INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integumantary system contains the largest organ in the human body, the skin It is also com!rised o" such e#tensions o" the skin as hair and "ingernails The skin, ho$e%er, is the most im!ortant o" these The integumentary system has a %ariety o" "unctions& it may ser%e to $ater!roo", cushion and !rotect the dee!er tissues, e#crete $astes, regulate tem!erature and is the location o" rece!tors "or !ain, sensation, !ressure and tem!erature In humans the integumentary system additionally !ro%ides %itamin ' synthesis The skin is made o" three se!arate layers, each $ith its o$n !articular "unction
Epidermis This is the to! layer o" the skin made u! o" e!ithelial cells It does not contain blood %essels Its main (ob is !rotection, absor!tion o" nutrients, and homeostasis Structurally, it consists o" a keratini)ed strati"ied s*uamous e!ithelium com!rising "our ty!es o" cells+ keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and ,angerhans- cells The ma(or cell o" the e!idermis is the keratinocyte, $hich !roduces keratin .eratin is a "ibrous !rotein that aids in !rotection Millions o" dead keratinocytes rub o"" e%eryday The e!idermis contains di""erent ty!es o" cells, the most common are+ s*uamous cells $hich are "lat, scaly cells on the sur"ace o" the skin, basal cells $hich are round cells, and melanocytes $hich gi%e the skin its color The e!idermis also contains ,angerhan-s cells, $hich are "ormed in the bone marro$ and then migrate to the e!idermis They $ork in con(unction $ith other cells to "ight "oreign bodies as !art o" the body-s immune de"ense system Granstein cells !lay a similar role Melanocytes create melanin, the substance that gi%es skin its color These cells are "ound dee! in the e!idermis layer Accumulations o" melanin are !ackaged in melanosomes /membrane0bound granules1 These granules "orm a !igment shield against U2 radiation "or the keratinocyte nuclei The e!idermis itsel" is made u! o" "our to "i%e layers 3rom the lo$er to u!!er e!idermis, the layers are named+ stratum basale, stratum s!inosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum /the e#tra layer that occurs in !laces such as !alms and soles o" the "eet1, and the stratum corneum The stratum basale is the only layer ca!able o" cell di%ision, !ushing u! cells to re!lenish the outer layer in a !rocess called terminal di""erentiation The stratum corneum is the most su!er"icial layer and is made u! o" dead cells, !roteins and glycoli!ids

The !rotein keratin sti""ens e!idermal tissue to "orm "ingernails Nails gro$s "rom thin area called the nail matri#, gro$th o" nails is 4 mm !er $eek on a%erage The lunula is the crescent sha!ed area at the base o" the nail, this is a lighter colour as it mi#es $ith the matri# cells

The Dermis The dermis is the second layer o" skin, directly beneath the e!idermis Unlike the e!idermis, the dermis has its o$n blood su!!ly 5ecause o" the !resence o" this blood su!!ly, more com!le# structures are able to e#ist here S$eat glands are !resent to collect $ater and %arious $astes "rom the bloodstream, and e#crete them through !ores in the e!idermis The dermis is also the site o" hair roots, and it is here $here the gro$th o" hair takes !lace 5y the time hair reaches the en%ironment outside o" the skin, it is com!letely dead The dermis also contains dense connecti%e tissue, made o" collagen "ibers, $hich gi%es the skin much o" its elasticity and strength

Subcutaneous Layer 5eneath the dermis lies the "inal layer o" skin, the subcutaneous layer The most notable structures here are the large grou!ings o" adi!ose tissue The main "unction o" the subcutaneous layer is there"ore to !ro%ide a cushion "or the delicate organs lying beneath the skin It also "unctions to insulate the body to maintain body tem!erature

Accessory Structures of the Skin

Sudoriferous (sweat) and sebaceous (oil) glands Skin !roduces associated structures such as sudori"erous /s$eat1 glands and sebaceous /oil1 glands It also !roduces "ingernails, hair, and sensory rece!tors that enable humans to "eel !ressure, tem!erature, and !ain

5oth grou!s o" sudori"erous glands /s$eat glands1 are in most o" the body+ eccrine glands are coiled ducts dee! in the skin that connect to the sur"ace& a!ocrine glands are in arm!its, areolae o" ni!!les, and the genital region Eccrine glands secrete s$eat, a mi#ture o" 66 !ercent $ater and 4 !ercent salts and "ats In $arm conditions $ith lo$ humidity, !ers!iration /secretion o" s$eat1 and e%a!oration cool the body A!ocrine glands, $hich become acti%e at !uberty, are larger, dee!er, and !roduce thicker secretions than eccrine glands The a!ocrine glands secretions contain !heromones, substances that enable ol"actory /sense o" smell1 communication $ith other members o" the s!ecies This communication !ro%okes certain beha%ioral res!onses such as se#ual arousal Unlike eccrine glands that res!ond to heat, a!ocrine glands res!ond to stress and se#ual acti%ity by secreting s$eat $ith a characteristic odor This odor di""ers "rom body odor that results "rom bacteria decom!osing skin secretions on the skin 7eruminous glands are modi"ied a!ocrine glands in the e#ternal ear canal lining They secrete cerumen /ear$a#1, a sticky substance that is thought to re!el "oreign material Mammary glands in "emale breasts are modi"ied a!ocrine glands These glands are ada!ted to secrete milk instead o" s$eat Sebaceous glands /oil glands1 are all o%er the body e#ce!t on the !alms o" hands and soles o" "eet The glands em!ty %ia ducts into the bases o" hair "ollicles and secrete sebum /a mi#ture o" "ats, $a#es, and hydrocarbons1 Sebum kee!s hair moist and !re%ents skin "rom drying Sebaceous glands are numerous on the "ace and scal! 'uring !uberty, increased se# hormone le%els in the blood may !roduce e#cessi%e sebum This o%er secretion !lugs the gland and hair "ollicle, !roducing a skin disorder called acne Hair 8air is com!osed o" corni"ied threads o" cells that de%elo! "rom the e!idermis and co%er most o" the body Each hair has a medulla, corte#, and cuticle The medulla in the center contains so"t keratin and air The corte#, the innermost thickest layer, has the !igment that gi%es hair color The cuticle, the outermost layer, has cells that o%erla! like scales 5oth the cuticle and corte# ha%e hard keratin

The hair root in a hair "ollicle is embedded beneath the skin The hair sha"t !rotrudes "rom the skin 8air sheds and is re!laced constantly during gro$th and rest !hases 8air has a !rotecti%e "unction+ eyebro$s kee! s$eat "rom running into the eyes, nose and ear hairs "ilter dust "rom the air, and scal! hairs !rotect against abrasion and o%ere#!osure to sun rays 8air "ollicles e#tend into the dermis& the dee! ends e#!anded !arts are called hair bulbs A !a!illa /connecti%e tissue !rotrusion that contains ca!illaries1 !rotrudes into the hair bulb and !ro%ides nutrients "or the gro$ing hair The hair "ollicle $alls ha%e an inner e!ithelial root sheath and an outer dermal root sheath The e!ithelial root sheath has an inner and an outer layer that thins as it a!!roaches the hair bulb It becomes the matri#, the acti%ely gro$ing !art o" the hair bulb that !roduces the hair Arrector !ili muscles are smooth muscle cells attached to hair "ollicles 9hen they contract, they !ull the hair into an u!right !osition, causing skin dim!les /goose bum!s1 The ner%ous system regulates these muscles& cold tem!eratures or "right can acti%ate them ails ,ike hair, nails de%elo! "rom the e!idermis These hard !lates o" keratini)ed cells are at the ends o" "ingers and toes Nails a!!ear !ink because their translucency re%eals the %ascular tissue beneath They aid in gras!ing ob(ects, scratching, and !rotecting "ingers and toes The com!onents o" the nail are the lunula, body, root, and "ree edge The lunula is the $hite hal"0moon sha!ed !art at the nail base 5oth the body and "ree edge region that o%erhangs the end o" the "inger or toe are %isible The nail rests on the thick layer o" e!ithelial skin called the nail bed The root is hidden under skin "olds Under the root lies the matri# /thick layer o" skin1 E!onychium /thin layer o" e!ithelium1 co%ers the nail during de%elo!ment& in the adult, it remains at the nail base only and is called the cuticle The hy!onychium is the e!ithelium o" the nail bed

The Digestive System

Digestive system is the food processing system of human body. Its two major functions are first, to allow useful and necessary substances into the body to promote growth and health, and second, to keep harmful substances out of the body. The whole digestive system is in the form of a long, hollow, twisted and turned tube, called the alimentary canal, which starts from the oral cavity and ends at the anus. The overall process of digestion and absorption of food occurs in this tube. The tube is divided into different parts on the basis of structure and function of each part. The term gastrointestinal tract technically only refers to the stomach and intestine but is often used as a synonym for the digestive tract. The inside of the digestive tract is continuous with the outside environment, where it opens at the mouth and anus. Nutrients cross the wall of the digestive tract to enter the circulation. The organs of the digestive system can be separated into two main groups: those forming the alimentary canal (nourish) and the accessory digestive organ. The alimentary canal performs the whole menu of digestive functions ingest, digest, absorbs, and defecates!. The accessory organs teeth, tongue, and several large digestive glands! assist the process of digestive breakdown in various ways. A. Organs of the Alimentary Canal The alimentary canal, also called the gastrointestinal tract, is a continuous, coiled, hollow muscular tube that winds through the ventral body cavity and is open at both ends. Its organs are the mouth, pharyn", esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. 1. Mouth # $ood enters the digestive tract through the mouth, or oral cavity, a mucous membrane#lined cavity. The lips labia! protect its anterior opening, the cheeks form its lateral walls, the hard palate forms its anterior roof, and the soft palate forms its posterior roof. The uvula is a fleshy fingerlike projection of the soft palate, which e"tends inferiorly from the posterior edge of the soft palate. The space between the lips and cheeks e"ternally and the teeth and gums internally is the vestibule. The area contained by the teeth is the oral cavity proper. The muscular tongue occupies the floor of the mouth. The tongue has several bony attachments % two of these are to the hyoid bone and the styloid processes of the skull. The lingual frenulum, a fold of mucous membrane, secures the tongue to the floor of the mouth and limits its posterior movements. 2. Pharynx # $rom the mouth, food passes posteriorly into the oropharyn" and laryngopharyn", both of which are common passageways for food, fluids, and air. The pharyn" is subdivided into the nasopharyn", part of the respiratory passageway& the oropharyn", posterior to the oral cavity& and the laryngopharyn", which is continuous with the esophagus. The walls of the pharyn" contain two skeletal muscle layers. The

cells of the inner layer run longitudinally& those of the outer layer the contrictor muscles! run around the wall in a circular fashion. 'lternating contraction of these two mucle layers propel food through the pharyn" into the esophagus below. This propelling mechanism is called peristalsis. 3. Esophagus - The esophagus or gullet, runs from the pharyn" the diaphragm to the stomach. 'bout () cm *+ inches! long, it is essentially a passageway that conducts food by peristalsis! to the stomach. The walls of the alimentary canalorgans from the esophagus to the large intestine are made up of the same four basic tissue layers, or tunics: a. Mucosa the innermost layer, a moist membrane that lines the cavity, or lumen, of the organ. It consists primarily of a surface epithelium, plus a small amount of connective tissue and a scanty smooth muscle layer. b. u!mucosa found just beneath the mucosa. It is soft connective tissue layer containing blood vessels, nerve ending, lymph nodules, and lymphatic vessels.

c. Muscularisexterna a muscle layer typically made up of an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells. d. erosa the outermost layer of the wall. It consists of a single layer of flat serous fluid#producing cells, the visceral peritoneum. The visceral peritoneum is continuous with the slick, slippery parietal peritoneum, which lines the abdominopelvic cavity by way of a membrane e"tension, the mesentery. ". tomach The ,#shaped stomach is on the left side of the abdominal cavity, nearly hidden by the liver and diaphragm. 'cts as a temporary -storage tank. for food as well as a site for food breakdown. /esides the usual longitudinal and circular muscle layers, its walls contain a third obli0uely arranged layer in the muscularise"terna. This arrangement allows the stomach not only to move the food along the tract, but also to churn, mi", and pummel the food, physically breaking it down to smaller fragments. In addition, chemical breakdown of proteins begins in the stomach. mall $ntestine The small intestine is the body1s major digestive organ. 2ithin its twisted passageways, usable food is finally prepared for its journey inyo the cells of the body. The small intestine is a muscular tube e"tending from the pyloric sphincter to

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the large intestine. It is the longest section of the alimentary tube, with an average length of (.)#3 m 4#(+ ft! in a living person. $ood digestion and absorption are completed here. 5ancreatic juice and bile enter the duodenum through a sphincter at the distal end of the bile duct. 6icrovilli, villi, and circular folds increase the surface area of the small intestine for enhanced absorption. %. &arge $ntestine 'bout *.) m ) ft! long, it e"tends from the ileocecal valve to the anus. Its major functions are to dry out the indigestible food residue by absorbing water and to eliminate these residues from the body as feces. It frames the small intestine on three sides and has the following subdivisions: cecum, appendi", colon, rectum, and anal canal. '. Accessory (igesti)e Organs *. *eeth Tear and grind the food, breaking it down into smaller fragments. Two sets of teeth are formed. The first set consists of (+ deciduous teeth that begin to appear at 7 months and are lost by *( years of age. 5ermanent teeth 8(! begin to replace deciduous teeth around 3 years. ' typical tooth consists of crown covered with enamel and root covered with cementum. 6ost of the tooth is bonelike dentin. The pulp cavity contains blood vessels and nerves. (. ali)ary +lan,s three pairs % parotid, submandibular, and sublingual! secrete saliva into the oral cavity. 9aliva contains mucus and serous fluids. The serous component contains salivary amylase.

8. Pancreas 9oft, pink, triangular gland that e"tends across the abdomen from the spleen to the duodenum. :nly the pancreas produces en;ymes that breakdown all categories of digestible foods. The pancreatic en;ymes are secreted into the duodenum in an alkaline fluid that neutrali;es the acidic chime coming in from the stomach. The pancreas also has an endocrine function& it produces the hormones insulin and glucagon. <. &i)er The liver is the largest gland in the body located under the diaphragm, more to the right side of the body, it overlies and almost completely covers the stomach. It has four lobes and is suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by a delicate mesentery cord, the falciform ligament. Its digestive function is to produce bile, which it ducts into the small intestine. /ile is a yellow#to#green, watery solution containing bile salts, bile pigments chiefly bilirubin, a breakdown product of hemoglobin!, cholesterol, phospholipids, and a variety of electrolytes. ). +all!la,,er ' small, thin#walled green sac that snuggles in a shallow fossa in the inferior surface of the liver. It stores and concentrates bile by the removal of water. 2hen fatty food enters the duodenum, a hormonal stimulus prompts the gallbladder to contract and spurt out stored bile, making it available to the duodenum.

Overview of Gastrointestinal Processes and Controls

1. $ngestion $ood must be placed into the mouth before it can be acted on. This is an active, voluntary process called ingestion. 2. Propulsion If foods are to be processed by more than one digestive organ, they must be propelled from one organ to the ne"t. 9wallowing is one e"ample of food movement that depends largely on the propulsive process called peristalsis. 5eristalsis is involuntary and involves alternating waves of contraction and rela"ation of the muscles in the organ wall. The net effect is to s0uee;e the food along the tract. 3. -oo, !rea.,o/n0 mechanical ,igestion 6i"ing of food in the mouth by the tongue, churning of food in the stomach, and segmentation in the small intestine are all e"amples of processes contributing to mechanical digestion. 6echanical digestion prepares food for further degradation by en;ymes by physically fragmenting the foods into smaller particles. ". -oo, !rea.,o/n0Chemical ,igestion The large food molecules are broken down to their building blocks by en;ymes. #. A!sorption Transport of digested end products from the lumen of the =I tract to the blood or lymph is absorption. $or absorption to occur, the digested foods must first enter the mucosal cells by active or passive transport processes. The small intestine is the major absorptive site. %. (efecation The elimination of indigestible residues from the =I tract via the anus in the form of feces.

Cardiovascular System
The heart is divided by a partition or septum into two halves. The halves are in turn divided into chambers. The upper two chambers of the heart are called atria. >ight 'trium: >eceives blood returning to the heart from the superior and inferior vena cava. ?eft 'trium: >eceives blood returning to the heart from the pulmonary veins. The lower two chambers are called )entricles. >ight @entricle: >eceives blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the pulmonary artery. ?eft @entricle: >eceives blood from the left atrium and pumps it to the aorta. 1al)es allow blood to flow in one direction between the chambers of the heart. The atrio)entricular )al)es are thin structures that are composed of endocardium and connective tissue. They are located between the atria and the ventricles. 6itral @alve and Tricuspid @alve!. The semilunar )al)es are flaps of endocardium and connective tissue reinforced by fibers which prevent the valves from turning inside out. They are shaped like a half moon, hence the name semilunar semi, #lunar!. The semilunar valves are located between the aorta and the left ventricle and between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle. 'ortic @alve and 5ulmonary @alve! The audible sounds that can be heard from the heart are made by the closing of the heart valves. These sounds are referred to as the Alub#duppA sounds. The A lu!A sound is made by the contraction of the ventricles and the closing of the atrioventricular valves. The A ,uppA sound is made by the semilunar valves closing. *he 2eart 3all

The epicar,ium is the outer layer of the wall of the heart. It is composed of connective tissue covered by epithelium. The epicardium is also known as the visceral pericardium. Myocar,ium is the muscular middle layer of the wall of the heart. It is composed of spontaneously contracting cardiac muscle fibers which allow the heart to contract. This stimulates heart contractions to pump blood from the ventricles and rela"es the heart to allow the artria to receive blood. 'nd the en,ocar,ium is the inner layer of the heart. It consists of epithelial tissue and connective tissue. Its functions are a! lines the inner cavities of the heart, cover heart valves and are continuous with the inner lining of blood vessels and b! 5urkinje fibers are located in the endocardium. They participate in the contraction of the heart muscle.

The ,ardiac ,ycle

The cardiac cycle is the se0uence of events that occur when the heart beats. There are two phases of this cycle: *! (iastole # ventricles are rela"ed.During the diastole phase the atria and ventricles are rela"ed and the atrioventricular valves are open. De#o"ygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava flows into the right atrium. The open atrioventricular valves allow blood to pass through to the ventricles. The 9' node contracts triggering the atria to contract. The right atrium empties its contents into the right ventricle. The tricuspid valve prevents the blood from flowing back into the right atrium. (! ystole % ventricles contract. During the systole phase the right ventricle receives impulses from the 5urkinje fibers and contracts. The atrioventricular valves close and the semilunar valves open. The de#o"ygenated blood is pumped into the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary valve prevents the blood from flowing back into the right ventricle. The pulmonary artery carries the blood to the lungs. There the blood picks up o"ygen and is returned to the left atrium of the heart by the pulmonary veins.

In the ne"t diastole period, the semilunar valves close and the atrioventricular valves open. /lood from the pulmonary veins fills the left atrium. /lood from the vena cava is also filling the right atrium.! The 9' node contracts again triggering the atria to contract. The left atrium empties its contents into the left ventricle. The mitral valve prevents the o"ygenated blood from flowing back into the left atrium. During the systole phase the atrioventricular valves close and the semilunar valves open. The left ventricle receives impulses from the 5urkinje fibers and contracts. :"ygenated blood is pumped into the aorta. The aortic valve prevents the o"ygenated blood from flowing back into the left ventricle. The aorta branches out to provide o"ygenated blood to all parts of the body. The o"ygen depleted blood is returned to the heart via the vena cava.