year.26 In Sandilands Provincial forest, tamarack trees are either harvested for timber production or are used as firewood. In the case of the former, infected forest stands should be harvested and utilized promptly before the emergence of the adult beetles in the spring. In the case of the latter, eastern larch beetles will also breed in stored firewood.27 Thus, the plan is to encourage residents of the forest to debark stored firewood if it is being stored in proximity to healthy stands of tamarack.

MOUNTAIN PINE BEETLE According to recent information, the Mountain Pine Beetle is poised to have a heavy impact on boreal forests in Manitoba and across eastern Canada. While typically this pest only affects lodgepole pine, it has already spread into stands of jack pine in regions west of Manitoba (such as Alberta).28 Since jack pine makes up a significant portion of Sandilands forest, any impact on this species could result in significant timber volume loss and the possibility of site conversion to other species of trees that are not commercially desirable. Additionally, the ecological balance of the forest would be significantly altered if such a widespread species like jack pine were to be destroyed.29 Thus, part of the ecosystem management plan will be considering a defence against this insect if or when it spreads into Manitoba. Preventative measures used against Mountain Pine Beetle include the spraying of pesticides and insecticides; however, it has been found that these substances are toxic to humans and/or wildlife species. Thus, a future goal of this ecosystem
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management plant will be to research and/or develop a preventative measure against this insect that has little to no impact on humans and wildlife.30

ECOLOGY INDICATOR SPECIES

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
The goals and objectives of within this section is to develop a plan of action to enhance the protection, as well as improve community involvement, of the Sandilands region in the south eastern part of Manitoba boarding Ontario. Through the use of citizen science and indicator species, a cost effective means of monitoring the health of the Sandilands region can be developed; all of which while reaching out to the public to get better sense of community commitment to the sustainability of the Sandilands region. Within the first year of implementation, the goal is to start collaborating with Nature North and Manitoba Conservation to better develop a species atlas of Manitoba. Currently, the Sandilands region has very little information on the biodiversity of the region. The hope is that through community science, over the next five years, the use of the park will go up and that the local communities will start to feel more connected to the Sandilands region. By getting the community more involved, they can serve as means to help keep an eye out for invasive species such as the dwarf mistletoe.31

INDICATOR SPECIES
Indicator species are defined as organisms in which its presence, absence or abundance is related to a specific environmental condition. Indicator species can indicate an alteration in the biological health of a particular ecosystem and as a result can be used as a proxy/means to assess the health of an ecosystem. An example of an indicator species would be plants or lichens, which are sensitive to heavy metals or acids in precipitation which can be seen as indicators of air pollution. Indicator species can be reflective of a unique set of environmental qualities and characteristics found in a specific area, such as hot spring that holds an endemic species of snail.32 Care should be used when using indicator species, it is best to not judge the health of an ecosystem based solely on the response of a single indicator species. Basing the health of an ecosystem on the response of a single indicator species can be seen similar to prescribing a treatment for a patient based on outward appearance without running further examinations such as pulse and past history of the patients medical history.33 Indicator species represent an appealing research and monitoring tool for many organizations mostly due to cost efficiency.34 Conservation practitioners could use indicator species as a proxy for general biodiversity and monitoring outcomes of management practices by recording the fluctuation of the indicator species population within a region. Such practices have been used and are still in use in many 10

parks across Canada, such as Tall Grass Prairie Preserve.35 A well-known example of the use of indicator species is the spotted owl as an indicator of old growth habitat in the Pacific North West region of North America. The spotted owl was at the heart of the timber industry verses environmentalist controversy over old growth forests in Oregon and Washington, USA.2 It was believed that the spotted owl habitat was restricted to mature forests that contained big, tall trees and standing dead wood (It is now known that the spotted owl habitat is less restricted than previously thought).36 Indicator species are useful as a management instrument and can help to indicate the status of an environmental condition, find disease outbreaks, monitor pollution, monitor climate change, and describe and indicate an Eco-region. Indicator species can be used as an early warning system by biologists and conservationists. Indicator species need to be thoroughly studied to show what they indicate, what they correlate with and how the species fits into the ecosystem.37 The concept of indicator species is being better developed and more refined all the time on an international scale, which has been shown to be stringent work. The presence, absence or the abundance of the indicator species is to be linked to an environmental condition in a scholarly and scientific sound manner to be approved as a conservation practitioners proxy, for correlation does not equal causation.38 An example of this would be that for a while the world-wide decline in frogs was believed to be an indication of global warming; it is now known that the decline is the result of many factors that vary locally and it is unclear the role that climate change plays in their declining population. Plant and animal species have been used for decades as indicators of atmospheric change, water quality/hydrology, agricultural conditions and environmental range conditions.39 More recently, an increasing trend has been the use of vertebrates to assess population trends and habitat quality for other species.40 Papers from recent years have been published on the conceptual bases, assumption, and published guidelines for selection and use of vertebrates as ecological indicators. Papers such as Ecological Uses of Vertebrate Indicator Species: A Critique, suggest that an absence of precise definitions and procedures (scientific method), confounded the criteria used to select species, and disagreement with ecological literature sternly weakened the usefulness and integrity of using vertebrates as ecological indicators.4 Unfortunately, the use of indicator species in many cases are not properly used, as such above paper documents.41 Therefore, following these eight steps below will lead to better use of indicator species. The first step is to clearly state assessment goals. The second step is to use indicators in conjunction with other tools/methods. The third step is choosing indicator species by clearly defined criteria that are in agreement with assessment goals.42 The fourth step, include all species that fulfill stated criteria. The fifth step, the biology of the indicator species should be known in detail, and to treat the indicator as a formal estimator in theoretical and statistical models. The sixth step, identify and define sources of bias when selecting, monitoring and interpreting indicator species. The seventh step, submit assessment design, methods of data 11

collection and statistical analysis, interpretations and recommendations to be peer reviewed.43 The final step, the eighth step, use direct research to develop a complete approach for observing wildlife that accounts for natural variability in populace characteristics and integrates concepts from landscape ecology. The complexity of ecosystems and the diversity of organisms prohibit the monitoring and inventory of such protected areas.44 However, monitoring and inventories on species are needed to manage ecosystems for long-term perseverance. A method to achieve long term ecosystem management is to focus on monitoring indicator species, one of the main issues is based on ordination methods for the indicator properties of a group of organisms and for deciding an indicator species subset for more intensive observation.45 The use of ordination permits the inclusion of many more taxa (related species) used for monitoring natural areas, and need not rely on detailed knowledge of species biology. Examining the environmental correlations of the distribution of species groupings, the procedure can be used to assess the indicator properties of the target species group.

CITIZEN SCIENCE
Citizen based conservation, also known as citizen science, is established upon the idea that conservation and development can both be attained, keeping both the interests of public development and conservation interests attained.46 Citizen science directly involves the public volunteering to help with research. Citizen Scientists can support research in many ways, such as collecting and submitting data like done in Riding Mountain National Park.47 In the past, this concept has been controversial for the objectives of community development are not always in agreement with conservation objectives.48 Citizen based science can be seen as a positive change of thought for ecology and applied ecology. Some studies have claimed that three conceptual shifts are occurring from citizen science: conceptual shifts towards a systemic view, toward the inclusion of people in ecosystems and toward participatory approaches in ecosystem management. These three changes are interrelated and refer to an understanding of ecosystems as complicated and adaptive systems in which people have become an integral part of. The feasibility of citizen science has been looked at by a number of emerging interdisciplinary fields. Such fields include: traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), political ecology, environmental ethics, common property and environmental history all of which provide insight for citizen science.49 These different fields are leading to the development of interdisciplinary conservation science with a refined understanding of social-ecological interactions. What has been learned from studies previously done is that this subject involves the importance of cross-scale conservation (collaborating with others), adaptive co-management, the use of traditional ecological knowledge development of cross-cultural conservation ethics (work with First Nations) and use of incentives with multiple stakeholders.

BENEFITS OF INDICATOR SPECIES AND CITIZEN SCIENCE

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Indicator species represents a relatively cost efficient means in which citizen science can help monitor the health and condition of the plants, animals, soils, air and water systems in Sandilands Provincial Park.50 Manitoba Conservation has considered reptiles and amphibians as indicator species for environmental health.51 As small, non-migratory animals their populations can be rapidly impacted by human alterations to their habitats.9 Pollution, habitat loss and climate change can affect the entire population as well as locally isolated populations.52 Such an example is ambystoma laterale (blue spotted salamander) which requires clean bodies of calm water with an abundance of insects.53 Other species can be used and have been used, such as dragonflies as well as the presence of clams and crayfish to monitor water systems.54 Nature North has already begun work in this subject area by working on the development of Manitoba Herps Atlas which is an atlas of reptiles and amphibians of Manitoba, documenting there biology, range and give information as to what they indicate for within an ecosystem. This can save both time and money in setting up a monitoring system for the Sandilands Provincial Park. Currently many of the provincial and national parks across Canada are using indicator species in conjunction with citizen science to preserve and protect the biological integrity of the regions.55 Such examples of using indicator species in conjunction with citizen science can be seen at Riding Mountain National Park, which currently uses citizens to help with field research.56 The field research that was done by citizens in Riding Mountain National Park include collecting crayfish in the lakes with a park employee to document what has been found. Riding Mountain National Park staff had said citizen science is done for with the help of citizen science programs they can cover a lot more grounds in a shorter amount of time, all of which while reducing the amount of employees needed to be paid to conduct the research alone as well as alleviate some of the pressure from being understaffed.57 Another example within Manitoba is the Tall Grass Prairie Reserve and their use of dragonflies, which stems from the Manitoba Dragonfly Survey. The Manitoba Dragonfly Survey is a project run by the Manitoba Wildlife Branch in collaboration with Nature North.58 The Dragonfly Survey is a citizen science program, where citizens that are interested receive information about species in the province and how to collect them. The reasons for the Dragonfly Survey is that dragonflies spend a large portion of their life cycle in water and are considered excellent indicators of environmental stresses such as water and air pollution. A change in the population of dragonflies in an area can indicate the general health of a lake, pond, swamp, riparian forest and surrounding ecosystems.59 The above examples show that indicator species can be used effectively and have been used effectively.

THE USE OF CITIZEN SCIENCE TO MONITOR INVASIVE SPECIES

Citizen science has been and is still used in many parts of the world to monitor invasive species.60 In the United States in a citizen science program around 1,000 volunteers assessed the presence of invasive and native crabs within the intertidal zone of seven coastal states from New Jersey to Main.61 They had 13

examined and documented crab species and gender in 52 sites across a 725 km coastal transect.62 They had shown that students in grade 3-7 had the ability to distinguish the differentiation between crab species with 95 percent accuracy, while gender was around 80 percent accuracy. They had shown that students with two or more years of university had greater accuracy and with the gender identification had 95 percent accuracy. The data collected by the citizen scientists was used to create a large-scale standardized database of the distribution and abundance of native and invasive crabs. This shows the potential use of citizen science to monitor invasive species in Sandilands region as well as the potential effectiveness of it. In Ontario, a smartphone app is being used to track invasive species in the Sudbury region such as the giant hogweed, purple loosestrife and garlic mustard.63 Staff at Science North has said that they could use the help of the general public to help manage invasive species. The Ontario Federation of Anglers and Hunter (OFAH) are developing the phone app, which is designed to take a photo the species, mark its location and automatically send the information to a database. "What we hope to do is to be able to share this information to get these early warnings, share this information with the appropriate contacts. [This would] provide the opportunity for a response." Sophie Monfette of OFAH said.64 An app such as this could be of great use to the Sandilands region and should be further explored to better protect the region.

IMPLEMENTATION The implementation of the goals and objectives of this section are to be achieved in steps. The first step is to begin communications with Nature North and Manitoba Conservation to begin working with one another to better develop a species atlas of Manitoba. This is to begin within the first year, eventually the goals of this collaboration is to develop an app that citizens can use on their phones to accurately identify the different species when visiting the Sandilands Region, including invasive species. This will be an ongoing process and will involve regular meetings for the first 2-3 years as the app is developed alongside the atlas. Once implemented, a yearly meeting should suffice to keep up on current invasive species threat. The second section of the implementation process is to begin work with the local communities through citizen science. The goal is to begin an outreach program to the local communities as well as aboriginal communities to acquire their traditional ecological knowledge. Once established in the first year or two, the plan is to hold a meeting with the locals once a year to discuss current work being done in the Sandilands region, this in return would allow the local communities to better understand what the park is trying to achieve and help make them feel more connected.

FORESTRY SUSTAINABILITY & ECONOMIC IMPACT

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Sustainability is a crucial piece in maintaining the Sandilands Provincial Forests integrity. Sustainability is a two-part definition. The first part of the definition is that the resource must be able to endure over long periods of time. Timber is a renewable resource, but it is not exempt from being overharvested or degraded through malpractice. The goal of this is to extend the resource and natural environment to subsequent generations. The second condition is that harvest of the timber within the Sandilands Forest must be benign to both humans and the surrounding natural environment.65 In order to meet these criteria, it is imperative to look to sustainable certification processes; governmental standards and monitoring checks are to ensure these conditions are met. It is the goal of the management plan to maintain forest productivity and health through replanting and monitoring of the disturbed areas and protect biodiversity in the forest. It is also in the interest of management to ensure responsible recreational use of the forest, providing services, enjoyment and preservation in a balanced equilibrium. In addressing these issues, this creates positive economic incentives for surrounding communities while also involving them in management. Additionally, through sustainable practices, an improvement of replanting averages from 54.6% currently to a minimum of 72% by 2025 will be monitored on a consistent basis to protect forest health. The primary location for harvest is the Pineland forest section of Manitoba, which is a section of the boreal shield eco-zone.66 Harvesting in Pinelands has an annual allowable cut (AAC) of hardwood and softwood at limits of 104,195m3 and 154,154m3 respectively based upon The Manitoba Forestry Associations (MFA) regulations. The Sandilands Forest is on crown land, which requires the Forestry Branch of Manitoba Conservation (FBMC) to be involved with timber harvest levels (m3/year) as well as approval of harvesting. The MFA woodlot program and subsequent management has been shown to work well for landowners and managers. The MFA acts to assess woodlot timber quality and volume on an individual woodlot basis. In 2010 alone, the MFA has played a pivotal role in establishing 43 management plans with an additional 28 follow up visit assessments completed.67 In total, they have helped establish nearly 1,300 management plans that cover over 250km3 in the southeastern part of the province.
FIGURE 1 STUDY OF ORCHIDS FOLLOWING SELECTIVE CUTTING IN SANDILANDS. HTTP://WWW.NATIVEORCHID.ORG/

TIMBER HARVESTING
It helps to look to others in search of best practices to follow when considering harvesting methods of trees. British Columbia is a prime example of this; government regulations and several sustainable certification standards are what make BCs silviculture practical and sustainable. BC forestry has a multifaceted approach to harvest, specifically using clear cutting, smaller patch cutting and selective cutting. 15

Different methods are employed in different circumstances; if moisture of soil is an issue, selective harvesting in an area is done, and if a rough terrain requires better working conditions clear or patch cutting is used.68 Table 1 shows the differences associated with both methods and the benefits and costs to both. Clear cutting in smaller patches, smaller than one hectare seem to be a good standard established by the forestry industry in BC to have a good equilibrium between being economical, safe, and maintaining environmental biodiversity and health. However, Sandilands Forest is much smaller than the resources in BC; 3000km2 is a fraction of the province. It is in the interest of both aboriginal forestry developments, the MFA and biodiversity of Sandilands to employ small-patch cutting with additional emphasis on selective harvest methods. Doing so will create income for surrounding communities through employment, create an awareness of the forest and also maintain a healthy, diverse forest.
Table 169,70 Positive Negative

Clear cutting Patch cutting

Economical Safer conditions for workers Full sunlight availability for faster regeneration Maintains biodiversity Yields high quotas and quality of timber Improved aesthetics

Reduces biodiversity Reduction in soil moisture Not aesthetically pleasing Requires more time spent in selection and removal Difficult to remove trees when in denser areas Higher $/m3 of timber costs versus clear cutting

Selective cutting Individual cutting

REGENERATION & RENEWAL

Regeneration and renewal of harvested areas are crucial to forest health. Through a mixture of patch cutting and selective cutting forest regeneration is already at an advantage; selective cutting lets genetically superior trees to spread their seeds, which then grow into the next generation of trees.71 Additionally, replanting efforts will be on a prompt basis, following harvest. Removing stumps in the ground is the approach to stump management. Stumps take up a great deal of space on the forest floor, and also can foster pests to thrive in the area, which needs to be managed. Additionally, not removing stumps can cause excess nutrient leeching, because of the nutritional demands of the stump to regenerate. In light of renewal of Sandilands Forest, Manitoba Conservation has renewal standards, in which scarification is used to allow for a 90% survival rate of 16
FIGURE 2 REPLANTING TRENDS. STATUS OF FORESTRY FIVE-YEAR REPORT BY MANITOBA CONSERVATION

softwood trees in a ten-year period. In doing this, regeneration will be at par or higher with the previous generation. This is done through planting saplings, and allowing natural regeneration to take place. The trends in Manitoba are improving harvest-to-replant ratios. Figure 2 shows this, in the 19811985 time frame, the replanting ratio was approximately 21.7%. By 2006-2010, the replanting ratio was 54.6%.72 The Sandilands management plan has a target to hit 72% replanting by 2025.

SUSTAINABILITY CERTIFICATION
Forest certification is a big step in promoting forestry in the Sandilands Forest, but also to make explicit publicly that the forest is managed in a sustainable way, and meets the standards of certification bodies such as the Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI). If woodlot programs are to be done, which also help surrounding aboriginal communities for jobs and involvement in the Forest, it is crucial that certification standards are met. Certification has many benefits: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Improves public image of woodlot procedures and products Protects forest health by employing standardized practices of harvest and replanting Consistent monitoring to ensure proper measures are taken no illegal logging Audits from third-party certification bodies Improves the profitability for woodlot owners, as certification raises the price of lumber

First step in certification is making an application to be certified. Once approved, SFI employs a team of auditors, managers, ecologists and other experts who assess socio-economic factors as well.73 This allows the team to see if the requirements of the certification are met, of which twenty objectives of sustainability are to be met. This includes such objectives as maintaining forest productivity, forest planning, protection of special sites, conservation of biodiversity and legal-regulatory compliance. Once these objectives are satisfactory to audit members, the certification process is complete. However, newly certified forests are under a 12-month probationary period, in which auditors must maintain that the forest is in compliance with SFI 2010-2014 standards.74 After this period, forests must become re-certified every three years to maintain their SFI certified status. Woodlots will have to pay a mandatory fee, which goes into SFI programs concerning sustainability, conservation and outreach programs as well. In addition to certification, its important to acknowledge that it allows for market-driven environmental guidance. This is one way in a capitalist market that producers can shift to sustainable methods while maintaining economic gains. To this end, the lumber gained from Sandilands will be fibersourced to manufacturers. This shows the manufacturer that the lumber is indeed from a sustainable forest, and thus can label their products as having this certification. Additionally, companies, and woodlot owners can apply for chain-of-custody certification. This certification allows producers, manufacturers and wood 17

yards able to make claims of how much of their wood or products come from a sustainable forest.75 This again, helps drive environmental guidance through the market place. What this does, economically speaking, is increasing demand at a particular quantity. When this happens, it drives the demand curve to the right, meaning more sustainable lumber is demanded, and because of this additional demand, the prices are also higher. This demand-curve shift is what allows for increased profitability on the side of forest managers, wood yards and manufacturers. Goal & Objective Maintain forest health after harvesting Goals & Implementation Implementation Monitor & Check up Replanting efforts in addition to monitoring disturbed areas. Increase efforts in accord with MFA and MB Conservation to conduct prompt replanting initiatives. Apply to MFA for an environmental audit and then to SFI for certification. Through recreational group stakeholders to maintain proper activities and maintenance of their trails. Three-year interval check ups to disturbed patches to ensure proper growth and the health of standing trees done through third-party audit teams such as MFA. Three-year interval audits on previously cut areas to ensure replanting has taken place. Ensure theres moderate greenup by year twelve. Reinforce SFI standards to harvest, replanting, sourcing and forest maintenance to ensure continual certification. In addition, SFI requires recertification every three years. Communicate with recreational groups and do walk-through of recreational areas to ensure no illegal harvest or damages have been sustained on a six-month interval (covers summer and winter seasons).

Increase replanting to 72% by 2025

Become SFI certified

Ensure responsible use of forest

STAKEHOLDER, COMMUNITY & ABORIGINAL INVOLVEMENT

In order to meet replanting and harvesting goals, there are several key stakeholders that will be involved in the implementation of this ecosystem management plan. Because the Sandilands Provincial Forest is provincially owned, harvesting and replanting is under the jurisdiction of the Forestry Branch of Manitoba Conservation. Working with members of the forestry branch as well as the Manitoba Forestry Association (MFA) who operate the woodlot program with local landowners, it is the objective of this ecosystem management plan to improve replanting to a rate of 72% renewal by 2025. To meet ecological goals of increasing knowledge of local species as well as the development of a citizen science program used to identify indicator species, this ecosystem management plan will work closely with Nature North, Manitoba Conservation, and local volunteers. The establishment of the local advisory 18

group should help to promote the citizen science program as well as attract volunteers that are committed to sustaining the Sandilands Provincial Forest. This endeavor could be attempted with little fiscal input on account of the use of volunteers, and it would provide a great return in research and ecological knowledge to be used in the management and decision-making processes. Other ecological goals relating to the three ecological reserves located within the Sandilands Provincial Forest will require partnership with the Protected Areas Initiative branch of Manitoba Conservation, while pest reduction issues will be dealt with mainly by Manitoba Conservation and its contracts. One of Manitoba Conservations main priorities for sustaining provincial forests is to increase comanagement, employment, and economic development opportunities for Aboriginal communities76. Because the province owns the Sandilands Provincial Forest there is a Duty to Consult with Aboriginal communities regarding activities (such as forest management) that may infringe on treaty and aboriginal rights to hunt, fish, and trap. Provincially, consultation is being recognized as an opportunity for governments and Aboriginal people to build better relationships and increase open dialog regarding forest management. There are six First Nations communities that are in close proximity to the Sandilands Provincial Forest; Roseau River Anishinabe First Nation, Shoal Lake #40 First Nation, Iskutewisakaygun #39 Independent First Nation, Big Island First Nation, Northwest Angle #37 First Nation, and the Buffalo Point First Nation Band. The involvement of these communities can take place on various levels, from sharing their traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) in the management process, identifying key sensitive areas used for harvesting, fishing, hunting etc., to opportunities for employment, co-management, and economic development in the forestry industry. Funding and other assistance for such projects could come from organizations such as the National Aboriginal Forestry Association, the Aboriginal Forestry Initiative, or the First Nations Forestry Program. As an example of how aboriginal involvement could take place in the Sandilands Provincial Forest, there are opportunities to increase aboriginal involvement through timber volume sampling partnerships. Manitoba Conservation is moving from conducting its own; to contracting out forest surveys and other operational programs that are implemented on crown lands77. Of course, this requires a rurally based workforce that is qualified to undertake tasks such as timber volume sampling, forest renewal surveys and tree planting in Manitobas provincial forests. As an example of Aboriginal involvement in this sense, the Brokenhead First Nation partnered with Manitoba Conservation and Indian and Northern Affairs Canada in 2003 to provide training for forest measurement and surveying skills in the community. The project resulted in employment opportunities for members of Aboriginal communities as well as improved forest inventory information for Manitoba Conservation which was used to support wood supply analysis, resource allocation decisions as well as future land use discussions between various government departments. Such partnerships would be beneficial in the Sandilands Provincial Forest and would help increase Aboriginal involvement in the forestry sector of Manitoba. 19

Another form of involvement is co-management, for example; The First Nations Forestry Limited Partnership (FNFLP) is a business partnership of 14 First Nations from Manitobas Interlake and east side of Lake Winnipeg region. They are dedicated to the sustainable development of timber and non-timber resources in traditional lands through environmentally appropriate, culturally relevant, socially responsible and economically viable operations78. Seeking an industry partner to develop hardwood inventory for the region, the group partnered with Ainsworth Lumber Company in 2006 on the development of an engineered wood products facility and related harvesting operations in southern Manitoba. The project was to provide to First Nations a role in decision-making, equity participation in the mill, forest management, employment, and training in all aspects of the operation. The project is yet to be completed, however it represents a viable opportunity for Aboriginal involvement in economic development and management of their traditional lands and resources. It is the hopes of this ecosystem management plan that increased involvement and connectivity to the forest industry in Manitoba will provide insight and incentive into these types of partnerships and opportunities. There are also opportunities for Aboriginal communities in the non-timber forest products industry. Most often the economic benefits of the forest are associated with the harvesting of trees for lumber and pulp but there are a variety of economic opportunities that do not involve the harvesting of trees. Using traditional knowledge; unique products such as traditional herbs and medicines, teas, body care products, decorative items, and food products (such as wild rice or mushrooms) can be harvested sustainably in the Sandilands provincial forest In addition to Aboriginal community involvement, it is the hope of this ecosystem management plan to increase involvement and connectivity to the forest among the three rural municipalities located in the provincial forest. Piney, Whitemouth and Reynolds rural municipalities will be included in the local advisory group and encouraged to share their local, historical knowledge about the area during the consultation and planning process. There are also several recreational groups that utilize the Sandilands provincial forest. The Woodridge Sandhogs ATV Club, the Sandilands Cross Country Ski Club, the Snow Riders Club of Manitoba, and local hikers and mountain bikers are some of the groups that frequent the extensive trails in the Sandilands Provincial Forest. Many of these groups collect membership fees from their members, which are then used to maintain trails and promote recreation in the area. It is important to include these groups in the management process and make sure they are aware of, and complying with the goals and processes outlined in the ecosystem management plan. It is the hopes of the ecosystem management plan that through increased involvement in the management processes of the provincial forest, that more people will be encouraged to utilize it for recreation and therefore feel committed to its long-term sustainability.

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1Stanley

G. Saylor, Prehistoric human occupation and ecology in the Sandilands Forest Reserve, southeastern Manitoba, University of Manitoba, 1975, http://hdl.handle.net/1993/6183 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 4 R. E. Smith, H. Veldhuis, G. F. Mills, R. G. Eilers, W. R . Fraser, and G.W. Lelyk, Terrestrial Ecozones, Ecoregions, and Ecodistricts of Manitoba, An Ecological Stratification of Manitobas Natural Landscapes, Agriculture and Agri -food Canada, 1998, http://sis.agr.gc.ca.cansis/publications/ecostrat/provDescriptions/mbteee/mbteee_report.pdf 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 7 Ecological Reserves, Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship, accessed November 19, 2013, http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/parks/ec_reserves/reserves.html 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid. 10 Jack Pine Budworm, Manitoba Conservation Forestry Branch, accessed November 13, 2013, http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/forestry/pdf/health/jp_budworm.pdf 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 Bti Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies israelensis, Health Canada, accessed November 13, 2013, http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/cpsspc/alt_formats/pdf/pubs/pest/_fact-fiche/bti-eng.pdf 15 Public Release Summary Tebufenozide, Mimic, Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority, accessed November 13, 2013, http://www.apvma.gov.au/registration/assessment/public/prs_tebufenozide.php 16 Dwarf Mistletoe in Conifers, Manitoba Conservation Forestry Branch, accessed November 14, 2013, http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/forestry/pdf/health/dwarf_mistletoe.pdf 17 Ibid. 18 Rory L. McIntosh, Dwarf Mistletoe: Ecology and Management, Forest Service, Saskatchewan Environment, 2004, http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca 19 Dwarf Mistletoe in Conifers, Manitoba Conservation Forestry Branch, accessed November 14, 2013, http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/forestry/pdf/health/dwarf_mistletoe.pdf. 20 Rory L. McIntosh, Dwarf Mistletoe: Ecology and Management, Forest Service, Saskatchewan Environment, 2004, http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid. 25 Rory L. McIntosh, Dwarf Mistletoe: Ecology and Management, Forest Service, Saskatchewan Environment, 2004, http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca 26 Forest Pest Fact Sheet Eastern Larch Beetle, Saskatchewan Ministry of Environment, accessed November 14, 2013, http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca 27 Ibid.
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Forest Pest Fact Sheet Mountain Pine Beetle, Saskatchewan Ministry of Environment, accessed November 14, 2013, http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca 29 Forest Pest Fact Sheet Mountain Pine Beetle, Saskatchewan Ministry of Environment, accessed November 14, 2013, http://www.environment.gov.sk.ca 30 D.A. Leatherman, I. Aguayo, and T.M. Mehall, Forest Pest Fact Sheet Mountain Pine Beetle, Colorado State University, accessed November 26, 2013, http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/insect/05528.html
Manitoba Conservation, "Dwarf Mistletoe." Accessed November 18, 2013. http://www.gov.mb.ca/conservation/forestry/pdf/health/dwarf_mistletoe.pdf. 32 McDonough Caitlin, Jaffe David, and Watzin Mary, "What Is An Indicator Species?," Encyclopedia of Earth(2009): 1, http://eol.org/info/465 (accessed November 18, 2013). 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 JoAnne Joyce, and John Morgan, "MANITOBA'S TALL-GRASS PRAIRIE CONSERVATION PROJECT," Manitoba Naturalists Society (1989): 71-74, http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=napcproceedings (accessed November 18, 2013). 36 McDonough Caitlin et al. 37 Ibid. 38 Ibid. 39 Peter Landres, Jared Verner, and Jack Thomas, "Ecological Uses of Vertebrate Indicator Species: A Critique, Conservation Biology, 2, no. 4 (1988): 316-328, 10.1111/j.1523-1739.1988.tb00195.x (accessed November 18, 2013). 40 JoAnne Joyce, John Morgan.
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Ibid. Ibid. 43 Ibid. 44 Claire Kremen, "Assessing the Indicator Properties of Species Assemblages for Natural Areas Monitoring," Ecological Applications, 2, no. 2 (1992): 203-217, http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.2307/1941776 (accessed November 18, 2013). 45 Ibid. 46 Fikret Berkes, "Rethinking Community-Based Conservation," Conservation Biology, 18, no. 3 (2004): 621-630, 10.1111/j.15231739.2004.00077.x (accessed November 18, 2013). 47 Parks Canada, "Riding Mountain National Park Citizen Science Programs." Last modified November 1, 2012. Accessed November 18, 2013. http://www.pc.gc.ca/pn-np/mb/riding/edu/edu4.aspx. 48 Fikret Berkes. 49 Ibid. 50 Grealey, Jessica. Natural Resource Solutions Inc, "Using Indicator Species to Assess Biodiversity." Last modified 2010. Accessed November 18, 2013. http://www.nrsi.on.ca/News/Biodiversity and Indicator Species/NRSI_2010 Latornell Presentation_Indicators_JEG.pdf. 51 Collicutt, Douglas. The Manitoba Herps Atlas, "Nature North." Last modified October 8, 2008. Accessed November 18, 2013. http://www.naturenorth.com/Herps/Herps_Atlas_Proposal.html. 52 Ibid. 53Nature North, "The Manitoba Herps Atlas." Accessed November 18, 2013. http://www.naturenorth.com/Herps/Manitoba_Herps_Atlas.html. 54 EPA, "Invertebrates as Indicators of Prairie Wetland Integrity." Last modified March 6, 2012. Accessed November 18, 2013. http://water.epa.gov/type/wetlands/assessment/pph2_4.cfm. 55 Nature North, "The Manitoba Dragonfly Survey." Accessed November 18, 2013. http://www.naturenorth.com/dragonfly/. 56 Parks Canada. 57 Class field trip to Riding Mountain National Park, Fall 2013, Friday, September 13, 2013 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Toerpe, Kathleen. "The Rise of Citizen Science." The Futurist, July 2013. http://www.wfs.org/futurist/2013-issues-futurist/julyaugust-2013-vol-47-no-4/rise-citizen-science (accessed November 18, 2013). 61 David Delaney, Corinne Sperling, Christiaan Adams, and Brian Leung, "Marine invasive species: validation of citizen science and implications for national monitoring networks," Springer Link, 10, no. 1 (2008): 117-128, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-007-9114-0 (accessed November 18, 2013). 62 Ibid. 63 CBC News, "'Citizen Scientists' use app to track invasive plants." Last modified July 12, 2013. Accessed November 18, 2013. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/sudbury/citizen-scientists-use-app-to-track-invasive-plants-1.1302860. 64 Ibid. 65 Mark Jaccard. Sustainable Fossil fuels The Unusual Suspect in the Quest for Clean and Enduring Energy. Cambridge Press, New York: 2005. P 12. 66 Manitoba Conservation. Five-Year Report on the Status of Forestry. 2006-2011 issue. 14. 67 Think Trees Manitoba Forestry Association. Woodlot Fact Sheets. Winnipeg, Manitoba. 2010. 68 Western Red Cedar Export Association (WRCEA). Harvesting Techniques in Environment and Sustainability. http://www.wrcea.org/environment-sustainability/harvesting-techniques.htm 69 Ibid. 70 Summerclark7387. Sustainable Forest Management. Online Blog. Accessed Nov 2013. http://summerclark7387.hubpages.com/hub/Sustainable-Forest-Management-Selective-Cutting-vs-Clear-Cutting 71 WRCEA. Harvesting Techniques. 72 Manitoba Conservation. Five-Year Report on the Status of Forestry. 2006-2011 issue. 33. 73 Sustainable Forestry Initiative. How to Certify to SFI Standards. July 2011 . www.SFIprogram.org 74 Ibid. Fiber Sourcing Requirements. 75 Ibid. Chain-Of-Custody Requirements. 76 Manitoba Conservation, Five Year Report on the Status of Forestry . Forestry Branch, Manitoba Conservation, March 2011. 77 Manitoba Conservation, Five Year Report on the Status of Forestry . Forestry Branch, Manitoba Conservation, March 2006. 78 Manitoba Conservation, Next Steps: Priorities for Sustaining Manitobas Forests . Forestry Branch, Manitoba Conservation, March 2002.
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