Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India ______________________________________________

Contents
PART I

Chapter 1: Ancient India on Exhumation Chapter 2: The Ancient Regime Chapter 3: A Sunken Priesthood Chapter 4: Re ormers and Their !ate PART II
Chapter ": The #ec$ine and !a$$ o %uddhism Chapter &: The 'iterature o %rahminism Chapter (: The Triumph o %rahminism

PART III
Chapter ): The *ora$s o the +ouse Chapter ,: -rishna and +is .ita Chapter 1/: Ana$0tica$ 1otes o 2irat Par3a and 4d0og Par3a Chapter 11: %rahmins 2ersus -shatri0as Chapter 12: Shudras and the Counter5Re3o$ution Chapter 13: The 6oman and the Counter5Re3o$ution ________________________________________________________________ ________________________ Editorial Note in the manuscript published in the Dr. Babasaheb Ambed ar! "ritin#s and $peeches% &ol. ' b( the )overnment o* +aharashtra! Dr. B. R. Ambedkar had proposed to write a treatise, i.e., `Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India . !he table o" contents has been printed in the chapter o" schemes. #e had ori$inall% planned to write seven books to be included under this broad title. !he Committee was able to "ind some pa$es and "ew chapters in his collection. !he chapters are also incomplete. A"ter scrutin%, the Committee came to a decision that `Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India is to be presented in this volume with the available material thou$h incomplete. Dr. Ambedkar considered the rise o" Buddhism as revolution. !he Counter-Revolution pioneered b% Brahmins resulted into decline and "all o" Buddhism. As such the "ollowin$ chapters are included under this title.

&. Ancient India on '(humation ). !he Ancient Re$ime*!he +tate o" the Ar%an +ociet% ,. A +unken -riesthood .. Re"ormers and !heir /ate 0. !he Decline and /all o" Buddhism 1. !he 2iterature o" Brahminism 3. !riumph o" Brahminism 4. !he 5orals o" the #ouse*5anusmruti or the 6ospel o" Counter-Revolution 7. -hilosophic De"ence o" Counter-Revolution 89rishna and his 6ita: &;. Anal%sis o" <irat -arva and =dd%o$ -arva &&. Brahmins <>s 9shatri%as &). !he +hudras and the Counter-Revolution &,. !he ?omen and the Counter-Revolution !he readers ma% compare these chapters with the proposed plan $iven in the last chapters o" +chemes.*Editors 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 777777777777777777 C,APTER Ancient India on E.humation !here are two t%ped copies o" this Chapter. Both o" them contain additions and corrections in the handwritin$ o" Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar. A"ter consideration, we decided that the latter version should be included here. !his essa%, consistin$ o" three pa$es onl%, seems to be an introduction to a lar$er sub@ect Dr. Ambedkar probabl% had in his mind.* Editors8 *uch o the ancient histor0 o India is no histor0 at a$$8 1ot that ancient India has no histor08 It has p$ent0 o it8 %ut it has $ost its character8 It has 9een made m0tho$og0 to amuse :omen and chi$dren8 This seems to ha3e 9een done de$i9erate$0 90 the %rahminica$ :riters8 Take the :ord Deva. 6hat does it mean; Is the :ord <ana 2ishesh representing a mem9er o the human ami$0; It is made to appear superhuman agenc08 %0 this the pith o histor0 contained in it is s=uee>ed out8 A$ong :ith the :ord #e3a occur the names o ?aksha@ .ana@ .andhar3a@ -innars8 6ho :ere the0; The impression one gets on reading the *aha9harat and Rama0an is that the0 are imaginar0 9eings :ho i$$ed the hori>on 9ut did not exist8

%ut the ?aksha@ .ana@ .andhar3a@ -innaras :ere a$so mem9ers o the human ami$08 The0 :ere in the ser3ice o the #e3as8 The ?akshas :ere guarding the pa$aces8 .anas :ere guarding the #e3as8 .andhar3as :ere amusing the #e3as 90 music and dancing8 The -innaras :ere a$so in the ser3ice o the .ods8 The descendants o the -innaras are e3en no: $i3ing in +imacha$ Pradesh8 Take the name Asura8 The description o Asura gi3en in the *aha9harat and Rama0ana make out as though he0 9e$onged to non5human :or$d8 An Asura is descri9ed to eat ten carts5$oad o ood8 The0 are monsters in si>e8 The0 s$eep or six months8 The0 ha3e ten mouths8 6ho is a Rakshas; +e too is descri9ed as a non5human creature8 In si>e@ in his capacit0 or eating@ in his ha9its o $i e he resem9$ed the Asura8 There is a p$ent0 o re erences to the 1agas8 %ut :ho is a 1aga ; A 1aga is represented as a serpent or a snake8 Can this 9e true ; 6hether true or not@ it is so and +indus 9e$ie3e it8 Ancient Indian histor0 must 9e exhumed8 6ithout its exhumation Ancient India :i$$ go :ithout histor08 !ortunate$0 :ith the he$p o the %uddhist $iterature@ Ancient Indian +istor0 can 9e dug out o the de9ris :hich the %rahmin :riters ha3e heaped upon in a it o madness8 The %uddhist $iterature he$ps a great dea$ to remo3e the de9ris and see the under$0ing su9stance =uite c$ear$0 and distinct$08 The %uddhist $iterature sho:s that the #e3as :ere a communit0 o human 9eings8 There are so man0 #e3as :ho come to the %uddha to ha3e their dou9ts and di icu$ties remo3ed8 +o: cou$d this 9e un$ess the #e3as :ere human 9eings Again the %uddhist canonica$ $iterature thro:s a ood o $ight on the pu>>$ing =uestion o the 1agas8 It makes a distinction 9et:een :om959orn 1agas and egg59orn 1agas and there90 making it c$ear that the :ord 1aga has t:o5 o$d meaning8 In its origina$ sense it stood or the name o a human communit08 The Asuras again are not monsters8 The0 too are a <an52ishesh human 9eings8 According to Satpatha %ramhana@ the Asuras are the descendants o PraAapati the 'ord o the creation8 +o: the0 9ecame e3i$ spirits is not kno:n8 %ut the act is recorded that the0 ought against the #e3as or the possession o the earth and that the0 :ere o3ercome 90 the #e3as and that the0 ina$$0 succum9ed8 The point is c$ear that the Asuras :ere mem9ers o the human ami$0 and not monsters8 6ith this exhumation o de9ris@ :e can see Ancient Indian +istor0 in a ne: $ight8 C,APTER / The Ancient Re#ime ! The $tate o* the Ar(an $ociet(

!his essa% consists o" II t%ped "oolscap pa$es ta$$ed into a "ile. /rom the last sentence it appears that the Chapter is incomplete. * Editors %uddhism :as a re3o$ution8 It :as as great a Re3o$ution as the !rench Re3o$ution8 Though it 9egan as a Re$igious re3o$ution@ it 9ecame more than Re$igious re3o$ution8 It 9ecame a Socia$ and Po$itica$ Re3o$ution8 To 9e a9$e to rea$ise ho: pro ound :as the character o this Re3o$ution@ it is necessar0 to kno: the state o the societ0 9e ore the re3o$ution 9egan its course8 To use the $anguage o the !rench Re3o$ution@ it is necessar0 to ha3e a picture o the ancient regime in India8 To understand the great re orm@ :hich he 9rought a9out 90 his teaching@ it is necessar0 to ha3e some idea o the degraded condition o the Ar0an ci3i$isation at the time :hen %uddha started on the mission o his $i e8 The Ar0an Communit0 o his time :as steeped in the :orst kind o de9aucher0B socia$@ re$igious and spiritua$8 To mention on$0 a e: o the socia$ e3i$s@ attention ma0 9e dra:n to gam9$ing8 .am9$ing had 9ecome as :idespread among the Ar0ans as drinking8 E3er0 king had a ha$$ o gam9$ing attached to his pa$ace8 E3er0 king had an expert gam9$er in his emp$o0ment as a companion to p$a0 :ith8 -ing <irat had in his emp$o0ment 9ank as an expert gam9$er8 .am9$ing :as not mere$0 a pastime :ith kings8 The0 p$a0ed :ith hea30 stakes8 The0 staked kingdoms@ dependants@ re$ati3es@ s$a3es@ ser3ants8CD 1E -ing 1a$a staked e3er0thing in gam9$ing :ith -askkar and $ost e3er0thing8 The on$0 thing he did not stake :as himse$ and his :i e #ama0anti8 1a$a had to go and $i3e in the orest as a 9eggar8 There :ere kings :ho :ent 9e0ond 1a$a8 The *aha9harat D 2E te$$s ho: #harma the e$dest o the Panda3as gam9$ed and staked e3er0thing@ his 9rothers and a$so his and their :i e #raupadi8 .am9$ing :as a matter o honour :ith the Ar0ans and an0 in3itation to gam9$e :as regarded as an inAur0 to oneFs honour and dignit08 #harma gam9$ed :ith such disastrous conse=uences a$though he :as :arned 9e orehand8 +is excuse :as that he :as in3ited to gam9$e and that as a man o honour@ he cou$d not dec$ine such an in3itation8 This 3ice o gam9$ing :as not con ined to kings8 It had in ected e3en the common o$k8 Rig52eda contains $amentations o a poor Ar0an ruined 90 gam9$ing8 The ha9it o gam9$ing had 9ecome so common in -auti$0aFs time that there :ere gam9$ing houses $icensed 90 the king rom :hich the king deri3ed considera9$e re3enue8 #rinking :as another e3i$ :hich :as rampant among the Ar0ans8 'i=uors :ere o t:o sorts +oma and +ura. +oma :as a sacri icia$ :ine8 The drinking o the Soma :as in the 9eginning permitted on$0 to %rahmins@ -shatri0as and 2aish0as8 Su9se=uent$0 it :as permitted on$0 to %rahmins and -shatri0as8 The

2aish0as :ere exc$uded rom it and the Shudras :ere ne3er permitted to taste it8 Its manu acture :as a secret kno:n on$0 to the %rahmins8 +ura :as open to a$$ and :as drunk 90 a$$8 The %rahmins a$so drank Sura8 Shukrachar0a the priest to the Asuras drank so hea3i$0 that in his drunken state he ga3e the $i e gi3ing 5antra kno:n to him on$0 and :ith :hich he used to re3i3e the Asuras ki$$ed 90 the #e3asGto 9atch the son o %rahaspati :ho :as the priest o the #e3as8 The *aha9harat mentions an occasion :hen 9oth -rishna and ArAuna :ere dead drunk8 That sho:s that the 9est among the Ar0an Societ0 :ere not on$0 not ree rom the drink ha9it 9ut that the0 drank hea3i$08 The most shame u$ part o it :as that e3en the Ar0an :omen :ere addicted to drink8 !or instance +udeshna[f3] the :i e o -ing 2irat te$$s her maid +airandhri to go to 9ichaka s pa$ace and 9ring Sura as she :as d0ing to ha3e a drink8 It is not to 9e supposed that on$0 =ueens indu$ged in drinking8 The ha9it o drinking :as common among :omen o a$$ c$asses and e3en %rahmin :omen :ere not ree rom it8 That $i=uor and dancing :as indu$ged in 90 the Ar0an :omen is c$ear rom the 9ausitaki 6rih%a +utra 18 11512@ :hich sa0s B H!our or eight :omen :ho are not :ido:ed@ a ter ha3ing 9een rega$ed :ith :ine and ood are to dance or our times on the night pre3ious to the :edding ceremon08H That the drinking o intoxicating $i=uor :as indu$ged in 90 %rahmin :omen@ not to speak o :omen o the $o:er <arnas, as $ate as the se3enth and eighth centuries A8#8 in the Centra$ region o Ar0a3arta@ is c$ear rom -umari$a %hattaFs !antra-<artika I IiiiJ8 4@ :hich states@ HAmong the peop$e o modern da0s :e ind the %rahmin :omen o the countries o Ahicchatra and *athura to 9e addicted to drinkingH8 -umari$a condemned the practice in the case o %rahmins on$0@ 9ut not o -shatri0as and 2aish0as men and :omen@ i the $i=uor :as disti$$ed rom ruits or $o:ers I*adha3iJ@ and *o$asses I.audiJ and not rom grains ISuraJ8 The sexua$ immora$it0 o the Ar0an Societ0 must shock their present da0 descendants8 The Ar0ans o pre5%uddhist da0s had no such ru$e o prohi9ited degrees as :e ha3e toda0 to go3ern their sexua$ or matrimonia$ re$ationship8 According to the Ar0an *0tho$og0@ %rahma is the creator8 %rahma had three sons and a daughter8 +is one son #aksha married his sister8 The daughters 9orn o this marriage 9et:een 9rother and sister :ere married some to -ash0apa the son o *arichi the son o %rahma and some to #harma the third son o %rahma8[f4] In the Rig52eda there is an episode re$ated o ?ama and ?ami 9rother and sister8 According to this episode ?ami the sister in3ites her 9rother ?ama to coha9it :ith her and 9ecomes angr0 :hen he re uses to do so8 [f5] A ather cou$d marr0 his daughter8 <ashishta married his o:n daughter +hatrupa :hen she came o age8 [f6]5anu married his daughter IIa.[f7] Aanhu married his daughter Aanhavi.[f8] +ur%a married his daughter =sha.[f9]

There :as po$0andr0 not o the ordinar0 t0pe8 The po$0andr0 pre3a$ent among the Ar0ans :as a po$0andr0 :hen kinsmen coha9ited :ith one :oman8 #hahaprachetani and his son Soma coha9ited :ith *arisha the daughter o Soma8[f10] Instances o grand ather marr0ing his granddaughter are not :anting8 #aksha ga3e his daughter in marriage to his ather %rahma [f11] and rom that marriage :as 9orn the amous 1arada8 #auhitra ga3e his 2( daughters to his ather Soma or coha9itation and procreation8 [f12]The Ar0ans did not mind coha9iting :ith :omen in the open and :ithin sight o peop$e8 The Rishis used to per orm certain re$igious rites :hich :ere ca$$ed <amdev%a vrata. These rites used to 9e per ormed on the Badn%a bhumi. I an0 :oman came there and expressed a desire or sexua$ intercourse and asked the sage to satis 0 her@ the sage used to coha9it :ith her then and there in the open on the Badn%a bhumi. Instances o this ma0 9e mentioned8 The case o the sage Parashara had sexua$ intercourse :ith Sat0a3ati and a$so o #irghatapa8 That such a custom :as common is sho:n 90 the existence o the :ord A0oni8 The :ord A0oni is understood to mean o immacu$ate conception8 That is not ho:e3er the origina$ meaning o the :ord8 The origina$ meaning o the :ord ?oni is house8 A0oni means concei3ed out o the house i8e8 in the open8 That there :as nothing deemed to 9e :rong in this is c$ear rom the act that 9oth Sita and #raupadi :ere A0oniAa8 That this :as 3er0 common is c$ear rom the act that re$igious inAunctions had to 9e issued against such a practice[f13] There :as pre3a$ent among the Ar0ans the practice o renting out their :omen to others or a time8 As an i$$ustration ma0 9e mentioned the stor0 o 5adhavi.[f14] The king Ba%ati ga3e his daughter 5adhavi as an o ering to his .uru 6alav. 6alav rented out the gir$ 5adhavi to three kings@ each a period8 Therea ter he ga3e her in marriage to <ishwamitra. She remained :ith him unti$ a son :as 9orn to her8 Therea ter 6alav took a:a0 the gir$ and ga3e her 9ack to her ather Ba%ati. %esides the practice o $etting out :omen to others temporari$0 at a rent there :as pre3a$ent among the Ar0ans another practice name$0 a$$o:ing procreation 90 the 9est amongst them8 Raising a ami$0 :as treated 90 them as though it :as a 9reeding or stock raising8 Among the Ar0as there :as a c$ass o persons ca$$ed Devas :ho :ere Ar0ans 9ut o a superior status and pro:ess8 The Ar0ans a$$o:ed their :omen to ha3e sexua$ intercourse :ith an0 one o the c$ass o #e3as in the interest o good 9reeding8 This practice pre3ai$ed so extensi3e$0 that the #e3as came to regard pre $i9ation in respect o the Ar0an 6omen as their prescripti3e right8 1o Ar0an :oman cou$d 9e married un$ess this right o pre5$i9ation had 9een redeemed and the :oman re$eased rom the contro$ o the #e3as 90 o ering :hat :as technica$$0 ca$$ed Avadan. The 2a@a #oame :hich is

per ormed in e3er0 +indu marriage and the detai$s o :hich are gi3en in the Ashwala%an 6rah%a +utra is a re$ic o this act o the redemption o the Ar0an :oman rom the right o pre5$i9ation o the #e3as8 The Avadan in the 2a@a #oama is nothing 9ut the price or the extinguishing o the right o the #e3as o3er the 9ride8 The +aptapadi per ormed in a$$ +indu marriages and :hich is regarded as the most essentia$ ceremon0 :ithout :hich there is no $a: u$ marriage has an integra$ connection :ith this right o pre5$i9ation o the #e3as8 Saptapadi means :a$king 90 the 9ridegroom se3en steps :ith the 9ride8 6h0 is this essentia$; The ans:er is that the #e3as@ i the0 :ere dissatis ied :ith the compensation@ cou$d c$aim the :oman 9e ore the se3enth step :as taken8 A ter the se3enth step :as taken@ the right o the #e3as :as extinguished and the 9ridegroom cou$d take a:a0 the 9ride and $i3e as hus9and and :i e :ithout 9eing o9structed or mo$ested 90 the #e3as8KKK There :as no ru$e o chastit0 or maidens8 A gir$ cou$d ha3e sexua$ intercourse :ith and a$so progen0 rom an09od0 :ithout contracting marriage8 This is e3ident rom the root meaning o the :ord 9an%a :hich means a gir$8 -an0a comes rom the root 9am :hich means a gir$ ree to o er herse$ to an0 man8 That the0 did o er themse$3es to an0 man and had chi$dren :ithout contracting regu$ar marriage is i$$ustrated 90 the case o 9unti and 5ats%a$andha. 9unti had chi$dren rom di erent men 9e ore she :as married to -andu and 5ats%a$andha had sexua$ intercourse :ith the sage -arashara 9e ore she married to +hantanu the ather o Bhishma. %estia$it0 :as a$so pre3a$ent among the Ar0ans8 The stor0 o the sage #am ha3ing sexua$ intercourse :ith a ema$e dear@ is :e$$ kno:n8 Another instance is that o Sur0a coha9iting :ith a mare8 %ut the most hideous instance is that o the :oman ha3ing sexua$ intercourse :ith the horse in the Ash3amedha Badna. II1CL*P'ETEJ C,APTER ' A $un en Priesthood !his essa% is numbered as Chapter III in the "ile o" the Ancient Re$ime and contains &1 "oolscap-t%ped pa$es. !his Chapter also seems to be le"t incomplete.*Editors8 The priest$0 pro ession in the ancient Ar0an Societ0 :as monopo$ised 90 the %rahmins8 1one except a %rahmin cou$d 9ecome a priest8 As custodians o re$igion@ the %rahmins :ere the guides o the peop$e in mora$ and spiritua$ matters8 The0 :ere to set the standard or peop$e to o$$o:8 #id the %rahmins act up to the standard; 4n ortunate$0@ a$$ the e3idence :e ha3e@ sho:s that the %rahmins had a$$en to the utmost depth o mora$ degradation8 A Shrotri0a %rahmin :as supposed not to keep :ith him a store o pro3ision $asting or more than a :eek8 %ut the0 had s0stematica$$0 tramp$ed upon this ru$e

and :ere addicted to the use o the things stored up B stores@ to :it@ o oods@ drinks@ c$othing@ e=uipages@ 9edding@ per umes@ and curr05stu s8 The %rahmins :ere addicted to 3isiting sho:s such as :G I1J 1autch dances InakkamJ8 I2J Singings o songs IgitamJ8 I3J Instrumenta$ music I3aditamJ8 I4J Sho:s at airs IpekhamJ8 I"J %a$$ads recitations IakkhanamJ8 I&J +and music IpanisaramJ8 I(J The chanting o 9ards I3eta$sJ8 I)J Tam5tam p$a0ing Ikum9hathunamJ8 I,J !air scenes Iso9hanagarkamJ8 I1/J Acro9atic eats 90 -anda$as I-anda$a53amsa5dhopanamJ8 I11J Com9ats o e$ephants@ horses@ 9u a$oes@ 9u$$s@ goats@ rams@ cocks and =uai$s8 I12J %outs at =uarter sta @ 9oxing@ :rest$ing8 I1351&J Sham5 ights@ ro$$5ca$$s@ manoeu3res@ re3ie:s8 The0 :ere addicted to games and recreationsB that is to sa0@ I1J .ames on 9oards :ith eight@ or :ith ten ro:s o s=uares8 I2J The same games p$a0ed 90 imagining such 9oards in the air8 I3J -eeping going o3er diagrams dra:n on the ground so that one5steps on$0 :here one ought to go8 I4J Either remo3ing the pieces or men rom a he$p :ith oneFs nai$@ or putting them into a heap@ in each case :ithout shaking it8 +e :ho shakes the heap@ $oses8 I"J Thro:ing dice8 I&J +itting a short stick :ith a $ong one8 I(J #ipping the hand :ith the ingers stretched out in $ac@ or red d0e@ or $our :ater@ and striking the :et hand on the ground or on a :a$$@ ca$$ing out K:hat sha$$ it 9e;F and sho:ing the orm re=uiredGe$ephants@ horses 8 I)J .ames :ith 9a$$s8 I,J %$o:ing through to0 pipes made o $ea3es8 I1/J P$oughing :ith to0 p$oughs8 I11J Turning summersau$ts8 I12J P$a0ing :ith to0 :indmi$$s made o pa$m $ea3es8 I13J P$a0ing :ith to0 measures made o pa$m $ea3es8 I14@ 1"J P$a0ing :ith to0 carts or to0 9o:s8 I1&J .uessing at $etters traced in the air@ or on a p$a0 e$$o:Fs 9ack8 I1(J .uessing the p$a0 e$$o:Fs thoughts8

I1)J *imicr0 o de ormities8 The0 :ere addicted to the use o high and $arge couches B that is to sa0: I1J *o3ea9$e settees@ high@ and six eet $ong IAsandiJ8 I2J #i3ans :ith anima$ igures car3ed on the supports IPa$$ankoJ8 I3J .oatFs hair co3erings :ith 3er0 $ong $eece I.onakoJ8 I4J Patch:ork counterpanes o man0 co$ours I-ittakaJ8 I"J 6hite 9$ankets IPatikaJ8 I&J 6oo$$en co3er$ets em9roidered :ith $o:ers I Pata$ikaJ8 I(J Mui$ts stu ed :ith cotton :oo$ ITu$ikaJ8 I)J Co3er$ets em9roidered :ith igures o $ions@ tigers@ N c8@ I2ikatikaJ8 I,J Rugs :ith ur on 9oth sides I4dda$omJ8 I1/J Rugs :ith ur on one side IEkanta$omiJ8 I11J Co3er$ets em9roidered :ith gems I-atthissamJ8 I12J Si$k co3er$ets I-ose00amJ8 I13J Carpets $arge enough or sixteen dancers I-ittakamJ8 I1451&J E$ephant@ horse and chariot rugs8 I1(J Rugs o ante$ope skins se:n together IAginepa3eniJ8 I1)J Rugs o skins o the p$antain ante$ope8 I1,J Carpets :ith a:nings a9o3e them ISauttarakkhadamJ8 I2/J So as :ith red pi$$o:s or the head and eetH8 The %rahmins :ere addicted to the use o means or adorning and 9eauti 0ing themse$3esB that is to sa0 : Ru99ing in scented po:ders on oneFs 9od0@ shampooing it@ and 9athing it@ patting the $im9s :ith c$u9s a ter the manner o :rest$ers@ the use o mirrors@ e0e5ointments@ gar$ands@ rouge@ cosmetics@ 9race$ets@ neck$aces@ :a$king5sticks@ reed cases or drugs@ rapiers@ sunshades@ em9roidered s$ippers@ tur9ans@ diadems@ :hisks o the 0ak tai$ and $ong5 ringed :hite ro9es8 The %rahmins :ere addicted to such $o: con3ersation as these : Ta$es o kings@ o ro99ers@ o ministers o state B ta$es o :ar@ o terrors@ o 9att$es B ta$k a9out oods and drinks@ c$othes@ 9eds@ gar$ands@ per umes B ta$ks a9out re$ationships@ e=uipages@ 3i$$ages@ to:ns@ cities and countries B ta$es a9out :omen@ and a9out heroes B gossip at street corners@ or p$aces :hence :ater is etched B ghost stories B desu$tor0 ta$k B specu$ations a9out the creation o the $and or sea@ or a9out existence and non5existence8 The %rahmins :ere addicted to the use o :rang$ing phrases: such as: H?ou donFt understand this doctrine and discip$ine@ I do8H H+o: shou$d 0ou kno: a9out this doctrine and discip$ine;H H?ou ha3e a$$en into :rong 3ie:s8 It is I :ho am in the right8H H I am speaking to the point@ 0ou are not8H H?ou are putting $ast :hat ought to come irst@ and irst :hat ought to come $ast8H

H6hat 0ouF3e ex5cogitated so $ong@ that is a$$ =uite upset8H H ?ou are pro3ed to 9e :rong8H H Set to :ork to c$ear 0our 3ie:s8H H #isentang$e 0ourse$ i 0ou can8H The %rahmins :ere addicted to taking messages@ going on errands@ and acting as go59et:eensB to :it@ on kings@ ministers o state@ -shatri0as@ %rahmans@ or 0oung men@ sa0ing: F.o there@ come hither@ take this :ith 0ou@ 9ring that rom there8F FThe %rahmins :ere tricksters@ drone out Io ho$0 :ords or pra0J@ di3iners@ and exorcists@ e3er hungering to add gain to gain8F The %rahmins earned their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood@ 90 $o: arts@ such as these: I1J Pa$mistr0Gprophes0ing $ong $i e@ prosperit0@ N c8@ Ior the re3erse rom marks on a chi$dFs hands@ eet@ N c8J I2J #i3ining 90 means o omens and signs8 I3J Auguries dra:n rom thunder9o$ts and other ce$estia$ portents8 I4J Prognostication 90 interpreting dreams8 I"J !ortune5te$$ing rom marks on the 9od08 I&J Auguries rom the marks on c$oth gna:ed 90 mice8 I(J Sacri icing to Agni8 I)J L ering o9$ations rom a spoon8 I,513J *aking o erings to gods o husks@ o the red po:der 9et:een the grain and the husk@ o husked grain read0 or 9oi$ing@ or ghee and o oi$8 I14J Sacri icing 90 spe:ing mustard seeds@ N c8@ into the ire out o oneFs mouth8 I1"J #ra:ing 9$ood rom oneFs right knee as a sacri ice to the gods8 I1&J 'ooking at the knuck$es@ N c8@ and@ a ter muttering a charm@ di3ining :hether a man is :e$$ 9orn o $uck or not8 I1(J #etermining :hether the site or a proposed house or p$easance@ is $uck or not8 I1)J Ad3ising on customar0 $a:8 I1,J 'a0ing demons in a cemeter08 I2/J 'a0ing ghosts8 I21J -no:$edge o the charms to 9e used :hen $odging in an earth house8 I22J Snake charming8 I23J The poison cra t8 I24J The scorpion cra t8 I2"J The mouse cra t8 I2&J The 9ird cra t8 I2(J The cro: cra t8 I2)J !orete$$ing the num9er o 0ears that man has 0et to $i3e8

I2,J .i3ing charms to :ard o arro:s8 I3/J The anima$ :hee$8 The %rahmins earned their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood@ 90 $o: arts@ such as these: -no:$edge o the signs o good and 9ad =ua$ities in the o$$o:ing things and o the marks in them denoting the hea$th or $uck o their o:ners : to :it@ gems@ sta3es@ garments@ s:ords@ arro:s@ 9o:s@ other :eapons@ :omen@ men@ 9o0s@ gir$s@ s$a3es@ s$a3e5gir$s@ e$ephants@ horses@ 9u a$oes@ 9u$$s@ oxen@ goats@ sheep@ o:$s@ =uai$s@ iguanas@ herrings@ tortoises@ and other anima$s8 The %rahmins@ earned their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood 90 $o: arts such as soothe sa0ing@ to the e ect that@ The chie s :i$$ march out8 The home chie s :i$$ attack and the enemies retreat8 The enemiesF chie s :i$$ attack@ and ours :i$$ retreat8 The home chie s :i$$ gain the 3ictor0@ and ours :i$$ su er de eat8 The oreign chie s :i$$ gain the 3ictor0 on this side@ and ours :i$$ su er de eat8 Thus :i$$ there 9e 3ictor0 on this side@ de eat on that8 The %rahmins@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ earn their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood@ 90 such $o: arts as ore5te$$ing: I1J There :i$$ 9e an ec$ipse o the *oon8 I2J There :i$$ 9e an ec$ipse o the Sun8 I3J There :i$$ 9e an ec$ipse o a star I1akshatraJ8 I4J There :i$$ 9e a9erration o the Sun or the *oon8 I"J The Sun or the *oon :i$$ return to its usua$ path8 I&J There :i$$ 9e a9errations o the stars8 I(J The stars :i$$ return to their usua$ course8 I)J There :i$$ 9e a Aung$e ire8 I,J There :i$$ 9e a a$$ o meteors8 I1/J There :i$$ 9e an earth=uake8 I11J The god :i$$ thunder8 I1251"J There :i$$ 9e rising and setting@ c$earness and dimness o the Sun or the *oon or the stars@ or orete$$ing o each o these i teen phenomena that the0 :i$$ 9etoken such and such a resu$t8H The %rahmins earned their $i3ing 90 :rong means o the $i3e$ihood@ 90 $o: arts@ such as these: !orete$$ing an a9undant rain a$$8 !orete$$ing a de icient rain a$$8 !orete$$ing a good har3est8 !orete$$ing scarcit0 o ood8 !orete$$ing tran=ui$$it08

!orete$$ing distur9ances8 !orete$$ing a pesti$ence8 !orete$$ing a hea$th0 season8 Counting on the ingers8 Counting :ithout using the ingers Summing up $arge tota$s8 Composing 9a$$ads@ poetising8 Casuistr0@ sophistr08 The %rahmins@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ earn their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood 90 $o: arts@ such as: I1J Arranging a $uck0 da0 or marriages in :hich the 9ride or 9ridegroom is 9rought home8 I2J Arranging a $uck0 da0 or marriages in :hich the 9ride or 9ridegroom is sent orth8 I3J !ixing a $uck0 time or the conc$usion o treaties o peace Ior using charms to procure harmon0J8 I4J !ixing a $uck0 time or the out9reak o hosti$ities Ior using charms to make discordJ8 I"J !ixing a $uck0 time or the ca$$ing in o de9ts Ior charms or success in thro:ing diceJ8 I&J !ixing a $uck0 time or the expenditure o mone0 Ior charms to 9ring i$$ $uck to an opponent thro:ing diceJ8 I(J 4sing charms to make peop$e $uck08 I)J 4sing charms to make peop$e un$uck08 I,J 4sing charms to procure a9ortion8 I1/J Incantations to keep a manFs Aa:s ixed8 I11J Incantations to 9ring on dum9ness8 I12J Incantations to make a man thro: up his hands8 I13J Incantations to 9ring on dea ness8 I14J L9taining oracu$ar ans:ers 90 means o the magic mirror8 I1"J L9taining oracu$ar ans:ers through a gir$ possessed8 I1&J L9taining oracu$ar ans:ers rom a god8 I1(J The :orship o the Sun8 I1)J The :orship o the .reat Lne8 I1,J %ringing orth $ames rom oneFs mouth8 I2/J In3oking Siri@ the goddess o 'uck8 The %rahmins earned their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood@ 90 $o: arts@ such as these: I1J 2o:ing gi ts to a god i a certain 9ene it 9e granted8 I2J Pa0ing such 3o:s8 I3J Repeating charms :hi$e $odging in an earth house8 I4J Causing 3iri$it08

I"J *aking a man impotent8 I&J !ixing on $uck0 sites or d:e$$ings8 I(J Consecrating sites8 I)J Ceremonia$ rinsing o the mouth8 I,J Ceremonia$ 9athing8 I1/J L ering sacri ices8 I11514J Administering emetics and purgati3es8 I1"J Purging peop$e to re$ie3e the head Ithat is 90 gi3ing drugs to make peop$e snee>eJ8 I1&J Li$ing peop$eFs ears Ieither to make them gro: or to hea$ sores on themJ8 I1(J Satis 0ing peop$eFs e0es Isoothing them 90 dropping medicina$ oi$s into themJ8 I1)J Administering drugs through the nose8 I1,J App$0ing co$$0rium to the e0es8 I2/J .i3ing medicina$ ointment or the e0es8 I21J Practising as an ocu$ist8 I22J Practising as a surgeon8 I23J Practising as a doctor or chi$dren8 I24J Administering roots and drugs8 I2"J Administering medicines in rotation8 II1CL*P'ETEJ C,APTER 0 Re*ormers and Their 1ate !his is a t%ped bound cop% consistin$ o" 43 pa$es. !he Ambatta +utta starts at pa$e 17 o" the manuscript and a"ter pa$e 3;, pa$es are numbered "rom A to C. !he be$innin$ o" pa$e 3& starts with 2ohikka +utta.* Editors8 18 Ar0an Societ08 II8 %uddha and Re orm8 III8 I It :as Sir T8 *adha3a Ra: :ho speaking o +indu Societ0 o his time said : HThe $onger one $i3es@ o9ser3es@ and thinks@ the more deep$0 does he ee$ that there is no communit0 on the ace o the earth :hich su ers $ess rom po$itica$ e3i$s and more rom se$ 5in $icted or se$ 5accepted or se$ 5created@ and there ore a3oida9$e e3i$s@ than the +indu Communit08H This 3ie: expresses =uite accurate$0 and :ithout exaggeration the necessit0 o socia$ re orm in +indu Societ08 The irst Socia$ Re ormer and the greatest o them a$$ is .autama %uddha8 An0 histor0 o Socia$ Re orm must 9egin :ith him and no histor0 o Socia$ Re orm in India :i$$ 9e comp$ete :hich omits to take account o his great achie3ements8

Siddhartha@ surname .autama@ :as 9orn in the Sak0a c$an a8t -api$3astu in 1orthern India@ on the 9orders o 1epa$ in "&3 %8C8 Tradition sa0s he :as a prince8 +e recei3ed education it or a prince@ :as married and had a son8 Lppressed 90 the e3i$s and miser0 then pre3a$ent in the Ar0an Societ0 he renounced the :or$d at the age o t:ent05nine and $e t his home in search or truth and de$i3erance8 +e 9ecame a mendicant and studied :ith t:o distinguished teachers@ 9ut inding that their teachings did not satis 0 him he $e t them and 9ecame an ascetic8 +e ga3e up that a$so as 9eing uti$e8 %0 hard thinking he got insight into things and as a resu$t o this insight he ormu$ated his o:n Dhamma. This :as at the age o thirt05 i3e8 The remainder o his eight0 0ears he spent in spreading his #hamma and ounding and administering an order o monks8 +e died a9out the 0ear 4)3 %8C8 at -usinara surrounded 90 his de3oted o$$o:ers8 To the carr0ing out o his mission@ the %uddha de3oted a$$ his da0s a ter the achie3ement o en$ightenment8 +is time :as di3ided 9et:een eeding the $amp o his o:n spiritua$ $i e 90 so$itar0 meditationGAust as <esus spent hours in $one$0 pra0erGand acti3e preaching to $arge audiences o his monks@ instructing the more ad3anced in the su9t$e points o inner de3e$opment@ directing the a airs o the Lrder@ re9uking 9reaches o discip$ine@ con irming the aith u$ in their 3irtue@ recei3ing deputation@ carr0ing on discussions :ith $earned opponents@ com orting the sorro: u$@ 3isiting kings and peasants@ %rahmins and outcasts@ rich and poor8 +e :as a riend o pu9$icans and sinners@ and man0 a pu9$ic har$ot@ inding herse$ understood and pitied@ ga3e up her e3i$ :a0s to take re uge in the H%$essed LneH8 Such a $i e demanded a 3ariet0 o mora$ =ua$ities and socia$ gi ts@ and among others a com9ination o democratic sentiments :ith an aristocratic +avoir /aire :hich is se$dom met :ith8 In reading the dia$ogues one can ne3er orget that .otama had the 9irth and up9ringing o an aristocrat8 +e con3erses not on$0 :ith %rahmins and pundits 9ut :ith princes and ministers and kings on eas0 and e=ua$ terms8 +e is a good diner5out@ :ith a und o anecdotes and apparent$0 a rea$ sense o humour@ and is a :e$come =uest at e3er0 house8 A distinguished %rahmin is pictured as descri9ing him thus : FThe 3enera9$e .otama is :e$$ 9orn on 9oth sides@ o pure descent88888 is handsome@ p$easant to $ook upon@ inspiring trust@ gi ted :ith great 9eaut0 o comp$exion@ air in co$our@ ine in presence@ state$0 to 9eho$d@ 3irtuous :ith the 3irtue o the Arhats@ gi ted :ith goodness and 3irtue and :ith a p$easant 3oice and po$ite address@ :ith no passion o $ust $e t in him nor an0 ick$eness o mind8 +e 9ids a$$ men :e$come@ is congenia$@ conci$iator0@ not superci$$ious@ accessi9$e to a$$@ not 9ack:ard in con3ersation8 F %ut :hat appea$ed most to the India o his

time@ and has appea$ed most to India through the ages@ is expressed 90 the %rahmin in these :ords : HThe monk .otama has gone orth into the re$igious $i e@ gi3ing up the great c$an o his re$ati3es@ gi3ing up much mone0 and go$d@ treasure 9oth 9uried and a9o3e ground8 Tru$0 :hi$e he :as sti$$ a 0oung man@ :ithout a gre0 hair on his head@ in the 9eaut0 o his ear$0 manhood he :ent orth rom the househo$d $i e into the home$ess state8H HSuch a $i e as his@ demanded not on$0 p$easant manners@ s0mpath0 and kindness@ 9ut irmness and courage8 6hen the occasion re=uired it@ he cou$d 9e ca$m$0 se3ere :ith those :ho :orked e3i$ or the Lrder8 Ph0sica$ pain@ he 9ore not on$0 :ith e=uanimit0 9ut :ith no diminution o his inner Ao08 Courage a$so :as needed and :as ound B as@ or examp$e@ in the %uddhaFs ca$m attitude during #e3adattaFs 3arious attempts to assassinate him@ in acing threats o murder@ and in the con3ersion o the amous 9andit in the -ingdom o -osa$a@ :hom a$$ the countr0side eared@ and :hom the %uddha 3isited@ a$one and unarmed@ in his $air@ changing him rom a scourge o the kindorn to a peace u$ mem9er o the Lrder8 1either pain@ danger@ nor insu$ts marred his spiritua$ peace8 6hen he :as re3i$ed he re3i$ed not again8 1or :as he $acking in tender thought u$ness or those :ho needed his com ort and support8H +e :as 9e$o3ed o a$$8 Repeated$0 he is descri9ed or descri9es himse$ @ as one 9orn into the :or$d or the good o the man0@ or the happiness o the man0@ or the ad3antage@ the good@ the happiness o gods and men@ out o compassion or the :or$d8 +e $e t an inde$i9$e mark on the Ar0an Societ0 and a$though his name has gone out o India the impression o his teaching sti$$ remains8 +is re$igion spread $ike :i$d ire8 It soon 9ecame the re$igion o the :ho$e o India8 %ut it did not remain con ined to India8 It reached e3er0 corner o the then kno:n :or$d8 A$$ races accepted it8 E3en the A ghans :ere once %uddhists8 It did not remain con ined to Asia8 There is e3idence to sho: that %uddhism :as the re$igion o Ce$tic %ritain8 6hat :as the cause o this rapid spread o %uddhism; /n this point :hat Pro 8 +opkins has said is :orth =uoting8 This is :hat he sa0s: HThe cause@ then@ o the rapid spread o %uddhism at the 9eginning o its career $ies on$0 in the conditions o its teaching and the in $uentia$ 9acking o its ounder8 It :as the indi3idua$ %uddha that capti3ated men B it :as the teaching that emanated rom him that ired enthusiasm B it :as his position as an aristocrat that made him accepta9$e to the aristocrac0@ his magnetism that made him the ido$ o the peop$e8 !rom e3er0 page stands out the strong@ attracti3e persona$it0 o this teacher and :inner o hearts8 1o man e3er $i3ed so god$ess 0et so god$ike8 Arrogating to himse$ no di3init0@ despairing o uture 9$iss@ 9ut
[f15]

:ithout ear as :ithout hope@ $eader o thought 9ut despising $o3ing$0 the o$$0 o the :or$d@ exa$ted 9ut adored@ the uni3ersa$ 9rother@ he :andered among men@ simp$0@ serene$0@ :ith gent$e iron0 su9duing them that opposed him@ to congregation a ter congregation speaking :ith maAestic s:eetness@ the master to each@ the riend o a$$8 +is 3oice :as singu$ar$0 3i9rant and e$o=uentB his 3er0 tones con3inced the hearer@ his $ooks inspired a:e8 !rom the tradition it appears that he must ha3e 9een one o those :hose persona$it0 a$one su ices to make a man not on$0 a $eader 9ut a$so a god to the hearts o his e$$o:s8 6hen such a one speaks he o9tains hearers8 It matters $itt$e :hat he sa0s@ or he in $uences the motions@ and 9ends :hoe3er $istens to his :i$$8 %ut i added to this persona$it0@ i encompassing it8 there 9e the ee$ing in the minds o others that :hat this man teaches is not on$0 a 3ariet0@ 9ut the 3er0 hope o their sa$3ation B i or the irst time the0 recognise in his :ords the truth that makes o s$a3es ree men@ o c$asses a 9rotherhood@ then it is not di icu$t to see :herein $ies the $ightning $ike speed :ith :hich the e$ectric current passes rom heart to heart8 Such a man :as %uddha@ such :as the essentia$ o his teaching: and such :as the ine3ita9$e rapidit0 o %uddhistic expansion and the pro ound in $uence o the shock that :as produced 90 the ne: aith upon the mora$ consciousness o %uddhaFs peop$e8H To understand the great re orm@ :hich he 9rought a9out 90 his teaching@ it is necessar0 to ha3e some idea o the degraded condition o the Ar0an ci3i$isation at the time :hen %uddha started on the mission o" his $i e8 The Ar0an Communit0 o his time :as steeped in the :orst kind o de9aucher0: socia$@ re$igious and spiritua$8 To mention on$0 a e: o the socia$ e3i$s@ attention ma0 9e dra:n to gam9$ing8 .am9$ing had 9ecome as :idespread among the Ar0ans as drinking8 E3er0 king had a ha$$ o gam9$ing attached to his pa$ace8 E3er0 king had an expert gam9$er in his emp$o0ment as a companion to p$a0 :ith8 -ing <irat had in his emp$o0ment 9ank as an expert gam9$er8 .am9$ing :as not mere$0 a pastime :ith kings8 The0 p$a0ed :ith hea30 stakes8 The0 staked kingdoms@ dependents@ re$ati3es@ s$a83es@ ser3ants8[f16] -ing 1a$a staked e3er0thing in gam9$ing :ith -askkar and $ost e3er0thing8 The on$0 thing he did not stake :as himse$ and his :i e #ama0anti8 1a$a had to go and $i3e in the orest as a 9eggar8 There :ere kings :ho :ent 9e0ond 1a$a8 The *aha9harat [f17] te$$s ho: #harma the e$dest o the Panda3as gam9$ed and staked e3er0thing@ his 9rothers and a$so his and their :i e #raupadi8 .am9$ing :as a matter o honour :ith the Ar0ans and an0 in3itation to gam9$e :as regraded as an inAur0 to oneFs honour and dignit08 #harma gam9$ed :ith such disastrous conse=uences a$though he :as :arned 9e orehand8 +is excuse :as that he :as in3ited to gam9$e and that as a man o honour he cou$d not dec$ine such an in3itation8

This 3ice o gam9$ing :as not con ined to kings8 It had in ected e3en the common o$k8 Rig52eda contains $amentations o poor Ar0an ruined 90 gam9$ing8 The ha9it o gam9$ing had 9ecome so common in -auti$0aFs time that there :ere gam9$ing houses $icensed 90 the king rom :hich the king deri3ed considera9$e re3enue8 #rinking :as another e3i$ :hich :as rampant among the Ar0ans8 'i=uors :ere o t:o sorts +oma and +ura. +oma :as a sacri icia$ :ine8 The drinking o the Soma :as in the 9eginning permitted on$0 to %rahmins@ -shatri0as and 2aish0as8 Su9se=uent$0 it :as permitted on$0 to %rahmins and -shatri0as8 The 2aish0as :ere exc$uded rom it and the Shudras :ere ne3er permitted to taste it8 Its manu acture :as a secret kno:n on$0 to the %rahmins8 +ura :as open to a$$ and :as drunk 90 a$$8 The %rahmins a$so drank +ura. Shukrachar0a[f18] the priest to the Asuras drank so hea3i$0 that in his drunken state he ga3e the $i e5 gi3ing 5antras*kno:n to him on$0 and :ith :hich he used to re3i3e the Asuras ki$$ed 90 the Devas* to 9atch the son o Brahaspati :ho :as the priest o the #e3as8 The *aha9harat mentions an occasion :hen 9oth 9rishna and Ar@una :ere dead drunk8 That sho:s that the 9est among the Ar0an Societ0 :ere not on$0 not ree rom the drink ha9it 9ut that the0 drank hea3i$08 The most shame u$ part o it :as that e3en the Ar0an :omen :ere addicted to drink8 !or instance +udeshna[f19] the :i e o king <irat te$$s her maid +airandhri to go to 9ichaka s pa$ace and 9ring +ura as she :as d0ing to ha3e a drink8 It is not to 9e supposed that on$0 =ueens indu$ged in drinking8 The ha9it o drinking :as common among :omen o a$$ c$asses and e3en %rahmin :omen :ere not ree rom it8 [f20] That $i=uor and dancing :as indu$ged in 90 the Ar0an :omen is c$ear rom the 9ausitaki 6rih%a +utra 18 1 1512@ :hich sa0s@ H!our or eight :omen :ho are not :ido:ed a ter ha3ing 9een rega$ed :ith :ine and ood are to dance or our times on the night pre3ious to the :edding ceremon08H Turning to the Ar0an Societ0 it :as marked 90 c$ass :ar and c$ass degradation8 The Ar0an Societ0 recognised our c$asses@ the %rahmins@ -shatri0as@ 2aish0as and Shudras8 These di3isions :ere not mere$0 hori>onta$ di3isions@ a$$ on a par :ith each other in the matter o socia$ re$ationship8 These di3isions@ had 9ecome 3ertica$@ one a9o3e the other8 %eing p$aced a9o3e or 9e$o: there :as 9oth Aea$ous0 and ri3a$r0 among the our c$asses8 This Aea$ous0 and ri3a$r0 had gi3en rise e3en to enmit08 This enmit0 :as particu$ar$0 noticea9$e 9et:een the t:o highest c$asses@ name$0@ the %rahmins and the -shatri0as and there :as a regu$ar c$ass war 9et:een the t:o@ so intense that it :ou$d de$ight the heart o an0 *arxian to read the descriptions thereo 8 4n ortunate$0 there is no detai$ed histor0 o this c$ass :ar 9et:een the %rahmins and the -shatri0as8 Ln$0 a e: instances ha3e 9een recorded8 2ena@ Purura3as@ 1ahusha@ Sudas@

Sumukh and 1imi :ere some o the -shatri0a kings :ho came into the con $ict :ith the %rahmins8 The issues in these con $icts :ere di erent8 The issue 9et:een 2ena and the %rahmins :as :hether a -ing cou$d command and re=uire the %rahmins to :orship him and o er sacri ice to him instead o the .ods8 The issue 9et:een Purura3as and the %rahmins :as :hether a -shatri0a -ing cou$d con iscate the propert0 o the %rahmin8 The issue 9et:een 1ahusha and the %rahmins :as :hether a -shatri0a king cou$d order a %rahmin to do a ser3i$e Ao98 The issue 9et:een 1imi and the %rahmins :as :hether the king :as 9ound to emp$o0 on$0 his ami$0 priest at the sacri icia$ ceremon08 The issue 9et:een Sudas and the %rahmins :as :hether the king :as 9ound to emp$o0 on$0 a %rahmin as a priest8 This sho:s ho: 9ig :ere the issues 9et:een the t:o c$asses8 1o :onder that the strugg$e 9et:een them :as a$so the 9itterest8 The :ars 9et:een them :ere not mere$0 occasiona$ riots8 The0 :ere :ars o extermination8 It is stated that Parashuram a %rahmin ought against the -shatri0as t:ent05one times and ki$$ed e3er0 -shatri0a8 6hi$e the t:o c$asses :ere ighting among themse$3es or supremac0@ the0 9oth com9ined to keep do:n the 2aish0as and the Shudras8 The 2aish0a :as a mi$ch co:8 +e $i3ed on$0 to pa0 taxes8 The Shudra :as a genera$ 9east o" 9urden8 These t:o c$asses existed or the so$e purpose o making the $i e o the %rahmins and -shatri0as g$orious and happ08 The0 had no right to $i3e or themse$3es8 The0 $i3ed to make the $i e o their 9etters possi9$e8 %e$o: these t:o c$asses there :ere others8 The0 :ere the Chanda$as and Sh:appakas8 The0 :ere not untoucha9$es 9ut the0 :ere degraded8 The0 :ere outside the pa$e o societ0 and outside the pa$e o $a:8 The0 had no rights and no opportunities8 The0 :ere the reAects o the Ar0an Societ08 The sexua$ immora$it0 o" the Ar0an Societ0 must shock their present da0 descendants8 The Ar0ans o pre5%uddhist da0s had no such ru$e o prohi9ited degrees@ as :e ha3e toda0 to go3ern their sexua$ or matrimonia$ re$ationship8 According to the Ar0an *0tho$og0@ %rahma is the creator8 %rahma had three sons and a daughter8 +is one son #aksha married his sister8 The daughters 9orn o this marriage 9et:een 9rother and sister :ere married some to -ash0apa the son o *arichi the son o %rahma and some to #harma the third son o %rahma8[f21] In the Rig52eda there is an episode re$ated o ?ama and ?ami 9rother and sister8 According to this episode ?ami the sister in3ites her 9rother ?ama to coha9it :ith her and 9ecomes angr0 :hen he re uses to do so [f22]8 A ather cou$d marr0 his daughter8 <ashishta married his o:n daughter +hatrupa :hen she came o age[f23]8 5anu married his daughter Ila.[f24] Aanhu married his daughter Aanhavi[f25]. +ur%a married his daughter =sha[f26]. There

:as po$0andri not o the ordinar0 t0pe8 The po$0andri pre3a$ent among the Ar0ans :as a po$0andri :hen -insmen coha9ited :ith one :oman8 Dhahaprachetani and his son +oma coha9ited :ith 5arisha the daughter o +oma[f27]. Instances o grand ather marr0ing his grand5daughter are not :anting8 #aksha ga3e his daughter in marriage to his ather %rahma [f28] and rom that marriage :as 9orn the amous 1arada8 #auhitra8 ga3e his 2( daughters to his ather Soma or coha9itation and procreation[f29]8 The Ar0ans did not mind coha9iting :ith :omen in the open and :ithin sight o peop$e8 The Rishis used to per orm certain re$igious rites :hich :ere ca$$ed 2amde30a 3rata8 These rites used to 9e per ormed on the ?adn0a %humi8 I an0 :oman came there and expressed a desire or sexua$ intercourse and asked the sage to satis 0 her@ the sage used to coha9it :ith her then and there in the open on the ?adn0a %humi8 Instances o this ma0 9e mentionedB the case o the sage Parashara :ho had sexua$ intercourse :ith Sat0a3ati and a$so o #irghatapa8 That such a custom :as common is sho:n 90 the existence o the :ord A0oni8 The :ord A0oni is understood to mean o immacu$ate conception8 That is not ho:e3er the origina$ meaning o the :ord8 The origina$ meaning o the :ord ?oni is house8 A0oni means concei3ed out o the house i8e8 in the open8 That there :as nothing deemed to 9e :rong in this is c$ear rom the act that 9oth Sita and #raupadi :ere A0oniAa8 That this :as 3er0 common is c$ear rom the act that re$igious inAunctions had to 9e issued against such a practice8 [f30] There :as pre3a$ent among the Ar0ans the practice o renting out their :omen to others or a time8 As an i$$ustration ma0 9e mentioned the stor0 o *adha3i [f31] The king ?a0ati ga3e his daughter *adha3i as an o ering to his guru .a$a38 .a$a3 rented out the gir$ *adha3i to three kings each a period8 Therea ter he ga3e her in marriage to 2ish:amitra8 She remained :ith him unti$ a son :as 9orn to her8 Therea ter .a$a3 took a:a0 the gir$ and ga3e her 9ack to her ather ?a0ati8 %esides the practice o $etting out :omen to others temporari$0 at a rent@ there :as pre3a$ent among the Ar0ans another practice name$0@ a$$o:ing procreation 90 the 9est amongst them8 Raising a ami$0 :as treated 90 them as though it :as a 9reeding or stock raising8 Among the Ar0as there :as a c$ass o persons ca$$ed Devas :ho :ere Ar0ans 9ut o a superior status and pro:ess8 The Ar0ans a$$o:ed their :omen to ha3e sexua$ intercourse :ith an0 one o the c$ass o #e3as in the inerest o good 9reeding8 This practice pre3ai$ed so extensi3e$0 that the #e3as came to regard pre$i9ation in respect o the Ar0an :omen as their prescripti3e right8 1o Ar0an :oman cou$d 9e married un$ess this right o pre$i9ation had 9een redeemed and the :oman re$eased rom the contro$ o the #e3as 90 o ering :hat :as technica$$0 ca$$ed Avadan. The 'aAa +oame :hich is

per ormed in e3er0 +indu marriage and the detai$s o :hich are gi3en in the Ash:a$a0an .rah0a Sutra is a re$ic o this act o the redemption o the Ar0an :oman rom the right o pre$i9ation o the #e3as8 The Avadan in the 'aAa +oame is nothing 9ut the price or the extinguishment o the right o the #e3as o3er the 9ride8 The +aptapadi per ormed in a$$ +indu marriages and :hich is regarded as the most essentia$ ceremon0 :ithout :hich there is no $a: u$ marriage has an integra$ connection :ith this right o pre$i9ation o the #e3as8 Saptapadi means :a$king 90 the 9ridegroom se3en steps :ith the 9ride8 6h0 is this essentia$; The ans:er is that the #e3as i the0 :ere dissatis ied :ith the compensation cou$d c$aim the :oman 9e ore the se3enth step :as taken8 A ter the se3enth step :as taken@ the right o the #e3as :as extinguished and the 9ridegroom cou$d take a:a0 the 9ride and $i3e as hus9and and :i e :ithout 9eing o9structed or mo$ested 90 the #e3as8 There :as no ru$e o chastit0 or maidens8 A gir$ cou$d ha3e sexua$ intercourse :ith and a$so progen0 rom an09od0 :ithout contracting marriage8 This is e3ident rom the root meaning o the :ord 9an%a :hich means a gir$8 9an%a comes rom the root 9am :hich means a gir$ ree to o er herse$ to an0 man8 That the0 did o er themse$3es to an0 man and had chi$dren :ithout contracting regu$ar marriage is i$$ustrated 90 the case o 9unti and 5ats%a$andha. -unti had chi$dren rom di erent men 9e ore she :as married to Pandu and *ats0agandha had sexua$ intercourse :ith the sage Parashara 9e ore she :as married to +hantanu the ather o %hishma8 %estia$it0 :as a$so pre3a$ent among the Ar0ans8 The stor0 o the sage #am ha3ing sexua$ intercourse :ith a ema$e deer [f32] is :e$$ kno:n8 Another instance is that o Sur0a coha9iting :ith a mare [f33]88 %ut the most hideous instance is that o the :oman ha3ing sexua$ intercourse :ith the horse in the Ash3amedha ?adna8 The re$igion o the Ar0an consisted o the Badna or sacri ice8 The sacri ice :as a means to enter into the godhead o the gods@ and e3en to contro$ the gods8 The traditiona$ sacri ices :ere t:ent05one in num9er di3ided into three c$asses o se3en each8 The irst :ere sacri ices o 9utter@ mi$k@ corn@ etc8 The second c$ass co3ered +oma sacri ices and third anima$ sacri ices8 The sacri ice ma0 9e o short duration or $ong duration $asting or a 0ear or more8 The $atter :as ca$$ed a +attra. The argument in a3our o the sacri ice is that eterna$ ho$iness is :on 90 him that o ers the sacri ice8 1ot on$0 a manFs se$ 9ut a$so his *anes stood to 9ene it 90 means o sacri ice8 +e gi3es the *anes p$easure :ith his o ering@ 9ut he a$so raises their estate@ and sends them up to $i3e in a higher :or$d [f34]8 The sacri ice :as 90 no means meant as an aid to the ac=uirement o hea3en$0 9$iss a$one8 *an0 o the great sacri ices :ere or the gaining o good things on earth8 That one shou$d sacri ice :ithout the u$terior moti3e o gain is

unkno:n8 %rahmanic India kne: no thank o ering8 Lrdinari$0 the gain is represented as a compensating gi t rom the di3init0@ :hom the0 sacri ice8 The sacri ice 9egan :ith the recitation : H +e o ers the sacri ice to the god :ith this text : F#o thou gi3e to me IandJ I I:i$$J gi3e to thee B do thou 9esto: on me IandJ I I:i$$J 9esto: on theeF8 H The ceremon0 o the sacri ice :as a:e5inspiring8 E3er0 :ord :as pregnant :ith conse=uences and e3en the pronunciation o the :ord or accent :as ate u$8 There are indications@ ho:e3er@ that the priest themse$3es understood that@ much in the ceremonia$ :as pure hocus5pocus@ and not o much importance as it :as made out to 9e8 E3er0 sacri ice meant ee to the priest8 As to ee@ the ru$es :ere precise and their propounds :ere un9$ushing8 The priest per ormed the sacri ice or the ee a$one@ and it must consist o 3a$ua9$e garments@ kine@ horses or go$dG:hen each :as to 9e gi3en :as care u$$0 stated8 The priests had 9ui$t up a great comp$ex o orms@ :here at e3er0 turn ees :ere demanded8 The :ho$e expense@ a$$ing on one indi3idua$ or :hose 9ene it the sacri ice :as per ormed@ must ha3e 9een enormous8 +o: cost$0 the :ho$e thing 9ecame can 9e seen rom the act that in one p$ace the ee or the sacri ice is mentioned as one thousand co:s8 !or this greed@ :hich :ent so ar that he proc$aimed that he :ho gi3es a thousand co:s o9tains a$$ things o hea3en8 The priest had a good precedent to cite@ or@ the gods o hea3en@ in a$$ ta$es to$d o them@ e3er demand a re:ard rom each other :hen the0 he$p their neigh9our gods8 I the .ods seek re:ards@ the priest has a right to do the same8 The principa$ sacri ice :as the anima$ sacri ice8 It :as 9oth cost$0 and 9ar9aric8 In the Ar0an re$igion there are i3e sacri icia$ anima$s mentioned8 In this $ist o sacri icia$ anima$s man came irst8 The sacri ice o a man :as the cost$iest8 The ru$es o sacri ice re=uired that the indi3idua$ to 9e s$aughtered must 9e neither a8 priest nor a s$a3e8 +e must 9e a -shatri0a or 2aish0a8 According to the ordinar0 3a$uation o those times the cost o 9u0ing a man to 9e sacri iced :as one thousand co:s8 %esides 9eing cost$0 and 9ar9aric@ it must ha3e 9een re3o$ting 9ecause the sacri icers had not on$0 to ki$$ the man 9ut to eat him8 1ext to man came the horse8 That a$so :as a cost$0 sacri ice 9ecause the horse :as a rare and a necessar0 anima$ or the Ar0ans in their con=uest o India8 The Ar0ans cou$d hard$0 a ord such a potent instrument o mi$itar0 domination to 9e o ered as sacri ice8 The sacri ice must ha3e 9een re3o$ting in as much as one o the ritua$s in the horse5sacri ice :as the copu$ation o the horse 9e ore it :as s$aughtered :ith the :i e o the sacri icer8 The anima$s most common$0 o ered or sacri ice :ere o course the catt$e :hich :ere used 90 the peop$e or their agricu$tura$ purposes8 The0 :ere most$0 co:s and 9u$$ocks8

The ?adnas :ere cost$0 and the0 :ou$d ha3e died out o sheer considerations o expense in3o$3ed8 %ut the0 did not8 The reason is that the stoppage o ?adna in3o$3ed the =uestion o the $oss o the %rahminFs ees8 There cou$d 9e no ees i the ?adna ceased to 9e per ormed and the %rahmin :ou$d star3e8 The %rahmin there ore ound a su9stitute or the cost$0 sacri icia$ anima$s8 !or a human sacri ice the %rahmin a$$o:ed as a su9stitute or a $i3e man@ a man o stra: or meta$ or earth8 %ut the0 did not a$together gi3e up human sacri ice or ear that this ?adna might 9e stopped and the0 shou$d $ose their ees8 6hen human sacri ice 9ecame rare@ anima$ sacri ice came in as a su9stitute8 Anima$ sacri ice :as a$so a =uestion o expense to the $ait08 +ere again rather than a$$o: the sacri ice to go out o 3ogue@ the %rahmins came or:ard :ith sma$$er anima$s or catt$e Aust as catt$e had 9een a$$o:ed to take the p$ace o the man and the horse8 A$$ this :as or the purpose o maintaining the Badna so that the %rahmin did not $ose his ees :hich :as his maintenance8 So set :ere the %rahmins on the continuance o the ?adna that the0 :ere satis ied :ith mere$0 rice as an o ering8 It must not ho:e3er 9e supposed that the institution o su9stitutes o the ?adnas o the Ar0ans had 9ecome $ess horrid8 The introduction o su9stitutes did not :ork as a comp$ete rep$acement o the more expensi3e and more ghast$0 sacri ice 90 the $ess expensi3e and the more innocent8 A$$ that it meant :as that the o ering ma0 9e according to the capacit0 o the sacri icer8 I he :as poor his o ering ma0 9e rice8 I he :as :e$$ to do it might 9e a goat8 I he :as rich it might 9e a man@ horse@ co: or a 9u$$8 The e ect o the su9situtes :as that the ?adna :as 9rought :ithin the capacit0 o a$$ so that the %rahmin reaped a $arger har3est o east on the tota$8 It did not ha3e the e ect o stopping anima$ sacri ice8 Indeed anima$s continued to 9e sacri iced 90 the thousands8 The ?adna o ten 9ecame a regu$ar carnage o catt$e at :hich the %rahmins did the :ork o 9utchers8 Lne gets some idea o the extent o this carnage o innocent anima$s rom re erences to the ?adnas :hich one comes across in %uddhist $iterature8 In the Suttanipat a description is gi3en o the ?adna that :as arranged to 9e per ormed 90 Pasenadi@ king o -osa$a8 It is stated that there :ere tied to the po$es or s$aughter at the ?adna i3e hundred oxen@ i3e hundred 9u$$s@ i3e hundred co:s@ i3e hundred goats and i3e hundred $am9s and that the ser3ents o the king :ho :ere detai$ed to do the Ao9s according to the orders gi3en to them 90 the o iciating %rahmin priests :ere doing their duties :ith tears in their e0es8 The ?adna 9esides in3o$3ing a terri9$e carnage :as rea$$0 a kind o carni3a$8 %esides roast meet there :as drink8 The %rahmins had Soma as :e$$ as Sura8 The others had Sura in a9undance8 A$most e3er0 ?adna :as o$$o:ed 90 gam9$ing and :hat is most extraordinar0 is that@ side 90 side there :ent on a$so sexua$ intercourse in the open8 ?adna had 9ecome de9aucher0 and there :as

no re$igion $e t in it8 The Ar0an re$igion :as Aust a series o o9ser3ances8 %ehind these o9ser3ances there :as no 0earning or a good and a 3irtuous $i e8 There :as no hunger or thirst or rightousness8 Their re$igion :as :ithout an0 spiritua$ content8 The h0mns o the Rig 2eda urnish 3er0 good e3idence o the a9sence o an0 spiritua$ 9asis or the Ar0an re$igion8 The h0mns are pra0ers addressed 90 the Ar0ans to their gods8 6hat do the0 ask or in these pra0ers; #o the0 ask to 9e kept a:a0 rom temptation; #o the0 ask or de$i3erance rom e3i$; #o the0 ask or orgi3eness o sins; *ost o the h0mns are in praise o Indra8 The0 praise him or ha3ing 9rought destruction to the enemies o the Ar0ans8 The0 praise him 9ecause he ki$$ed a$$ the pregnant :i3es o -rishna@ an Asura8 The0 praise him 9ecause he destro0ed hundreds o 3i$$ages o the Asuras8 The0 praise him 9ecause he ki$$ed $akhs o #as0us8 The Ar0ans pra0 to Indra to carr0 on greater destruction among the Anar0as in the hope that the0 ma0 secure to themse$3es the ood supp$ies o the Anar0as and the :ea$th o the Anar0as8 !ar rom 9eing spiritua$ and e$e3ating@ the h0mns o the Rig52eda are saturated :ith :icked thoughts and :icked purposes8 The Ar0an re$igion ne3er concerned itse$ :ith :hat is ca$$ed a righteous $i e8 II Such :as the state o the Ar0an Societ0 :hen %uddha :as 9orn8 There are t:o pertinent =uestions regarding %uddha as a re ormer :ho $a9oured to re orm the Ar0an Societ08 6hat :ere the chie p$anks in his re orm; To :hat extent did he succeed in his re orm mo3ement; To take up the irst =uestion8 %uddha e$t that or the incu$cation o a good and a pure $i e@ examp$e :as 9etter than precept8 The most important thing he did :as to $ead a good and a pure $i e so that it might ser3e as a mode$ to a$$8 +o: un9$emished a $i e he $ed can 9e gathered rom the Brahma-Aala +utta. It is reproduced 9e$o: 9ecause it not on$0 gi3es an idea o the pure $i e that %uddha $ed 9ut it a$so gi3es an idea o ho: impure a $i e the %rahmins@ the 9est among the Ar0ans $ed8 Brahma 2ala $utta 18 Thus ha3e I heard8 The %$essed Lne :as once going a$ong the high road 9et:een RaAagaha and 1a$anda :ith a great compan0 o the 9rethren :ith a9out i3e hundred 9rethren8 And Suppi0a the mendicant too :as going a$ong the high road 9et:een RaAagaha and 1a$anda :ith his discip$e the 0oung %rahmadatta8 1o: Aust then Suppi0a the mendicant :as speaking in man0 :a0s in dispraise o the %uddha@ in dispraise o the #octrine@ in dispraise o the Lrder8 %ut 0oung %rahmadatta@ his pupi$@ ga3e utterance@ in man0 :a0s@ to praise o the %uddha@ to praise o the #octrine@ to praise o the Lrder8 Thus the0 t:o@ teacher and pupi$@ ho$ding opinions in direct contradiction o one to the other@ :ere o$$o:ing@ step 90 step@ a ter the %$essed one and the compan0 o the 9rethren8

28 1o: the %$essed one put up at the ro0a$ rest house in the Am9a$atthika p$easance to pass the night@ and :ith him the compan0 o the 9rethren8 And so a$so did Suppi0a the mendicant@ and :ith him his 0oung discip$e %rahmadatta8 And there@ at the rest houses@ these t:o carried on the same discussion as 9e$ore8 38 And in the ear$0 da:n a num9er o the 9rethren assem9$ed as the0 rose up8 in the pa3i$ion B and this :as the trend o the ta$k that sprang up among them as the0 :ere seated there8 F+o: :onder u$ a thing is it@ 9rethren@ and ho: strange that the %$essed Lne@ he :ho kno:s and sees@ the Arahat the %uddha Supreme@ shou$d so c$ear$0 ha3e percei3ed ho: 3arious are the inc$ination o menO !or see ho: :hi$e Suppi0a the mendicant speaks in man0 :a0s in dispraise o the %uddha@ the #octrine@ and the Lrder@ his o:n discip$e@ 0oung %rahmadatta@ speaks@ in as man0 :a0s@ in praise o them8 So do these t:o@ teacher and pupi$@ o$$o: step 90 step a ter the %$essed Lne and the compan0 o the 9rethren@ gi3ing utterance to 3ie:s in direct contradiction o one to the other8 48 1o: the %$essed Lne8 on rea$ising :hat :as the dri t o their ta$k@ :ent to the pa3i$ion@ and took his seat on the mat spread out or him8 And :hen he had sat do:n he said : H6hat is the ta$k on :hich 0ou are engaged sitting here and :hat is the su9Aect o the con3ersation 9et:een 0ou;H And the0 to$d him a$$8 And he said: "8 %rethren@ i outsiders shou$d speak against me@ or against the #octrine@ or against the Lrder@ 0ou shou$d not on that account either 9ear ma$ice@ or su er heart 9urning@ or ee$ i$$5:i$$8 I 0ou@ on that account@ shou$d 9e angr0 and hurt@ that :ou$d stand in the :a0 o 0our o:n se$ 5con=uest8 I @ :hen others speak against us@ 0ou ee$ angr0 at that@ and disp$eased@ :ou$d 0ou then 9e a9$e to Audge ho: ar that speech o theirs is :e$$ said or i$$; KThat :ou$d not he so@ Sir8F K%ut :hen outsiders speak in dispraise o me@ or o the #octrine@ or o the Lrder@ 0ou shou$d unra3e$ :hat is a$se and point it out as :rong@ sa0ing@ H!or this or that reason this is not the act@ that is not so@ such a thing is not ound among us@ is not in us8H &8 %ut a$so@ 9rethren@ i outsiders shou$d speak in praise o me@ in praise o the #octrine@ in praise o the Lrder@ 0ou shou$d not@ on that account@ 9e i$$ed :ith p$easure or g$adness@ or 9e $i ted up in heart8 6ere 0ou to 9e so that a$so :ou$d stand in the :a0 o 0our se$ 5con=uest8 6hen outsiders speak in praise o me@ or o the #octrine@ or o the Lrder@ 0ou shou$d ackno:$edge :hat is right to 9e the act sa0ing: H!or this or that reason this is the act@ that is so@ such a thing is ound among us@ is in us8H (8 $t is in respect on$0 o tri $ing things@ o matters o $itt$e 3a$ue@ o mere mora$it0@ that an uncon3erted man@ :hen praising the Tathagata@ :ou$d speak8 And :hat are such tri $ing@ minor detai$s o mere mora$it0 that he :ou$d praise;

I4J IThe *ora$ities8 Part 1J8 )8 HPutting a:a0 the ki$$ings o $i3ing things@ .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom the destruction o $i e8 +e has $aid the cudge$ and the s:ord aside@ and ashamed o roughness@ and u$$ o merc0@ he d:e$$s compassionate and kind to a$$ creatures that ha3e $i e8 HIt is thus that the uncon3erted man@ :hen speaking in praise o the Tathagata@ might speak8 Lr he might sa0: HPutting@ a:a0 the taking o :hat has not 9een gi3en@ .otama the rec$use $i3ed a$oo rom grasping :hat is not his o:n8 +e takes on$0 :hat is gi3en@ and expecting that gi ts :i$$ come@ he passes his $i e in honest0 and purit0 o heart8H Lr he might sa0: HPutting a:a0 in5chastit0@ .otama the rec$use is chaste8 +e ho$ds himse$ a$oo @ ar o @ rom the 3u$gar practice@ rom the sexua$ act8H ,8 Lr he might sa0: HPutting a:a0 $0ing :ords@ .otama the rec$use ho$ds himse$ a$oo rom a$sehood8 +e speaks truth rom the truth he ne3er s:er3es B aith u$ and trust:orth0@ he 9reaks not his :ord to the :or$dH8 Lr he might sa0: HPutting a:a0 s$ander8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds himse$ a$oo rom ca$umn08 6hat he hears here he repeats not e$se:here to raise a =uarre$ against the peop$e hereB :hat he hears e$se:here he repeats not here to raise a =uarre$ against the peop$e there8 Thus does he $i3e as a 9inder together o those :ho are di3ided@ an encourage o those :ho are riends@ a peacemaker@ a $o3er o peace@ impassioned or peace@ a speaker o :ords that make or peace8H Lr he might sa0: HPutting a:a0 rudeness o speech@ .otama the rec$use ho$ds himse$ a$oo rom harsh $anguage8 6hatsoe3er :ord is 9$ame$ess@ p$easant to the ear@ $o3e$0@ reaching to the heart@ ur9ane@ p$easing to the peop$e@ 9e$o3ed o the peop$e such are :ords he speaks8H Lr he might sa0 : HPutting a:a0 ri3o$ous ta$k@ .otama the rec$use ho$ds himse$ a$oo rom 3ain con3ersation8 In season he speaks@ in accordance :ith the acts@ :ords u$$ o meaning@ on re$igion@ on the discip$ine o the Lrder8 +e speaks@ and at the right time@ :ords :orth0 to 9e $aid up in oneFs heart@ it$0 i$$ustrated@ c$ear$0 di3ided@ to the point8H 1/8 Lr he might sa0: H.otama the rec$use ho$ds himse$ a$oo rom causing inAur0 to seeds or p$ants8 +e takes 9ut one mea$ a da0@ not eating at night@ re raining rom ood a ter hours Ia ter midda0J8 +e re rains rom 9eing a spectator at sho:s at airs :ith nautch dances@ singing@ and music8 +e a9stains rom :earing@ adorning@ or ornamenting himse$ :ith gar$ands@ scents@ and unguents8 +e a9stains rom the use o the $arge and $o t0 9eds8

+e a9stains rom accepting si$3er or go$d8 +e a9stains rom accepting uncooked grain8 +e a9stains rom accepting ra: meat8 +e a9stains rom accepting :omen or gir$s8 +e a9stains rom accepting 9ondmen or 9ond5:omen8 +e a9stains rom accepting sheep or goats8 +e a9stains rom accepting o:$s or s:ine8 +e a9stains rom accepting e$ephants@ catt$e@ horses and mare8 +e a9stains rom accepting cu$ti3ated ie$ds or :aste8 +e a9stains rom the acting as a go59et:een or messenger8 +e a9stains rom 9u0ing and se$$ing8 +e a9stains rom cheating :ith sca$es or 9ron>es or measures8 +e a9stains rom the crooked :a0s o 9ri9er0@ cheating@ and raud8 +e a9stains rom maiming@ murder@ putting in 9onds@ high:a0 ro99er0@ dacoit0@ and 3io$ence8H Such are the things@ 9rethren@ :hich an uncon3erted man@ :hen speaking in praise o the Tathagata might sa08 F +ere ends the -u$a Si$a Ithe Short Paragraphs on ConductJ8 II8 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ continue addicted to the inAur0 o seed$ings and gro:ing p$ants :hether propagated rom roots or cuttings or Aoints or 9uddings or seedsG.otarna the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such inAur0 to seed$ings and gro:ing p$ants8 H 128 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ continue addicted to the use o the things stored upB stores@ to :it@ o oods@ drinks@ c$othing@ e=uipages@ 9edding@ per umes@ and curr05stu sG.otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such use o things stored up8H 138 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ continue addicted to 3isiting sho:s B that is to sa0@ I1J 1autch dances InakkarnJ@ I2J Singings o songs IgitamJ I3J Instrumenta$ music I3aditamJ I4J Sho:s at airs IpekhamJ I"J %a$$ads recitations IakkhanamJ I&J +and music IpaniseramJ I(J The chanting o 9ards I3eta$aJ I)J Tam5tam p$a0ing Ikum9hathunamJ I,J !air scences Iso9hanagarkarnJ I1/J Acro9atic eats 90 -anda$as I-anda$a53amsa5dhopanamJ I11J Com9ats o e$ephants@ horses@ 9u a$oes@ 9u$$s@ goats@ rams8 Cocks and =uai$s8

I12J %outs at =uartersta @ 9oxing@ :rest$ing8 I13J5I1&J Sham5 ights@ ro$$5ca$$s@ manoeu3res@ re3ie:s8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom 3isiting such sho:s8H 148 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ continue addicted to games and recreations@ that is to sa08 I1J .ames on hoards :ith eight@ or :ith ten ro:s o s=uares8 I2J The same games p$a0ed 90 imagining such 9oards in the air8 I3J -eeping going o3er diagrams dra:n on the ground so that one5steps on$0 :here one ought to go8 I4J Either remo3ing the pieces or men rom a heap :ith one s nai$ or putting them into a heap in each case :ithout shaking it8 +e@ :ho shakes the heap@ $oses8 I"J Thro:ing dice8 I&J +itting a short stick :ith a $ong one8 I(J #ipping the hand :ith the ingers stretched out in $ac or red d0e@ or $our :ater@ and striking the :et hand on the ground or on a :a$$ ca$$ing out F6hat sha$$ it 9e;F and sho:ing the orm re=uiresGe$ephants@ horses etc8@ I)J .ames :ith 9a$$s8 I,J %$o:ing through to0 pipes made o $ea3es8 I1/J P$oughing :ith to0 p$oughs8 I11J Turning summersau$ts8 I12J P$a0ing :ith to0 :indmi$$s made o pa$m $ea3es8 I13J P$a0ing :ith to0 measures made o pa$m $ea3es8 I14@ 1"J P$a0ing :ith to0 carts or to0 9o:s8 I1&J .uessing at $etters traced in the air@ or on a p$a0 e$$o:Fs 9ack8 I1(J .uessing the p$a0 e$$o:Fs thoughts8 II)J *imicr0 o de ormities8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such games and recreations8H 1"8 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ continue addicted to the use o high and $arge couches: that is to sa0@ I1J *o3ea9$e settees@ high@ and six eet $ong IAsandiJ8 I2J #i3ans :ith anima$ igures car3ed on the supports IPa$$ankoJ8 I3J .oatsF hair co3erings :ith 3er0 $ong $eece I.anakoJ8 I4J Patch:ork counterpanes o man0 co$our I-ittakaJ8 I"J 6hite 9$ankets IPatikaJ8 I&J 6oo$$en co3er$ets em9roidered :ith $o:ers IPata$ikaJ8 I(J Mui$ts stu ed :ith cotton:ood ITu$ikaJ8 I)J Co3er$ets em9roidered :ith igures o $ions@ tigers@ Nc8@ I2ikatikaJ8 I,J Rugs :ith ur on 9oth sides I4dda$omiJ8

I1/J Rugs :ith ur on one side IEkanta$omiJ8 I11J Co3er$ets em9roidered :ith gems I-atthissamJ8 I12J Si$k co3er$ets I-ose00amJ8 I13J Carpets $arge enough or sixteen dancers I-uttakamJ8 I1451&J E$ephant@ horse@ and chariot rugs8 I1(J Rugs o ante$ope skins se:n together IAginapa3eniJ8 I1)J Rugs o skins o the p$antain ante$ope8 I1,J Carpets :ith a:nings a9o3e them ISauttarakkhadamJ8 I2/J So as :ith red pi$$o:s or the head and eet8H 1&8 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ continue addicted to the use o means or adorning and 9eauti 0ing themse$3es: that is to sa0: Ru99ing in scented po:ders on oneFs 9od0@ shampooing it@ and 9athing it patting the $im9s :ith c$u9s a ter the manner o :rest$ers8 The use o mirrors@ e0e5ointments@ gar$ands@ rouge@ cosmetics@ 9race$ets@ neck$aces@ :a$king sticks@ reed cases or drugs@ rapiers@ sunshades@ em9roidered s$ippers@ tur9ans@ diadems@ :hisks o the 0akFs tai$@ and $ong5 ringed :hite ro9es8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such means o adorning and 9eauti 0ing the person8H 1(8 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ continue addicted to such $o: con3ersation as these: Ta$es o kings@ o ro99ers@ o ministers o state@ ta$es o :ar@ o terrors@ o 9att$esB ta$k a9out oods and drinks@ c$othes@ 9eds@ gar$ands@ per umes@ ta$ks a9out re$ationships@ e=uipages@ 3i$$ages@ to:ns@ cities@ and countries8 Ta$es a9out :omen@ and a9out heroesB gossip at street corners@ or p$aces :hence :ater is etched: ghost storiesB desu$tor0 ta$kB specu$ations a9out the creation o the $and or sea@ or a9out existence and non5existence8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such $o: con3ersation8H 1)8 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ continue addicted to the use o :rang$ing phrases: such as: H?ou donFt understand this doctrine and discip$ine@ I do8H H+o: shou$d 0ou kno: a9out this doctrine and discip$ine;H H?ou ha3e a$$en into :rong 3ie:s8 It is I :ho am in the right8H HI am speaking to the point@ 0ou are not8H H?ou are putting $ast :hat ought to come irst@ and irst :hat ought to come $ast8H H6hat 0ouF3e excoriated so $ong@ thatFs a$$ =uite upset8H H?our cha$$enge has 9een taken up8H H?ou are pro3ed to 9e :rong8H HSet to :ork to c$ear 0our 3ie:s8H

H#isentang$e 0ourse$ i 0ou can8H .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such :rang$ing phrases8H 1,8 Lr he might sa0@ H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ continue addicted to taking messages@ going on errands@ and acting as go59et:eensB to :it@ on kings@ ministers o state@ -shatri0as@ %rahmans@ or 0oung men@ sa0ing8 .o there@ come5hither@ take this :ith 0ou@ 9ring that rom thence8F .otama the rec$use a9stains rom such ser3i$e duties8H 2/8 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ are tricksters@ droners out Io ho$0 :ords or pa0J@ di3iners@ and exorcists@ e3er hungering to add gain to gain8 .otam the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such deception and patter8H +ere ends the *aAAhima Si$a Ithe 'onger Paragraphs on ConductJ8 218 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ earn their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood@ 90 $o: arts@ such as these: I1J Pa$mistr0Gprophes0ing $ong $i e@ prosperit0@ Nc8@ Ior the re3erseJ@ rom marks on a chi$dFs hands@ eet@ Nc8 I2J #i3ining 90 means o omens and signs8 I3J Auguries had dra:n rom thunder9o$ts and other ce$estia$ portents8 I4J Prognostication 90 interpreting dreams8 I"J !ortune te$$ing rom marks on the 9od08 I&J Auguries rom the marks on c$oth gna:ed 90 mice8 I(J Sacri icing to Agni8 I)J L ering o9$ations rom a spoon8 I,513J *aking o erings to gods o husks@ o the red po:der 9et:een the grain and the husk@ o husked grain read0 or 9oi$ing@ o ghee and o oi$8 I14J Sacri icing 90 spe:ing mustard seeds@ Nc8@ into the ire out o oneFs mouth8 I1"J #ra:ing 9$ood rom oneFs right knee as a sacri ice to the gods8 I1&J 'ooking at the knuck$es@ Nc8@ and@ a ter muttering a charm@ di3ining :hether a man is :e$$ 9orn o $uck or not8 I1(J #etermining :hether the site@ or a proposed house or p$easance@ is $uck0 or not8 I1)J Ad3ising on customar0 $a:8 I1,J 'a0ing demons in a cemeter08 I2/J 'a0ing ghosts8 I21J -no:$edge o the charms to 9e used :hen $odging in an earth house8 I22J Snake charming8 I23J The poison cra t8

I24J The scorpion cra t8 I2"J The mouse cra t8 I2&J The 9ird cra t8 I2(J The cro: cra t8 I2)J !orete$$ing the num9er o 0ears that a man has 0et to $i3e8 I2,J .i3ing charms to :ard o arro:s8 I3/J The anima$ :hee$8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such $o: arts8H 228 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ earn their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood@ 90 $o: arts@ such as these: -no:$edge o the signs o good and 9ad =ua$ities in the o$$o:ing things@ and o the marks in them denoting the hea$th or $uck o their o:ners to :it@ gems@ sta3es@ garments@ s:ords@ arro:s@ 9o:s@ other :eapons@ :omen@ men@ 9o0s@ gir$s@ s$a3es@ s$a3e5gir$s@ e$ephants@ horses@ 9u a$oes@ 9u$$s@ oxen@ goats@ sheep@ o:$s@ =uai$s@ iguanas@ herrings@ tortoises@ and other anima$s8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such $o: arts8H 238 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ earn their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood 90 $o: arts@ such as sooth sa0ing to the e ect that: The chie s :i$$ march out8 The home chie s :i$$ attack@ and the enemies retreat8 The enemiesF chie s :i$$ attack@ and ours :i$$ retreat8 The home chie s :i$$ gain the 3ictor0@ and ours :i$$ su er de eat8 The oreign chie s :i$$ gain the 3ictor0 on this side@ and ours :i$$ su er de eat8 Thus :i$$ there 9e 3ictor0 on this side@ de eat on that8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such $o: arts8H 248 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ earn their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood@ 90 such $o: arts as orete$$ing: I1J There :i$$ 9e an ec$ipse o the *oon8 I2J There :i$$ 9e an ec$ipse o the Sun8 I3J There :i$$ 9e an ec$ipse o a Star I1akshatraJ8 I4J There :i$$ 9e a9erration or the Sun or the *oon8 I"J The Sun or the *oon :i$$ return to its usua$ path8 I&J There :i$$ 9e a9errations o the Stars8 I(J The Stars :i$$ return to their usua$ course8 I)J There :i$$ 9e a a$$ o meteors8 I,J There :i$$ 9e a Aung$e ire8 I1/J There :i$$ 9e an earth=uake8

I11J The .od :i$$ thunder8 I1251"J There :i$$ 9e rising and setting@ c$earness and dimness o the Sun or the *oon or the stars@ or orete$$ing o each o these i teen phenomena that the0 :i$$ 9etoken such and such a resu$t8H .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such $o: arts8 2"8 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ earn their $i3ing 90 :rong means o the $i3e$ihood@ 90 $o: arts@ such as these: !orete$$ing an a9undant rain a$$8 !orete$$ing a de icient rain a$$8 !orete$$ing agood har3est8 !orete$$ing scarcit0 o ood8 !orete$$ing tran=ui$it08 !orete$$ing distur9ances8 !orete$$ing a pesti$ence8 !orete$$ing a hea$th0 season8 Counting on the ingers8 Counting :ithout using the ingers8 Summing up $arge tota$s8 Composing 9a$$ads@ poetising@ Casuistr0@ sophistr08 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such $o: arts8H 2&8 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ earn their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood@ 90 $o: arts@ such as: I1J Arranging a $uck0 da0 or marriages in :hich the 9ride or 9ridegroom is 9rought home8 I2J Arranging a $uck0 da0 or marriages in :hich the 9ride or 9ridegroom is sent orth8 I3J !ixing a $uck0 time or the conc$usion o treaties o peace Ior using charms to procure harmon0J I4J !ixing a $uck0 time or the out9reak o hosti$ities Ior using charms to make discordJ8 I"J !ixing a $uck0 time or the ca$$ing in o de9ts Ior charms or success in thro:ing diceJ8 I&J !ixing a $uck0 time or the expenditure o mone0 Ior charms to 9ring i$$ $uck to an opponent thro:ing diceJ8 I(J 4sing charms to make peop$e $uck08 I)J 4sing charms to make peop$e un$uck08 I,J 4sing charms to procure a9ortion8 I1/J Incantations to keep a manFs Aa:s ixed8 I11J Incantations to 9ring on dum9ness8

I12J Incantations to make a man thro: up his hands8 I13J Incantations to 9ring on dea ness8 I14J L9taining oracu$ar ans:ers 90 means o the magic mirror8 I1"J L9taining oracu$ar ans:ers through a gir$ possessed8 I1&J L9taining oracu$ar ans:ers rom a god8 I1(J The :orship o the Sun8 I1)J The :orship o the .reat Lne8 I1,J %ringing orth $ames rom oneFs mouth8 I2/J In3oking Siri@ the goddess o 'uck8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such $o: arts8H 2(8 Lr he might sa0: H6hereas some rec$uses and %rahmans@ :hi$e $i3ing on ood pro3ided 90 the aith u$@ earn their $i3ing 90 :rong means o $i3e$ihood@ 90 $o: arts@ such as these: I1J 2o:ing gi ts to a god i a certain 9ene it 9e granted@ I2J Pra0ing such 3o:s8 I3J Repeating charms :hi$e $odging in an earth house8 I4J Causing 3iri$it08 I"J *aking a man impotent8 I&J !ixing on $uck0 sites or d:e$$ings8 I(J Consecrating sites8 I)J Ceremonia$ rinsing o the mouth8 I,J Ceremonia$ 9athing8 I1/J L ering sacri ices8 I11514J Administering emetics and purgati3es8 I1"J Purging peop$e to re$ie3e the head Ithat is 90 gi3ing drugs to make peop$e snee>eJ8 I1&J Li$ing peop$eFs ears Ieither to make them gro: or to hea$ sores on themJ8 I1(J Satis 0ing peop$eFs e0es Isoothing them 90 dropping medicina$ oi$s into themJ8 II)J Administering drugs through the nose8 I1,J App$0ing co$$0rium to the e0es8 I2/J .i3ing medica$ ointment or the e0es8 I21J Practising as an ocu$ist8 I22J Practising as a surgeon8 I23J Practising as a doctor or chi$dren8 I24J Administering roots and drugs8 I2"J Administering medicines in rotation8 .otama the rec$use ho$ds a$oo rom such $o: arts8 HThese 9rethren are the tri $ing matters@ the minor detai$s o mora$it0@ o :hich the uncon3erted man@ :hen praising the Tathagata@ might speak8F

+ere end the 'ong Paragraphs on Conduct8 Ill This :as indeed the highest standard or a mora$ $i e or an indi3idua$ to o$$o:8 So high a standard o mora$ $i e :as =uite unkno:n to the Ar0an Societ0 o his da08 +e did not stop mere$0 :ith setting an examp$e 90 $eading a $i e o purit08 +e a$so :anted to mou$d the character o the ordinar0 men and :omen in societ08 !or their guidance he de3ised a orm o 9aptism :hich :as =uite unkno:n to the Ar0an Societ08 The 9aptism consisted in the con3ert to %uddhism undertaking to o9ser3e certain mora$ precepts $aid do:n 90 %uddha8 These precepts are kno:n as Panch Si$a or the i3e precepts8 The0 areB (1) I1J 1ot to ki$$@ I2J 1ot to stea$@ I3J 1ot to $ie@ I4J 1ot to 9e unchaste and I"J 1ot to drink intoxicants8 These i3e precepts :ere o the $ait08 !or the *onks there :ere i3e additiona$ precepts: I&J 1ot to eat at or9idden times@ I(J 1ot to dance@ sing@ or attend theatrica$ or other spectac$es@ I)J To a9stain rom the use o gar$ands@ scents@ and ornaments@ I,J To a9stain rom the use o high or 9road 9eds@ and I1/J 1e3er to recei3e mone08 These +ilas or precepts ormed the mora$ code :hich it :as intended shou$d regu$ate the thoughts and actions o men and :omen8 L these the most important one :as the precept not to ki$$8 %uddha took care to make it c$ear that the precept did not mere$0 mean a9stention rom taking $i e8 +e insisted that the precept must 9e understood to mean positi3e s0mpath0@ good :i$$@ and $o3e or e3er0 thing that 9reathes8 +e ga3e the same positi3es and extended content to other precepts8 Lne o the %uddhaFs $a0 o$$o:ers once reported to him the teaching o a non5%uddhist ascetic@ to the e ect that the highest idea$ consisted in the a9sence o e3i$ deeds@ e3i$ :ords@ e3i$ thoughts@ and e3i$ $i e8 The %uddhaFs comment upon this is signi icant8 HI @ said he@ Hthis :ere true@ then e3er0 suck$ing chi$d :ou$d ha3e attained the idea$ o $i e8 'i e is kno:$edge o good and e3i$B and a ter that the exchange o e3i$ deeds@ :ords@ thoughts@ and $i e@ or good ones8 This is to 9e 9rought a9out on$0 90 a $ong and determined e ort o the :i$$P8 %uddhaFs teachings :ere not mere$0 negati3e8 The0 are positi3e and constructi3e8 %uddha :as not satis ied :ith a man o$$o:ing his precepts8 +e insisted upon encouraging others to o$$o: them8 !or examp$e in the Au$uttara Dika%a the %uddha is =uoted as distinguishing 9et:een a good man and a 3er0 good man 90 sa0ing that one :ho a9stains rom ki$$ing@ stea$ing@ in5chastit0@ $0ing

and drunkenness ma0 9e ca$$ed good B 9ut on$0 he deser3es to 9e ca$$ed 3er0 good :ho a9stains rom these e3i$ things himse$ and a$so instigates others to do the $ike8888888888 As has 9een :e$$ said the t:o cardina$ 3irtues o %uddhism are $o3e and :isdom8 +o: deep$0 he incu$cated the practice o $o3e as a 3irtue is c$ear rom his o:n :ords8 HAs a mother at the risk o her $i e :atches o3er her o:n chi$d@ her on$0 chi$d@ so a$so $et e3er0 one cu$ti3ate: a 9ound$ess $o3ing mind to:ards a$$ 9eings8 And $et him cu$ti3ate good :i$$ to:ards@ the entire :or$d@ a 9ound$ess I$o3ingJ mind a9o3e and 9e$o: and across@ uno9structed@ :ithout hatred@ :ithout enmit08 This :a0 o $i3ing is the 9est in the :or$d8H So taught %uddha [f35]8 H4ni3ersa$ pit0@ s0mpath0 or a$$ su ering 9eings@ good :i$$ to e3er0 orm o sentient $i e@ these things characterised the Tathagath I%uddhaJ as the0 ha3e e: others o the sons o men B and he succeeded in a most surprising degree in handing on his point o 3ie: to his o$$o:ers8 H [f36] %uddha he$d to the doctrine o :isdom as irm$0 as he did to the doctrine o $o3e8 +e he$d that mora$ $i e 9egan :ith kno:$edge and ended :ith :isdom8 he Hcame to sa3e the :or$d@ and his method or the accomp$ishment o this end :as the destruction o ignorance and the dissemination o kno:$edge as to the true 3a$ues o $i e and the :ise :a0 to $i3e8 H%uddha did not arrogate to himse$ the po:er to sa3e peop$e8 Peop$e had to do that or themse$3es8 And the :a0 to sa3e $a0 through kno:$edge8 So much insistence did he p$ace upon kno:$edge that he did not think that mora$it0 :ithout kno:$edge :as 3irtue8 There are three things against :hich %uddha carried on a great campaign8 +e repudiated the authorit0 o the 2edas8888888888 Second$0 he denounced the Budna as a orm o re$igion8 The attitude o %uddha to:ards ?adna is :e$$ stated in the <atakama$a in the orm o a stor08 The stor0 runs thus : T+E STLR? L! T+E SACRI!ICE Those hearts are pure do not act up to the enticement o the :icked8 -no:ing this@ pure5heartiness is to 9e stri3en a ter8 This :i$$ 9e taught 90 the o$$o:ing: 'ong ago the %odhisatt3a8 it is said@ :as a king :ho had o9tained his kingdom in the order o hereditar0 succession8 +e had reached this state as the e ect o his merit@ and ru$ed his rea$m in peace@ not distur9ed 90 an0 ri3a$@ his so3ereignt0 9eing uni3ersa$$0 ackno:$edged8 +is countr0 :as ree rom an0 kind o anno0ance@ 3exation or disaster@ 9oth his home re$ations and those :ith oreign countries 9eing =uite in e3er0 respectB and a$$ his 3esse$s o9e0ed his commands8 18 This monarch ha3ing su9dued the passions@ his enemies@ e$t no inc$ination or such pro its as are to 9e 9$amed :hen enAo0ed@ 9ut :as :ith his :ho$e heart

intent on promoting the happiness o his su9Aects8 +o$ding 3irtuous practice IdharmaJ the on$0 purpose o his actions@ he 9eha3ed $ike a *uni8 28 !or he kne: the nature o mankind@ that peop$e set a high 3a$ue on imitating the 9eha3iour o the highest8 !or this reason@ 9eing desirous o 9ringing a9out sa$3ation or his su9Aects@ he :as particu$ar$0 attached to the due per ormance o his re$igious duties8 38 +e practised a$msgi3ing kept strict$0 the precepts o mora$ conduct Isi$aJ@ cu$ti3ated or9earance@ stro3e or the 9ene it o the creatures8 +is mi$d countenance 9eing in accordance :ith his thoughts de3oted to the happiness o his su9Aects@ he appeared $ike the em9odied #harma8 1o: it once happened that though protected 90 his arm@ his rea$m@ 9oth in conse=uence o the au$t0 actions o its inha9itants and inad3ertence on the part o the ange$s charged :ith the care o rain@ :as a $icted in se3era$ districts 90 drought and the trou9$esome e ects o such a disaster8 4pon this the king@ u$$0 con3inced that his p$ague had 9een 9rought a9out 90 the 3io$ation o righteousness 90 himse$ or his su9Aects@ and taking much to heart the distress o his peop$e@ :hose :e$ are :as the constant o9Aect o his thoughts and cares@ took the ad3ice o men o ackno:$edged competence@ :ho :ere reputed or their kno:$edge in matters o re$igion8 So keeping counse$ :ith the e$ders among the %rahmans@ headed 90 his ami$0 priest IpurohitaJ and his ministers@ he asked them or some means o putting an end to that ca$amit08 1o: the0 9e$ie3ing a so$emn sacri ice as is enAoined 90 the 2eda to 9e a cause o a9undant rain@ exp$ained to him that he must per orm such a sacri ice o a right u$ character@ inasmuch as it re=uires the massacre o man0 hundreds o $i3ing 9eings8 %ut a ter 9eing in ormed o e3er0thing concerning such a s$aughter as is prescri9ed or the sacri ice@ his innate compassion or9ade him to appro3e o their ad3ice in his heartB 0et out o ci3i$it0@ un:i$$ing to o end them 90 harsh :ords o re usa$@ he s$ipped o3er this point@ turning the con3ersation upon other topics8 The0@ on the other hand@ no sooner caught the opportunit0 o con3ersing :ith the king on matters o re$igion@ than the0 once more admonished him to accomp$ish the sacri ice@ or the0 did not understand his deep$0 hidden mind8 48 H?ou constant$0 take care not to neg$ect the proper time o per orming 0our di erent ro0a$ duties@ esta9$ished or the sake o o9taining the possession o $and and ru$ing it8 The due order o these actions o 0ours is in agreement :ith the precepts o Righteousness IdharmaJ8 "8 H+o: then is this that 0ou :ho Iin a$$ other respectsJ are so c$e3er in the o9ser3ance o the triad Io dharma@ artha@ and kamaJ@ 9earing 0our 9o: to de end the good o 0our peop$e@ are so care$ess and a$most s$uggish as to that 9ridge to the :or$d o the #e3as@ the name o :hich is Fsacri iceF; &8 H 'ike ser3ants@ the kings I0our 3asse$J re3ere 0our commands@ thinking them to 9e the surest gage o success8 1o: the time is come@ / destro0er o

0our oes@ to gather 90 means o sacri ice superior 9$essings@ :hich are to procure or 0ou a shining g$or08 (8 KCertain$0@ that ho$iness :hich is the re=uisite or a dikshita is a$read0 0ours@ 90 reason o 0our ha9itua$ practice o charit0 and 0our strictness in o9ser3ing the restraint Io good conductJ8 1e3erthe$ess@ it :ou$d 9e it or 0ou to discharge 0our de9t to the #e3as 90 such sacri ices as are the su9Aect matter o the 2eda8 The deities 9eing satis ied 90 du$0 and au$t$ess$0 per ormed sacri ice@ honour the creatures in return 90 IsendingJ rain8 Thus considering@ take to mind the :e$ are o 0our su9Aects and 0our o:n@ and consent to the per ormance o a regu$ar sacri ice :hich :i$$ enhance 0our g$or08F )8 Thereupon he entered upon this thought: F 2er0 9ad$0 guarded is m0 poor person indeed@ 9eing gi3en in trust to such $eaders8 6hi$e aith u$$0 9e$ie3ing and $o3ing the $a:@ I shou$d uproot m0 3irtue o tender heartiness 90 re$iance upon the :ords o others8 !or@ tru$08F ,8 Those :ho are reputed among men to 9e the 9est re uge are the 3er0 persons :ho intend to do harm@ 9orro:ing their arguments rom the 'a:8 A$asO Such a man@ :ho o$$o:s the :rong path sho:n 90 them@ :i$$ soon ind himse$ dri3en to straits@ or he :i$$ 9e surrounded 90 e3i$s8 1/8 6hat connections ma0 there 9e@ orsooth@ 9et:een righteousness and inAuring anima$s; +o: m0 residence in the :or$d o the #e3as or propitiation o the deities ha3e an0thing to do :ith the murder o 3ictims; II8 The anima$ s$aughtered according to the rites :ith the prescri9ed pra0ers@ as i those sacred ormu$as :ere so man0 darts to :ound it@ goes to hea3en@ the0 sa0@ and :ith this o9Aect it is ki$$ed8 In this :a0 that action is interpreted to 9e done according to the 'a:8 ?et it is a $ie8 128!or ho: is it possi9$e that in the next :or$d one shou$d reap the ruits o :hat has 9een done 90 others; And 90 :hat reason :i$$ the sacri icia$ anima$ mount to hea3en@ though he has not a9stained rom :icked actions@ though he has not de3oted himse$ to the practice o good ones@ simp$0 9ecause he has 9een ki$$ed in sacri ice@ and not on the ground o his o:n actions; 138 And shou$d the 3ictim ki$$ed in sacri ice rea$$0 go to hea3en@ shou$d :e not expect the %rahmans to o er themse$3es to 9e immo$ated in sacri ice; A simi$ar practice@ ho:e3er@ is no:here seen among them8 6ho@ then@ ma0 take to heart the ad3ice pro ered 90 these counse$$ors; 148 As to the Ce$estia$s@ shou$d :e 9e$ie3e that the0 :ho are :ont to enAo0 the air am9rosia o incompara9$e scent@ $a3our@ magni icence@ and e ecti3e po:er@ ser3ed to them 90 the 9eauti u$ Apsaras@ :ou$d a9andon it to de$ight in the s$aughter o a pitia9$e 3ictim@ that the0 might east on the omentum and such other parts o his 9od0 as are o ered to them in sacri ice;

There ore@ it is the proper time to act so and so8F +a3ing thus made up his mind@ the king eigned to 9e eager to undertake the sacri iceB and in appro3a$ o their :ords he spoke to them in this mannerB F2eri$0@ :e$$ protected am I@ :e$$ grati ied@ ha3ing such counse$$ors as ?our 'ordships are@ thus 9ent on securing m0 happinessO There ore I :i$$ ha3e a human sacri ice IpurushamedhaJ o a thousand 3ictims per ormed8 'et m0 o icia$s@ each in his sphere o 9usiness@ 9e ordered to 9ring together the re=uisites necessar0 or that purpose8 'et a$so an in=uir0 9e made o the most itting ground :hereon to raise the tents and other 9ui$dings or the sattra8 !urther@ the proper time or the sacri ice must 9e ixed I90 the astro$ogersJ examining the auspicious $unar da0s@ karanas@ muhurtas@ and conste$$ations8F The purohita ans:eredB KIn order to succeed in 0our enterprise@ ?our *aAest0 ought to take the A3a9hritha I ina$ 9athJ at the end o one sacri iceB a ter :hich 0ou ma0 successi3e$0 undertake the others8 !or i the thousand human 3ictims :ere to 9e sei>ed at once@ 0our su9Aects@ to 9e sure@ :ou$d 9$ame 0ou and 9e stirred up to great agitation on their account8F These :ords o the purohita ha3ing 9een appro3ed 90 the IotherJ %rahmans@ the king rep$ied: F #o not apprehend the :rath o the peop$e@ Re3erands8 I sha$$ take such measures as to pre3ent an0 agitation among m0 su9Aects8F 1"8 A ter this the king con3oked an assem9$0 o the to:nsmen and the $ands men@ and said: FI intend to per orm a human sacri ice o a thousand 3ictims8 %ut no9od0 9eha3ing honest$0 is it to 9e designated or immo$ation on m0 part8 6ith this in mind@ I gi3e 0ou this ad3ice8 6homsoe3er o 0ou I sha$$ hence or:ard percei3e transgressing the 9oundaries o mora$ conduct@ despising m0 ro0a$ :i$$ him I order to 9e caught to 9e a 3ictim at m0 sacri ice@ thinking such a one the stain o his ami$0 and a danger to m0 countr08 6ith the o9Aect o carr0ing this reso$ution into e ect@ I sha$$ cause 0ou to 9e o9ser3ed 90 au$t$ess and sharp5 sighted emissaries@ :ho ha3e shaken o s$eep0 care$essness and :i$$ report to me concerning 0our conduct8 F 1&8 Then the oremost o the assem9$0@ o$ding their hands and 9ringing them to their oreheads@ spoke: F?our *aAest0@ a$$ 0our actions tend to the happiness o 0our su9Aects@ :hat reason can there 9e to despise 0ou on that account; E3en I.odJ %rahma cannot 9ut sanction 0our 9eha3iour8 ?our *aAest0@ :ho is the authorit0 o the 3irtuous@ 9e our highest authorit08 !or this reason an0thing :hich p$eases ?our *aAest0 must p$ease us too8 Indeed@ 0ou are p$eased :ith nothing e$se 9ut our enAo0ment and our good8F A ter then@ nota9$es 9oth o the to:n and the countr0 had accepted his command in this mannerB the king dispersed a9out his to:ns and a$$ o3er his countr0@ o icers noti ied as such 90 their out:ard appearance to the peop$e :ith

the charge o $a0ing ho$d o the e3i$ doers@ and e3er0:here he ordered proc$amations to 9e made 90 9eat o drum da0 a ter da0@ o this kind8 1(8 The -ing@ a granter o securit0 as he is@ :arrants sa et0 to e3er0 one :ho constant$0 cu$ti3ates honest0 and good conduct@ in short@ to the 3irtuous@ 0et@ intending to per orm a human sacri ice or the 9ene it o his su9Aects@ he :ants human 3ictims 90 thousands to 9e taken out o those :ho de$ight in misconduct8 1)8 FThere ore@ :hosoe3er hence or:ard@ $icentious$0 indu$ging in mis9eha3iour@ sha$$ disregard the command o our monarch@ :hich is e3en o9ser3ed 90 the kings@ his 3assa$s@ sha$$ 9e 9rought to the state as a sacri icia$ 3ictim 90 the 3er0 orce o his o:n actions@ and peop$e sha$$ :itness his misera9$e su ering@ :hen he sha$$ pine :ith pain@ his 9od0 9eing astened to the sacri icia$ post8F 6hen the inha9itants o that rea$ms 9ecame a:are o their kingFs care u$ search a ter e3i$5doers :ith the aim o destining them to 9e 3ictims at his sacri ice5 or the0 heard the most right u$ ro0a$ proc$amation da0 a ter da0 and sa: the kingFs ser3ants@ :ho :ere appointed to $ook out or :icked peop$e and to sei>e them8 Appearing e3er0 no: and then e3er0:here the0 a9andoned their attachment to 9ad conduct@ and gre: intend on strict$0 o9ser3ing the mora$ precepts and se$ 5contro$8 The0 a3oided e3er0 occasion o hatred and enmit08 and sett$ing their =uarre$s and di erences@ cherished mutua$ $o3e and mutua$ esteem8 L9edience to the :ords o parents and teachers@ a genera$ spirit o $i9era$it0 and sharing :ith others@ hospita$it0@ good manners@ modest0@ pre3ai$ed among them8 In short@ the0 $i3ed as it :as in the -rita ?uga8 1,8 The ear o death had a:akened in them thoughts o the next :or$dB the risk o tarnishing the honour o their ami$ies had stirred their care o guarding their reputationB the great purit0 o their hearts had strengthened their sense o shame8 These actors 9eing at :ork@ peop$e :ere soon distinguished 90 their spot$ess 9eha3iour8 2/8 E3en though e3er0 one 9ecame more than e3er intends on keeping a righteous conduct@ sti$$ the kingFs ser3ants did not diminish their :atch u$ness in the pursuit o the e3i$doers8 This a$so contri9uted to pre3ent peop$e rom a$$ing short o righteousness8 218 The king $earning rom his emissaries this state o things in his rea$m@ e$t extreme$0 reAoiced8 +e 9esto:ed rich presents on those messengers as a re:ard or the good ne:s the0 to$d him@ and enAoined his ministers@ speaking something $ike this : 228 The protection o m0 su9Aects is m0 highest desire@ 0ou kno:8 1o: the0 ha3e 9ecome :orth0 to 9e recipients o sacri icia$ gi ts@ and it is or the purpose o m0 sacri ice that I ha3e pro3ided this :ea$th8 6e$$@ I intend to accomp$ish m0 sacri ice in the manner@ :hich I ha3e considered to 9e the proper once8 'et

e3er0 one :ho :ishes or mone0@ that it ma0 9e ue$ or his happiness@ come and accept it rom m0 hand to his heartFs content8 In this :a0 the distress and po3ert0@ :hich is 3exing our countr0@ ma0 9e soon dri3en out8 Indeed@ :hene3er I consider m0 o:n strong determination to protect m0 su9Aects and the great assistance I deri3e rom 0ou@ m0 exce$$ent companions in that task@ it o ten seems to me as though those su erings o m0 peop$e@ 90 exciting m0 anger@ :ere 9urning in m0 mind $ike a 9$a>ing ire8F 248 The ministers accepted the ro0a$ command and anon :ent to execute it8 The0 ordered a$ms5ha$$s to 9e esta9$ished in a$$ 3i$$ages@ to:ns@ and markets@ $ike:ise at a$$ stations on the roads8 This 9eing done@ the0 caused a$$ :ho 9egged in order to satis 0 their :ants@ to 9e pro3ided da0 a ter da0 :ith a gi t o those o9Aects@ Aust as had 9een ordered 90 the king8 2"8 So po3ert0 disappeared@ and the peop$e@ ha3ing recei3ed :ea$th rom the part o the king@ dressed and adorned :ith mani o$d and ine garments and ornaments@ exhi9ited the sp$endour o esti3a$ da0s8 2&8 The g$or0 o the king@ magni ied 90 the eu$ogies o the reAoiced recipients o his gi ts@ spread a9out in a$$ directions in the same :a0@ as the $o:er dust o the $otuses carried orth 90 the sma$$ :a3es o a $ake@ extends itse$ o3er a $arger and $arger sur ace8 2(8 And a ter the :ho$e peop$e@ in conse=uence o the :ise measures taken 90 their ru$er@ had 9ecome intent on 3irtuous 9eha3iour@ the p$agues and ca$amities@ o3erpo:ered 90 the gro:th o a$$ such =ua$ities as conduce to prosperit0@ aded a:a0@ ha3ing $ost their ho$d8 2)8 The seasons succeeded each other in due course@ reAoicing e3er09od0 90 their regu$arit0@ and $ike kings ne:$0 esta9$ished@ comp$0ing :ith the $a: u$ order o things8 Conse=uent$0 the earth produced the 3arious kinds o corn in a9undance@ and there :as u$$ness o pure and 9$ue :ater and $otuses in a$$ :ater 9asins8 2,8 1o epidemics a $icted mankindB the medicina$ her9s possessed their e icacious 3irtues more than e3erB monsoons 9$e: in due time and regu$ar$0B the p$anets mo3ed a$ong in auspicious paths8 3/8 1o:here there existed an0 danger to 9e eared@ either rom a9road@ or rom :ithin@ or such as might 9e caused 90 dangerous derangement o the e$ements8 Continuing in righteousness and se$ 5contro$@ cu$ti3ating good 9eha3iour and modest0@ the peop$e o that countr0 enAo0ed as it :ere the prerogati3es o the -rita ?uga8 %0 the po:er@ then@ o the king per orming his sacri ice in this manner in accordance :ith Ithe precepts o J the 'a:@ the su erings o the indigent :ere put to an end together :ith the p$agues and ca$amities@ and the countr0 a9ounded in a prosperous and thri3ing popu$ation

o ering the p$easing aspect o e$icit08 According$0 peop$e ne3er :earied o repeating 9enedictions on their king and extending his reno:n in a$$ directions8 Lne da0@ one o the highest ro0a$ o icia$s@ :hose heart had 9een inc$ined to the ITrueJ %e$ie @ spoke thus to the king: HThis is a true sa0ing@ in truth8 318 H*onarchs@ 9ecause the0 a$:a0s dea$ :ith a$$ kinds o 9usiness@ the highest@ the $o:est@ and the intermediate@ 90 ar surpass in their :isdom an0 :ise men8 H!or@ ?our *aAest0@ 0ou ha3e o9tained the happiness o 0our su9Aects 9oth in this :or$d and in the next@ as the e ect o 0our sacri ice 9eing per ormed in righteousness@ ree rom the 9$amea9$e sin o anima$5s$aughter8 The hard times are a$$ o3er and the su erings o po3ert0 ha3e ceased@ since men ha3e 9een esta9$ished in the precepts o good conduct8 6h0 use man0 :ords; ?our su9Aects are happ08 328 HThe 9$ack ante$opeFs skin :hich co3ers 0our $im9s has the resem9$ance o the spot on the 9right *oonFs sur ace@ nor can the natura$ $o3e$iness o 0our demeanour 9e hindered 90 the restraint imposed on 0ou 90 0our 9eing a dikshita8 ?our head@ adorned :ith such hair5dress as is in comp$iance :ith the rites o the diksha@ possesses no $ess $ustre than :hen it :as em9e$$ished :ith the sp$endour o the ro0a$ um9re$$a8 And@ $ast not $east@ 90 0our $argesseQs 0ou ha3e surpassed the reno:n and a9ated the pride o the amous per ormer o a hundred sacri ices8 338 HAs a ru$e@ Lh@ 0ou :ise ru$er@ the sacri ice o those :ho $ong or the attainment o some good@ is a 3i$e act@ accompanied as it is 90 inAur0 done to $i3ing 9eings8 ?our sacri ice@ on the contrar0@ this monument o 0our g$or0@ is in comp$ete accordance :ith 0our $o3e$0 9eha3iour and 0our a3ersion to 3ices8 348 HLhO +app0 are the su9Aects :ho ha3e their protector in 0ouO It is certain that no ather cou$d 9e a 9etter guardian to his chi$dren8H Another said: 3"8H I the :ea$th0 practise charit0@ the0 are common$0 impe$$ed to do so 90 the hopes the0 put in the cu$ti3ation o that 3irtueB good conduct too@ ma0 9e accounted or 90 the :ish to o9tain high regard among men or the desire o reaching hea3en a ter death8 %ut such a practice o 9oth@ as is seen in 0our ski$$ in securing the 9ene it o others@ cannot 9e ound 9ut in those :ho are accomp$ished 9oth in $earning and in 3irtuous exertions8 HIn such a :a0@ then@ those :hose hearts are pure do not act up to the enticement o the :icked8 -no:ing this@ pure5heartiness is to 9e stri3en a ter8H IIn the spiritua$ $essons or princes@ a$so this is to 9e said: F 6ho to his su9Aects :ishing good@ himse$ exerts@ Thus 9rings a9out sa$3ation@ g$or0@ happiness8 1o other shou$d 9e o a king the 9usinesses8

And it ma0 9e added as o$$o:s: FIThe princeJ :ho stri3es a ter materia$ prosperit0@ ought to act in accordance :ith the precepts o re$igion@ thinking@ a re$igious conduct o his su9Aects to 9e the source o prosperit08F !urther this is here to 9e said: KInAuring anima$s ne3er tends to 9$iss@ 9ut charit0@ se$ 5restraint@ continence and the $ike ha3e this po:erB or this reason he :ho $ongs or 9$iss must de3ote himse$ to these 3irtues8 KAnd a$so :hen discoursing on the Tathagata : KIn this manner the 'ord sho:ed his inc$ination to care or the interests o the :or$d@ :hen he :as sti$$ in his pre3ious existences8FJ I& Another po:er u$ attack against ?adna is contained in his discourses kno:n as -utadanta Sutta8 It is as o$$o:s : T+E 6RL1. SACRI!ICE A1# T+E RI.+T 18 Thus ha3e I heard8 The %$essed Lne once@ :hen going on a tour through *agadha@ :ith a great mu$titude o the 9rethren@ :ith a9out i3e hundred 9rethren@ came to a %rahman 3i$$age in *agadha ca$$ed -hanumata8 And there at -hanumata he $odged in the Am9a$atthika p$easance8 1o: at that time the %rahman -utadanta :as d:e$$ing at -hanumata@ a p$ace teeming :ith $i e@ :ith much grass$and and :ood$and and :ater and corn@ on a ro0a$ domain presented him 90 Seni0a %im9isara the king o *agadha@ as a ro0a$ gi t@ :ith po:er o3er it as i he :ere the king8 And Aust then a great sacri ice :as 9eing got read0 on 9eha$ o -utadanta the %rahman8 And a hundred 9u$$s@ and a hundred steers@ and a hundred hei ers@ and a hundred goats@ and a hundred rams had 9een 9rought to the post or the sacri ice8 28 1o: the %rahmans and househo$ders o -hanumata heard the ne:s o the arri3a$ o the Samana .otama8 And the0 9egan to $ea3e -hanumata in companies and in 9onds to go to the Am9a$atthika p$easance8 38 And Aust then -utandanta the %rahman had gone apart to the upper terrace o his house or his siestaB and seeing the peop$e thus to go 90@ he asked his door5keeper the reason8 And the doorkeeper to$d him8 48 Then -utandanta thought: FI ha3e heard that the Samana .otarna understands a9out the success u$ per ormance o a sacri ice :ith its three o$d method and its sixteen accessor0 instruments8 1o: I donFt kno: a$$ this@ and 0et I :ant to carr0 out a sacri ice8 It :ou$d 9e :e$$ or me to go to the Samana .otama@ and ask him a9out it8 F So he sent his doorkeeper to the %rahmans and househo$ders o -hanumata@ to ask them to :ait ti$$ he cou$d go :ith them to ca$$ upon the %$essed Lne8 "8 %ut there :ere at that time a num9er o %rahmans sta0ing at -hanumata to take part in the great sacri ice8 And :hen the0 heard this the0 :ent to

-utadanta@ and persuaded him on the same grounds as the %rahmans had $aid 9e ore Sonadanda@ not to go8 %ut he ans:ered them in the same terms as Sonadanda had used to those %rahmans8 Then the0 :ere satis ied@ and :ent :ith him to ca$$ upon the %$essed Lne8 ,8 And :hen he :as seated there -utadanta the %rahman to$d the %$essed Lne :hat he had heard@ and re=uested him to te$$ him a9out success in per orming a sacri ice in its three modes and :ith its accessor0 artic$es o urniture o sixteen kinds8 F6e$$ then@ L %rahman@ gi3e ear and $isten attenti3e$0 and I :i$$ speak8F F2er0 :e$$@ Sir@ Ksaid -utadanta in rep$0B and the %$essed Lne spoke as o$$o:s: 1/8 K'ong ago@ L %rahman@ there :as a king 90 name 6ide5rea$m I*aha 2igitaJ@ might0@ :ith great :ea$th and $arge propert0B :ith stores o si$3er and go$d@ o aids to enAo0ment@ o goods and cornB :ith his treasure5houses and his garners u$$8 1o: :hen -ing 6ide5rea$m :as once sitting a$one in meditation@ he 9ecame anxious at the thought: HI ha3e in a9undance a$$ the good things a morta$ can enAo08 The :ho$e :ide circ$e o the earth is mine 90 con=uest to possess8 KT:ere :e$$ i I :ere to o er a great sacri ice that shou$d ensure me :ea$ and :e$ are or man0 da0s8 H And he had the %rahman@ his chap$ain@ ca$$edB and te$$ing him a$$ that he had thought@ he said: H%e I :ou$d aun@ L %rahman@ o er a great sacri ice5$et the 3enera9$e one instruct me ho:5 or m0 :ea$ and m0 :e$ are or man0 da0s8H 118 Thereupon the %rahman :ho :as chap$ain said to the king: HThe kingFs countr0@ Sirs@ is harassed and harried8 There are decoits a9road :ho pi$$ages the 3i$$ages and to:nships@ and :ho makes the roads unsa e8 6ere the king@ so $ong as that is so@ to $e30 a resh tax@ 3eri$0 his maAest0 :ou$d 9e acting :rong$08 %ut perchance his maAest0 might think8 FIF$$ soon put a stop to these scoundre$sF game 90 degradation and 9anishment@ and ines and 9onds and deathO F %ut their $icense cannot 9e satis actori$0 put a stop to8 The remnant $e t unpunished :ou$d sti$$ go on harassing the rea$m8 1o: there is one method to adopt to put a thorough end to this disorder8 6hosoe3er there 9e in the kingFs rea$m :ho de3ote themse$3es to keeping catt$e and the arm@ to them $et his maAest0 the king gi3e ood and seed5corn8 6hosoe3er there 9e in the kingFs rea$m :ho de3ote themse$3es to trade@ to them $et his maAest0 the king gi3e capita$8 6hosoe3er there 9e in the kingFs rea$m :ho de3ote themse$3es to go3ernment ser3ice@ to them $et his maAest0 the king gi3e :ages and ood8 Then those men o$$o:ing each his o:n 9usiness@ :i$$ no $onger harass the rea$mB the kingFs re3enue :i$$ go up B the countr0 :i$$ 9e =uiet and at peace B and the popu$ace@ p$eased one :ith another and happ0B dancing their chi$dren in their arms@ :i$$ d:e$$ :ith open doors8H

FThen -ing 6ide5rea$m@ L %rahman@ accepted the :ord o his chap$ain@ and did as he had said8 And those men@ o$$o:ing each his 9usiness@ harassed the rea$m no more8 And the -ingFs re3enue :ent up8 And the countr0 9ecame =uiet and at peace8 And the popu$ace p$eased one :ith another and happ0@ dancing their chi$dren in their arms@ d:e$t :ith open doors8F 128 KSo -ing 6ide5rea$m had his chap$ain ca$$ed@ and said: HThe disorder is at an end8 The countr0 is at peace8 I :ant to o er that great sacri iceG$et the 3enera9$e one instruct me ho:G or m0 :ea$ and m0 :e$ are or man0 da0s8H F Then $et his maAest0 the king send in3itations to :homsoe3er there ma0 9e in his rea$m :ho are -shatri0as@ 3assa$s o his@ either in the countr0 or the to:ns B or :ho are ministers and o icia$s o his@ either in the countr0 or the to:ns B or :ho are %rahmans o position@ either in the countr0 or the to:ns B or :ho are househo$ders o su9stance@ either in the countr0 or the to:ns@ sa0ing : HI intend to o er a great sacri ice8 'et the 3enera9$e ones gi3e their sanction to :hat :i$$ 9e to me or :ea$ and :e$ are or man0 da0s8H FThen -ing 6ide5rea$m@ L %rahman@ accepted the :ord o his chap$ain@ and did as he had said8 And the0 eachG-shatri0as and ministers and %rahmans and househo$dersGmade a$ike rep$0: H'et his maAest0 the king ce$e9rate the sacri ice8 The time is suita9$e L -ingO H F Thus did these our@ as co$$eagues 90 consent@ 9ecome :here:itha$ to urnish orth that sacri ice@ 138 K-ing 6ide5rea$m :as gi ted in the o$$o:ing eight :a0s: K+e :as :e$$ 9orn on 9oth sides@ on the motherFs side and on the atherFs@ o pure descent 9ack through se3en generations@ and no s$ur :as cast upon him@ and no reproach@ in respect o 9irth8F F +e :as handsome@ p$easant in appearance@ inspiring trust@ gi ted :ith great 9eaut0 o comp$exion@ air in co$our@ ine in presence@ state$0 to 9eho$d8F F +e :as might0@ :ith great :ea$th@ and $arge propert0@ :ith stores o si$3er and go$d@ o aids to enAo0ment@ o goods and corn@ :ith his treasure5houses and his garners u$$8F F +e :as po:er u$@ in command o an arm0@ $o0a$ and discip$ined in our di3isions Io e$ephants@ ca3a$r0@ chariots@ and 9o: menJ@ 9urning up@ methinks@ his enemies 90 his 3er0 g$or08F F +e :as a 9e$ie3er@ and generous@ a no9$e gi3er@ keeping open house@ a :e$$ in spring :hence Samanas and %rahmans@ the poor and the :a0 arers@ 9eggars@ and petitioners might dra:@ a doer o good deeds8 F K+e :as $earned in a$$ kinds o kno:$edge8F K +e kne: the meaning o :hat had 9een said@ and cou$d exp$ain@ H This sa0ing has such and such a meaning@ and that such and such H8 F +e :as inte$$igent@ expert and :ise and a9$e to think out things present or past or uture8

F And these eight gi ts o his@ too@ 9ecame :here :itha$ to urnish orth that sacri ice8F 148 KThe %rahman@ his chap$ain :as gi ted in the o$$o:ing our :a0s : F +e :as :e$$ 9orn on 9oth sides@ on the motherFs and on the atherFs@ o pure descent 9ack through se3en generations@ :ith no s$ur cast upon him@ and no reproach in respect o 9irth8 F +e :as a student repeater :ho kne: the m0stic 3erses 90 heart@ master o the three 2edas@ :ith the indices@ the ritua$@ the phono$og0@ and the exegesis Ias a ourthJ@ and the $egends as a i th@ $earned in the idioms and the grammar@ 3ersed in 'oka0ata I*ature5$oreJ and in the thirt0 marks on the 9od0 o a great man8 F +e :as 3irtuous@ esta9$ished in 3irtue@ gi ted :ith 3irtue that had gro:n great8 F +e :as inte$$igent@ expert@ and :iseB oremost@ or at most the second@ among those :ho ho$d out the $ad$e8 F F Thus these our gi ts o his@ too 9ecame :here:itha$ to urnish orth that sacri ice8F 1"8 FAnd urther@ L %rahman@ the chap$ain@ 9e ore the sacri ice had 9egun@ exp$ained to -ing 6ide5rea$m the three modes: Shou$d his maAest0 the -ing@ 9e ore starting on the great sacri ice@ ee$ an0 such regret as : H.reat@ a$as@ :i$$ 9e the portion o m0 :ea$th used up herein@ H$et not the king har9our such regret8 Shou$d his maAest0 the -ing@ :hi$st he is o ering the great sacri ice@ ee$ an0 such regret as : H.reat@ a$as@ :i$$ 9e the portion o m0 :ea$th used up herein H$et not the king har9our such regret8 Shou$d his maAest0 the -ing@ :hen the great sacri ice has 9een o ered@ ee$ an0 such regret as H.reat@ a$as@ :i$$ 9e the portion o m0 :ea$th used up herein@ H$et not the king har9our such regret8F FThus did the chap$ain@ L %rahman@ 9e ore the sacri ice@ had 9egun@ exp$ained to -ing 6ide5rea$m the three modes8F 1&8 KAnd urther@ / %rahman@ the chap$ain@ 9e ore the sacri ice had 9egun@ in order to pre3ent an0 compunction that might a ter:ards in ten :a0s@ arise as regards those :ho had taken part therein@ said : H1o: there :i$$ come to 0our sacri ice@ Sire@ men :ho destro0 the $i e o $i3ing things@ and men :ho re rain there rom@ men :ho take :hat has not 9een gi3en@ and men :ho re rain there rom@ men :ho speak $ies@ and men :ho do notGmen :ho s$ander and men :ho do notGmen :ho speak rude$0 and men :ho do notGmen :ho chatter 3ain things and men :ho re rain there romGmen :ho co3et and men :ho co3et notGmen :ho har9our i$$:i$$ and men :ho har9our it notGmen :hose 3ie:s are :rong and men :hose 3ie:s are right8 L each o these $et them@ :ho do e3i$@ a$one :ith their e3i$8 !or them :ho do :e$$ $et 0our maAest0 o er@ or them@ Sire@ arrange the rites@ or them $et the king grati 0@ in them sha$$ our heart :ithin ind peace8H

1(8 KAnd urther@ L %rahman@ the chap$ain@ :hi$st the king :as carr0ing out the sacri ice@ instructed and aroused and incited and g$addened his heart in sixteen :a0s : HShou$d there 9e peop$e :ho shou$d sa0 o the king@ as he is o ering the sacri ice : F-ing 6ide5rea$m is ce$e9rating sacri ice :ithout ha3ing in3ited the our c$asses o his su9Aects@ :ithout himse$ ha3ing the eight persona$ gi ts@ :ithout the assistance o a %rahman :ho has the our persona$ gi ts8F Then :ou$d the0 speak not acording to the act8 !or the consent o the our c$asses has 9een o9tained@ the king had the eight@ and his %rahman has the our@ persona$ gi ts8 6ith regard to each and e3er0 one o these sixteen conditions the king ma0 rest assured that it has 9een u$ i$$ed8 +e can sacri ice@ and 9e g$ad@ and possess his heart in peace8H 1)8 KAnd urther@ L %rahman@ at that sacri ice neither :ere an0 oxen s$ain@ neither goats@ nor o:$s@ nor atted pigs@ nor :ere an0 kinds o $i3ing creatures put to death8 1o trees :ere cut do:n to 9e used as posts@ no #a9ha grasses mo:n to stre: around the sacri icia$ spot8 And the s$a3es and messengers and :orkmen there emp$o0ed :ere dri3en neither 90 rods nor ear@ nor carried on their :ork :eeping :ith tears upon their aces8 6ho so chose to he$p@ he :orked B :ho so chose not to he$p@ :orked not8 6hat each chose to do he didB :hat the0 chose not to do@ that :as $e t undone@ 6ith ghee and oi$@ and 9utter and mi$k@ and hone0 and sugar on$0 :as that sacri ice accomp$ished8 1,8 KAnd urther@ L %rahman@ the -shatri0a 3asse$s@ and the ministers and o icia$s@ and the %rahmans o position@ and the househo$ders o su9stance@ :hether o the countr0 or o the to:ns@ :ent to -ing@ 6ide5rea$m@ taking :ith them much :ea$th@ and said@ HThis a9undant :ea$th@ Sire@ ha3e :e 9rought hither or the kingFs use8 'et his maAest0 accept it at our handsOH HSu icient :ea$th ha3e I@ m0 riends@ $aid up@ the produce o taxation that is Aust8 #o 0ou keep 0ours@ and take a:a0 more :ith 0ouO H 6hen the0 had thus 9een re used 90 the king@ the0 :ent aside@ and considered thus one :ith the other: HIt :ou$d not 9e seem us no:@ :ere :e to take this :ea$th a:a0 again to our o:n homes8 -ing 6ide5rea$m is o ering a great sacri ice8 'et us too make an a ter5sacri iceOH 2/8 K So the -shatri0as esta9$ished a continua$ $argesse to the east o the kingFs sacri icia$ pit@ and the o icia$s to the south thereo @ and the %rahmans to the :est thereo @ and the househo$ders to the north thereo 8 And the things gi3en@ and the manner o their gi t@ :as in a$$ respects $ike unto the great sacri ice o -ing 6ide5rea$m himse$ 8F KThus@ L %rahman@ there :as a our o$d co5operation@ and -ing 6ide5rea$m :as gi ted :ith eight persona$ gi ts@ and his o iciating %rahman :ith our8 And there :ere three modes o the gi3ing o that sacri ice8 This@ / %rahman@ is :hat

is ca$$ed the due ce$e9ration o a sacri ice in its three o$d mode and :ith its urniture o sixteen kinds8 218 KAnd :hen he had thus spoken@ those %rahmans $i ted up their 3oices in tumu$t@ and said: H+o: g$orious the sacri ice@ ho: pure its accomp$ishmentO H%ut -utadanta the %rahman sat there in si$ence8 Then those %rahmans said to -utadanta : F 6h0 do 0ou not appro3e the good :ords o the Samana .otarna as :e$$5said;F K I do not ai$ to appro3e B or he :ho appro3es not as :e$$5said that :hich has 9een :e$$ spoken 90 the Samana .otama@ 3eri$0 his head :ou$d sp$it in t:ain8 %ut I :as considering that the Samana .otama does not sa0 : HThus ha3e I heard@H nor HThus 9eho3es it to 9e@H 9ut sa0s on$0@ H Thus it :as then@ H or HIt :as $ike that thenH8 So I thought B H!or a certaint0 the Samana .otama himse$ must a8t that time ha3e 9een -ing 6ide5rea$m@ or the %rahman :ho o iciated or him at that sacri ice8 #oes the 2enera9$e .otama admit that he :ho ce$e9rates such a sacri ice@ or causes it to 9e ce$e9rated@ is re9orn at the disso$ution o the 9od0@ a ter death@ into some state o happiness in hea3en ; H F?es@ L %rahman@ that I admit8 And at that time I :as the %rahman :ho@ as chap$ain@ had that sacri ice per ormed8F 228 KIs there@ L .otama@ an0 other sacri ice $ess di icu$t and $ess trou9$esome@ :ith more ruit and more ad3antage sti$$ than this; F F ?es@ / %rahman@ there is8F FAnd :hat@ / .otama@ ma0 that 9e;F KThe perpetua$ gi ts kept up in a ami$0 :here the0 are gi3en speci ica$$0 to 3irtuous rec$uses8F 238 F%ut :hat is the reason@ L .otama@ and :hat the cause@ :h0 such perpetua$ gi3ing speci ica$$0 to 3irtuous rec$uses@ and kept up in a ami$0@ are $ess di icu$t and trou9$esome o greater ruit and greater ad3antage than that other sacri ice :ith its three modes and its accessories o sixteen kinds ; F F To the $atter sort o sacri ice@ / %rahman@ neither :i$$ the Arhata go@ nor such as ha3e entered on the Arhat :a08 And :h0 not; %ecause in it 9eating :ith sticks takes p$ace@ and sei>ing 90 the throat8 %ut the0 :i$$ go to the ormer@ :here such things are not8 And there ore are such perpetua$ gi ts a9o3e the other sort o sacri ice8F 248 F And is there@ L .otama@ an0 other sacri ice $ess di icu$t@ and $ess trou9$esome@ o greater ruit and o greater ad3antage than either o these8F F ?es@ / %rahman@ there is8F F And :hat@ / .otama@ ma0 that 9e ; F KThe putting up o a d:e$$ing p$ace I2iharaJ on 9eha$ o the Lrder in a$$ the our directions8F 2"8 And is there@ L .otama@ an0 other sacri ice $ess di icu$t and $ess trou9$esome@ o greater ruit and o greater ad3antage than each and a$$ o these three;F F?es@ / %rahman@ there is8F F And :hat@ / .otama@ ma0 that 9e ; F

F +e :ho :ith trusting heart takes a %uddha as his guide@ and the Truth@ and the LrderGthat is a sacri ice 9etter than open $argeses@ 9etter than perpetua$ a$ms@ 9etter than the gi t o a d:e$$ing p$ace8F 2&8 FAnd is there@ L .otama@ an0 other sacri ice $ess di icu$t and $ess trou9$esome@ o greater ruit and o greater ad3antage than a$$ these our;Q K6hen a man :ith trusting heart takes upon himse$ the precepts5a9stinence rom destro0ing $i eB a9stinence rom taking :hat has not 9een gi3en B a9stinence rom e3i$ conduct in respect o $usts B a9stinence rom $0ing :ordsB a9stinence rom strong@ intoxicating@ maddening drinks@ the root o care$essness@ that is a sacri ice 9etter than open $argesses@ 9etter than perpetua$ a$ms@ 9etter than the gi t o d:e$$ing p$aces@ 9etter than accepting guidance8F 2(8 KAnd is there@ L .otama@ an0 other sacri ice $ess di icu$t and $ess trou9$esome@ o greater ruit and o greater ad3antage than a$$ these i3e;F F?es@ L %rahman@ there is8F FAnd :hat@ / .otama@ ma0 that 9e;F IThe ans:er is the $ong passage rom the Samana5pha$e Sutta 4/@ p8 &2 Io the text@J do:n to (" Ip8 (4J on the !irst .hana@ as o$$o:s : 18 The Introductor0 paragraphs on the appearance o a %uddha@ his preaching@ the con3ersion o ahearer@ and his renunciation o the :or$d8 28 The Si$as Iminor mora$it0J8 38 The paragraph on Con idence8 48 The paragraph on F.uarded is the door o his senses8F "8 The paragraph on F *ind u$ and se$ possessed8F &8 The paragraph on Content8 (8 The paragraph on So$itude8 )8 The paragraph on the !i3e +indrances8 ,8 The description o the !irst .hana8J FThis@ / %rahman@ is a sacri ice $ess di icu$t and $ess trou9$esome@ o greater ruit and greater ad3antage than the pre3ious sacri ices@ IThe same is then said the Second@ Third@ and !ourth .hanas@ in succession Ias in the Samannao5pha$o Sutas ((5)2J and o the Insight arising rom kno:$edge 8ibid )3@ )4J@ and urther Iomitting direct mention either :a0 o )"5,& inc$usi3eJ o the kno:$edge o the destruction o the Asa3as8 the dead$0 intoxications or $oods 8ibid. ,(5,)J8 F And there is no sacri ice man can ce$e9rate@ / %rahman@ higher and s:eeter than this8F 2)8 And :hen he had thus spoken@ -utadanta the %rahman said to the %$essed Lne : F *ost exce$$ent@ / .otama@ are the :ords o th0 mouth@ most exce$$ent O <ust as i a man :ere to set up :hat has 9een thro:n do:n@ or :ere to re3ea$ that :hich has 9een hidden a:a0@ or :ere to point out the right road to him :ho has

gone astra0@ or :ere to 9ring a $ight into the darkness so that those :ho had e0es cou$d see externa$ ormsGAust e3en so has the truth 9een made kno:n to me in man0 a igure 90 the 2enera9$e .otama8 I@ e3en I@ 9etake m0se$ to the 2enera9$e .otama as m0 guide@ to the #octrine and the Lrder8 *a0 the 2enera9$e Lne accept me as a discip$e@ as one :ho@ rom this da0 orth@ as $ong as $i e endures has taken him as his guide8 And I m0se$ @ L .otama@ :i$$ ha3e the se3en hundred 9u$$s@ and the se3en hundred steers@ and the se3en hundred hei ers@ and the se3en hundred goats@ and the se3en hundred rams set ree8 To them I grant their $i e8 'et them eat green grass and drink resh :ater@ and ma0 coo$ 9ree>es :a t around them8F 2,8 Then the %$essed Lne discoursed to -utadanta the %rahman in due orderB that is to sa0@ he spoke to him o generosit0@ o right conduct@ o hea3en@ o the danger@ the 3anit0@ and the de i$ement o $usts@ o the ad3antages o renunciation8 And :hen the %$essed Lne 9ecame a:are that -utadanta the %rahman had 9ecome prepared@ so tened@ unpreAudiced@ upraised@ and 9e$ie3ing in heart then did he proc$aim the doctrine the %uddhas a$one ha3e :onB that is to sa0@ the doctrine o sorro:@ o its origin@ o its cessation and o the Path8 And Aust as a c$ean c$oth@ :ith a$$ stains in it :ashed a:a0@ :i$$ readi$0 take the d0e@ Aust e3en so did -utadanta the %rahman@ e3en :hi$e seated there@ o9tain the pure and spot$ess E0e or the Truth8 And he kne: :hatsoe3er has a 9eginning@ in that is inherent a$so the necessit0 o disso$ution8 3/8 And then the %rahman -utadanta@ as one :ho had seen the Truth@ had mastered it@ understood it@ di3ed deep do:n into it8 6ho had passed 9e0ond dou9t@ and put a:a0 perp$exit0 and gained u$$ con idence@ :ho had 9ecome dependent on no other or his kno:$edge o the teaching o the *aster@ addressed the %$essed Lne and said : K *a0 the 3enera9$e .otama grant me the a3our o taking his tomorro: mea$ :ith me and a$so the mem9ers o the Lrder :ith him8 F And the %$essed Lne signi ied@ 90 si$ence@ his consent8 Then the %rahman -utadanta@ seeing that the %$essed Lne had accepted@ rose rom his seat@ and keeping his right to:ards him as he passed@ he departed thence8 And at da09reak he had s:eet ood@ 9oth hard and so t@ made read0 at the pit prepared or his sacri ice and had the time announced to the %$essed Lne: FIt is time@ / .otama and the mea$ is read08 F And the %$essed Lne@ :ho had dressed ear$0 in the morning@ put on his outer ro9e@ and taking his 9o:$ :ith him@ :ent :ith the 9rethren to -utadantaFs sacri icia$ pit@ and sat do:n there on the seat prepared or him8 And -utadanta the %rahman satis ied the 9rethren :ith the %uddha at their head@ :ith his o:n hand@ :ith s:eet ood@ 9oth hard and so t@ ti$$ the0 re used an0 more8 And :hen the %$essed Lne had inished his mea$@ and c$eansed the 9o:$ and his hands@ -utadanta the %rahman took a $o: seat and

seated himse$ 9eside him8 And :hen he :as thus seated@ the %$essed Lne instructed and aroused and incited and g$addened -utadanta the %rahman :ith re$igious discourse B and then arose rom his seat and departed thence8 & Third$0 %uddha denounced the caste s0stem8 The Caste S0stem in its present orm :as not then existing8 The 9ar against inter5dining and inter5marriage had not then 9ecome operati3e8 Things :ere $exi9$e and not rigid as the0 are no:8 %ut the princip$e o ine=ua$it0 :hich is the 9asis o the caste s0stem had 9ecome :e$$ esta9$ished and it :as against this princip$e that %uddha carried on a determined and a 9itter ight8 +o: strong$0 :as he opposed to the pretensions o the %rahmins or superiorit0 o3er the other c$asses and ho: con3incing :ere the grounds o his opposition are to 9e ound in man0 o his dia$ogues8 The most important one o these is kno:n as the Am9attha Sutta8 A*%ATT+A S4TTA IA 0oung %rahmanFs rudeness and an o$d oneFs aithJ8 18 Thus ha3e I heard8 The %$essed Lne :hen once on a tour through the -osa$a countr0 :ith a great compan0 o the 9rethren@ :ith a9out i3e hundred 9rethern@ arri3ed at a %rahman 3i$$age in -osa$a named Ikkhananka$a B and :hi$e there he sta0ed in the Ikkhananka$a 6ood8 1o: at that time the %rahman Pokkharsadi :as d:e$$ing at 4kkattha@ a spot teeming :ith $i e@ :ith much grass$and and :ood$a8nd and corn@ on a ro0a$ domain@ granted him 90 -ing Pasenadi o -osa$a as ro0a$ gi t@ :ith po:er o3er it as i he :ere the king8 28 1o: the %rahman Pokkharasadi heard the ne:s : KThe0 sa0 that the Samana .otama@ o the Sak0a c$an@ :ho :ent out rom a Sak0a ami$0 to adopt the re$igious $i e@ has no: arri3ed@ :ith a great compan0 o the 9rethren o his Lrder@ at $kkhananka$a@ and is sta0ing there in the $kkhananka$a 6ood8 1o: regarding that 3enera9$e .otama@ such is the high reputation that has 9een noised a9road8 The %$essed Lne is an Arahat@ a u$$0 a:akened one@ a9ounding in :isdom and goodness@ happ0@ :ith kno:$edge o the :or$ds@ unsurpassed as a guide to morta$s :i$$ing to 9e $ed@ a teacher or gods and men@ a %$essed Lne@ a %uddha8 +e@ 90 himse$ @ thorough$0 kno:s and sees@ as it :ere@ ace to ace this uni3erse@ inc$uding the :or$ds a9o3e o the gods@ the %rahmans@ and the *aras@ and the :or$d 9e$o: :ith its rec$uses and %rahmans@ its princes and peop$es@ and ha3ing kno:n it@ he makes his kno:$edge kno:n to others8 The truth@ $o3e$0 in its origin@ $o3e$0 in its progress@ $o3e$0 in its consummation@ doth he proc$aim@ 9oth in the spirit and in the $etter@ the higher $i e doth he make kno:n@ in a$$ its u$$ness and in a$$ its purit08 KAnd good is it to pa0 3isits to

Arahats $ike that8F 38 1o: at the time a 0oung %rahman@ an Am9attha@ :as a pupi$ under Pokkharasadi the %rahman8 And he :as a repeater Io the sacred :ordsJ kno:ing the m0stic 3erses 90 heart@ one :ho had mastered the Three 2edas@ :ith the indices@ the ritua$@ the phono$og0@ and the exegesis Ias a ourthJ@ and the $egends as a i th $earned in the idioms and the grammar@ 3ersed in 'oka0ata sophistr0 and in the theor0 o the signs on the 9od0 o a great manG so recognised an authorit0 in the s0stem o the three o$d 2edic kno:$edge as expounded 90 his master@ that he cou$d sa0 o him: F 6hat I kno: that 0ou kno:@ and :hat 0ou kno: that I kno:8 F8 48 And Pokkharasadi to$d Am9attha the ne:s@ and said : KCome no:@ dear Am9attha@ go to the Samana .otama@ and ind out :hether the reputation so noised a9road regarding him is in accord :ith the acts or not@ :hether the Samana .otama is such as the0 sa0 or not F8 "8 K%ut ho:8 Sir@ sha$$ I kno: :hether that is so or not ;F F There ha3e 9een handed do:n@ Am9attha@ in our m0stic 3erses thirt05t:o 9odi$0 signs o a great man@Gsigns :hich@ i a man has@ he :i$$ 9ecome one o t:o things@ and no other8 I he d:e$$s at home he :i$$ 9ecome a so3ereign o the :or$d@ a righteous king@ 9earing ru$e e3en to the shores o the our great oceans@ a con=ueror@ the protector o his peop$e@ possessor o the se3en ro0a$ treasures8 And these are the se3en treasures that he has the 6hee$@ the E$ephant@ the +orse@ the .em@ the 6oman@ the Treasurer@ and the Ad3iser as a se3enth8 And he has more than a thousand sons@ heroes@ might0 in rame@ 9eating do:n the armies o the oe8 And he d:e$$s in comp$ete ascendanc0 o3er the :ide earth rom sea to sea@ ru$ing it in righteousness :ithout the need o 9aton or o s:ord8 %ut i he go orth rom the househo$d $i e into the house $ess state@ then he :i$$ 9ecome a %uddha :ho remo3es the 3ei$ rom the e0es o the :or$d8 1o: I@ Am9attha@ am a gi3er o the m0stic 3ersesB 0ou ha3e recei3ed them rom me8 F &8 F 2er0 good Sir@ said Am9attha in rep$0B and rising rom his seat and pa0ing re3erence to Pokkharasadi@ he mounted a chariot dra:n 90 mares@ and proceeded@ :ith a retinue o 0oung %rahmans@ to the Ikkhananka$a 6ood8 And :hen he had gone on in the chariot as ar as the road :as practica9$e or 3ehic$es@ he got do:n@ and :ent on@ into the park@ on oot8 (8 1o: at that time a num9er o the 9rethren :ere :a$king up and do:n in the open air8 And Am9attha :ent up to them and said: F:here ma0 the 2enera9$e .otama 9e $odging no:; 6e ha3e come hither to ca$$ upon him8F )8 Then the 9rethren thought: This 0oung %rahman Am9attha is o distinguished ami$0@ and a pupi$ o the distinguished %rahman Pokkharasadi8 The %$essed Lne :i$$ not ind it di icu$t to ho$d con3ersation :ith such8F And the0 said to Am9attha : FThere .otama is $odging@ :here the door is shut@ go =uiet$0

up and enter the porch gent$0@ and gi3e a cough@ and knock on the cross9ar8 The %$essed Lne :i$$ open the door or 0ou8F ,8 Then Am9attha did so8 And the %$essed Lne opened the door@ and Am9attha entered in8 And the other 0oung %rahmans a$so :ent inB and the0 exchanged :ith the %$essed Lne the greetings and comp$iments o po$iteness and courtes0@ and took their seats8 %ut Am9attha@ :a$king a9out@ said something or other o a ci3i$ kind in an o 5hand :a0@ idgetting a9out the :hi$e@ or standing up@ to the %$essed Lne sitting there8 1/8 And the %$essed Lne said to him B FIs that the :a0@ Am9attha@ that 0ou :ou$d ho$d con3erse :ith aged teachers@ and teachers o 0our teachers :e$$ stricken in 0ears@ as 0ou no: do@ mo3ing a9out the :hi$e or standing@ :ith me thus seated ; F 118 KCertain$0 not@ .otama8 It is proper to speak@ :ith a %rahman as one goes a$ong on$0 :hen the %rahman himse$ is :a$king and standing to a %rahman :ho stands@ and seated to a %rahman :ho has taken his seat@ or rec$ining to a %rahman :ho rec$ines8 %ut :ith sha3e$ings@ sham riars@ menia$ 9$ack e$$o:s@ the o scouring o our kinsmanFs hee$sG:ith them I :ou$d ta$k as I no: do to 0ou8F F %ut 0ou must ha3e 9een :anting something@ Am9attha@ :hen 0ou come here8 Turn 0our thoughts rather to the o9Aect 0ou had in 3ie: :hen 0ou came8 This 0oung %rahman Am9attha is i$$ 9red@ though he prides himse$ on his cu$ture B :hat can this come rom except rom :ant o training;F 128 Then Am9attha :as disp$eased and angr0 :ith the %$essed Lne at 9eing ca$$ed rudeB and at the thought that the %$essed Lne :as 3exed :ith him@ he said@ sco ing@ Aeering@ and sneering at the %$essed Lne: F Rough is this Sak0a 9reed o 0ours@ .otama@ and rude@ touch0 is this Sak0a 9reed o 0ours and 3io$ent8 *enia$s@ mere menia$s@ the0 neither 3enerate@ nor 3a$ue@ nor esteem@ nor gi3e gi ts to@ nor pa0 honour to %rahmans8 That@ .otama@ is neither itting@ nor is it seem$08F Thus did the 0oung %rahman Am9attha or the irst time charge the Sak0as :ith 9eing menia$s8 138 K%ut in :hat then@ Am9attha@ ha3e the Sak0as gi3en 0ou o ence; F Lnce@ .otama@ I had to go to -api$3astu on some 9usiness or other o PokkharasadiFs@ and :ent into the Sak0asF Congress +a$$8 1o: at that time there :ere a num9er o Sak0as@ o$d and 0oung@ seated in the ha$$ on grand seats@ making merr0 and Aoking together@ nudging one another :ith their ingersB and or a truth@ methinks@ it :as I m0se$ that :as the su9Aect o their AokesB and not one o them e3en o ered me a seat8 That@ .otama@ is neither itting@ nor is it seem$0@ that the Sak0as@ menia$s@ as the0 are@ mere menia$s@ shou$d neither 3enerate@ nor 3a$ue@ nor esteem@ nor gi3e gi ts to@ nor pa0 honour to %rahmams8H

Thus did the 0oung %rahman Am9attha or the second time charge the Sak0as :ith 9eing menia$s8 148 F 6h0 a =uai$ Am9attha@ $itt$e hen 9ird tough she 9e@ can sa0 :hat she $ikes in her o:n nest8 And there the Sak0as are at their o:n home@ in -api$3astu8 It is not itting or 0ou to take o ence at so tri $ing a thing8F 1"8 KThere are these our grades@ .otama@Gthe no9$es@ the %rahmans@ the trades o$k@ and the :ork5peop$e8 And o these our@ threeGthe no9$es@ the trades o$k@ and :orkpeop$eGare@ 3eri$0@ 9ut attendants on the %rahmans8 So@ .otama@ that is neither itting nor is it seem$0@ that the Sak0as@ menia$s as the0 are@ mere menia$s shou$d neither 3enerate@ nor 3a$ue@ nor esteem@ nor gi3e gi ts to@ nor pa0 honour to the %rahmans8F 1C Thus did the 0oung %rahman Am9attha or the third time charged the sak0es :ith 9eing menia$s8 1&8 Then the %$essed Lne thought thus: F This Am9attha is 3er0 set on hum9$ing the Sak0as :ith his charge o ser3i$e origin8 6hat i I :ere to ask him as to his o:n $ineage8F And he said to him: KAnd :hat ami$0 do 0ou then@ Am9attha@ 9e$ong to;F F ?es@ 9ut i one :ere to o$$o: up 0our ancient name and $ineage@ Am9attha@ on the atherFs and the motherFs side@ it :ou$d appear that the Sak0as :ere once 0our masters@ and that 0ou are the o spring o one o their s$a3e gir$s8 %ut the Sak0as trace their $ine 9ack to Lkkaka the kings8F F 'ong ago@ Am9attha@ -ing Lkkaka@ :anting to di3ert the succession in a3our o the son o his a3ourite =ueen@ 9anished his e$der chi$dren5Lkkamukha@ -aranda@ +atthinika@ and Sinipura5 rom the $and8 And 9eing thus 9anished the0 took up their d:e$$ing on the s$opes o the +ima$a0a@ on the 9orders o a $ake :here a might0 oak tree gre:8 And through ear o inAuring the purit0 o their $ine the0 intermarried :ith their sisters8 1o: Lkkaka the king asked the ministers at his court : H6here@ Sirs@ are the chi$dren no:;H FThere is a spot@ Sire@ on the s$opes o the +ima$a0a@ on the 9orders o a $ake@ :here there gro:s a might0 oak IsakoJ8 There do the0 d:e$$8 And $est the0 shou$d inAure the purit0 o their $ine the0 ha3e married their o:n IsakahiJ sisters8F F Then did Lkkaka the king 9urst orth in admiration: H+earts o oak Isak0aJ are those 0oung e$$o:sO Right :e$$ the0 ho$d their o:n Iparama sak0aJO H KThat is the reason@ Am9attha@ :h0 the0 are kno:n as Sak0as8 1o: Lkkaka had s$a3e gir$ ca$$ed #isa8 She ga3e 9irth to a 9$ack 9a908 And no sooner :as it 9orn than the $itt$e 9$ack thing said@ H6ash me@ mother8 %athe me@ mother8 Set me ree@ mother o this dirt8 So sha$$ I 9e o use to 0ou8H 1o:@ Aust as no:@ Am9attha@ peop$e ca$$ de3i$s@ Hde3i$sH@ so then the0 ca$$ed de3i$s8 H9$ack e$$o:sH IkanheJ8 And the0 said@ HThis e$$o: spoke as soon as he

:as 9orn8F Tis a 9$ack thing I-anhaJ that is 9orn@ a de3i$ has 9een 9ornO H And that is the origin@ Am9attha@ o the -anha0anas8 +e :as the ancestor o the -anha0anas8 And thus is it@ Am9attha@ that i one :ere to o$$o: up 0our ancient name and $ineae@ on the atherFs and on the motherFs side@ it :ou$d appear that the Sak0as :ere once 0our masters@ and that 0ou are the o spring o one o their s$a3e gir$s8F 1(8 6hen he had thus spoken the 0oung %rahmans said to the %$essed Lne : F 'et not the 2enera9$e .otama@ hum9$e Am9attha too stern$0 :ith this reproach o 9eing descended rom a s$a3e gir$8 +e is :e$$ 9orn@ .otama@ and o good ami$0B he is 3ersed in the sacred h0mns@ an a9$e reciter@ a $earned man8 And he is a9$e to gi3e ans:er to the 2enera9$e .otama in these matters8 1)8 Then the %$essed Lne said to them: Muite so8 I 0ou thought other:ise@ then it :ou$d 9e or 0ou to carr0 on our discussion urther8 %ut as 0ou think so@ $et Am9attha himse$ speak8F 1,8 F 6e do not think so B and :e :i$$ ho$d our peace8 Am9attha is a9$e to gi3e ans:er to the 3enera9$e .otama in these matters8F 2/8 Then the %$essed Lne said to Am9attha the %rahman: KThen this urther =uestion arises@ Am9attha@ a 3er0 reasona9$e one :hich e3en though un:i$$ing$0@ 0ou shou$d ans:er8 I 0ou do not gi3e a c$ear rep$0@ or go o upon another issue@ or remain si$ent@ or go a:a0@ then 0our head :i$$ sp$it in pieces on the spot8 6hat ha3e 0ou heard@ :hen %rahmans o$d and :e$$ stricken in 0ears@ teachers o 0ours or their teachers@ :ere ta$king together@ as to :hence the -anha0anas dra: their origin@ and :ho the ancestor :as to :hom the0 trace themse$3es 9ack; F And :hen he had thus spoken Am9attha remained si$ent8 And the %$essed Lne asked the same =uestion again8 And sti$$ Am9attha remained si$ent8 Then the %$essed Lne said to him: F ?ou had 9etter ans:er@ no:@ Am9attha8 This is no time or 0ou to ho$d 0our peace8 !or :hosoe3er@ Am9attha@ does not@ e3en up to the third time o asking@ ans:er a reasona9$e =uestion put 90 a Tathagata I90 one :ho has :on the truthJ@ his head sp$its into pieces on the spot8F 218 1o: at that time the spirit :ho 9ears the thunder9o$t stood o3er a9o3e Am9attha in the sk0 :ith a might0 mass o iron@ a$$ ier0@ da>>$ing@ and ag$o:@ :ith the intention@ i he did not ans:er@ there and then to sp$it his head in pieces8 And the %$essed Lne percei3ed the spirit 9earing the thunder9o$t@ and so did Am9attha the %rahman8 And Am9attha on 9ecoming a:are o it@ terri ied@ start$ed@ and agitated@ seeking sa et0 and protection and he$p rom the %$essed Lne@ crouched do:n 9esides him in a:e@ and said : F6hat :as it the %$essed Lne said ; Sa0 it once again O F K6hat do 0ou think8 Am9attha; 6hat ha3e 0ou heard@ :hen %rahmans o$d and :e$$ stricken in 0ears@ teachers o 0ours or their teachers@ :ere ta$king together@

as to :hence the -anha0anas dra: their origin@ and :ho the ancestor :as to :hom the0 trace themse$3es 9ack;F K<ust so@ .otama@ did I hear@ e3en as the 2enera9$e .otama hath said8 That is the origin o the -anha0ana@ and that the ancestor to :hom the0 trace themse$3es 9ack8F 228 And :hen he had thus spoken the 0oung %rahmans e$$ into tumu$t@ and uproar@ and turmoi$: and said : K'o: 9orn the0 sa0@ is Am9attha the %rahman: his ami$0@ the0 sa0 is not o good standing: the0 sa0 he is descended rom a s$a3e gir$: and the Sak0as :ere his masters8 6e did not suppose that the Samana .otama :hose :ords are righteousness itse$ @ :as not a man to 9e trustedO F 238 And the %$essed Lne thought: FThe0 go too ar these %rahmans in their depreciation o Am9attha as the o spring o a s$a3e gir$8 'et me set him ree rom their reproach8 And he said to them : %e not too se3ere in disparaging Am9attha the %rahman on the ground o his descent8 That -anha 9ecame a might0 seer8 +e :ent into the #ekkan there he $earnt m0stic 3erses@ and returning to Lkkaka the king@ he demanded his daughter *adda5rupi in marriage@ To him the king in ans:er said: H6ho orsooth is this e$$o: :ho son o m0 s$a3e gir$ as he is asks or m0 daughter in marriage :H and angr0 and disp$eased@ he itted an arro: to his 9o:8 %ut neither cou$d he $et the arro: $0 nor cou$d he take it o the string again8 Then the ministers and courtiers :ent to -anha the seer@ and said : Het the king go sa e@ Sir@ $et the king go sa e8H HThe king sha$$ su er no harm8 %ut shou$d he shoot the arro: do:n:ards@ then :ou$d the earth dr0 up as ar as his rea$m extends8H H 'et the king@ Sir@ go sa e@ and the countr0 too8H HThe king sha$$ su er no harm@ nor his $and8 %ut shou$d he shoot the arro: up:ards@ the god :ou$d not rain or se3en 0ears as ar as his rea$m extends8H H 'et the king@ Sir@ go sa e@ and the countr0 too8H HThe king sha$$ su er no harm nor his $and8 %ut shou$d he shoot the arro: up:ards@ the god :ou$d not rain or se3en 0ears as ar as his rea$m extends8H H'et the king@ Sir@ go sa e@ and the countr0 too: and $et the god rain8H HThe king sha$$ su er no harm@ nor the $and either@ and the god sha$$ rain8 %ut $et the king aim the arro: at his e$dest son8 The prince sha$$ su er no harm@ not a hair o him sha$$ 9e touched8H FThen@ L %rahmans@ the ministers to$d this to Lkkaka@ and said: H 'et the king aim at his e$dest son8 +e :i$$ su er neither harm nor terror8H And the king did so@ and no harm :as done8 %ut the king@ terri ied at the $esson gi3en him@ ga3e the man his daughter *adda5rupi as :i e8 ?ou shou$d not@ / %rahmans@ 9e too se3ere to disparage Am9attha in the matter o his s$a3e5gir$ ancestr08 That -anha :as a might0 seer8F

248 Then the %$essed Lne said to Am9attha : F6hat think 0ou@ Am9attha; Suppose a 0oung -shatri0a shou$d ha3e connection :ith a %rahman maiden@ and rom their intercourse a son shou$d 9e 9orn8 1o: :ou$d the son thus come to the %rahman maiden through the -shatri0a 0outh recei3e a seat and :ater Ias token o respectJ rom the %rahmans; K ?es@ he :ou$d8 .otama8F K %ut :ou$d the %rahmans a$$o: him to partake o the east o ered to the dead8 or o the ood 9oi$ed in mi$k8 or o the o erings to the gods8 or o ood sent as a present ; F K ?es8 the0 :ou$d .otama8 F K%ut :ou$d the %rahmans teach him their 3erses or not;Q FThe0 :ou$d .otama8F F%ut :ou$d he 9e shut o or not rom their :omen;F F +e :ou$d not 9e shut o 8F K %ut :ou$d the -shatri0as a$$o: him to recei3e the consecration ceremon0 o a -shatri0a;F FCertain$0 not .otama8F %ecause he is not o pure descent on the motherFs side8F 2"8 FThen :hat think 0ou Am9attha; Suppose a %rahman 0outh shou$d ha3e connection :ith a -shatri0a maiden@ and rom their intercourse a son shou$d 9e 9orn8 1o: :ou$d the son come to the -shatri0a maiden through the %rahman 0outh recei3e a seat and :ater Ias token o respectJ rom the %rahmans ; F F?es@ he :ou$d@ .otama8F F %ut :ou$d the %rahmans a$$o: him to partake o the east o ered to the dead@ or o ood 9oi$ed in mi$k@ or o an o ering to the gods@ or o ood sent as a present; F F ?es@ the0 :ou$d@ .otama8F F %ut :ou$d the %rahmans teach him their 3erses or not ;F FThe0 :ou$d@ .otama8F F %ut :ou$d the -shatri0as a$$o: him to recei3e the consecration ceremon0 o a -shatri0a8 F KCertain$0 not@ .otama8F F6h0 not that ;F F %ecause he is not o pure descent on the atherFs side8F 2&8 F Then@ Am9attha@ :hether one compares :omen :ith :omen@ or men :ith men@ the -shatri0as are higher and the %rahmans in erior8 F And :hat think 0ou@ Am9attha ; Suppose the %rahmans@ or some o ence or other@ :ere to out$a: a %rahman 90 sha3ing him and pouring ashes o3er his head@ :ere to 9anish him rom the $and rom the to:nship8 6ou$d he 9e o ered a seat or :ater among the %rahmans ; F F Certain$0 not@ .otama8F F Lr :ou$d the %rahmans a$$o: him to partake o the ood o ered to the dead@ or o the ood 9oi$ed in mi$k@ or o the o erings to the gods@ or o ood sent as a present ; F F Certain$0 not@ .otama8F F Lr :ou$d the %rahmans teach him their 3erses or not ; F KCertain$0 not@ .otama8F KAnd :ou$d he 9e shut o @ or not@ rom their :omen ;F F+e :ou$d 9e shut o 8F

2(8 K%ut :hat think 0ou@ Am9attha; I the -shatri0as had in the same :a0 out$a:ed a -shatri0a and 9anished him rom the $and or the to:nship@ :ou$d he@ among the %rahmans@ 9e o ered :ater and a seat ; F K?es@ he :ou$d@ .otama8F F And :ou$d he 9e a$$o:ed to partake o the ood o ered to the dead@ or o the ood 9oi$ed in mi$k@ or o the o erings to the gods8 or o ood sent as a present ;F K+e :ou$d@ .otama8F KAnd :ou$d the %rahmans teach him their 3erses ;F FThe0 :ou$d@ .otama; KAnd :ou$d he 9eshut o @ or not rom their :omen ;F F +e :ou$d not@ .otama8F K %ut there90@ Am9attha@ the -shatri0a :ou$d ha3e a$$en into the deepest degradation@ sha3en as to his head@ cut dead :ith the ash59asket@ 9anished rom $and and to:nships8 So that@ e3en :hen a -shatri0a has a$$en into the deepest degradation@ sti$$ it ho$ds good that the -shatri0as are higher@ and the %rahmans in erior8 2)8 F *oreo3er it :as one o the %rahma gods@ Sanam5kumara@ :ho uttered this stan>a8F HThe -shatri0a is the 9est o those among this o$k :ho put their trust in $ineage8 %ut he :ho is per ect in :isdom and righteousness@ he is the 9est among gods and men8H K1o: this stana@ Am9attha@ :as :e$$ sung and not i$$ sung 90 the %rahma Sanam5kumara :e$$ said and not i$$ said u$$ o meaning and not 3oid thereo 8 And I too appro3e it@ K I a$so F Am9attha sa0s: HThe -shatri0a is the 9est o those among this o$k :ho put their trust in $ineage@ %ut he :ho is per ect in :isdom and righteousness@ he is the 9est among gods and men8H +ERE E1#S T+E !IRST PLRTIL1 !LR RECITATIL1 18 K%ut :hat .otama is the righteousness and :hat the :isdom spoken o in that 3erse;F KIn the supreme per ection in :isdom and righteousness@ Am9attha8 there is no re erence to the =uestion either o 9irth@ or o $ineage@ or o the pride :hich sa0s: H ?ou are he$d as :orth0 as I H@ or H ?ou are not he$d as :orth0 as IH8 It is :here the ta$k is o marr0ing@ or gi3ing in marriage@ that re erence is made to such things as that8 !or :hosoe3er@ Am9attha@ are in 9ondage to the notions o 9irth or o $ineage@ or to the pride o socia$ position@ or o connection 90 marriage8 The0 are ar rom the 9est :isdom and righteousness8 It is on$0 90 ha3ing got rid o a$$ such 9ondage that one can rea$ise or himse$ that supreme per ection in :isdom and in conduct8

28 K%ut :hat .otama is that conduct@ and :hat that :isdom ;F D+ere o$$o:@ under F*ora$it0F ISi$aJE The introductor0 paragraphs I4/ 42 o the FSamanapha$aF pp8 &28 &3 o the textJ on the appearance o a %uddha@ his preaching the con3ersion o a hearer@ and his renunciation o the :or$d: then come@ 18 The Si$as a9o3e pp8 4512 I)52(J o the text8 Ln$0 the re rain di ers8 It runs here@ at the end o each c$ause@ through the :ho$e o this repeated passage: KThis is reckoned in him as mora$it08F Then under FConductF I-arunaJ8 28 The paragraph on KCon idence@F a9o3e@ p8 &, o the text &38 The re rain rom here on:ards8 This is reckoned to him as conduct8 38 The paragraph on K.uarded is the door o the sensesF a9o3e8 p8 (/ o the text@ &48 48 The paragraph on K*ind u$ and se$ 5possessed@F a9o3e@ p8 (/ o the text &"8 "8 The paragraph on KContent@F a9o3e8 p8 (1 o the text@ &&8 &8 The paragraph on KSo$itude@F a9o3e@ p8 (1 o the text@ &(8 (8 The paragraphs on the F !i3e +indrances@F a9o3e pp@ (152 o the text@ &)5(48 )8 The paragraphs on the K!our Rapt Contemp$ationsF a9o3e@ (35(&@ pp8 ("5)28 The re rain at the end o each o them IF higher and 9etter than the $ast FJ is here o course@ to 9e read not as higher ruit o the $i e o a rec$use@ 9ut as higher conduct8 41#ER 6IS#L* I2I..AJ ,8 The Paragraphs on KInsight arising rom -no:$edgeF I1ana5dassanamJ@ a9o3e@ p8 (& o the text@ )3@ )48 The re rain rom here on:ards is: KThis is reckoned in him as :isdom@ and it is higher and s:eeter than the $ast8F 1/8 The paragraphs on the F *enta$ Image@Fa9o3e@ p8 (( o the text )"@ )&8 118 The paragraphs on K*0stic .i tsF I$ddhiJ@ a9o3e@ p8 (( o the text@ )(@ ))8 128 The paragrphs on the F +ea3en$0 EarF I#i99asotaJ@ a9o3e p. (, o the text@ ),@ ,/8 138 The paragraphs on F -no:$edge o the hearts o others F I-ato5pari0a5 nanamJ a9o3e p8 (, o the text ,1@ ,28 148 The paragraphs on K*emor0 o oneFs o:n pre3ious 9irthsF IPu99e5ni3asa5 anussati5namaJ a9o3e@ p8 )1 o the text@ ,3@ ,48 1"8 The paragraph on the K#i3ine E0eF I#i99akakkhuJ@ a9o3e@ p8 )2 o the text@ ,"@ ,&8 1&8 The paragraphs on the K#estruction o the #ead$0 !$oodsF IAsa3anam -ha0a5nanamJ@ a9o3e@ p8 )3 o the text8 ,(@ ,)8 F Such a man@ Am9attha@ is said to 9e per ect in :isdom@ per ect in conduct@ per ect in :isdom and conduct8 And there is no other per ection in :isdom and conduct higher and s:eeter than this8F

38 K1o:@ Am9attha@ to this supreme per ection in :isdom and goodness there are !our 'eakages8 And :hat are the our;Q KIn case@ Am9attha an0 rec$use or %rahman@ :ithout ha3ing thorough$0 attained unto this supreme per ection in :isdom and conduct@ :ith his 0oke on his shou$der Ito carr0 ire5sticks@ a :ater5pot@ need$es@ and the rest o a mendicant riarFs out itJ@ shou$d p$unge into the depths o the orest@ 3o:ing to himse$ : HI :i$$ hence orth 9e one o those :ho $i3e on$0 on ruits that ha3e a$$en o themse$3es HG then@ 3eri$0@ he turns that out :orth0 on$0 to 9e a ser3ant unto him that hath attained to :isdom and rightsouness8F KAnd again@ Am9attha in case an0 rec$use or %rahman@ :ithout ha3ing thorough$0 attained unto this supreme per ection in :isdom and conduct@ and :ithout ha3ing attained to $i3ing on$0 on ruits a$$en o themse$3es@ taking a hoe and a 9asket :ith him@ shou$d p$unge into the depths o the orest@ 3o:ing to himse$ : HI :i$$ hence orth 9e one o those :ho $i3e on$0 on 9u$9s and roots o ruits8H Then@ 3eri$0 he turns out :orth0 on$0 to 9e a ser3ant unto him :ho hath attained to :isdom and righteousness8F KAnd again Am9attha in case an0 rec$use or %rahman :ithout ha3ing thorough$0 attained unto this supreme per ection in :isdom and conduct@ and :ithout ha3ing attained to $i3ing on$0 on ruits a$$en o themse$3es@ and :ithout ha3ing attained to $i3ing on$0 on 9u$9s and roots and ruits@ shou$d 9ui$d himse$ a ire shrine near the 9oundaries o some 3i$$age or some to:n and there d:e$$ ser3ing the ire5god@ then 3eri$0 he turns out :orth0 on$0 to 9e a ser3ant unto him that hath attained to :isdom and righteousness8F KAnd again Am9attha in case an0 rec$use or %rahman :ithout ha3ing thorough$0 attained unto this supreme per ection in :isdom and conduct@ and :ithout ha3ing attained to $i3ing on$0 on ruits a$$en o themse$3es@ and :ithout ha3ing attained to $i3ing on$0 on 9u$9s and roots and ruits@ and :ithout ha3ing attained to ser3ing the ire5god@ shou$d 9ui$d himse$ a oundered a$mshouse at a crossing :here our high roads meet@ and d:e$$F there@ sa0ing to himse$ : H6hosoe3er@ :hether rec$use or %rahman sha$$ pass here@ rom either o these our directions@ him :i$$ I entertain according to m0 a9i$it0 and according to m0 po:erGthen@ 3eri$0@ he turns out :orth0 on$0 to 9e a ser3ant unto him :ho hath attained to :isdom and righteousness8F KThese are the !our 'eakage@ Am9attha@ to supreme per ection in righteousness and conduct8F 48 K1o: :hat think 0ou@ Am9attha; +a3e 0ou@ as one o a c$ass o pupi$s under the same teacher@ 9een instructed in this supreme per ection o :isdom and conduct ; F

1ot that@ .otama8 +o: $itt$e is it that I can pro ess to ha3e $earntO +o: supreme this per ection o :isdom and conductO !ar is it rom me to ha3e 9een trained therein;Q FThen :hat think 0ou@ Am9attha; A$though 0ou ha3e not thorough$0 attained unto this supreme per ection o :isdom and goodness@ ha3e 0ou 9een trained to take the 0oke upon 0our shou$ders8 and p$unge into the depths o the orest as one :ho :ou$d ain o9ser3e the 3o: o $i3ing on$0 on ruits a$$en o themse$3es ;F K1ot e3en that@ .otamaF8 KThen :hat think 0ou Am9attha; A$thougn 0ou ha3e not attained unto this supreme per ection o :isdom and goodness@ nor ha3e attained to $i3ing on ruits a$$en o themse$3es@ ha3e 0ou 9een trained to take hoe and 9asket@ and p$unge into the depths o the orest as one :ho :ou$d ain o9ser3e the 3o: o $i3ing on$0 on 9u$9s and roots and ruits; F F1ot e3en that@ .otamaF KThen :hat think 0ou@ Am9attha; A$thougn 0ou ha3e not attained unto this supreme per ection o :isdom and goodness@ and ha3e not attained to $i3ing on ruits a$$en o themse$3es@ and ha3e not attained to $i3ing on 9u$9s and roots and ruits@ ha3e 0ou 9een taught to 9ui$d 0ourse$ a ire5shrine on the 9orders o some 3i$$age or some to:n8 and d:e$$ there as one :ho :ou$d ain ser3e the ire5god ;F F1ot e3en that@ .otama8F F Then :hat think 0ou@ Am9attha ; A$though 0ou ha3e not attained unto this supreme per ection o :isdom and goodness@ and ha3e not attained to $i3ing on ruits a$$en o themse$3es@ and ha3e not attained to $i3ing on 9u$9s and roots and ruits@ and ha3e not attained to ser3ing the iregod@ ha3e 0ou 9een taught to 9ui$d 0ourse$ a our5doored a$mshouse at a spot :here our high roads cross@ and d:e$$ there as one :ho :ou$d ain o9ser3e the 3o: to entertain :hosoe3er might pass that :a0@ rom an0 o the our directions@ according to 0our a9i$it0 and according to 0our po:er ;F F 1ot e3en that@ .otama8F "8 F So then 0ou@ Am9attha@ as a pupi$@ ha3e a$$en short o due training@ not on$0 in the supreme :isdom and conduct@ 9ut e3en in an0 one o the !our 'eakages 90 :hich the comp$ete attainment thereo is de9arred8 And 0our teacher too@ the %rahman Pokkharasadi@ has to$d 0ou this sa0ing : H6ho are these sha3e$ings@ sham riars@ menia$ 9$ack e$$o:s@ the o scouring o our kinsmanFs hee$s@ that the0 shou$d c$aim con3erse :ith %rahmans 3ersed in the three o$d 2edic 'oreO Hhe himse$ not ha3ing e3en u$ i$$ed an0 one e3en o these $esser duties I:hich $ead men to neg$ect the higher onesJ8 See@ Am9attha@ ho: deep$0 0our teacher the %rahman Pokkharasadi has herein done 0ou :rong8F &8 FAnd the %rhman Pokkharasadi Am9attha@ is in the enAo0ment o a grant rom Pasenadi@ the king o -osa$a8 %ut the king does not a$$o: him to come into his presence8 6hen he consu$ts :ith him he speaks to him on$0 rom 9ehind a curtain8 +o: is it@ Am9attha@ that the 3er0 -ing@ rom :hom he accepts this pure

and $a: u$ maintenance@ -ing Pasendadi o -osa$a@ does not admit him to his presence; See@ Am9attha@ ho: deep$0 0our teacher the %rahman Pokkharasadi@ has herein done 0ou :rong8F (8 K 1o: :hat think 0ou@ Am9attha ; Suppose a king@ either seated on the neck o his e$ephant or on the 9ack o his horse@ or standing on the ootrug o his chariot@ shou$d discuss some reso$ution o state :ith his chie s or princes@ and suppose as he $e t the spot and stepped on one side@ a :orkman ISudraJ or the s$a3e o a :orkman shou$d come up and8 standing there@ shou$d discuss the matter@ sa0ing: HThus and thus said Pasendadi the -ing8H A$though he shou$d speak as the king might ha3e spoken@ or discuss as the king might ha3e done@ :ou$d he there90 9e the king@ or e3en as one o his o icers ; F FCertain$0 not@ .otama8F )8 K%ut Aust so@ Am9attha@ those ancient poets IRishisJ o the %rahmans@ the authors o the 3erses@ the utterers o the 3erses :hose ancient orm o :ords so chanted@ uttered@ or composed the %rahmans o to5da0 chant o3er again and rehearse@ intoning or reciting exact$0 as has 9een intoned or recitedGto :it@ Atthaka@ 2amaka@ 2amade3a@ ?amataggi@ Angirasa@ %harad3aAa@ 2asettha@ 2essamitta@ -assapa@ and %haguGthough 0ou can sa0 : F I as a pupi$ kno: 90 heart their 3erses Kthat 0ou shou$d on that account 90 a Rishi@ or ha3e attained to the state o a RishiGsuch a condition o things has no existenceO F ,8 K1o: :hat think 0ou@ Am9attha; 6hat ha3e 0ou heard :hen %rahmans8 o$d and :e$$ stricken in 0ears@ teachers o 0ours o their teachers@ :ere ta$king togetherGdid those ancient Rishis :hose 3erses 0ou so chant o3er and repeat@ parade a9out :e$$ groomed@ per umed@ trimmed as to their hair and 9eard adorned :ith gar$ands and gems@ c$ad in :hite garments@ in the u$$ possession and enAo0ment o the i3e p$easures o sense@ as 0ou and 0our teacher too@ do no: ;F F1ot that@ .otama8F F Lr did the0 $i3e@ as their ood@ on 9oi$ed rice o the 9est sorts@ rom :hich a$$ the 9$ack specks had 9een sought out and remo3ed@ and $a3oured :ith sauces and curries o 3arious kind as 0ou@ and 0our teacher too@ do no: ; F K1ot that@ .otama8F Lr :ere the0 :aited upon 90 :omen :ith ringes and ur9e$o:s round their $oins@ as 0ou@ and 0our teacher too@ do no:; K Lr did the0 go a9out dri3ing chariots@ dra:n 90 mares :ith p$aited manes and tai$s@ using $ong :ands and goads the :hi$e@ as 0ou and 0our teacher too@ do no:;F F1ot that .otama8H KLr did the0 ha3e themse$3es guarded in orti ied to:ns@ :ith moats dug out round them and cross9ars $et do:n 9e ore the gates@ 90 men girt :ith $ong s:ords@ as 0ou@ and 0our teacher too@ do no:;Q F 1ot that .otama8F

1/8 KSo then@ Am9attha@ neither are 0ou a Rishi@ nor 0our teacher@ nor do 0ou $i3e under the conditions under :hich the Rishis $i3ed8 %ut :hatsoe3er it ma0 9e@ Am9attha@ concerning :hich 0ou are in dou9t or perp$exit0 a9out me@ ask me as to that@ I :i$$ make it c$ear 90 exp$anation8F 1188 Then the %$essed Lne :ent orth rom his cham9er@ and 9egan to :a$k up and do:n that Am9attha did the same8 And as he thus :a$ked up and do:n@ o$$o:ing the %$essed Lne@ he took stock o the thirt05t:o signs o a great man@ :hether the0 appeared on the 9od0 o the %$essed Lne or not8 And he percei3ed them a$$ sa3e on$0 t:o8 6ith respect to those t:oGthe concea$ed mem9er and the extent o tongueGhe :as in dou9t and perp$exit0@ not satis ied not sure8 128 And the %$essed Lne kne: that he :as so in dou9t8 And he so arranged matters 90 his 6ondrous .i t that Am9attha the %rahman sa: ho: that part o the %$essed Lne that ought to 9e hidden 90 c$othes :as enc$osed in a sheath8 And the %$essed Lne so 9ent round his tongue that he touched and stroked 9oth his ears@ touched and stroked 9oth his nostri$s@ and the :ho$e circumstance o his orehead he co3ered :ith his tongue8 And Am9attha@ the 0oung %rahman@ thought: KThe Samana .otama is endo:ed :ith the thirt05t:o signs o a great man@ :ith them a$$@ not on$0 :ith some o them8F And he said to the %$essed Lne : F And no:@ .otama@ :e :ou$d ain depart8 6e are 9us0 and ha3e much to do8F K#o Am9attha@ :hat seemed to 0ou it8F And Am9attha mounted his chariot dra:n 90 mares@ and departed thence8 138 1o: at that time the %rahman Pokkharasadi had gone orth rom 4kkattha :ith a great retinue o %rahmans@ and :as seated in his o:n p$easance :aiting there or Am9attha8 And Am9attha came on to the p$easance8 And :hen he had come in his chariot as ar as the path :as practica9$e or chariots@ he descended rom it@ and came on oot to :here Pokkharasadi :as@ and sa$uted him@ and $ook his seat respect u$$0 on one side8 And :hen he :as so seated@ Pokkharasadi said to him8 148 K6e$$8 Am9atthaO #id 0ou see the %$essed Lne ;F F ?es@ Sir@ :e sa: him8F K6e$$O is the 2enera9$e .otama so as the reputation a9out him I to$d 0ou o dec$ares@ and not other:ise8 Is he such a one@ or is he not ;F K+e is so@ Sir@ as his reputation dec$ares@ and not other:ise8 Such is he@ not di erent8 And he is endo:ed :ith the thirt05t:o signs o a great man@ :ith a$$ o them@ not on$0 :ith some8F F And did 0ou ha3e an0 ta$k@ Am9attha@ :ith the Samana .otama ;F F?es@ Sir@ I had8F FAnd ho: did the ta$k go;F Then Am9attha to$d the %rahman Pokkharasadi a$$ the ta$k that he had :ith the %$essed Lne8 1"8 6hen he had thus spoken@ Pokkharasadi said to him : KLh@ 0ou :iseacreO LhO 0ou du$$ardO LhO 0ou expert@ orsooth@ in our three o$d 2edic 'oreO A man@

the0 sa0@ :ho shou$d carr0 out his 9usiness thus@ must@ on the disso$ution o the 9od0@ a ter death@ 9e re9orn into some disma$ state o miser0 and :oe8 6hat cou$d the 3er0 points 0ou pressed in 0our inso$ent :ords $ead up to@ i not to the 3er0 disc$osures the 3enera9$e .otama made; 6hat a :iseacre@ :hat a du$$ard : :hat an expert@ orsooth@ in our three o$d 2edic $oreOF And angr0 and disp$eased@ he struck out :ith his oot@ and ro$$ed Am9attha o3er8 And he :anted@ there and then@ himse$ to go and ca$$ on the %$essed Lne8 18 %ut the %rahmanas there spake thus to Pokkharasadi: KIt is much too $ate8 Sir@ toda0 to go to ca$$ on the Samana .otama8 The 3enera9$e Pokkharasadi can do so tomorro:8 So Pokkharasadi had s:eet ood@ 9oth hard and so t@ made read0 at his o:n house@ and taken on :agons@ 90 the $ight o 9$a>ing torches@ out to 4kkattha8 And he himse$ :ent on to the Ikkhananka$a 6ood@ dri3ing in his chariot as ar as the road :as practica9$e or 3ehic$es and then going on oot@ to :here the %$essed Lne :as8 And :hen he had exchanged :ith the %$essed Lne the greetings and comp$iments o po$iteness and courtes0@ he took his seat on one side@ and said to the %$essed Lne : 1(8 F +as our pupi$ .otama the 0oung %rahman Am9attha@ 9een here ; F K?es8 %rahman@ he has8F KAnd did 0ou@ .otama@ ha3e an0 ta$k :ith him;Q F ?es8 %rahman@ I had8F KAnd on :hat :ise :as the ta$k that 0ou had :ith him ;F 1)8 Then the %$essed Lne to$d the %rahman Pokkharasadi a$$ the ta$k that had taken p$ace8 And :hen he had thus spoken Pokkharasadi said to the %$essed Lne : K+e is 0oung and oo$ish@ .otama@ that 0oung %rahman Am9attha8 !orgi3e him8 .otamaFF K'et him 9e =uite happ0@ %rahman@ that 0oung %rahman Am9atthaF 1,8 And the %rahman Pokkharasadi took stock@ on the 9od0 o the %$essed Lne@ o the thirt0 t:o marks o a .reat %eing8 And he sa: them a$$ p$ain$0@ sa3e on$0 t:o8 As to t:o o them the sheath concea$ed mem9er and the extensi3e tongue he :as sti$$ in dou9t and undecided8 %ut the %$essed Lne sho:ed them to Pokkharasadi@ e3en as he had sho:n them to Am9attha8 And Pokkharasadi percei3ed that the %$essed Lne :as endo:ed :ith the thirt0 t:o marks o a .reat %eing@ :ith a$$ o them@ not on$0 :ith some8 And he said to the %$essed Lne: K*a0 the 3enera9$e .otama grant me the a3our o taking his tomorro:Fs mea$ :ith me and a$so the mem9ers o the Lrder :ith him F And the %$essed Lne accepted@ 90 si$ence@ his re=uest8 2/8 Then the %rahman Pokkharasadi seeing that the %$essed Lne had accepted@ had Ion the morro:J the time announced to him : KIt is time8 Lh .otama@ the mea$ is read08F And the %$essed Lne :ho had dressed in the ear$0 morning@ put on his outer ro9e@ and taking his 9o:$ :ith him@ :ent :ith the

9rethren to PokkharasadiFs house@ and sat do:n on the seat prepared or him8 And Pokkharasadi the %rahman8 satis ied the %$essed Lne@ :ith his o:n hand :ith s:eet ood@ 9oth hard and so t@ unti$ he re used an0 more@ and the 0oung %rahmans the mem9ers o the Lrder8 And :hen the %$essed Lne had inished his mea$@ and c$eansed the 9o:$ and his hands@ Pokkharasadi took a $ ow seat@ and sat do:n 9eside him8 218 Then to him thus seated the %$essed Lne discoursed in due order B that is to sa0 he spoke to him o generosit0@ o right conduct@ o hea3en@ o the danger@ the 3anit0@ and the de i$ement o $usts@ o the ad3antages o renunciation8 And :hen the %$essed Lne sa: that Pokkharasadi the %rahman@ had 9ecome prepared@ so tened@ unpreAudiced@ upraised@ and 9e$ie3ing in heart@ then he proc$aimed the doctrine the %uddhas a$one ha3e :on B that is to sa0@ the doctrine o sorro:@ o its origin@ o its cessation@ and o the Path8 And Aust as a c$ean c$oth rom :hich a$$ stain has 9een :ashed a:a0 :i$$ readi$0 take the d0e@ Aust e3en so did Pokkharasadi the %rahman@ o9tain@ e3en :hi$e sitting there@ the pure and spot$ess E0e or the Truth@ and he kne:: K6hatsoe3er has a 9eginning in that is inherent a$so the necessit0 o disso$ution8F 228 And then the %rahman Pokkarasadi as one :ho had seen the Truth@ had mastered it@ understood it@ di3ed deep do:n into it@ :ho had passed 9e0ond dou9t and put a:a0 perp$exit0 and gained u$$ con idence@ :ho had 9ecome dependent on no other man or his kno:$edge o the teaching o the *aster@ addressed the %$essed Lne and said : K*ost exce$$ent Lh .otama Iare the :ords o th0 mouthJ@ most exce$$entO <ust as i a man :ere to set up that :hich has 9een thro:n do:n@ or :ere to re3ea$ that :hich has 9een hidden a:a0@ or :ere to point out the right road to him :ho has gone astra0@ or :ere to 9ring a $ight into the darkness so that those :ho had e0es cou$d see externa$ orms@GAust e3en so@ 'ord@ has the truth 9een made kno:n to me@ in man0 a igure@ 90 the 3enera9$e .otama8 And I@ Lh .otama@ :ith m0 sons@ and m0 :i e@ and m0 peop$e@ and m0 companions@ 9etake m0se$ to the 3enera9$e .otama as m0 guide@ to the truth@ and to the Lrder8 *a0 the 3enera9$e .otama accept me as a discip$e@ as one :ho rom this da0 orth@ as $ong as $i e endures@ has taken him as his guide8 And Aust as the 3enera9$e .otama 3isits the ami$ies o others@ his discip$es at 4kkatha@ so $et him 3isit mine8 6hosoe3er there ma0 9e there@ o %rahmans or their :i3es@ :ho sha$$ pa0 re3erence to the 3enera9$e .otama or stand up in his presence@ or o er him a seat or :ater@ or take de$ight in him@ to him that :i$$ 9e or $ong@ a cause o :ea$ and 9$iss8F FIt is :e$$@ %rahman@ :hat 0ou sa08F +ere ends the Am9attha Sutta8 &I

In the matter o his opposition to Caste@ %uddha practised :hat he preached8 +e did :hat the Ar0an Societ0 re used to do8 In the Ar0an Societ0 the Shudra or $o: caste man cou$d ne3er 9ecome a %rahman8 %ut %uddha not on$0 preached against caste 9ut admitted the Shudra and the $o: caste to the rank o a %hikku :ho he$d the same rank in %uddhism as the %rahman did in %rahmanism8 As Rh0s #a3is points out: IMuotation not gi3enJ In the irst p$ace@ as regards his o:n Lrder@ o3er :hich a$one he had comp$ete contro$@ he ignores comp$ete$0 and a9so$ute$0 a$$ ad3antages or disad3antages arising rom 9irth@ occupation@ and socia$ status@ and s:eeping a:a0 a$$ 9arriers and disa9i$ities arising rom the ar9itrar0 ru$es o mere ceremonia$ or socia$ impurit08 Lne o the most distinguished mem9ers o his Lrder@ the 3er0 one o them :ho :as re erred to as the chie authorit0 a ter .otama himse$ @ on the ru$es o the Lrder@ :as 4pa$i@ :ho had ormer$0 9een a 9ar9er8 one o the despised occupations8 So Sunita@ one o the 9rethren :hose 3erses are chosen or insertion in the Thera .atha@ :as a Pukkusa8 one o the $o: tri9es8 Sati@ the pro ounder o a dead$0 heres0@ :as o the sons o the isher o$k@ a ter:ards a $o: caste@ and e3en then an occupation@ on account o its crue$t0@ particu$ar$0 a9horred8 1anda :as a co:herd8 The t:o Panthakas :ere 9orn out o :ed$ock@ to a gir$ o good ami$0 through intercoure :ith a s$a3e Iso that 90 the ru$e $aid do:n in *anu 318 the0 :ere actua$$0 outcastsJ8 -apa :as the daughter o a deer5sta$ker@ Punna and Punnika had 9een s$a3e gir$s8 Sumanga$amata :as daughter and :i e to :orkers in rushes@ and Su9ha :as the daughter o a smith8 *ore instances cou$d dou9t$ess 9e =uoted and others :i$$ 9ecome kno:n :hen more texts are pu9$ished8 It does not sho: much historica$ insight to sneer at the num9ers as sma$$@ and to suggest that the supposed en$ightenment or $i9era$it0 :as mere pretence8 The acts speak or themse$3esB and the percentage o $o:59orn mem9ers o the Lrder :as pro9a9$0 in air proportion to the percentage o persons 9e$onging to the despised Aatis and sippas as compared :ith the rest o the popu$ation8 Thus o the Theris mentioned in the Theri .atha :e kno: the socia$ position o sixt0@ o :hom i3e are mentioned a9o3e that is@ )1R2 per cent o the :ho$e num9er :ere 9ase59orn8 It is most $ike$0 that this is Aust a9out the proportion :hich persons in simi$ar socia$ rank 9ore to the rest o the popu$ation8 <ust as %uddha $e3e$$ed up the position o the Shudras and the $o: caste men 90 admitting them to the highest rank name$0 that o %hikkus@ he a$so $e3e$$ed up the position o :omen8 In the Ar0an Societ0 :omen :ere p$aced on the same position as the Shudras and in a$$ Ar0an $iterature :omen and Shudras are spoken o together as persons 9e$onging to the same status8 %oth o them :ere denied the right to take +an%as as San0as :as the on$0 :a0 open to sa$3ation8

6omen and Shudras :ere 9e0ond sa$3ation8 %uddha 9roke this Ar0an ru$e in the case o :omen as he did in the case o the Shudras8 <ust as a Shudra cou$d 9ecome a %hikku so a :oman cou$d 9ecome a nun8 This :as taking her to the highest status then concei3a9$e in the e0es o the Ar0an Societ08 Another issue on :hich %uddha ought against the $eaders o the Ar0an Societ0 :as the issue o the Ethies o teachers and teaching8 The $eaders o the Ar0an Societ0 he$d the 3ie: that $earning and education :as the pri3i$ege o the %rahmins@ -shatri0as and 2aish0as8 The Shudras :ere not entit$ed to education8 The0 insisted that it :ou$d 9e danger to socia$ order i the0 taught :omen or an0 ma$es not t:ice59orn8 %uddha repudiated this Ar0an doctrine8 As pointed out 90 Rh0s #a3is on this =uestion is HThat e3er0one shou$d 9e a$$o:ed to $earnB that e3er0one@ ha3ing certain a9i$ities@ shou$d 9e a$$o:ed to teach B and that@ i he does teach@ he shou$d teach a$$ to a$$ B keeping nothing 9ack@ shutting no one out8H In this connection re erence ma0 9e made to the dia$ogue 9et:een %uddha and the %rahman 'ohikka and :hich is kno:n as the 'ohikka Sutta8 'L+I--A S4TTA ISome points in the Ethics o TeachingJ 18 Thus ha3e I heard8 The Exa$ted Lne@ :hen once passing on a tour through the -osa$a districts :ith a great mu$titude o the mem9ers o the Lrder@ :ith a9out i3e hundred %hikshus@ arri3ed at Sa$a3atika8 I2i$$age surrounded 90 a ro: o Sa$a treesJ8 1o: at that time 'ohikka the %rahman :as esta9$ished at Sa$a3atika@ a spot teeming :ith $i e@ :ith much grass$and and :ood$and and corn@ on a ro0a$ domain granted him 90 -ing Pasenadi o -osa$a@ as a ro0a$ gi t@ :ith po:er o3er it as i he :ere the king8 28 1o: at that time 'ohikka the %rahman :as thinking o har9ouring the o$$o:ing :icked 3ie:B KSuppose that a Samana or a %rahmana ha3e reached up to some good state Io mindJ@ then he shou$d te$$ no one e$se a9out it8 !or :hat can one man do or another; To te$$ others :ou$d 9e $ike the man :ho@ ha3ing 9roken through an o$d 9ond@ shou$d entang$e himse$ in a ne: one8 'ike that@ I sa0@ is this Idesire to dec$are to othersJ B it is a orm o $ust8 !or :hat can one man do or another;F 1o: 'ohikka the %rahman heard the ne:s: KThe0 sa0 that the Samana .otama@ o the sons o the Sak0as@ :ho :ent out rom the Sak0a c$an to adopt the re$igious $i e@ has no: arri3ed@ :ith a great compan0 o the 9rethren o his Lrder@ on his tour through the -osa$a districts@ at Sa$a3atika8 1o: regarding that 3enera9$e .otama@ such is the high reputation that has 9een noised a9road : that Exa$ted Lne is an Arhat@ u$$0 a:akened@ a9ounding in :isdom and goodness@ happ0@ :ith kno:$edge o the :or$ds@ unsurpassed as a guide to morta$s :i$$ing to 9e $ed@ a teacher or gods and men@ an exa$ted one@ a %uddha8 +e@ 90 himse$ thorough$0 kno:s@ and sees as it :ere ace to ace8 This

uni3erse5inc$uding the :or$ds a9o3e o the gods@ the %rahmans and the *aras B and the :or$d 9e$o: :ith its Samanas and %rahmans8 Its princes and peop$es and ha3ing kno:n it@ he makes his kno:$edge kno:n to others8 The truth@ $o3e$0 in its origin@ $o3e$0 in its progress@ $o3e$0 in consummation@ doth he proc$aim 9oth in the spirit and in the $etter8 The higher $i e doth he make kno:n in a$$ its u$$ness@ and in a$$ its purit08 And good is it to pa0 3isists to Arhats $ike that8F 48 Then 'ohikka the %rahman said to %hesika the 9ar9er@ FCome no:@ good %hesika@ go :here the Samana .otama is sta0ing@ and on 0our arri3a$@ ask in m0 name as to :hether his sickness and indisposition as a9ated@ as to his hea$th and 3igour and condition o easeB and speak thus : H*a0 the 3enera9$e .otama@ and :ith him the 9rethren o the order@ accept the tomorro:Fs mea$ rom 'ohikka the %rahman8H "8 F2er0 :e$$@ Sir@ Fsaid %hesika the 9ar9er@ ac=uiescing in the :ord o 'ohikka the %rahman and did so e3en as he had 9een enAoined8 And the Exa$ted Lne consented@ 90 si$ence@ to his re=uest8 &8 And :hen %hesika the 9ar9er percei3ed that the Exa$ted Lne had consented@ he rose rom his seat and passing the Exa$ted Lne :ith his right hand to:ards him@ :ent to 'ohikka the %rahman@ and on his arri3a$ spake to him thus : F6e addressed that Exa$ted Lne8 Sir8 in 0our name@ e3en as 0ou commanded8 And the Exa$ted Lne hath consented to come8F (8 Then 'ohikka the %rahman@ :hen the night had passed made read0 at his o:n d:e$$ing p$ace s:eet ood@ 9oth hard and so t@ a8nd said to %hesika the 9ar9er: FCome no:@ good %hesika@ go :here the Samana .otama is sta0ing@ and on 0our arri3a$@ announce the time to him@ sa0ing : H It is time@ L .otama@ and the mea$ is read08H F 2er0 :e$$@ Sir F@ said %hesika the 9ar9er in assent to the :ords o 'ohikka the %rahman: and did so e3en as he had 9een enAoined8 And the Exa$ted Lne@ :ho had ro9ed himse$ ear$0 in the morning@ :ent ro9ed@ and carr0ing his 9o:$ :ith him@ :ith the 9rethren o the Lrder@ to:ards Sa$a3atika8 )8 1o:@ as he :ent@ %hesika the 9ar9er :a$ked step 90 step@ 9ehind the Exa$ted Lne8 And he said to him : FThe o$$o:ing :icked opinion has occurred to 'ohikka the %rahman B HSuppose that a Samana or a %rahmana ha3e reached up to some good state Io mindJ@ then he shou$d te$$ no one e$se a9out it8 !or :hat can one man do or another; To te$$ others :ou$d 9e $ike the man :ho@ ha3ing 9roken through an o$d 9ond@ shou$d entang$e himse$ in a ne: one8 'ike that@ I sa0@ is this Idesire to

dec$are to othersJ B it is a orm o $ustH@ T:ere :e$$8 Sir@ i the Exa$ted Lne :ou$d disa9use his mind thereo 8 !or :hat can one man do or another ;F FThat ma0 :e$$ 9e@ %hesika@ that ma0 :e$$ 9e8F ,8 And the Exa$ted Lne :ent on to the d:e$$ing5p$ace o 'ohikka the %rahman@ and sat do:n on the seat prepared or him8 And 'ohikka the %rahman satis ied the Lrder@ :ith the %uddha at its head@ :ith his o:n hand@ :ith s:eet ood 9oth hard and so t@ unti$ the0 re used an0 more8 And :hen the Exa$ted Lne had inished his mea$@ and had c$eansed the 9o:$ and his hands@ 'ohikka the %rahman 9rought a $o: seat and sat do:n 9eside him8 And to him@ thus seated the Exa$ted Lne spake as o$$o:s: ` Is it true :hat the0 sa0@ 'ohikka@ that the o$$o:ing :icked opinion has arisen in 0our mind B Iand he set orth the opinion as a9o3e set I orthJ;F FThat is so .otarna8F 1/8 F1o: :hat think 0ou@ 'ohikka; Are 0ou not eta9$ished at Sa$a3atika ; F K?es8 that is so@ .otama8F KThen suppose@ 'ohikka8 one :ere to speak thus: H'ohikka the %rahman has domain at Sa$a3atika8 'et him a$one enAo0 a$$ the re3enue and a$$ the produce o Sa$a3atika@ a$$o:ing nothing to an09od0 e$seO H6ou$d the utterer o" that speech 9e danger5maker as touching the men :ho $i3e in dependance upon 0ou@ or not;F F+e :ou$d 9e danger5maker@ .otamaF And making that danger@ :ou$d he 9e a person :ho s0mpathised :ith their :e$ are@ or not;F F +e :ou$d not 9e considering their :e$ are@ .otama8F F And not considering their :e$ are@ :ou$d his heart stand ast in $o3e to:ards them8 or in enmit0 ;F F In enmit08 .otama8F F %ut :hen oneFs heart stands ast in enmit0@ is that unsound doctrine@ or sound;F F It is unsound doctrine@ .otama8F F 1o: i a man ho$d unsound doctrine@ 'ohikka@ I dec$are that one o t:o uture 9irths :i$$ 9e his $ot@ either purgator0 or re9irth as an anima$8F 118 K1o: :hat think 0ou 'ohikka; Is not -ing Pasenadi o -osa$a in possession o -asi and -osa$a;F F ?es8 that is so8 .otama8F KThen suppose@ 'ohikka8 one :ere to speak thus : F -ing Pasenadi o -osa$a is in possession o -asi and -osa$a8 'et him enAo0 a$$ the re3enue and a$$ the produce o -asi and -osa$a@ a$$o:ing nothing to an09od0 e$se8H 6ou$d the utterer o that speech 9e a danger5maker as touching the men :ho $i3e in dependence on -ing Pasenadi o -osa$a 9oth 0ou 0ourse$ and others or not ;F F +e :ou$d 9e danger5maker .otama8F KAnd making that danger@ :ou$d he 9e a person :ho s0mpathised :ith their :e$ are@ or not;F

F +e :ou$d not 9e considering their :e$ are@ .otarna8F F And not considering their :e$ are@ :ou$d his heart stand ast in $o3e to:ard them@ or in enmit0 ;F F FIn enmit0@ .otama8H F %ut :hen oneFs heart stands ast in enmit0@ is that unsound doctrine@ or sound ; F F F It is unsound doctrine@ .otama8F F F 1o: i a man ho$d unsound doctrine@ 'ohikka@ I dec$are that one o t:o uture 9irths :i$$ 9e his $ot@ either purgator0 or re9irth as an anima$8 &2 and 148 KSo then@ 'ohikka@ 0ou admit that he :ho shou$d sa0 that 0ou@ 9eing in occupation o Sa$a3atika@ shou$d there ore@ 0ourse$ enAo0 a$$ the re3enue and produce thereo @ 9esto:ing nothing on an0 one e$seB and he :ho shou$d sa0 that -ing Pasenadi o -osa$a@ 9eing in po:er o3er -asi and -osa$a@ shou$d there ore himse$ enAo0 a$$ the re3enue and produce thereo @ 9esto:ing nothing on an0 one e$seG :ou$d 9e making danger or those $i3ing in dependence upon 0ou B or or those 0ou and others $i3ing in dependence upon the -ing8 And that those :ho thus make danger or others@ must 9e :anting in s0mpath0 or them8 And that the man :anting in s0mpath0 has his heart set ast in enmit08 And that to ha3e oneFs heart set ast in enmit0 is unsound doctrine8 13 and 1"8 KThen Aust so@ 'ohikka@ he :ho shou$d sa0 : H Suppose a Samana or a %rahamana to ha3e reached up to some good state Io mindJ@ then shou$d he te$$ no one e$se a9out it8 !or :hat can one man do or another; To te$$ others :ou$d 9e $ike the man :ho@ ha3ing 9roken through an o$d 9ond@ shou$d entang$e himse$ in a ne: one8 'ike that@ I sa0@ is this desire to dec$are to others@ it is a orm o $ust BHGAust so he@ :ho shou$d sa0@ thus@ :ou$d 9e putting o9stac$es in the :a0 o those c$ansmen :ho@ ha3ing taken upon themse$3es the #octrine and #iscip$ine set orth 90 +im5:ho5has5:on5the5Truth@ ha3e attained to great distinction thereinGto the ruit o con3ersion@ or instance@ or to the ruit o once returning@ or to the ruit o ne3er returning@ or e3en to ArhatshipGhe :ou$d 9e putting o9stac$es in the :a0 o those :ho are 9ringing to ruition the course o conduct that :i$$ $ead to re9irth in states o 9$iss in hea3en8 %ut putting o9stac$es in their :a0 he :ou$d 9e out o s0mpath0 or their :e$ are B 9eing out o s0mpath0 or their :e$ are his heart :ou$d 9ecome esta9$ished in enmit0 B and :hen oneFs heart is esta9$ished in enmit0@ that is unsound doctrine8 1o: i a man ho$d unsound doctrine@ 'ohikka@ I dec$are that one o t:o uture 9irths :i$$ 9e his $ot@ either purgator0 or re9irth as an anima$8 1&8 KThere are these three sorts o teachers in the :or$d@ 'ohikka@ :ho are :orth0 o 9$ame B And :hosoe3er shou$d 9$ame such a one@ his re9uke :ou$d 9e Austi ied@ in accord :ith the acts and the truth@ not improper8 6hat are the three; KIn the irst p$ace@ 'ohikka@ there is a sort o teacher :ho has not himse$ attained to that aim o Samanaship or the sake o :hich he $e t his home and adopted the home$ess $i e8 6ithout ha3ing himse$ attained to it he teaches a

doctrine I#hammaJ to his hearers@ sa0ing : H This is good or 0ou@ this :i$$ make 0ou happ08H Then those hearers o his neither $isten to him@ nor gi3e ear to his :ords@ nor 9ecome stead ast in heart through their kno:$edge thereo B the0 go their o:n :a0@ apart rom the teaching o the master8 Such a teacher ma0 9e re9uked@ setting out these acts@ and adding : H?ou are $ike one :ho shou$d make ad3ances to her :ho keeps repu$sing him@ or shou$d em9race her :ho turns her ace a:a0 rom him8 'ike that@ do I sa0@ is this $ust o 0ours Ito go on posing as a teacher o men@ no one heeding@ since@ the0 trust 0ou notJ8 !or :hat@ then@ can one man do or another ;H FThis@ 'ohikka@ is the irst sort o teacher in the :or$d :orth0 o 9$ame8 And :hosoe3er shou$d 9$ame such a one@ his re9uke :ou$d 9e Austi ied@ in accord :ith the acts and the truth@ not improper8 1(8 FIn the second p$ace@ 'ohikka@ there is a sort o teacher :ho has not himse$ attained to that aim o Samanship or the sake o :hich he $e t his home and adopted the home$ess $i e8 6ithout ha3ing himse$ attained to it he teaches a doctrine to his hearers@ sa0ing : HThis is good or 0ou B@ that :i$$ make 0ou happ08H And to him his discip$es $isten B the0 gi3e ears to his :ords B the0 9ecome stead ast in heart 90 their understanding :hat is said B and the0 go not their o:n :a0@ apart rom the teaching o the master8 Such a teacher ma0 9e re9uked@ setting out these acts and adding : H?ou are $ike a man :ho@ neg$ecting his o:n ie$d@ shou$d take thought to :eed out his neigh9ourFs ie$d8 'ike that@ do I sa0@ is this $ust o 0ours Ito go on teaching others :hen 0ou ha3e not taught 0ourse$ J8 !or :hat@ then@ can one man do or another;H This@ 'ohikka@ is the second sort o teacher in the :or$d :orth0 o 9$ame8 And :hosoe3er shou$d 9$ame such a one@ his re9uke :ou$d 9e Austi ied@ in accord :ith the acts and the truth not improper8 1)8 And again@ 'ohikka@ in the third p$ace@ there is a sort o teacher :ho has himse$ attained to that aim o Samanaship or the sake o :hich he $e t his home and adopted the home$ess $i e8 +a3ing himse$ attained it@ he teaches the doctrine to his hearers@ sa0ing : H This is good or 0ou@ that :i$$ make 0ou happ08H %ut those hearers o his neither $isten to him@ nor gi3e ear to his :ords@ nor 9ecome stead ast in heart through understanding thereo B the0 go their o:n :a0@ apart rom the teaching o the master8 Such a teacher ma0 9e re9uked@ setting out these acts@ and addingB H?ou are $ike a man :ho@ ha3ing 9roken through an o$d 9ond@ shou$d entang$e himse$ in a ne: one8H 'ike that@ do I sa0@ is this $ust o 0ours Ito go on teaching :hen 0ou ha3e not trained 0ourse$ to teachJ8 !or :hat@ then@ can one man do or another;H FThis@ 'ohikka@ is the third sort o teacher in the :or$d :orth0 o 9$ame8 And :hosoe3er shou$d 9$ame such a one@ his re9uke :ou$d 9e Austi ied@ in accord

:ith the acts and the truth@ not improper8 And these@ 'ohikka@ are the three sorts o teachers o :hich I spoke8F 1,8 FAnd :hen he had thus spoken@ 'ohikka@ the %rahman spake thus to the Exa$ted Lne : F %ut is there@ .otama@ an0 sort o teacher not :orth0 o 9$ame in the :or$d ; F F ?es@ 'ohikka@ there is a teacher not :orth0@ in the :or$d o 9$ame8F F And :hat sort o a teacher@ .otama@ is so ; F IThe ans:er is in the :ords o the exposition set out a9o3e in the Samanna5pha$a@ as o$$o:s : 18 The appearance o a Tathagata Ione :ho :on the truthJ@ his preaching@ the con3ersion o a hearer@ his adoption o the home$ess state8 28 The minor detai$s o mere mora$it0 that he practises8 38 The Con idence o heart he gains rom this practice8 48 The paragraph on K.uarded is the door o his Senses8F "8 The paragraph on F *ind u$ and Se$ 5possessed8F &8 The paragraph on Simp$icit0 o 'i e@ 9eing content :ith $itt$e8 (8 The paragraphs on Emancipation@ i$$5temper@ $a>iness@ :orr0 and perp$exit08 )8 The paragraph on the <o0 and Peace that@ as a resu$t o this emancipation@ i$$s his :ho$e 9eing8 ,8 The paragraphs on the !our Raptures I.hanasJ8 1/8 The paragraphs on the Insight arising rom -no:$edge Ithe kno:$edge o the !irst PathJ8 118 The paragraphs on the Rea$isation o the !our 1o9$e Truths the destruction o the IntoxicationsG$ust@ de$usions@ 9ecomings@ and ignoranceG and the attainment o Arhatship8J The re rain through and the c$osing paragraph is : FAnd :hosoe3er the teacher 9e@ 'ohikka@ under :hom the discip$e attains to distinction so exce$$ent as that@ that@ 'ohikka is a teacher not open to 9$ame in the :or$d8 And :hosoe3er shou$d 9$ame such a one@ his re9uke :ou$d 9e unAusti ia9$e@ not in accord either :ith the acts or :ith the truth@ :ithout good ground8F ()8 And :hen he had thus spoken@ 'ohikka the %rahman said to the Exa$ted Lne : K<ust@ .otama@ as i a man had caught ho$d o a man@ a$$ing o3er the precipitous edge o purgator0@ 90 the hair o his head and $i ted him up sa e 9ack on the irm $andGAust so ha3e I@ on the point o a$$ing into purgator0@ 9een $i ted 9ack on to the $and 90 the 2enera9$e .otama8 *ost exce$$ent@ / .otama@ are the :ords o th0 mouth@ most exce$$ent; <ust as i a man :ere to set up :hat has 9een thro:n do:n@ or :ere to re3ea$ :hat has 9een hidden a:a0@ or :ere to point out the right road to him :ho has gone astra0@ or :ere to 9ring a $ight into the darkness so that those :ho had e0es cou$d see externa$ ormsGAust e3en so has the truth 9een made kno:n to me@ in man0 a igure@ 90 the 2enera9$e

.otama8 And I@ e3en I@ 9etake m0se$ to the 2enera9$e .otama as m0 guide@ to the #octrine and to the Lrder8 *a0 the 2enera9$e .otama accept me as a discip$e B as one :ho@ rom this da0 orth as $ong as $i e endures@ has taken him as his guideO F

Part II

Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India ______________________________________________

Contents
PART II

Chapter ": The #ec$ine and !a$$ o %uddhism Chapter &: The 'iterature o %rahminism Chapter (: The Triumph o %rahminism
C,APTER 3 The Decline and 1all o* Buddhism. Dr. B. R. Ambedkar had written E!he Decline and /all o" BuddhismE, as a part o" the treatise, `Revolution and Counter-Revolution . ?e have "ound onl% 0 pa$es in our papers which were not even corrected. Cop% o" this essa% has been received "rom +hri +. +. Re$e, which shows some corrections in Dr. Ambedkar s handwritin$. !his essa% is o" &4 t%ped pa$es which is included here.* Editors8 The disappearance o %uddhism rom India has 9een a matter o great surpri>e to e3er09od0 :ho cares to think a9out the su9Aect and is a$so a matter o regret8 %ut it $i3es in China@ <apan@ %urma@ Siam@ Annam@ Indo5China@ Ce0$on and parts o *a$a0a5Archipa$ego8 In India a$one@ it has ceased to exist8 1ot on$0 it has ceased to $i3e in India 9ut e3en the name o %uddha has gone out o memor0 o most +indus8 +o: cou$d such a thing ha3e happened ; This is an important =uestion or :hich there has 9een no satis actor0 ans:er8 1ot on$0 there is no satis actor0 ans:er@ no9od0 has made an attempt to arri3e at a satis actor0 ans:er8 In dea$ing :ith this su9Aect peop$e ai$ to make a 3er0 important distinction8 It is a distinction 9et:een the a$$ o %uddhism and the dec$ine o %uddhism8 It is necessar0 to make this distinction

9ecause the a$$ o %uddhism is one@ the reasons or :hich are 3er0 di erent rom those :hich 9rought a9out its do:n a$$8 !or the a$$ is due to =uite o93ious causes :hi$e the reasons or its dec$ine are not =uite so o93ious8 There can 9e no dou9t that the a$$ o %uddhism in India :as due to the in3asions o the *usa$mans8 Is$am came out as the enem0 o the F ButF8 The :ord FBut as e3er09od0 kno:s is an Ara9ic :ord and means an ido$8 1ot man0 peop$e ho:e3er kno: :hat the deri3ation o the :ord F But is But is the Ara9ic corruption o %uddha8 Thus the origin o the :ord indicates that in the *os$em mind ido$ :orship had come to 9e identi ied :ith the Re$igion o the %uddha8 To the *us$ims@ the0 :ere one and the same thing8 The mission to 9reak the ido$s thus 9ecame the mission to destro0 %uddhism8 Is$am destro0ed %uddhism not on$0 in India 9ut :here3er it :ent8 %e ore Is$am came into 9eing %uddhism :as the re$igion o %actria@ Parthia@ A ghanistan@ .andhar and Chinese Turkestan@ as it :as o the :ho$e o Asia8 [f1] In a$$ these countries Is$am destro0ed %uddhism8 As 2icent Smith [f2]points out : HThe urious massacre perpetrated in man0 p$aces 90 *usa$man in3aders :ere more e icacious than Lrthodox +indu persecutions@ and had a great dea$ to do :ith the disapperance o %uddhism in se3era$ pro3inces Io IndiaJ@H 1ot a$$ :i$$ 9e satis ied :ith this exp$anation8 It does seem inade=uate8 Is$am attacked 9oth@ %ramhanism and %uddhism8 It :i$$ 9e asked :h0 shou$d one sur3i3e and the other perish8 The argument is p$ausi9$e 9ut not destructi3e o the 3a$idit0 o the thesis8 To admit that %ramhanism sur3i3ed@ it does not mean that the a$$ o %uddhism :as not due to the s:ord o Is$am8 A$$ that it means is that@ there :ere circumstances :hich made it possi9$e or %ramhanism and impossi9$e or %uddhism to sur3i3e the ons$aught o Is$am8 !ortunate$0 or %ramhanism and un ortunate$0 or %uddhism that :as the act8 Those :ho :i$$ pursue the matter :i$$ ind that there :ere three specia$ circumstances :hich made it possi9$e or %ramhanism and impossi9$e or %uddhism to sur3i3e the ca$amit0 o *us$im in3asions8 In the irst p$ace %ramhanism at the time o the *us$im in3asions had the support o the State8 %uddhism had no such support8 6hat is ho:e3er more important is the act that this State support to %ramhanism $asted ti$$ Is$am had 9ecome a =uiet re$igion and the $ames o its origina$ ur0 as a mission against ido$ator0 had died out8 Second$0 the %uddhist priesthood perished 90 the s:ord o Is$am and cou$d not 9e resusciated8 Ln the other hand it :as not possi9$e or Is$am to annihi$ate the %ramhanic priesthood8 In the third p$ace the %uddhist $ait0 :as persecuted 90 the %ramhanic ru$ers o India and to escape this t0rann0 the mass o the %uddhist popu$ation o India em9raced Is$am and renounced %uddhism8 L these circumstances there is not one :hich is not supported 90 histor08 Among the Pro3inces o India :hich came under *us$im domination@ Sind :as the irst8 It :as ru$ed 90 a Shudra king8 %ut the throne :as usurped 90 a %ramhin :ho

esta9$ished his o:n d0nast0 :hich natura$$0 supported the %ramhanic re$igion a8t the time o the in3asion o Sind 90 I9ne -assim in (12 A8#8 The ru$er o Sind :as #ahir8 This #ahir 9e$onged to the d0nast0 o %rahmin ru$ers8 +euen Tsang had noticed that the PunAa9 :as in his time ru$ed 90 a -shatri0a %uddhist d0nast08 This d0nast0 ru$ed PunAa9 ti$$ a9out ))/ A8#8 In that 0ear the throne :as usurped 90 a %rahmin arm0 commander 90 name 'a$$i0a :ho ounded the %rahmin Shahi d0nast08 This d0nast0 ru$ed the PunAa9 rom ))/ A8#8 to 1/21 A8#8 It :i$$ thus 9e seen that at the time :hen the in3asions o the PunAa9 :ere commenced 90 Sa9uktagin and *ohammad@ the nati3e ru$ers 9e$onged to the %ramhanic re$igion and <a0apa$a I,&/5,)/ A8#8J Anandpa$ I,)/51/// A8#8J and Tri$ochanpa$ I1///521 A8#8J o :hose strugg$es :ith Sa9uktagin and *ahammad :e read so much :ere ru$ers 9e$onging to the %ramhanic aith8 Centra$ India 9egan to 9e in ested 90 *us$im in3asions :hich commenced rom the time o *ohammad and continued under the $eadership o Shaha9uddin .hori8 At that time Centra$ India consisted o di erent kingdoms8 *e:ad Ino: kno:n as 4depurJ ru$ed 90 the .u$ohits@ Sam9har Ino: di3ided into %undi@ -ota and SirohiJ ru$ed 90 the Chauhans@ -anauA [f3] ru$ed 90 the Pratihars@ #har ru$ed 90 the Parmars@ %unde$khand ru$ed 90 Chande$$as@ Anhi$:ad ru$ed 90 the Cha3das@ Chedi ru$ed 90 the -a$achuris8 1o: the ru$ers o a$$ these kingdoms :ere RaAputs and the RaAputs or reasons :hich are m0sterious and :hich I :i$$ discuss $ater on had 9ecome the staunchest supporters o the %ramhanic re$igion8 A9out the time o these in3asions %enga$ had a$$en into t:o kingdoms@ Eastern and 6estern8 6est %enga$ :as ru$ed 90 the -ings o the Pa$ d0nast0 and East %enga$ :as ru$ed 90 the -ings o the Sena d0nast08 The Pa$as :ere -shatri0as8 The0 :ere %uddhist 9ut as *r8 2adi0a sa0s [f4] Hpro9a9$0 on$0 in the 9eginning or in nameH8 As to the Sena kings there is a di erence o opinion8 #r8 %handarkar sa0s the0 :ere %rahmins :ho had taken to the mi$itar0 pro ession o the -shatri0as8 *r8 2aid0a insists that the Sena -ings :ere Ar0an -shatri0as or RaAputs 9e$onging to the 'unar race8 In an0 case there is no dou9t that the Senas $ike the RaAputs :ere supporters o the orthodox aith8 [f5] HSouth o the ri3er 1er9udda@ then existed a9out the time o the *us$im in3asions our kingdoms I1J The #eccan -ingdom o 6estern Cha$uk0as@ I2J The Southern -ingdom o the Cho$as I3J The Si$ahara -ingdom in -onkan on the 6est Coast and I4J The .anga -ingdom o Trika$inga on the East Coast8 These -ingdoms $ourished during 1///512// A8#8 :hich is the period o the *us$im in3asions8 There :ere under them@ certain eudator0 -ingdons :hich rose to po:er in the 12th Centur0 A8#8 and :hich 9ecame independent and po:er u$ in the 13 the Centur08 The0 are I1J #e3agiri ru$ed 90 the ?ada3as@ I2J 6aranga$ ru$ed 90 -akati0as I3J +a$e9id ru$ed 90 +o0asa$as I4J *adura ru$ed 90 the Pand0as and I"J Tra3ancore ru$ed 90 the Cheras8 A$$ these ru$ing d0nasties :ere o$$o:ers o orthodox %rahmanism8 The

*us$im in3asions o India commenced in the 0ear 1//1 A8#8 The $ast :a3e o these in3asions reached Southern India in 12,& A8#8 :hen A$$auddin -hi$Ai su9Augated the -ingdom o #e3agiri8 The *us$im con=uest o India :as rea$$0 not comp$eted 90 12,&8 The :ars o su9Augation :ent on 9et:een the *us$im con=uerors and the $oca$ ru$ers :ho though de eated :ere not reduced8 %ut the point :hich re=uires to 9ear in mind is that during this period o 3// 0ears o *us$im 6ars o con=uests@ India :as go3erned a$$ o3er 90 princes :ho pro essed the orthodox aith o %ramhanism8 %ramhanism 9eaten and 9attered 90 the *us$im In3aders cou$d $ook to the ru$ers or support and sustenance and did get it8 %uddhism 9eaten and 9attered 90 the *us$im in3aders had no such hope8 It :as an uneared or orphan and it :ithered in the co$d 9$ast o the nati3e ru$ers and :as consumed in the ire $it up 90 the con=uerors8 The *usa$man in3aders sacked the %uddhist 4ni3ersities o 1a$anda@ 2ikramasi$a@ <agadda$a@ Ldantapuri to name on$0 a e:8 The0 raised to the ground %uddhist monasteries :ith :hich the countr0 :as studded8 The *onks $ed a:a0 in thousands to 1apa$@ Ti9et and other p$aces outside India8 A 3er0 $arge num9er :ere ki$$ed outright 90 the *us$im commanders8 +o: the %uddhist priesthood perished 90 the s:ord o the *us$im in3aders has 9een recorded 90 the *us$im historians themse$3es8 Summari>ing the e3idence re$ating to the s$aughter o the %udhist *onks perpetrated 90 the *usa$man .enera$ in the course o his in3asion o %ihar in 11,( A8#8 *r8 2incent Smith sa0s [f6] : HThe *usa$man .enera$@ :ho had a$read0 made his name a terror 90 repeated p$undering expeditions in %ihar@ sei>ed the capita$ 90 a daring stroke8 The a$most contemporar0 historian met one o the sur3i3ors o the attacking part0 in A8#8 1243@ and $earned rom him that the !ort o %ihar :as sei>ed 90 a part0 o on$0 t:o hundred horsemen@ :ho 9o$d$0 rushed the postern gate and gained possession o the p$ace8 .reat =uantities o p$under :ere o9tained@ and the s$aughter o the Fsha3en headed %rahmansF@ that is to sa0 the %uddhist monks@ :as so thorough$0 comp$eted@ that :hen the 3ictor sought or some one capa9$e o exp$aining the contents o the 9ooks in the $i9raries o the monasteries@ not a $i3ing man cou$d 9e ound :ho :as a9$e to read them8 FIt :as disco3eredF@ :e are to$d@ Fthat the :ho$e o that ortress and cit0 :as a co$$ege@ and in the +indi tongue the0 ca$$ a co$$ege %ihar8H Such :as the s$aughter o the %uddhist priesthood perpetrated 90 the Is$amic in3aders8 The axe :as struck at the 3er0 root8 !or 90 ki$$ing the %uddhist priesthood Is$am ki$$ed %uddhism8 This :as the greatest disaster that 9e e$$ the re$igion o %uddha in India8 Re$igion $ike an0 other ideo$o$g0 can 9e attained on$0 90 propaganda8 I propoganda ai$s@ re$igion must disappear8 The priest$0 c$ass@ ho:e3er detesta9$e it ma0 9e@ is necessar0 to the sustenance o re$igion8 !or it is 90 its propoganda that re$igion is kept up8 6ithout the priest$0 c$ass re$igion must

disappear8 The s:ord o Is$am e$$ hea3i$0 upon the priest$0 c$ass8 It perished or it $ed outside India8 1o9od0 remained to keep the $ame o %uddhism 9urning8 It ma0 9e said that the same thing must ha3e happened to the %rahmanic priesthood8 It is possi9$e@ though not to the same extent8 %ut there is this di erence 9et:een the constitution o the t:o re$igions and the di erence is so great that it contains the :ho$e reason :h0 %rahmanism sur3i3ed the attack o Is$am and :h0 %uddhism did not8 This di erence re$ates to the constitution o the c$erg08 The %ramhanic priesthood has a most e$a9orate organi>ation8 A c$ear and succinct account o it has 9een gi3en 90 the $ate Sir Ramkrishna %handarkar in the pages o the Indian Anti=uar08 [f7] FE3er0 %rahmanic ami$0@ F he :rites@ F is de3oted to the stud0 o a particu$ar 2eda@ and a particu$ar Sakha IrecensionJ o a 2eda B and the domestic rites o the ami$0 are per ormed according to the ritua$ descri9ed in the Sutra connected :ith that 2eda8 The stud0 consists in getting 90 heart the 9ooks orming the particu$ar 2eda8 In 1orthern India@ :here the predominant 2eda is the 6hite ?agush and the Sakha that o the *adh0andinas@ this stud0 has a$most died out@ except at %anaras@ :here %rahmanic ami$ies rom a$$ parts o India are sett$ed8 It pre3ai$s to some extent in .uAarat@ 9ut to a much greater extent in the *aratha countr0B and in Tai$angana there is a $arge num9er o %rahmans :ho sti$$ de3ote their $i e to this stud08 1um9ers o these go a9out to a$$ parts o the countr0 in search o dakshina I ee@ a$msJ@ and a$$ :e$$5to5do nati3es patroni>e them according to their means@ 90 getting them to repeat portions o their 2eda@ :hich is most$0 the %$ack ?agush@ :ith Apastam9a or their Sutra8 +ard$0 a :eek passes here in %om9a0 in :hich no Tai$angana %rahman comes to me to ask or dakshina8 Ln each occasion I get the men to repeat :hat the0 ha3e $earned@ and compare it :ith the printed texts in m0 possession8 F6ith re erence to their occupation@ %rahmans o each 2eda are genera$$0 di3ided into t:o c$asses@ .rihasthas and %hikshukas8 The ormer de3ote themse$3es to a :or$d$0 a3ocation@ :hi$e the $atter spend their time in the stud0 o their sacred 9ooks and the practice o their re$igious rites8 F%oth these c$asses ha3e to repeat dai$0 the Sandh0a53andana or t:i$ight5pra0ers@ the orms o :hich are some:hat di erent or the di erent 2edas8 %ut the repetition o the .a0atri5mantra FTat Sa3itur 2are0namF etc8@ i3e@ then t:ent0 eight@ or a hundred and eight times@ :hich orms the principa$ portion o the ceremon0@ is common to a$$8 F%esides this@ a great man0 per orm dai$0 :hat is ca$$ed %rahma0agna@ :hich on certain occasions is incum9ent on a$$8 This or the Rig52eda consists o the irst h0mn o the irst manda$@ and the opening sentences o the Aitare0a %rahmana@ the i3e parts o the Aitere0a Aran0aka@ the ?agus5samhita@ the Sama5samhita@ the Athar3a5samhita@ As3a$a0ana -a$pa Sutra@ 1irukta@ -handas@ 1ighantu@ <0otisha@ Siksha@ Panini@ ?agna3a$k0a Smriti@ *aha9harata@ and the Sutras o -anada@

<aimini@ and %adara0an8F The point to 9e remem9ered is that in the matter o o iciation there is no distinction 9et:een a %hikshuka [f8] and a .rahastha8 In %rahmanism 9oth are priest and the .rahastha is no $ess entit$ed to o iciate as a priest than a %hikshu is8 I a .rahastha does not choose to o iciate as a priest@ it is 9ecause he has not mastered the mantras and the ceremonies or 9ecause he o$$o:s some more $ucrati3e 3ocation8 4nder %rahmanic dispensation e3er0 %rahmin :ho is not an outcast has the capacit0 to 9e a priest8 The %hikshuka is an actua$ priest@ a .rahastha is a potentia$ priest8 A$$ %rahmins can 9e recruited to orm the arm0 o %ramhanic priesthood8 !urther no particu$ar training or initiation ceremon0 is necessar0 or a %rahmin to act as a priest8 +is :i$$ to o iciate is enough to make him unction as a priest8 In %rahmanism the priesthood can ne3er 9ecome extinct8 E3er0 %rahmin is a potentia$ priest o %rahmanism and 9e dra ted in ser3ice :hen the need 9e8 There is nothing to stop the rakeFs $i e and progress8 This is not possi9$e in %uddhism8 A person must 9e ordained in accordance :ith esta9$ished rites 90 priests a$read0 ordained@ 9e ore he can act as a priest8 A ter the massacre o the %uddhist priests@ ordination 9ecame impossi9$e so that the priesthood a$most ceased to exist8 Some attempt :as made to i$$ the dep$eted ranks o the %uddhist priests8 1e: recruits or the priesthood had to 9e dra:n rom a$$ a3ai$a9$e sources8 The0 certain$0 :ere not the 9est8 According to +araprasad Shastri@ [f9] HThe paucit0 o %hiksus 9rought a9out a great change in the composition o the %uddhist priesthood8 It :as the married c$erg0 :ith ami$ies@ :ho :ere ca$$ed Ar0as@ that took the p$ace o the %hiksus proper@ and 9egan to cater to the re$igious needs o the %uddhists genera$$08 The0 commenced attaining the norma$ status o %hiksus through the per ormance o some sacraments8 I$ntro8pp8$,8(@ =uoting Tatakara .uptasF Adikarmaracana : 14,@ pp8 12/(512/)J8 The0 o iciated at the re$igious ceremonies 9ut at the same time@ in addition to their pro ession o priesthood@ earned their $i3e$ihood through such a3ocations as those o a mason@ painter@ scu$ptor@ go$dsmith@ and carpenter8 These artisan priests :ho :ere in $ater times $arger in num9ers than the %hiksus proper 9ecame the re$igious guides o the peop$e8 Their a3ocations $e t them $itt$e time and desire or the ac=uisition o $earning@ or deep thinking@ or or de3otion to #h0ana and other spiritua$ exercises8 The0 cou$d not 9e expected to raise the dec$ining %uddhism to a higher position through their endea3ours nor cou$d the0 check its course to:ards its ruin through the introduction o sa$utar0 re orms8H It is o93ious that this ne: %uddhist priesthood had neither dignit0 nor $earning and :ere a poor match or the ri3a$@ the %rahmins :hose cunning :as not une=ua$ to their $earning8 [f10] The reason :h0 %rahmanism rose rom the ashes and %uddhism did not@ is to 9e accounted or@ not 90 an0 inherent superiorit0 o %rahmanism o3er %uddhism8 It is to 9e ound in the pecu$iar character o their priesthood8 %uddhism died 9ecause its arm0 o priests died and it :as not possi9$e to create8 Though 9eaten it :as ne3er

comp$ete$0 9roken8 E3er0 %rahmin a$i3e 9ecame priest and took the p$ace o e3er0 %rahmin priest :ho died8 As to the con3ersion to the aith o Is$am 90 the %uddhist popu$ation as a cause o the a$$ o %uddhism@ there can hard$0 9e much dou9t8 In his Presidentia$ address to the ear$0 *edie3a$ and RaAput section o the Indian +istor0 Congress he$d at A$$aha9ad in 1,3)@ Pro 8 Surendra 1ath Sen 3er0 right$0 o9ser3ed that there :ere t:o pro9$ems re$ating to the *edie3a$ +istor0 o India or :hich no satis actor0 ans:ers :ere orthcoming as 0et8 +e mentiond t:o : one connected :ith the origin o the RaAputs and the other to the distri9ution o the *us$im popu$ation in India8 Re erring to the second@ he said : H%ut I ma0 9e permitted to dea$ :ith one =uestion that is not :ho$$0 o anti=uarian interest toda08 The distri9ution o *us$im popu$ation in India demands some exp$anation8 It is common$0 9e$ie3ed that Is$am o$$o:ed the route o con=uest and the su9Augated peop$e :ere orced to accept the aith o their ru$ers8 The predominance o the *us$ims in the !rontier Pro3ince and the PunAa9 $ends some co$our to this contention8 %ut this theor0 cannot exp$ain an o3er:he$ming *us$im maAorit0 in Eastern %enga$8 It is =uite $ike$0 that the 1orth56estern !rontier Pro3ince :as peop$ed 90 Turkish o$ks during the -ushan da0s@ and their eas0 con3ersion to Is$am ma0 9e exp$ained 90 racia$ a init0 :ith the ne: con=uerorsB 9ut the *us$ims o Eastern %enga$ are certain$0 not racia$$0 akin to the Turks and the A ghans@ and the con3ersion o the +indus o that region must ha3e 9een due to other reasons8H [f11] 6hat are these other reasons ; Pro 8 Sen then proceeds to $a0 9are these reasons :hich are ound in *us$im Chronic$es8 +e takes the case o Sind or :hich there is direct testimon0 and sa0s :[f12] HAccording to the Chachnama@ the %uddhists o Sind su ered a$$ sorts o indignities and humi$iations under their %rahman ru$ers@ and :hen the Ara9s in3aded their countr0@ the %uddhists $ent their :ho$e hearted suport to them8 'ater on@ :hen #ahir :as s$ain and a *us$im .o3ernment :as irm$0 esta9$ished in his countr0@ the %uddhists ound to their disma0 that@ so ar as their rights and pri3i$eges :ere concerned@ the Ara9s :ere prapared to restore status =uo ante 9e$$um and e3en under the ne: order the +indus recei3ed a pre erentia$ treatment8 The on$0 :a0 out o this di icu$t0 :as to accept Is$am 9ecause the con3erts :ere entit$ed to a$$ the pri3i$eges reser3ed or the ru$ing c$asses8 So the %uddhists o Sind Aoined the *us$im o$d in $arge num9ers8H Pro 8 Sen then adds this signi icant passage : HIt cannot 9e an accident that the PunAa9@ -ashmir@ the district around %ehar Shari @ 1orth5East %enga$ :here *us$ims no: predominate@ :ere a$$ strong %uddhist Centres in the pre5*us$im da0s8 It :i$$ not 9e air to suggest that the %uddhists succum9ed more easi$0 to po$itica$ temptations than the +indus and the change o re$igion :as due to the prospects o the impro3ement o their po$itica$ status8H

4n ortunate$0 the causes that ha3e orced the %uddhist popu$ation o India to a9andon %uddhism in a3our o Is$am ha3e not 9een in3estigated and it is there ore impossi9$e to sa0 ho: ar the persecution o the %rahmanic -ings :as responsi9$e or the resu$t8 %ut there are not :anting indications :hich suggest that this :as the principa$ cause8 6e ha3e positi3e e3idence o t:o -ings engaged in the campaign o persecuting the %uddhist popu$ation8 The irst to 9e mentioned is *ihirku$a8 +e 9e$onged to the +uns :ho in3aded India a9out 4"" A8#8 and esta9$ished their kingdom in 1orthern India :ith Saka$a@ the modern Sia$kot in the PunAa9 as the capita$8 *ihirku$a ru$ed a9out "2) A8#8 As 2incent Smith sa0s :[f13] HA$$ Indian traditions agree in representing *ihirku$a as a 9$ood thirst0 t0rant8 KThe Atti$a o IndiaF@ stained to a more than ordinar0 degree :ith Fimp$ica9$e crue$t0F noted 90 historians as characteristic o the +un temperament8H *ihirku$a@ to use the $anguage o Smith@ [f14] :5Hexhi9ited erocious hosti$it0 against the peace u$ %uddhist cu$t@ and remorse$ess$0 o3erthre: the stupas and monasteries@ :hich he p$undered o their treasuresH8 The other is Sasanka@ the -ing o Eastern India8 +e ru$ed a9out the irst decade o the se3enth centur0 and :as de eated in a con $ict :ith +arsha8 In the :ords o 2incent Smith3[f15] HSansanka@ :ho has 9een mentioned as the treacherous murderer o +arshaFs 9rother@ and pro9a9$0 :as a scion o the .upta d0nast0@ :as a :orshipper o Shi3a@ hating %uddhism@ :hich he did his 9est to extirpate8 +e dug up and 9urnt the ho$0 %odhi tree at %uddha .a0a@ on :hich@ according to $egend@ Asoka had $a3ished inordinate de3otionB 9roke the stone marked :ith the ootprints o %uddha at Pata$iputraB destro0ed the con3ents@ scattered the monks@ carr0ing his persecutions to the oot o the 1epa$ese hi$$s H8 The se3enth centur0 seems to 9e a centur0 o re$igious persecution in India8 As Smith points out : D 1&E HA terri9$e persecution o the cognate re$igion <ainism occurred in Southern India in the se3enth centur0H8 Coming nearer to the time o the *us$im in3asions@ :e ha3e the instance o Sindh :here presecution :as undouted$0 the cause8 That these persecutions continued upto the time o the *us$im in3asions ma0 9e presumed 90 the act that in 1orthern India the -ings :ere either %rahmins or RaAputs 9oth o :hom :ere anti %uddhists8 That the <ains :ere persecuted e3en in the 12th centur0 is amp$0 supported 90 histor08 Smith re ers to AAa0ade3a@ a Sai3a -ing o .uAarat :ho came to the throne in A8#8 11(45& and 9egan his reign 90 a merci$ess persecution o the <ains@ torturing their $eader to death8 Smith adds@ HSe3era$ other :e$$5esta9$ished instances o se3ere persecution might 9e cited8H There is there ore nothing to 3itiate the conc$usion that the a$$ o %uddhism :as due to the %uddhist 9ecoming co3erts to Is$am as a :a0 o escaping the t0rann0 o %rahmanism8 The e3idence@ i it does not support the conc$usion@ at $east makes it

pro9a9$e8 I it has 9een a disaster@ it is a disaster or :hich %rahmanism must thank itse$ 8 C,APTER 4 5iterature o* Brahminism ?e have come across scattered pa$es o" this essa%, numberin$ "rom 1 to &. and &3 to ,7. !hese pa$es seem to be a continuation o" the sub@ect dealt with under the title !he Decline and /all o" Buddhism . +ome o" the pa$es are the "irst copies while the rest are the carbon copies. !here are &. more pa$es dealin$ with the <edanta +utras and Bha$vat 6ita. !he siFe and Gualit% o" the paper on which , chapters i.e. 8&: !he Decline and /all o" Buddhism, 8): !he 2iterature o" Brahminism and 8,: <edanta +utras and Bha$vat 6ita are t%ped, appear to be similar but distinct "rom the siFe and Gualit% o" other Chapters in this part.* Editors8 The acts :hich supp$0 the reasons must 9e g$eaned rom the $iterature o %rahmanism :hich gre: up a ter its po$itica$ trimuph under Push0amitra8 The $iterature a$$s under six categories I1J *anu Smriti I2J .ita8 I3J Shankarachar0aFs 2edant I4J *aha9harat I"J Rama0ana and I&J the Puranas8 In ana$0sing this $iterature@ I propose to 9ring out on$0 such acts as are capa9$e o 9eing suggested 90 in erence@ the reason or reasons or the dec$ine o %uddhism8 There is nothing unusua$ or un air in this8 !or $iterature is the mirror in :hich the $i e o a peop$e can 9e said to 9e re $ected8 There is one point :hich I ee$ I must c$ear up8 It re$ates to the period :hen this $iterature came into existence8 1ot a$$ :i$$ agree that the $iterature re erred to came into 9eing a ter the re3o$ution o Push0amitra8 Ln the contrar0 most +indus@ :hether orthodox or not@ $earned or not@ ha3e an inerradica9$e 9e$ie that their sacred $iterature is a 3er0 o$d one in point o time8 Indeed it seems to 9e an artic$e o aith :ith e3er0 +indu :hich necessitates a 9e$ie in a 3er0 high anti=uit0 o their sacred $iterature As to the age o *anu I ha3e gi3en re erences to sho: that *anu Smriti :as :ritten 90 Sumati %haraga3a a ter 1)" %8C8 i8e8 a ter the Re3o$ution o Push0amitra8 I need sa0 nothing more on the su9Aect8 The date o the %haga3at .ita is a su9Aect a9out :hich there has 9een a di erence o opinion8 *r8 Te$ang :as o opinion that the .eeta must 9e o$der than the third centur0 %8C8 though he :as not a9$e to sa0 ho: much8 *r8 Ti$ak8 888888888 In the opinion o Pro 8 .ar9e@[f17] the .eeta as :e ha3e it@ is di erent rom :hat it origina$$0 :as8 +e agrees that the con3iction that the %hag:at .eeta has not

reached us in its origina$ orm 9ut has undergone essentia$ trans ormations@ is no:@ ho:e3er@ shared 90 man0 Indo$ogists outside India8 According to Pro 8 .ar9e@ one hundred and ort05six 3erses in the %hag:at .eeta are ne: and do not 9e$ong to the origina$ .eeta8 As to the date o its composition Pro 8 .ar9e sa0s that it Hcannot possi9$0 9e p$aced 9e ore the second Centur0 A8#8H Pro 8 -ausam9i insists that the .eeta :as composed in the reign o -ing %a$adit0a8 %a$adit0a 9e$onged to the .upta #0nast0 :hich supp$anted the Andhra #0nast0 in the 0ear8 88888888 %a$adit0a came to the throne in the 0ear 4&( A8#8 +is reasons or so $ate a date are t:o8 %e ore Shankarachar0aG:ho :as 9orn in ()) A8#8 and :ho died in )2/ A8#8G:rote his commentar0 on the %hag:at .eeta@ it :as an unkno:n composition8 It :as certain$0 not mentioned in the !atvasan$raha 90 Shantarakshit :ho :rote his treatise on$0 "/ 0ears 9e ore the ad3ent o Shankarachar0a8 +is second reason is this8 2asu9andhu :as the originator o a schoo$ o thought kno:n as F<i@n%an <ad . The Bramha- +utra- Bhash%a contains a criticism o the 2iAn0an 2ad o 2asu9andu8 The .eeta contains a re erence [f18]to the %ramha5Sutra5 %hash0a8 The .eeta must there ore 9e a ter 2asu9andu and a ter the %ramha5 Sutra5%hash0a8 2asu9andhu :as the preceptor o the .upta -ing %a$adit0a8 That 9eing so@ the .eeta must ha3e 9een composed during or a ter the reign o %a$adit0a8 1othing more need 9e said a9out the date o Shankarachar0a8 The age in :hich he $i3ed and :rote is no: genera$$0 accepted8 Something a9out his $i e needs to 9e said8 %ut I :i$$ reser3e that or another p$ace8 The =uestion o determining the date o the composition o the *aha9harata is next to impossi9$e8 Ln$0 an attempt to ix the period o its composition can 9e made8 The *aha9harat has undergone three editions and :ith each editor the tit$e and su9Aect matter has changed8 In its origina$ orm it :as kno:n as F Aa%aF@ Triumph8 This origina$ name occurs e3en in the third edition 9oth in the 9eginning as :e$$ as in the end8 The origina$ edition o the 9ook kno:n as Aa%a :as composed 90 one 20as8 In its second edition it :as kno:n as %harat8 The Editor o this second edition :as one 2aishampa0ana8 2aishampa0anFs edition :as not the on$0 second edition o the %harata8 20as had man0 pupi$s 9esides 2aishampa0ana B Sumantu@ <aimini@ Pai$a and Shuka :ere his other our pupi$s8 The0 a$$ had $earned at the eet o 20as8 Each one o them produced his o:n8 Thus there :ere our other editions o %harata8 2aishampa0ana recast the :ho$e and 9rought out his o:n 3ersion8 The third editor is Sauti8 +e recast 2aishampa0anaFs 3ersion o %harata8 SautiFs 3ersion u$timate$0 came to ha3e the name o 5ahabharata. The 9ook has gro:n 9oth in si>e and in the su9Aect matter as:e$$8 The Aa%a o 20as :as ama$$ :ork ha3ing not more than ))// Sh$okas8 In the hands o 2aishampa0ana it gre: into 24/// 3erses8 Sauti expanded it to contain ,&)3& Sh$okas8 As to su9Aect matter the origina$ as composed 90 20as :as on$0 a stor0 o the :ar 9et:een the -aura3as and the Panda3as8 In the hands o 2aish0ampa0ana the su9Aect 9ecame t:o5 o$d8 To the origina$ stor0 there :as

added the sermon8 !rom a pure$0 historica$ :ork@ it 9ecame a diadactic :ork aiming to teach a right code o socia$@ mora$ and re$igious duties8 Sauti the $ast Editor made it an a$$5em9racing repositor0 o $egendar0 $ore8 A$$ the sma$$er $oating $egends and historica$ stories :hich existed independent$0 o the %harata :ere 9rought together 90 Sauti so that the0 might not 9e $ost or that the0 ma0 9e ound togeher8 Sauti had another am9ition@ that :as to make the %harata a storehouse o $earning and kno:$edge8 This is the reason :h0 he added sections on a$$ 9ranches o kno:$edge@ such as po$itics@ geograph0@ archar0 etc8 Taking into account SautiFs ha9it o repetition@ it is no :onder that the %harata in his hand 9ecame *aha9harata8 1o: as to the date o its composition8 There is no dou9t that the :ar 9et:een the -aura3as and the Panda3as is a 3er0 ancient e3ent8 %ut that does not mean that the composition o 20as is as o$d as the e3ent or contemporaneous :ith the e3ent8 It is di icu$t to assign speci ic dates to the di erent editions8 Taking it as a :ho$e Pro 8 +opkins sa0s :[f19] HThe time o the :ho$e *aha9harata genera$$0 speaking ma0 then 9e rom 2//54// A8#8 This@ ho:e3er@ takes into account neither su9se=uent additions@ such as :e kno: to ha3e 9een made in $ater times@ nor the 3arious recasting in 3er9a$ orm@ :hich ma0 sa e$0 9e assumed to ha3e occurred at the hands o successi3e cop0ists8H %ut there are other circumstances :hich de inite$0 point to a $ater date8 The *aha9harat contains a re erence to the +uns8 It :as Skandagupta :ho ought the +uns and de eated them in or a9out the 0ear 4"" A8#88 1ot:ithstanding this the in3asions o the +uns continued ti$$ "2) A8#8 It is o93ious that the *aha9harat :as 9eing :ritten a9out his time or there ter8 There are other indications :hich suggest a much $ater date8 The *aha9harat re ers to the *$enchhas or the *us$ims8 In the 1,/th Adh0a0a o the 2ana Par3a o the *aha9harat there is a 3erse 2, :herein the author sa0s that Hthe :ho$e :or$d :i$$ 9e Is$amic8 A$$ ?adnas@ rites and ceremonies and re$igious ce$e9rations :i$$ ceaseH8 This is a direct re erence to the *us$ims and a$though the 3erse speaks o :hat is to happen in the uture@ the *aha9harat 9eing a Purana must as in the case o the Purana 9e taken to speak o the e3ent that has happened8 This 3erse so interpreted sho: that the *aha9harat :as 9eing :ritten a ter the date o the *us$im in3asions o India8 There are other re erences :hich point to the same conc$usion8 In the same Adh0a0a 3erse ",@ it is said that HLppressed 90 the 2rasha$as@ the %rahmins struck :ith ear and inding no one to protect them@ :i$$ roam a$$ o3er the :or$d groaning and cr0ing in agon0H8 The 2rasha$as re erred to in this 3erse cannot 9e the %uddhists8 There is no partic$e o e3idence that the %rahmins :ere e3er oppressed8 Ln the contrar0 the e3idence is that the %rahmins@ during the %uddhists regime@ :ere treated :ith the

same $i9era$it0 as the %uddhist %hikshus8 The re erence to the 2rasha$as means the uncu$tured must 9e to the Is$amic in3aders8 There occur other 3erses in the same Adh0a0a o the 2anapar3a8 The0 are &"@ && and &(8 In these 3erses it is said that@ HSociet0 :i$$ 9ecome disarranged8 Peop$e :i$$ :orship Bedukas. The0 :i$$ 9o0cott .ods8 The Shudras :i$$ not ser3e the t:ice59orn8 The :ho$e :or$d :i$$ 9e co3ered :ith ?edukas8 The ?ug :i$$ come to an end8H 6hat is the meaning o the term F Bedukas H %0 some it has 9een taken to mean a %uddhist Chait%a. %ut according to *r8 -ausam9i [f20] this is :rong8 1o:here either in the %uddhist $iterature or in the 2edic $iterature is the :ord ?eduka used in the sense o KChait0aF8 Ln the contrar0 according to the Amarkosh as commented upon 90 *ahesh:ar %hatt the :ord ?eduka means a :a$$ :hich contains a :ooden structure to gi3e it strength8 So understood -ausam9i contends that the :ord ?eduka must mean KIdgahaF o the *usa$mans 9e ore :hich the0 sa0 their pra0ers8 I this is a correct interpretation then it is o93ious that parts o the *aha9harata :ere :ritten a ter the in3asion o *ohammad .hori8 The irst *us$im in3asion took p$ace in (12 A8#8 under $9ne -assim8 +e captured some o the to:ns in 1orthern India 9ut did not cause much destruction8 +e :as o$$o:ed 90 *ohammad o .a>ni8 +e caused great destruction o Temp$es and 2iharas and massacred priests o 9oth re$igions8 %ut he did not engage himse$ in 9ui$ding *os=ues or Idgahas8 That :as done 90 *ohammad .hori8 !rom this it can 9e said that the :riting o the *aha9harata :as not comp$ete ti$$ 12// A8#8 It seems that $ike the *aha9harata@ the Rama0ana has a$so gone through three editions8 There are t:o sort o re erences to the Rama0ana in the *aha9harata8 In one case the re erence is to FRama0anaF :ithout an0 mention o the author8 In other the re erence is to the Rama0ana o 2a$mi$ki8 %ut the present Rama0ana is not the Rama0ana o 2a$miki8[f21] In the opinion o *r8 C8 28 2aid0a [f22] : HThat the present Rama0ana@ e3en as it is appro3ed and adopted 90 the searching and a$$5respected commentator -ataka@ is not the Rama0ana origina$$0 :ritten 90 2a$miki@ not e3en the most orthodox thinker :i$$ 9e disposed to dou9t8 6hoe3er e3en cursori$0 reads the poem cannot 9ut 9e struck :ith the inconsistencies@ the se3erances o connections@ Auxta5positions o ne: and o$d ideas :hich a9ound so great$0 in the present Rama0ana@ :hether :e take the %enga$ or the %om9a0 text o it8 And one cannot 9ut come to the conc$usion that the Rama0ana o 2a$miki :as su9stantia$$0 reconstructed at some su9se=uent date8H As in the case o the *aha9harata there has 9een an accretion to the su9Aect matter o the Rama0ana8 Lrigina$$0 it :as Aust a stor0 o the :ar 9et:een Rama and Ra3ana o3er the a9duction o RamaFs :i e Sita 90 Ra3ana8 In the second edition it 9ecame a stor0 :ith a sermon8 !rom a pure$0 historica$ :ork it a$so 9ecame a didactic :ork aiming to teach a right code o Socia$@ *ora$ and re$igious duties8 6hen it assumed the orm o a third edition it :as@ again@ $ike the *aha9harat@ made

a repositor0 o $egends@ kno:$edge@ $earning@ phi$osoph0 and other arts and sciences8 6ith regard to the date o the composition o the Rama0ana one proposition is :e$$ esta9$ished name$0 that the episode o Rama is o$der than the episode o the Pandus8 %ut that the composition o the Rama0ana has gone on paripassu a$ong :ith the composition o the *aha9harata8 Portions o Rama0ana ma0 9e ear$ier than the *aha9harata8 %ut there can 9e no dou9t that a great part o the Rama0ana :as composed a ter a great part o the *aha9harata had a$read0 9een composed8 [f23] II1CL*P'ETEJ II The $iterature rom :hich I propose to dra: upon consists o I1J The %hag:at .eeta I2J The 2edant Sutras I3J The *aha9harat I4J The Rama0ana and I"J The Puranas8 In ana$0sing this $iterature I propose to 9ring out on$0 such acts as are capa9$e o 9eing suggested 90 in erence a reason or reasons or the dec$ine o %uddhism8 %e ore proceeding to examine the su9Aect matter o this $irerature I must dea$ :ith the =uestion o the period :hen this $iterature came into existence8 1ot a$$ :i$$ agree that the $iterature re erred to came into 9eing a ter the re3o$ution o Push0amitra8 Ln the contrar0 most +indus :hether orthodox or not@ $earned or not@ ha3e an in5 eradica9$e 9e$ie that their sacred $iterature is a 3er0 o$d one in point o time8 Indeed it seems to 9e an artic$e o aith :ith e3er0 +indu :hich necessitates a 9e$ie in a 3er0 high anti=uit0 o their sacred $iterature8 I1J %+A.6AT .ITA %eginning :ith the %hag:at .ita@ the date o its composition has 9een a matter o contro3ers08 *r8 Te$ang[f24] :as o opinion that :e shou$d Htake the second centur0 %8C8 as a terminous 9e ore :hich the .ita must ha3e 9een composedH8 The $ate *r8 Ti$ak[f25] :as con3inced that the date o the present .ita must 9e taken as not $ater than "// 0ears 9e ore the Saka eraH :hich means that the present .ita :as composed some:here a9out8 8 8 88 According to Pro 8 .ar9e [f26]the date o the composition o the %hag:at .ita must 9e p$aced some:here 9et:een 2// and 4// A8#8 There is another 3ie: propounded 90 *r8 -ausam9i and is 9ased on =uite indisputa9$e data8 Pro 8 -ausam9i insists that the .ita :as composed in the reign o .upta -ing %a$adit0a8 %a$adit0a 9e$onged to the .upta d0nast0 :hich supp$anted the Andhra #0nast0 in the 0ear88888 %a$adit0a came to the throne in the 0ear 4&( A8#8 +is reasons or so $ate a date or the composition o the .ita are t:o8 %e ore Sankarachar0aG:ho :as 9orn in ()) A8#8 and :ho died in )2/ A8#8G:rote his commentar0 on the %hag:at .ita@ it :as an unkno:n composition8 It :as certain$0 not mentioned in the !atvasan$raha 90 Shantarakshit :ho :rote his treatise on$0 "/ 0ears 9e ore the

ad3ent o Sankarachar0a8 +is second reason is this8 2asu9andhu :as the originator o a schoo$ o thought kno:n as F <i@nan <adE. The %rahma5Sutra5%hash0a contains a criticism o the 2iAnan 2ad o 2asu9andhu8 The .ita contains a re erence [f27] to the %rahma5Sutra5%hash0a8 The .ita must there ore 9e a ter 2asu9andhu and a ter the %rahma5Sutra5%hash0a8 2asu9andhu :as the preceptor o the .upta -ing %a$adit0a8 That 9eing so the %hag:at .ita must ha3e 9een composed or at an0 rate portions o .ita must ha3e 9een added to the origina$ edition during or a ter the reign o %a$adit0a i8e8 a9out 4&( A8#8 6hi$e there is a di erence o opinion regarding the date o the composition o the %hag:at .ita@ there is no di erence o opinion that the %hag:at .ita has gone through man0 editions8 A$$ share the con3iction that the %hag:at .ita has not reached us in its origina$ orm 9ut has undergone essentia$ trans ormations at the hands o di erent editors :ho ha3e added to it rom time to time8 It is e=ua$$0 c$ear that the editors through :hose hands it has gone :ere not o e=ua$ ca$i9re8 As Pro 8 .ar9e points out[f28] HThe .ita is certain$0 Kno artistic :ork :hich the a$$ comprehending 3ision o a genious has created8F The p$a80 o inspiration is indeed o ten times percepti9$eB not se$dom@ ho:e3er@ there are mere$0 high5sounding@ empt0 :ords :ith :hich an idea that has 9een a$read0 =uite o ten exp$ained@ is repeated: and occasiona$$0 the $iterar0 expression is exceeding$0 au$t08 2erses are 9odi$0 taken o3er rom the 4panishad $iterature@ and this is certain$0 :hat a poet i$$ed :ith inspiration :ou$d ne3er ha3e done8 The :orkings o Satt3a@ RaAas and Tamas are s0stemati>ed :ith a tru$0 Indian pedantr0@ and much indeed 9esides this cou$d 9e 9rought or:ard to pro3e that the .ita is not the product o a genuine$0 poetic creati3e impu$se888H +opkins speaks o the %hag:at .ita as characteristic in its su9$imit0 as in its pueri$ities@ in its $ogic as in its :ant o it8 8 8 8#espite its occasiona$ po:er and m0stic exa$tation@ the #i3ine Song in its present state as a poetica$ production is unsatis actor08 The same thing is said o3er and o3er again@ and the contradictions in phraseo$og0 and meaning are as numnerous as the repetitions@ so that one is not surprised to ind it descri9ed as Hthe :onder u$ song@ :hich causes the hair to stand on endH8 This is not to 9e reAected as the 3ie: o oreigners8 It is u$$0 supported 90 Pro 8 RaA:ade[f29] :ho goes to sho: that some o those :ho had a hand in the composition o the %hag:at .ita :ere ignorant o the ru$es o grammar8 6hi$e a$$ are agreed that there ha3e 9een di erent editions o the .ita under di erent editors@ the0 are not agreed as to :hat parts o the .ita are origina$ and :hat parts o the .ita are additions su9se=uent$0 made8 In the opinion o the $ate RaAaram Shastri %hag:at the origina$ .ita consisted on$0 o &/ Sh$okas8 +um9o$dt :as inc$ined to the 3ie: that origina$$0 the .ita consisted o on$0 the irst e$e3en Adh0a0as IchaptersJ and that 12 to 1) Adh0a0as :ere su9se=uent additions made

to the origina$8 +opkinsH 3ie: is that the irst ourteen Adh0a0as constitute the heart o the poem8 Pro 8 RaA:ade thinks that Adh0a0as 1/ and II are spurious8 Pro 8 .ar9e sa0s that 14& 3erses in the %hag:at .ita are ne: and do not 9e$ong to the origina$ .ita :hich means that more than one5 i th o the .ita is ne:8 Regarding the author o the .ita there is none mentioned8 The .ita is a con3ersation 9et:een ArAuna and -rishna :hich took p$ace on the 9att$e ie$d@ in :hich -rishna propounds his phi$osoph0 to ArAuna8 The con3ersation is reported 90 SanAa0a to #hritarashtra@ the ather o the -aura3as8 The .ita shou$d ha3e 9een a part o the *aha9harata@ or@ the incident :hich ormed the occasion or it@ is natura$ to it@ 9ut it does not ind a p$ace there8 It is a seperate indepenent :ork8 ?et there is no author to :hom it is attri9uted8 A$$ that :e kno:@ is that 20as asks SanAa0a to report to #hritarashtra the con3ersation that took p$ace 9et:een ArAuna and -rishna8 Lne ma0 there ore sa0 that 20as is the author o the .ita8 I2J 2E#A1T S4TRAS As has a$read0 9een said@ the 2edic $irerature consists o the 2edas@ the %rahmanas@ the Aran0akas@ and the 4panishadas8 !rom the point o their su9Aect matter@ this $iterature a$$s into t:o c$asses I1J $iterature :hich dea$s :ith re$igious o9ser3ances and rites and ceremonies technica$$0 ca$$ed -arma -anda and I2J $iterature :hich dea$s :ith the kno:$edge a9out .od to use the 2edic e=ui3a$entB the %ramhanas@ technica$$0 ca$$ed F.nanakandaF8 The 2edas and the %ramhanas a$$ under the irst categor0 o $iterature@ :hi$e the Aran0akas and the 4panishadas a$$ under the second8 This 2edic $iterature had gro:n to enormous proportions and :hat is important is that@ it had gro:n in a :i$d manner8 Some s0stem@ some coordination :as necessar0 to 9ring order out o this chaos8 As a resu$t o the necessit0 or this coordination@ there gre: up a 9ranch o in=uir0 ca$$ed H*imansaH i8e8 an in=uir0 into the connected meaning o sacred texts i8e8 the 2edic $iterature8 Those :ho thought it necessar0 to undertake such a task o s0stemati>ation and coordination di3ided themse$3es into t:o schoo$s@ those :ho s0stemati>ed the F 9armakandE portion and these :ho s0stemati>ed the 6nanakand portion o the 2edic $iterature8 The resu$t :as that there gre: up t:o 9ranches o the *imansa Shastra@ one ca$$ed -urva 5imansa and the other =ltara 5imansa. As the names suggest@ the Pur3a *imansa dea$s :ith the ear$0 portion o the 2edic $iterature name$0 the <edas and the Bramhanas. That is :h0 it is ca$$ed Pur3a Iear$0J *imansa8 The 4ttara *imansa dea$s :ith the $ater portions o the 2edic $iterature name$0 the Aran0akas and 4panishads8 That is :h0 it is ca$$ed 4ttara I$aterJ *imansa8 The $iterature connected :ith the t:o 9ranches o the *imansa Shastra is immense8 L this@ t:o co$$ections o Sutras stand out as the principa$ and $eading :orks in this ie$d o *imansa8 The authorship o one is attri9uted to <aimini and that o the other is ascri9ed to %adara0ana8 <aiminiFs Sutras dea$ :ith F-armakandaH [f30]

and %adara0anFs dea$ :ith F.nanakandF8There is no dou9t that there :ere prior to <aimini and %adara0ana@ other authors :ho had :ritten treatises on these su9Aects8 1onethe$ess the sutras o <aimini and %adara0ana are taken as the standard :orks on the t:o %ranches o the *imansa Shastra8 A$though the Sutras o 9oth re$ate to that 9ranch o in=uir0 ca$$ed *imansa@ <aiminiFs sutras are ca$$ed 5imansa +utras[f31] :hi$e those o %adara0ana are ca$$ed <edanta +utras. The term F2edantaF is taken to mean Hthe end o the 2edaH@ or the doctrines set orth in the c$osing chapter o the 2edas :hich comprise the 4panishads and as the 4panishads constitute Hthe ina$ aim o the 2edas8H The Sutras o %adara0ana :hich go to s0stemati>e and coordinate them ha3e come to 9e ca$$ed <edanta +utras, [f32]or the doctrines set orth in the c$osing chapter o the 2edas :hich asked SanAa0a to report to8 This is the origin o the 2edanta Sutras8 6ho is this %adara0ana; 6h0 did he compose these Sutras@ and :hen did he compose them; %e0ond the name nothing is kno:n a9out %adara0ana8 [f33] It is not e3en certain that it is the rea$ name o the author8 There is a considera9$e uncertaint0 regarding the authorship o these Sutras e3en among his chie commentators8 Some sa0 that the author is %adara0ana8 Lthers sa0 that the author o the Sutra is 20as8 The rest sa0 that %adara0ana and 20as are one and the same person8 Such is the 9e:i$dering con $ict o opinion regarding the author o the Sutras8 6h0 did he compose these Sutras; That the %rahmins shou$d undertake to s0stemati>e the -armakand portion o the 2edic $iterature one can =uite understand8 The %ramhins :ere deep$0 concerned :ith the -armakand8 Their 3er0 existence@ their $i3e$ihood depended upon the s0stemati>ation o the -armakand portion o the 2edic $iterature8 The %rahmins on the other hand had no interest in the F.nankandF portion o the 2edic $iterature8 6h0 shou$d the0 ha3e made an attempt to s0stemati>e it ; The =uestion has not e3en 9een raised8 %ut it is an important =uestion and the ans:er to that must a$so 9e 3er0 important8 6h0 the =uestion is important and :hat the ans:er is I sha$$ discuss $ater on8 There are t:o other =uestions :ith regard to the 2edanta Sutras8 !irst is this8 Is this :ork theo$ogica$ in character or is it pure$0 phi$osophica$ in its nature; Lr is it an attempt to tie do:n pure phi$osoph0 to the apron strings o esta9$ished theo$og0 and there90 to make it innocuous and harm$ess8 The other =uestion re$ates to the commentaries on the 2edanta Sutras8 There ha3e 9een a$together i3e commentaries on the 2edanta Sutras 90 i3e eminent men a$$ o :hom are ca$$ed Achar0as Idoctors o $earningJ 90 reason o their inte$$ectua$ eminence8

The0 are I1J Shankarachar0a I()) A8#8 to )2/ A8#8J@ I2J RamanuAachar0a I1/1( A8#8 to 113( A8#8J@ I3J 1im9arkachar0a Idied a9out 11&2 A8#8J@ I4J *adha3achar0a I11,(512(& A8#8J and I"J 2a$$a9hachar0a I9orn 141( A8#8J8 The commentaries o these Achar0as on the 2edanta Sutras ha3e 9ecome ar more important than the 2edanta Sutras8 The point o some signi icance is that on the text o one and the same co$$ection o the 2edanta Sutras@ an attempt has 9een made 90 those i3e Achar0as to ound i3e di erent s0stems o thought8 According to Shankara@ the 2edanta Sutras teach a9so$ute monism8 According to RamanuAa@ =ua$i ied monism8 According to 1irn9arka@ monodua$ism8 According to *adha3a@ dua$ism and according to 2a$$a9ha@ pure monism8 I :i$$ not discuss here :hat these terms mean8 A$$ I :ant to sa0 is :h0 shou$d i3e di erent schoo$s shou$d ha3e arisen as a resu$t o i3e di erent interpretation o the same co$$ection o Sutras8 Is it a mere matter o grammar ; Lr is there an0 other purpose 9ehind these se3era$ interpretations8 There is a$so another =uestion :hich arises out o the p$ura$it0 o commentaries8 6hi$e there are i3e di erent commentaries each propounding i3e di erent :a0s o $ooking at .od and the indi3idua$ sou$ rea$$0 speaking there are on$0 t:o@ the 3ie: taken 90 Shankarachar0a and the 3ie: taken 90 the other our8 !or though the our di er among themse$3es@ the0 are a$$ united in their opposition to Shankarachar0a on t:o points I1J The comp$ete oneness 9et:een .od and indi3idua$ sou$ and I2J the :or$d is an i$$usion8 +ere comes the third =uestion8 6h0 did Shankarachar0a propound so uni=ue a 3ie: o the 2edanta Sutras o %adara0ana; Is it the resu$t o a critica$ stud0 o the Sutras; Lr is it a :ish u$ interpretation designed to support a preconcei3ed purpose; I am on$0 raising this =uestion8 I donFt propose to dea$ :ith them here8 +ere I am concerned :ith the age o this $iterature@ is it Pre5%uddhist or Post5%uddhist8 As to the date o the composition o the 2edanta Sutras the initia$ di icu$t0 is that $ike the %hag:at .ita it has a$so gone through se3era$ recensions8 According to some[f34] there ha3e 9een three recensions o the 2edanta Sutras8 That 9eing so nothing de inite can 9e said regarding the date o its composition8 [f35] The 3ie:s expressed are on$0 approximations8 There can 9e no dou9t that the 2edanta Sutras are composed a ter the rise o %uddhism or the Sutras do a$$ude to %uddhism8 The0 must not 9e a ter *anu or *anu re ers to them in his Smriti8 Pro 8 -eith ho$ds that the0 must ha3e 9een :ritten a9out 2// A8#8 and Pro 8 <aco9i 9e$ie3es that the Sutras must ha3e 9een composed 9et:een 2// A8#8 and 4"/ A8#8 I3J *A+A%+ARATA The =uestion o determining the date o the composition o the *aha9harata is next to impossi9$e8 Ln$0 an attempt to ix the period o its composition can 9e made8 The *aha9harata has undergone three editions and :ith each editor the tit$e and

su9Aect matter has changed8 In its origina$ orm it :as kno:n as F Aa%a Triumph8 This origina$ name occurs e3en in the third edition@ 9oth in the 9eginning as :e$$ as in the end8 The origina$ edition o the 9ook kno:n as F Aa%a :as composed 90 one 20as8 In its second edition it :as kno:n as %harat8 The editor o this second edition :as one 2aishampa0ana8 2aishampa0anaFs Edition :as not the on$0 second edition o the %harata8 20as had man0 pupi$s 9esides 2aishampa0anaB Sumantu@ <aimini@ Pai$a and Shuka :ere his other our pupi$s8 The0 a$$ had $earned at the eet o 20as8 Each one o them produced his o:n edition8 Thus there :ere our other editions o %harata8 2aishampa0ana recast the :ho$e and 9rought out his o:n 3ersion8 The third Editor is Sauti8 +e recast 2aishampa0anaFs 3ersion o %harata8 SautiFs 3ersion u$timate$0 came to ha3e the name o 5ahabharata. The 9ook has gro:n 9oth in si>e and in the su9Aect matter as :e$$8 The F<a0aF o 20as :as a sma$$ :ork ha3ing not more than )@)// Sh$okas8 In the hands o 2aishampa0ana it gre: into 24@/// 3erses8 Sauti expanded it to contain ,&@)3& Sh$okas8 As to su9Aect matter@ the origina$ as composed 90 20as :as on$0 a stor0 o the :ar 9et:een the -aura3as and the Panda3as8 In the hands o 2aishampa0ana the su9Aect 9ecame t:o5 o$d8 To the origina$ stor0 there :as added the sermon8 !rom a pure$0 historica$ :ork it 9ecame a diadactic :ork aiming to teach a right code o socia$@ mora$ and re$igious duties8 Sauti the $ast Editor made it an a$$ em9racing repositor0 o $egendar0 $ore8 A$$ the sma$$er $oating $egends and historica$ stories :hich existed independent$0 o the %harata :ere 9rought together 90 Sauti so that the0 might not 9e $ost or that the0 ma0 9e ound together8 Sauti had another am9ition@ that :as to make the %harata a storehouse o $earning and kno:$edge8 This is the reason :h0 he added sections on a$$ 9ranches o kno:$edge@ such as po$itics@ geograph0@ archar0 etc8 Taking into account SautiFs ha9it o repetition it is no :onder that the %harata in his hand 9ecame *aha9harata8 1o: as to the date o its composition8 There is no dou9t that the :ar 9et:een the -aura3as and the Panda3as is a 3er0 ancient e3ent8 %ut that does not mean that the composition o 20as is as o$d as the e3ent or contempraneous :ith the e3ent8 It is di icu$t to assign speci ic dates to the di erent editions8 Taking it as a :ho$e Pro 8 +opkins sa0s : [f36] HThe time o the :ho$e *aha9harata genera$$0 speaking ma0 then 9e rom 2//54// A8#8 This@ ho:e3er@ takes into account neither su9se=uent additions@ such as :e kno:@ to ha3e 9een made in $ater times@ nor the 3arious recasting in 3er9a$ orm@ :hich ma0 sa e$0 9e assumed to ha3e occurred at the hands o successi3e cop0ists8H %ut there are other circumstances :hich de inite$0 point to a $ater date8 The *aha9harata contains a re erence to the +uns8 It :as Skandagupta :ho ought the +uns and de eated them in or a9out the 0ear 4""8 1ot:ithstanding this@

the in3asions o the +uns continued ti$$ "2) A8#8 It is o93ious that the *aha9harata :as 9eing :ritten a9out this time or therea ter8 There are other indications pointed out 90 *r8 -ausarn9i [f37] :hich suggest a much $ater date8 The *aha9harata re ers to the *$enchhas or the *us$ims8 In the 1,/th Adh0a0a o the 2ana Par3a o the *aha9harata@ there is a 3erse 2, :herein the author sa0s that Hthe :ho$e :or$d :i$$ 9e Is$amic8 A$$ Ar0an rites and ceremonies and re$igious ce$e9rations :i$$ ceaseH8 This is a direct re erence to the *us$ims and a$though the 3erse speaks o :hat is to happen in the uture@ the *aha9harata 9eing a Purana must as in the case o the Purana 9e taken to speak o the e3ent has happened8 This 3erse so interpreted sho: that the *aha9harata :as 9eing :ritten a ter the date o the *us$im in3asions o India8 There are other re erences :hich point to the same conc$usion8 In the same Adh0a0a 3erse ", it is said that HLppressed 90 the 2rasha$as@ the %rahmins struck :ith ear@ and inding no one to protect them :i$$ roam a$$ o3er the :or$d groaning and cr0ing in agon0 H8 The 2rasha$as re erred to in this 3erse cannot 9e the %uddhists8 There is no partic$e o e3idence that the %rahmins :ere e3er oppressed8 Ln the contrar0 the e3idence is that the %rahmins during the %uddhist regimes :ere treated :ith the same $i9era$it0 as the %uddhist %hikshus8 The re erence to the 2rasha$as :hich means the uncu$tured must 9e to the Is$amic in3aders8 I that is so@ then part o the *aha9harata :as certain$0 composed a ter the *us$im in3asions o India 9egan8 There occur other 3erses in the same Adh0a0a o the 2anapar3a :hich points to the same conc$usion8 The0 are &"@ && and &(8 In these 3erses it is said that HSociet0 :i$$ 9ecome disarranged8 Peop$e :i$$ :orship Bedukas. The0 :i$$ 9o0cott .ods8 The Shudras :i$$ not ser3e the t:ice 9orn8 The :ho$e :or$d :i$$ 9e co3ered :ith ?edukas8 The ?ug :i$$ come to an endH8 .reat signi icance attaches to the term FBedukas . %0 some it has 9een taken to mean a %uddhist Chait%a, on the ground that Beduka means 9one and particu$ar$0 the 9ones o %uddha and su9se=uent$0 Chait0a 9ecause a Chait0a contains the 9ones o the %uddha8 %ut according to *r8 -ausam9i2 this is :rong8 1o:here either in the %uddhist $irerature or in the 2edic $iterature is the :ord ?eduka used in the sense o FChait0aF8 Ln the contrar0@ according to Amarkosh as commented upon 90 *ahesh:ar %hatt@ the :ord ?eduka means a :a$$ :hich contains a :ooden structure to gi3e it strength8 So understood -ausam9i contends that the :ord ?eduka must mean FIdgahaF o the *usa$mans 9e ore :hich the0 sa0 their pra0ers8 I this is a correct interpretation then it is o93ious that part o the *aha9harata :as :ritten a ter the *us$im in3asions@ particu$ar$0 a ter those o *ahamad .hori8 The irst *us$im in3asion took p$ace in (21 A8#8 under I9ne -assim8 +e captured some o the to:ns in 1orthern India 9ut did not cause much destruction o Temp$es and 2iharas and massacred priests o 9oth the re$igions8 %ut he did not engage himse$

in 9ui$ding *os=ues or Idgahas8 That :as done 90 *ahamad .hori8 So that@ it can :e$$ 9e said@ that the :riting o the *aha9harata :as going on ti$$ 12// A8#8 RA+A6ANA It is a act that $ike *aha9harata@ the Rama0ana has a$so gone through three editions8 There are t:o sorts o re erences to the Rama0ana in the *aha9harata8 In one case the re erence is to Rama0ana :ithout an0 mention o the author8 The other re erence is to the Rama0ana o 2a$miki8 %ut the present Rama0ana is not the Rama0ana o 2a$miki8[f38] In the opinion o *r8 C8 28 2aid0a [f39] : H That the present Rama0ana@ e3en as it is appro3ed and adopted 90 the searching and a$$5respected commentator -ataka@ is not the Rama0ana origina$$0 :ritten 90 2a$miki@ not e3en the most orthodox thinker :i$$ 9e disposed to dou9t8 6hoe3er e3en cursori$0 reads the poem@ cannot 9ut 9e struck :ith the inconsistencies@ the se3erances o connections@ Auxtapositions o ne: and o$d ideas :hich a9ound so great$0 in the present Rama0ana@ :hether :e take the %enga$ or the %om9a0 text o it8 And one cannot 9ut come to the conc$usion that the Rama0ana o 2a$miki :as su9stantia$$0 reconstructed at some su9se=uent date8H As in the case o the *aha9harata@ there has 9een an accretion to the su9Aect matter o the Rama0ana8 Lrigina$$0 it :as Aust a stor0 o the :ar 9et:een Rama and Ra3ana o3er the a9duction o RamaFs :i e Sita 90 Ra3ana8 In the second edition it 9ecame a stor0 :ith a sermon8 !rom a pure$0 historica$ :ork@ it a$so 9ecame a didactic :ork aiming to teach a right code o Socia$@ *ora$ and re$igious duties8 6hen it assumed the orm o a third edition@ it :as again@ $ike the *aha9harata@ made a repositor0 o $egends@ kno:$edge@ $earning@ phi$osoph0 and other arts and sciences8 6ith regard to the date o the composition o the Rama0ana@ one proposition is :e$$ esta9$ished name$0 that the episode o Rama is o$der than the episode o the Pandus8 %ut that the composition o the Rama0ana has gone on peripassu a$ong :ith the composition o the *aha9harata8 Portions o Rama0ana ma0 9e ear$ier than the *aha9harata8 %ut there can 9e no dou9t that a great part o the Rama0ana :as composed a ter a great part o the *aha9harata had a$read0 9een composed8 [f40] P7RANA$ The Puranas toda0 num9er 1)8 This is ho:e3er not the origina$ num9er8 According to traditions@ there is no reason to dou9t@ there :as on$0 one Purana to start :ith8 Tradition a$$eges that this Purana :as o$der than the 2edas8 The Athar3a 2eda re ers to this -urana and the %ramhanda Puran sa0s that it is more ancient than the 2edas8 It :as a $ore :hich the -ing :as expected to kno: or the Satapada8 %rarnhana sa0s the Adh3ar0u :as re=uired to recite the Purana to the -ing on the 1/th da0 o the ?aAna8
[f41]

The origin o the 1) Puranas is attri9uted to 20as :ho it is said recast the origina$ sing$e Purana and 90 additions and su9stractions made 1) out o one8 The making o the 1) Puranas is thus the second stage in the e3o$ution o the Puranas8 The edition o each o these 1) Puranas as pu9$ished or uttered 90 20as is ca$$ed the Adi[f42] Purana i8e8 the origina$ edition as 9rought out 90 20as8 A ter 20as composed these 1) Puranas@ he taught them to his discip$e Romaharsana8 Romaharsana prepared his o:n edition o the Puranas and taught it to his six discip$es8 RomaharsanaFs edition o the Puranas thus 9ecame the third edition o the Puranas8 L the six discip$es o Romaharsana@ three: -as0apa@ Sa3arni and 2aisampa0ana@ made three separate editions :hich ma0 9e ca$$ed the ourth edition o the Puranas :hich :e ca$$ 90 their names8 According to the %ha3ish0a Purana@ the Puranas came to 9e re3ised sometime during the reign o -ing 2ikramadit0a8 [f43] As to the su9Aect matter o the Puranas8 The -urana rom the o$dest time is a recognised department o kno:$edge8 !or instance it :as distinguished rom Itihas or histor08 %0 Itihas :hat :as understood :as past occurances connected :ith a ru$ing king8 %0 Akh%ana :as meant the recita$ o an e3ent the occurance o :hich one had :itnessed8 %0 =pakh%ana :as meant the recita$ o something one has heard8 6at has meant songs a9out dead ancestors and a9out nature and uni3erse8 9alpashudi[f44] are ancient :a0s o acting regarding Shraddha and -a$pa8 [f45] The Purana :as distinguished rom a$$ these 9ranches o kno:$edge8 The Purana :as concerned :ith i3e su9Aects8 I1J Sarga I2J Prati Sarga I3J 2amsha I4J *an3antar and I"J 2amshacharitra8 Sarga means creation o the uni3erse@ Pratisarga means the disso$ution o the 4ni3erse8 2amsha means .eneo$og0@ *an3antar means the Ages o the di erent *anus@ particu$ar$0 the ourteen successi3e *anus :ho :ere the progenitors or so3ereigns o the Earth8 2amshacharitra means the account o ro0a$ d0nasties8 There has 9een a considera9$e addition made in the scope and su9Aect matter o the Puranas8 !or the Puranas :hich :e ha3e are no $onger con ined to these su9Aects8 In addition to these su9Aects the0 contain other su9Aects :hich a$$ entire$0 outside their prescri9ed scope8 Indeed there has 9een such a change in the undamenta$ notion regarding the scope o the Puranas so that some o them do not contain an0 treatment o the regu$ar su9Aects 9ut dea$ :ho$$0 :ith the ne: or extra su9Aects8 The extra su9Aects inc$ude the o$$o:ing main topics : IIJ Smriti #harma :hich inc$ude discussion o : I1J 2arnashrama5dharma@ I2J Achara@ I3J Ahnika@ I4J %hash0a9has0a@ I"J 2i3aha@ I&J Asaucha@ I(J Shradha I)J #ra30a5Suddhi I,J Pataka@ I1/J Pra0aschitta@ IIIJ 1araka@ I12J -arma 2ipaka and I13J ?uga #harma8 IIIJ 2rata #harmaGL9ser3ance o ho$0 3o:s and ho$0 da0s IIIIJ -shetra #harmaGPi$grimages to ho$0 p$aces and

II2J #ana #harmaG.i ts to ho$0 persons8 In addition to this@ there are t:o other topics the ne: su9Aect matter :ith :hich one inds the Puranas to 9e deep$0 concerned8 The irst o these t:o topics re$ates to sectarian :orship8 The Puranas are 3otaries o a particu$ar deit0 and ad3ocate the cause o a particu$ar deit0 and the sect de3oted to his :orship8 !i3e [f46] Puranas ad3ocate :orship o 2ishnu@ Eight [f47] :orship o Shi3a@ Lne[f48] :orship o %rahma@ Ine[f49] :orship o Sur0a@ T:o :orship o #e3i and Lne :orship o .enesh8 The second topic :hich the Puranas ha3e made a part o their su9Aect matter is the histor0 o the A3atars o the .od8 The Puranas make a distinction 9et:een identi ication o t:o .ods and the incarnation o a .od8 In the case o identi ication@ the theor0 is that the .od is one a$though he has t:o names8 In the case o an incarnation@ .od 9ecomes another 9eing o the man or 9rute and does something miracu$ous8 In reading this histor0 o incarnations the ruit u$ source is 2ishnu8 !or it is on$0 2ishnu :ho has taken A3atars rom time to time and done miracu$ous deeds and :e ind in the Puranas this ne: topic discussed in a$$ its e$a9orate detai$s8 It is no :onder i 90 the addition o these ne: su9Aects@ the Puranas ha3e 9een trans ormed out o recognition8 There is one other matter regarding the authorship o the Puranas :hich is note:orth08 It re$ates to the change in the authorship o the Puranas8 Among the ancient +indus@ there :ere t:o separate sections among the $iterar0 c$ass8 Lne section consisted o the Brahmins and another section ca$$ed +utas :ho :ere non5 %ramhins8 Each :as in charge o a separate department o $iterature8 The Sutas had the monopo$0 o the Puranas8 The %rahmins had nothing to do :ith the composition or the reciting o the Puranas8 It :as exc$usi3e$0 reser3ed or the Sutas and the %rahmins had nothing to do :ith it8 Though the Sutas had specia$i>ed themse$3es in the making and the reciting o the Puranas@ a$though the0 had ac=uired a hereditar0 and a prescripti3e right to compose and recite the Puranas@ there came a time :hen the Sutas :ere ousted rom this pro ession 90 %rahmins :ho took it into their o:n hands and made a monopo$0 o it in their o:n a3our8 Thus there :as a change in the authorship o the Puranas8 Instead o the Sutas@ it is the %rahmins :ho 9ecame their authors[f50]8 It is pro9a9$0 :hen the Puranas e$$ into the hands o the %rahmins that the Puranas ha3e 9een ina$$0 edited and recast to make room or the ne: su9Aects8 The editing and recasting has 9een o a 3er0 daring character8 !or in doing so the0 ha3e added resh chapters@ su9stituted ne: chapters or o$d chapters and :ritten ne: chapters :ith o$d names8 So that 90 this process some Puranas retained their ear$ier materia$s@ some $ost their ear$0 materia$s@ some gained ne: materia$s and some 9ecame tota$$0 ne: :orks8

The determination o the date o the composition o the Puranas is a pro9$em :hich has hard$0 9een tack$ed8A$$ histor0 :ritten 90 the %rahmins is histor0 :ithout dates and the Puranas are no exception8 The date o the Puranas has to 9e determined 90 circumstantia$ e3idence co5re$ated :ith e3ents the dates o :hich are :e$$ sett$ed8 The dates o the composition o the di erent Puranas ha3e not 9een examined as c$ose$0 as those o the other parts o the %rahminic $iterature8 Indeed scho$ars ha3e paid no attention to the Puranas at a$$ certain$0 nothing $ike :hat the0 ha3e done in the matter o the 2edic $iterature8 *r8 +a>araFs is the on$0 :ork I kno: o in :hich an attempt is made in the matter o determining the date o the composition o the Puranas8 I gi3e 9e$o: the dates o the Puranas as ound 90 him8 Puranas 18 *arkende0a 28 2a0u 38 %ramhanda 48 2ishnu "8 *ats0a &8 %hag:at (8 -urma )8 2amana ,8 'inga 1/8 2araha 118 Padma 128 %rahanaradi0a 138 Agni 148 .aruda 1"8 %ramha 16. Skanda 1(8 %ramha 2ai3rata 1)8 %ha3ish0a #ate o Composition %et:een 2// and &// A8 #8 %et:een 2// and "// A8 #8 %et:een 2// and "// A8 #8 %et:een 1// and 3"/ A8 #8 Part a9out 32" A8 #8 Part a9out 11// A8 #8 %et:een "// and &// A8 # %et:een ""/ and 1/// A8 #8 %et:een (// and 1/// A8 #8 %et:een &// and 1/// A8 #8 %et:een )// and 1"// A8 #8 %et:een &// and ,"/ A8 #8 %et:een )(" and 1/// A8 #8 %et:een )// and ,// A8 #8 %et:een )"/ and 1/// A8 #8 %et:een ,// and 1/// A8 #8 After 700 A. D. A ter (// A8 #8 A ter "// A8 #8

1o more8 precise date can 9e ixed or the Puranas at an0 rate or the present8 1e: research in the ie$d ma0 narro: the higher and $o:er $imits o their composition8 The di erence :i$$ on$0 9e a di erence o degree8 It :i$$ not 9e one o su93ersion o Eras8 This short sur3e0 is enough to remo3e an0 dou9t as to the age o this $iterature that it is post5%uddhistic8 The sur3e0 esta9$ishes one more point o great signi icance8 This $iterature arose during the period su9se=uent to the triumph o %rahmins under

the $eadership o Push0amitra8 The sur3e0 9rings out one other point8 20as :rites *aha9harata8 20as te$$s %hag:at .ita@ and 20as a$so :rites the Puranas8 *aha9harata contains 1) Par3as@ the .ita has 1) Adh0a0as and the Puranas num9er 1)8 Is a$$ this an Accident; Lr is it the resu$t o a design p$anned and :orked out in concert ; 6e must :ait and see8 Ill T,E &EDANTA $7TRA$ The 3edanta Sutras o %adara0ana as has 9een pointed out a$read0 constitute a department o stud0 on the same $ine as the -arma Sutras o <aimini8 It is natura$ to ask ho: the ounders o these t:o schoo$s o thought com ort themse$3es to:ards each other8 6hen one 9egins to in=uire into the matter one comes across acts :hich are re3ea$ing8 In the irst p$ace as Pro 8 %e$3a$kar [f51]points out@ Fthe 2edanta Sutras are 3er0 c$ose$0 mode$$ed upon the -arma SutrasF In the matter o methodo$og0 and termino$og0@ %adara0ana a$most s$a3ish$0 o$$o:s <aimini8 +e accepts <aimini ru$es o interpreting the text o the Shruti8 +e uses <aiminiFs technica$ terms in the sense in :hich the0 ha3e 9een used 90 <aimini8 +e uses the 3er0 i$$ustrations :hich are emp$o0ed 90 <aimini8 This is a matter or sma$$ :onder8 %ut :hat is not a matter or sma$$ :onder is the attitude o the t:o schoo$s to:ards each other in the matter o doctrine8 'et me gi3e an i$$ustration8 %adara0ana gi3es the o$$o:ing Sutras[f52] as i$$ustrati3e o the position o <aimini to:ards the 2edanta8 28 %ecause Ithe Se$ J is supp$ementar0 Ito sacri icia$ actsJ@ Ithe ruits o the kno:$edge o the Se$ J are mere praise o the agent@ e3en as in other casesB thus sa0s <aimini8 HAccording to <aimini the 2edas mere$0 prescri9e acts to attain certain purposes inc$uding 'i9eration@ and nothing more8 +e argues that the kno:$edge o the Se$ does not 0ie$d an0 independent resu$ts@ as 2edanta ho$ds@ 9ut is connected :ith the acts through the agent8 1o one undertakes a sacri icia$ act un$ess he is conscious o the act that he is di erent rom the 9od0 and that a ter death he :i$$ go to hea3en@ :here he :i$$ enAo0 the resu$ts o his sacri ices8 The Text dea$ing :ith Se$ 5 kno:$edge ser3e mere$0 to en$ighten the agent and so are su9ordinate to sacri icia$ acts8 The ruits@ ho:e3er@ :hich the 2edanta texts dec$are :ith regard to Se$ 5 kno:$edge@ are mere$0 praise@ e3en as texts dec$are such resu$ts 90 :a0 o praise@ :ith respect to other matters8 In short@ <aimini ho$ds that 90 the kno:$edge that his Se$ :i$$ out$i3e the 9od0@ the agent 9ecomes =ua$i ied or sacri icia$ actions@ e3en as other things 9ecome it in sacri ices through puri icator0 ceremonies8 38 %ecause :e ind I rom the scriptures suchJ conduct Io men o rea$i>ationJ8

H<anaka@ emperor o 2ideha per ormed a sacri ice in :hich gi ts :ere ree$0 distri9utedH I%rih8 381818JB HI am going to per orm a sacri ice@ SirsH IChh8 "8118"8J8 1o: 9oth <anaka and As3apati :ere kno:ers o the Se$ 8 I 90 this kno:$edge o the Se$ the0 had attained 'i9eration@ there :as no need or them to per orm sacri ices8 %ut the t:o texts =uoted sho: that the0 did per orm sacri ices8 This pro3es that it is through sacri icia$ acts a$one that one attains 'i9eration@ and not through the kno:$edge o the Se$ @ as the 2edantians ho$d8 48 That I3i>@ that kno:$edge o the Se$ stands in a su9ordinate re$ation to sacri icia$ actsJ the scriptures direct$0 dec$are@ HThat a$one :hich is per ormed :ith kno:$edge@ aith and meditation 9ecomes more po:er u$H IChh8 18181/JB This text c$ear$0 sho:s that kno:$edge is a part o the sacri icia$ act8 "8 %ecause the t:o Ikno:$edge and :orkJ go together I:ith the departing sou$ to produce the resu$tsJ8 HIt is o$$o:ed 90 kno:$edge@ :ork@ and past experience HI%rih8 484828J8 This text sho:s that kno:$edge and :ork go together :ith the sou$ and produce the e ect :hich it is destined to enAo08 -no:$edge independent$0 is not a9$e to produce an0 such e ect8H &8 %ecause Ithe scripturesJ enAoin I:orkJ or such Ias kno: the purport o the 2edasJ8 HThe scriptures enAoin :ork on$0 or those :ho ha3e a kno:$edge o the 2edas@ :hich inc$udes the kno:$edge o the Se$ 8 +ence kno:$edge does not independent$0 produce an0 resu$t8H (8 And on account o prescri9ed ru$es8 HPer orming :orks here $et a man :ish to $i3e a hundred 0earsH IIs8 28JB HAgnihotra is a sacri ice $asting up to o$d age and death:@ or through o$d age one is reed rom it or through deathH ISat8 %r8 128481818J8 !rom such prescri9ed ru$es a$so :e ind that -no:$edge stands in a su9ordinate re$ation ro :ork8 6hat is the position o %adara0ana to:ards <aimini and -arma -anda Shastras; This is 9est i$$ustrated 90 the rep$0 :hich %adara0ana gi3es to the attack 90 <aimini on 2edanta as ormu$ated 90 %adara0ana in the Sutras =uoted a9o3e8 The rep$0 is contained in the o$$o:ing Sutras :[f53] )8 %ut 9ecause Ithe scripturesJ teach Ithe Supreme Se$ to 9eJ other Ithan the agentJ@ %adara0anaFs I3ie: isJ correctB or that is seen I rom the scripturesJ8 HSutras 25( gi3e the 3ie: o the *imamsakas@ :hich is re uted 90 Sutras )51(8 The 2edanta texts do not teach the $imited se$ @ :hich is the agent@ 9ut the Supreme Se$ @ :hich is di erent rom the agent8 Thus the kno:$edge o the Se$ :hich the 2edanta texts dec$are is di erent rom that kno:$edge o the se$ :hich an agent possesses8 The kno:$edge o such a Se$ @ :hich is ree rom a$$ $imiting adAuncts@ not on$0 does not he$p@ 9ut puts an end to a$$ actions8 That the 2edanta texts teach the Supreme Se$ is c$ear rom such texts as the o$$o:ingB H+e :ho percei3es a$$ and kno:s a$$H I*u8 1818,8JB H4nder the might0 ru$e o this immuta9$e@ L .argiH etc8 I%rih8 38)8,8J8 ,8 %ut the dec$arations o the Shruti e=ua$$0 support 9oth 3ie:s8

HThis Sutra re utes the 3ie: expressed in Sutra 38 There it :as sho:n that <anaka and others e3en a ter attaining -no:$edge :ere engaged in :ork8 This Sutra sa0s the scriptura$ authorit0 e=ua$$0 supports the 3ie: that or one :ho attained -no:$edge there is no :ork8 H-no:ing this 3er0 Se$ the %rahmanas renounce the desire or sons@ or :ea$th@ and or the :or$ds@ and $ead a mendicant $i eH I%rih8 38"818J8 H6e a$so see rom the scriptures that kno:ers o the Se$ $ike ?aAna3a$k0a ga3e up :ork8H FThis much indeed is Ithe means o J immorta$it0@ m0 dearF8 Sa0ing this ?aAna3$k0a $e t homeH I%rih8 48"81"J8 The :ork o <anaka and others :as characteri>ed 90 non5attachment@ and as such it :as practica$$0 no :orkB so the *imarnsa argument is :eak8 1/8 IThe dec$aration o the scripture re erred to in Sutra 4J is not uni3ersa$$0 true8 The dec$aration o the Shruti that kno:$edge enhances the ruit o the sacri ice does not re er to a$$ kno:$edge@ as it is connected on$0 :ith the 4dgitha@ :hich is the topic o the section8 IThere isJ di3ision o kno:$edge and :ork@ as in the case o a hundred Idi3ided 9et:een t:o personsJ8 HThis Sutra re utes Sutra "8 HIt is o$$o:ed 90 kno:$edge@ :ork@ and past experiencesH I%rih8 484828J8 +ere :e ha3e to take kno:$edge and :ork in a distri9uti3e sense@ meaning that kno:$edge o$$o:s one and :ork another8 <ust as :hen :e sa0 a hundred 9e gi3en to these t:o persons@ :e di3ide it into t:o ha$3es and gi3e each man i t08 There is no com9ination o the t:o8 E3en :ithout this exp$anation Sutra " can 9e re uted8 !or the text =uoted re ers on$0 to kno:$edge and :ork@ :hich concern the transmigrating sou$@ and not an emancipated sou$8 !or the passage@ HThus does the man :ho desires ItransmigrateJH I%rih8 4848&8J sho:s that the pre3ious text re ers to the transmigrating se$ 8 And o the emancipated sou$ Shruti sa0s@ H%ut the man :ho ne3er desires Ine3er transmigratesJH etc8 I%rih8 4848&8J8 128 IThe scriptures enAoin :orkJ on$0 on those :ho ha3e read the 2edas8 HThis Sutra re utes Sutra &8 Those :ho ha3e read the 2edas and kno:n a9out the sacri ices are entit$ed to per orm :ork8 1o :ork is prescri9ed or those :ho ha3e kno:$edge o the Se$ rom the 4panishads8 Such a kno:$edge is incompati9$e :ith :ork8 138 %ecause there is no specia$ mention Io the <aimini it does not Iapp$0 to himJ8 HThis Sutra re utes Sutra (8 The text =uoted there rom the Isa 4panishad is a genera$ statement@ and there is no specia$ mention in it that it is app$ica9$e to a <nani a$so8 In the a9sence o such a speci ication it is not 9inding on him8 148 Lr rather the permission Ito do :orkJ is or praising I-no:$edgeJ8 HThe inAunction to do :ork or the kno:ers o the Se$ is or the g$ori ication o this -no:$edge8 The praise in3o$3ed in it is this : A kno:er o the Se$ ma0 :ork a$$ his $i e@ 9ut on account o this -no:$edge he :i$$ not 9e 9ound 90 its e ects8 1"8 And some according to their choice Iha3e re rained rom a$$ :orkJ8

HIn Sutra 3 it :as said that <anaka and others :ere engaged in :ork e3en a ter -no:$edge8 This Sutra sa0s that some ha3e o their o:n accord gi3en up a$$ :ork8 The point is that a ter -no:$edge some ma0 choose to :ork to set an examp$e to others@ :hi$e others ma0 gi3e up a$$ :ork8 There is no 9inding on the kno:ers o the Se$ as regards :ork8 1&8 And Ithe scriptures sa0 that theJ destruction Io a$$ =ua$i ications or :ork resu$ts rom -no:$edgeJ8 -no:$edge destro0s a$$ ignorance and its products $ike agent@ act@ and resu$t8 H%ut :hen to the kno:er o %rahman e3er0thing has 9ecome the Se$ @ then :hat shou$d one see and through :hatH etc8@ I%rih8 48"81"J8 The kno:$edge o the Se$ is antagonistic to a$$ :ork and so cannot possi9$0 9e su9sidiar0 to :ork8 1(8 And I-no:$edge 9e$ongsJ to those :ho o9ser3e continence Ii8e8 to Sann0asisJB 9ecause Ithis ourth Ashrarna is mentionedJ in the scriptures8 HThe scriptures dec$are that -no:$edge is gained in that stage o $i e in :hich continence is prescri9ed@ i8e8 the ourth stage or Sann0asa Asrama8 To a Sanna0asin there is no :ork prescri9ed except discrimination8 So ho: can -no:$edge 9e su9ser3ient to :ork; That there is a stage o $i e ca$$ed Sann0asa :e ind rom the scriputures themse$3es in texts $ike : HThere are three 9ranches o dut0B sacri ice@ stud0 and charit0 are the irstB8 8 8 8 A$$ these attain to the :or$ds o the 3irtuousB 9ut on$0 one :ho is irm$0 esta9$ished in %rahman attains immorta$it0H IChh8 28338152JB H#esiring this :or$d Ithe Se$ J a$one monks renounce their homesH I%rih8 4884822J8 See a$so *u8 182811 and Chh8 "81/818 E3er0one can take to this $i e :ithout 9eing a househo$der etc8 :hich sho:s the independence o -no:$edgeH8 *an0 such Sutras can 9e ound in %adara0ana indicating the attitude o the t:o schoo$s o thought to:ards each other8 %ut one is enough as it is so 3er0 t0pica$8 I one stops to consider the matter the position 9ecomes a9so$ute$0 c$ear8 <aimini denounces 2edanta as a a$se Shastra a snare and a de$usion@ something super icia$@ unnecessar0 and insu9stantia$8 6hat does %adara0ana do in the ace o this attack; +e de ends his o:n 2edanta Shastra8 6hat one :ou$d expect rom %adra0ana is denunciation o the -armakanda o <aimini as a a$se re$igion8 %adara0ana sho:s no such courage8 Ln the contrar0 he is 3er0 apo$ogetic8 +e concedes that <aiminiFs -armakanda is 9ased on the Scriptures and cannot 9e repudiated8 A$$ that he insists is that his 2edanta doctrine is a$so true 9ecause it has a$so the support o the Scriptures8 Some exp$anation is necessar0 or this attitude o %adara0ana8 B,A)"AT )ITA The %hag:at .ita orms part o the %hishmapar3an o the great epic kno:n as the *aha9harat8 The epic is main$0 concerned :ith the strugg$e or so3ereignt0 9et:een cousins@ the -aura3as the sons o #hritarashtra and the Panda3as the sons o Pandu8 Pandu :as the 0ounger 9rother o #hritarashtra8 %ut as #hritarashtra :as

9$ind the throne :ent to Pandu8 A ter PanduFs death there arises a dispute 9et:een his sons and the sons o #hritarashtra regarding the right o succession8 The strugg$e or so3ereignt0 cu$minated in the 9att$e o -urukshetra Inear modern PanipatJ8 In this 9att$e -rishna sides :ith the Panda3as and acts as their guide@ riend and phi$ohopher@55na0 acts as the charioteer o ArAuna@ one o the Panda3a 9rothers and :ho p$a0s the part o the chie :arrior in the 9att$e on the side o the Panda3as8 The t:o armies o the -aura3as and the Panda3as :ere arra0ed or 9att$e on the ie$d8 ArAuna in his chariot :ith -rishna as a dri3er comes and takes his p$ace in ront o the Panda3a arm08 Strong and 3a$iant he ga>es at the opposing arm0 o the -aura3as and is struck 90 the horror o the dread u$ ratricida$ :ar in :hich he :i$$ ha3e to ki$$ his cousins and s$a0 those :hom he himse$ re3ers and to :hom he is great$0 attached and inde9ted@ +e 9ecomes deAected@ $a0s do:n his :eapons and re uses to ight8 -rishna 9egins to argue :ith him and pro3oke him to ight8 This argument takes the orm o a =uestion and ans:er o a con3ersation 9et:een ArAuna and -rishna at the end o :hich ArAuna agrees to ight8 At the opening o the %hag:at .ita :e ind o$d #hritarashtra =uestioning SanAa0a a9out the 9att$e8 This is 9ecause #hritarashtra the ather o the -aura3as :ho though a$i3e at the time :hen the 9att$e :as ought :as a 9$ind man and cou$d not see and kno: things or himse$ 8 !or the kno:$edge o the happenings he had to depend upon the reports o others8 Anticipating the di icu$t0 o getting someone to te$$ #hritarashtra the authentic stor0@ 20as the author o the *aha9harata@ it is said@ 9esto:ed on SanAa0a@ the charioteer o #hritrashtra@ the po:er o kno:ing a$$ that takes p$ace on the 9att$e ie$dG e3en the thoughts in menFs minds5 that he ma0 make a aith u$ report to #hritarashtra8 That is :h0 :e ind the episode o %hag:at .ita re$ated as a rep$0 90 SanAa0a to =uestions 90 #hritarashtra8 %ut the .ita is rea$$0 a con3ersation 9et:een ArAuna and -rishna and is right$0 ca$$ed 9rishana Ar@una +amvad. In this -rishna5ArAuna5Sam3adG:hich is the rea$ name o the %hag:at .itaG the main =uestion o3er :hich there :as disagreement :as to ight or not to ight8 There :as no other =uestion8 This :as the one and the on$0 =uestion :hich :as the su9Aect matter o discussion and argument 9et:een the t:o8 Starting rom this point o 3ie: it is o93ious that the .ita cou$d ne3er ha3e 9een intended 90 -rishna to 9e the occasion or mora$ instruction or the genera$ pu9$ic or the doctrina$ exposition o an0 re$igious s0stem or the catechism attached to an0 creed8 ?et this is Aust :hat the .ita has come to 9e8 A$though the occasion :as to decide to ight or not to ight@ the .ita is said to contain :hat his re$igious doctrine -rishna is said to ha3e preached to ArAuna8 The irst =uestion that crops up is :ho is this -rishna8 To this one gets =uite surpri>ing$0 a 3ariet0 o ans:ers rom the .ita itse$ 8 At the start -rishna appears as

a mere man :ith a comp$ete$0 human persona$it08 +e is a :arrior 90 pro ession8 +e is a great :arrior though he had chosen [f54] the hum9$e dut0 o dri3ing the chariot o ArAuna8 !rom man he gro:s into superman directing and contro$$ing the :ar and its rotunes8 !rom superman he gro:s into a demigod and dictator8 6hen a$$ his arguments ai$ to mo3e ArAuna to ight@ he simp$0 orders him to ight and the rightened ArAuna gets up and does his 9iddings8 !rom demigod he rises to the position o .od and is spoken o as Ish:ara8 This sho:s the gro:th o the persona$it0 o -rishna8 %ut :hat is important is that in the 3er0 same .ita@ -rishna stands out a8s a representati3e o other orms o .od8 !our such representati3e characters in :hich -rishna appears are c$ear to an0 one :ho happens to read the .ita e3en casua$$08 -rishna is 2asudeo : Bha$wat 6ita J Ch8S83(8 L the 2rishnis I am 2asude3aB o the Panda3as@ #hananAa0aB and a$so or the *unis@ I am 20asaB o the sages@ 4shanas the sage8 -rishna as %hag:an : Ch8S8128 The Supreme %rahman@ the Supreme A9ode@ the Supreme Puri ier@ art Thou8 -rishna is an A3tar o 2ishnu : Ch8S8218 L the Adit0as@ I am 2ishnuB o $uminaries@ the radiant SunB o the :inds@ I am *arichiB o the asterisms@ the *oon8 Ch8S18248 Ln seeing Thee touching the sk0@ shining in man0 a co$our@ :ith mouths :ide open@ :ith $arge ier0 e0es@ I am terri ied at heart@ and ind no courage nor peace@ / 2ishnu8 SI83/8 S:a$$o:ing a$$ the :or$ds on e3er0 side :ith Th0 $aming mouths@ Thou art $icking Th0 $ips8 Th0 ierce ra0s@ i$$ing the :ho$e :or$d :ith radiance@ are 9urning@ / 2ishnu8 -rishna is a$so an A3tar o Shankara : S8238 And o the Rudras I am ShankaraB o the ?akshas and Rakshasas the 'ord o :ea$th I-u3eraJB o the 2asus I am Pa3akaB and o mountains@ *eru am 18 -rishna is %ramhan :G S28 1"8 I am centered in the hearts o a$$B memor0 and perception as :e$$ as their $oss come rom *e8 I am 3eri$0 that :hich has to 9e kno:n 90 a$$ the 2edas@ I indeed am the Author o the 2edanta@ and the -no:er o the 2eda am 18 S28 1&8 There are t:o Purushas in the :or$d@GThe Perisha9$e and the Imperisha9$e8 A$$ 9eings are the Perisha9$e@ and the -utastha is ca$$ed Imperisha9$e8 S28 1(8 %ut Ithere isJ another@ the Supreme Purusha@ ca$$ed the +ighest Se$ @ the immuta9$e 'ord@ :ho per3ading the three :or$ds@ sustains them8 S28 1)8 As I transcend the Perisha9$e and am a9o3e e3en the Imperisha9$e@ there ore am I in the :or$d and in the 2eda ce$e9rated as the Purushottama@ Ithe +ighest PurushaJ8 S28 1,8 +e :ho ree rom de$usion thus kno:s *e@ the +ighest Spirit@ he kno:ing a$$@ :orships *e :ith a$$ his heart@ / descendant o %harata8

Ask the next =uestion@ 6hat is the doctrine that -rishna preaches to ArAuna; The doctrine preached 90 -rishna to ArAuna is said to 9e the doctrine o sa$3ation or the human sou$8 6hi$e the =uestion dea$t :ith 90 -rishna is one re$ating to Sa$3ation@ -rishna teaches three di erent doctrines o Sa$3ation8 Sa$3ation is possi9$e 90 Dn%anmar$ as propounded 90 Samkh0a ?og8 1183,8 The :isdom o Se$ 5rea$isation has 9een dec$ared unto thee8 +earken thou no: to the :isdom o ?oga@ endued :ith :hich@ / son o Pritha@ thou sha$t 9reak through the 9onds o -arma8 Thus is the conc$uding 3erse o the discourse on Samkh0a ?oga discussed in Chapter II@ 3erses 1151& and 1)53/8 I2J Sa$3ation is possi9$e 90 9arma marg@ 2828 %oth renunciation and per ormance o action $ead to reedom : o these per ormance o action is superior to the renunciation o action8 I3J Sa$3ation is possi9$e 90 Bhakti *arg8 IS8 138 %ut the great sou$ed ones@ / son o Pritha@ possessed o the #i3ine Prakriti@ kno:ing *e to 9e the origin o 9eings@ and immuta9$e@ :orship *e :ith a sing$e mind8 IS8 148 .$ori 0ing *e a$:a0s and stri3ing :ith irm reso$3e@ 9o:ing do:n to *e in de3otion@ a$:a0s stead ast@ the0 :orship *e8 IS8 1"8 Lthers@ too@ sacri icing 90 the ?aAna o kno:$edge Ii8e8 seeing the Se$ in a$$J@ :orship *e the A$$ !ormed@ as one@ as distnct@ as mani o$d8 IS8 1(8 I am the !ather o this :or$d@ the *other@ the Sustainer@ the .rand atherB the Puri ier@ the IoneJ thing to 9e kno:n@ Ithe s0$$a9$eJ /m@ and a$so the Rik Saman and ?aAus8 IS8228 Persons :ho@ meditating on *e as non5separate@ :orship *e in a$$ 9eings@ to them thus e3er Aea$ous$0 engaged@ I carr0 :hat the0 $ack and preser3e :hat the0 a$read0 ha3e8 There are t:o other eatures o the %hag:at .ita :hich arrests oneFs attention8 IiJ There is a sentiment o depreciation o the 2edas and 2edic ritua$s and sacri ices8 118425448 / Partha@ no set determination is ormed in the minds o those that are deep$0 attached to p$easure and po:er@ and :hose disctimination is sto$en a:a0 90 the $o:er0 :ords o the un:ise@ :ho are u$$ o desires and $ook upon hea3en as their highest goa$ and :ho@ taking p$easure in the paneg0ric :ords o the 2edas@ dec$are that there is nothing e$se8 Their I $o:er0J :ords are exu9erant :ith 3arious speci ic rites as the means to p$easure and po:er and are the causes o Ine:J 9irths as the resu$t o their :orks Iper ormed :ith desireJ8 1184" The 2edas dea$ :ith the three .unas@ %e thou ree@ / ArAun@ rom the triad o the .unas@ ree rom the apirs o opposites@ e3er 9a$anced@ ree rom Ithe thought o J getting and keeping@ and esta9$ished in the Se$ 8

1184&8 To the %rahmana :ho has kno:n the Se$ @ a$$ the 2edas are o so much use@ as a reser3oir is@ :hen there is a $ood e3er0:here8 IS8218 +a3ing enAo0ed the 3ast S:arga5:or$d@ the0 enter the morta$ :or$d@ on the exhaustion o their meritB Thus@ a9iding 90 the inAunctions o the three I2edasJ@ desiring desires@ the0 Iconstant$0J come and go8 I1CL*P'ETE C,APTER 8 The Triumph o* Brahmanism ! Re#icide or the birth o* Counter-Revolution ?e have "ound onl% , t%ped pa$es under this title. /ortunatel%, a cop% o" the essa% has been spared b% +hri +. +. Re$e "or bein$ included in this hook. ?hile e(aminin$ the pa$es we have noticed that the cop% $iven b% 5r. Re$e also lacks pa$e nos , to 3 and 7 to &3. !he total t%ped pa$es o" this essa% have been numbered 7) inclusive o" the missin$ pa$es. !he title on the cop% o" 5r. Re$e is the !riumph o" Brahmanism K whereas the "irst pa$e o" the script in our papers is also entitled as Re$icide or the Birth o" Counter-Revolution . !he classi"ication o" the sub@ect into IL Chapters is noted in our cop% whereas it is missin$ "rom the cop% o" 5r. Re$e. Both the titles and the classi"ication are recorded in the handwritin$ o" Dr. Ambedkar. #ence, the% are retained in this print. Incidental%, the pa$e nos 7&;&3 were "ound "a$$ed in other "ile. All those papers have now been introduced at proper place. !hus e(cept pa$e Dos. . to 3, the script is complete.* Editors8 I The %rahmanic Re3o$t against %uddhism8 II *anu the apost$e o %rahmanism8 I$$ %rahmanism and the %rahminFs Right to ru$e and regicide8 I2 %rahmanism and the pri3i$eges o %rahmins8 2 %rahmanism and the Creation o Caste8 2I %rahmanism and the degradation o the 1on5%rahmins8 2II %rahmnism and the Suppression o the Shudra8 2III %rahmanism and the Su9Aection o 6omen8 IS %rahmanism and the $ega$i>ation o the socia$ s0stem8 Speaking a9out India@ Pro 8 %$oom ie$d opens his $ectures on the Re$igion o the 2eda 90 reminding his audience that HIndia is the $and o re$igions in more than one sense8 It has produced out o its o:n resources@ a num9er o distincti3e s0stems and sects8888 In another sense India is a $and o re$igions8 1o:here e$se is the texture o $i e so much impregnated :ith re$igious con3ictions and practices888 H [f55] These o9ser3ations contain pro ound truth8 +e :ou$d ha3e gi3en utterance to truth ar more pro ound and arresting i he had said that India is a $and o :arring re$igions8 !or indeed there is no countr0 in :hich Re$igion has p$a0ed so great a part in its histor0 as it has in the histor0 o India8 The histor0 o India is nothing 9ut a histor0 o a morta$ con $ict 9et:eenG %uddhism and %rahmanism8 So neg$ected is

this truth that no one :i$$ 9e ound to gi3e it his read0 acceptance8 Indeed there ma0 not 9e :anting persons :ho :ou$d repudiate an0 such suggestion8 'et me there ore 9rie $0 recount the sa$ient acts o Indian histor08 !or it is important that e3er0one :ho :as a9$e to understand the histor0 o India must kno: that it is nothing 9ut the histor0 o the strugg$e or supremac0 9et:een %rahmanism and %uddhism8 The histor0 o India is said to 9egin :ith the Ar0ans :ho in3aded India@ made it their home and esta9$ished their cu$ture8 6hate3er ma0 9e the 3irtues o the Ar0ans@ their cu$ture@ their re$igion and their socia$ s0stem@ :e kno: 3er0 $itt$e a9out their po$itica$ histor08 Indeed not:ithstanding the superiorit0 that is c$aimed or the Ar0ans as against the 1on5Ar0ans@ the Ar0ans ha3e $e t 3er0 $itt$e their po$itica$ achie3ements or histor0 to speak o 8 The po$itica$ histor0 o India 9egins :ith the rise o a non5Ar0an peop$e ca$$ed 1agas@ :ho :ere a po:er u$ peop$e@ :hom the Ar0ans :ere una9$e to con=uer@ :ith :hom the Ar0ans had to make peace@ and :hom the Ar0ans :ere compe$$ed to recogni>e as their e=ua$s8 6hate3er ame and g$or0 India achie3ed in ancient times in the po$itica$ ie$d@ the credit or it goes entire$0 to the 1on5Ar0an 1agas8 It is the0 :ho made India great and g$orious in the anna$s o the :or$d8 The irst $and mark in IndiaFs po$itica$ histor0 is the emergence o the -ingdom o *agadha in %ihar in the 0ear &42 %8C8 The ounder o this kingdom o *agadha is kno:n 90 the name o Sisunag2[f56] and 9e$onged to the non5Ar0an race o 1agas8 !rom the sma$$ 9eginning made 90 Sisunag@ this -ingdom o *agadha gre: in its extent under the capa9$e ru$ers o this Sisunag d0nast08 4nder %im9isara the i th ru$er o this d0nast0 the kingdom gre: into an Empire and came to 9e kno:n as the Empire o *agadha8 The Sisunag d0nast0 continued to ru$e the kingdom ti$$ 413 %8C8 In that 0ear the reigning Emperor o the Sisunag #0anst0 *ahananda :as ki$$ed 90 an ad3enturer ca$$ed 1anda8 1anda usurped the throne o *agadha and ounded the 1anda #0nast08 This 1anda #0nast0 ru$ed o3er the Empire o *agadha upto 322 %8C8 The $ast 1anda king :as deposed 90 Chandragupta :ho ounded the *aur0a #0nast08 Chandragupta :as re$ated[f57] to the ami$0 o the $ast ru$ing emperor o the Sisunag #0nast0 so that it ma0 9e said that the re3o$ution e ected 90 Chandragupta :as rea$$0 a restoration o the 1aga Empire o *agadha8 The *aur0as 90 their con=uests enormous$0 extended the 9oundaries o this Empire o *agadha :hich the0 inherited8 So 3ast 9ecame the gro:th o this Empire under Ashoka@ the Empire 9egan to 9e kno:n 90 another name8 It :as ca$$ed the *aur0a Empire or the Empire o Ashoka8 8/rom here onwards pa$e Dos. . to 3 o" the 5+ are missin$.: It did not remain as one o the man0 di3erse re$igions then in 3ogue8 Ashoka made it the re$igion o the state8 This o course :as the greatest 9$o: to %rahmanism8 The

%rahmins $ost a$$ state partonage and :ere neg$ected to a secondar0 and su9sidiar0 position in the Empire o Ashoka8 Indeed it ma0 9e said to ha3e 9een suppressed or the simp$e reason that Ashoka prohi9ited a$$ anima$ sacri ices :hich constituted the 3er0 essence o %rahmanic Re$igion8 The %rahmins had not on$0 $ost state partonage 9ut the0 $ost their occupation :hich main$0 consisted in per orming sacri ices or a ee :hich o ten times :as 3er0 su9stantia$ and :hich constituted their chie source o $i3ing8 The %rahmins there ore $i3ed as the suppressed and #epressed C$asses2 [f58] or near$0 14/ 0ears during :hich the *aur0a Empire $asted8 A re9e$$ion against the %uddhist state :as the on$0 :a0 o escape $e t to the su ering %rahmins and there is specia$ reason :h0 Push0amitra shou$d raise the 9anner o re3o$t against the ru$e o the *aur0as8 Push0amitra :as a Sung 90 .otra8 The Sungas :ere Sam3edi %rahmins@3 [f59] :ho 9e$ie3ed in anima$ sacri ices and soma sacri ices8 The Sungas :ere there ore =uite natura$$0 smarting under the prohi9ition on anima$ sacri ices throughout the *aur0a Empire proc$aimed in the 3er0 Rock Edict 90 Ashoka8 1o :onder i Push0amitra :ho as a Sam3edi %rahmin :as the irst to concei3e the passion to end the degradation o the %rahmin 90 destro0ing the %uddhist state :hich :as the cause o it and to ree them to practise their %rahmanic re$igion8 That the o9Aect o the Regicide 90 Push0amitra :as to destro0 %uddhism as a state re$igion and to make the %rahmins the so3ereign ru$ers o India so that :ith the po$itica$ po:er o the state 9ehind it %rahmanism ma0 triumph o3er %uddhism is 9orne out 90 t:o other circumstances8 The irst circumstance re$ates to the conduct o Push0amitra himse$ 8 There is e3idence that Push0amitra a ter he ascended the throne per ormed the Ash3amedha ?aAna or the horse sacri ice@ the 3edic rite :hich cou$d on$0 9e per ormed 90 a paramount so3ereign8 As 2incent Smith o9ser3es : HThe exaggerated regard or the sanctit0 o anima$ $i e@ :hich :as one o the most cherished eatures o %uddhism@ and the moti3e o AshokaFs most characterisitic $egis$ation@ had necessari$0 in3o$3ed the prohi9ition o 9$ood0 sacri ices@ :hich are essentia$ to certain orms o %rahmanica$ :orship@ and :ere 9e$ie3ed 90 the orthodox to possess the highest sa3ing e icac08 The memora9$e horse sacri ices o Push0amitra marked an ear$0 stage in the %rahmanica$ reaction@ :hich :as u$$0 de3e$oped i3e centuries $ater in the time o Samudragupta and his successors8H Then there is e3idence that Push0amitra a ter his accession $aunched a 3io$ent and 3iru$ent campaign o persecution against %uddhists and %uddhism8 +o: piti$ess :as the persecution o %uddhism 90 Push0amitra can 9e gauged rom the Proc$amation :hich he issued against the %uddhist monks8 %0 this proc$amation Push0amitra set a price o 1// go$d pieces on the head o e3er0 %uddhist monk8 [f60]

#r8 +araprasad Shastri speaking a9out the persecution o %uddhists under Push0amitra sa0s[f61] : HThe condition o the %uddhists under the imperia$ s:a0 o the Sungas@ orthodox and 9igotted@ can 9e more easi$0 imagined than descri9ed8 !rom Chinese authorities it is kno:n that man0 %uddhists sti$$ do not pronounce the name o Push0amitra :ithout a curse8H II I the Re3o$ution o Push0amitra :as a pure$0 po$itica$ re3o$ution there :as no need or him to ha3e $aunched a compaign o persecution against %uddhism :hich :as not 3er0 di erent to the compaign o persecution $aunched 90 the *ahamad o .a>ni against +induism8 This is one piece o circumatantia$ e3idence :hich pro3es that the aim o Push0amitra :as to o3erthro: %uddhism and esta9$ish %rahmanism in its p$ace8 Another piece o e3idence :hich sho:s that the origin and purpose o the re3o$ution 90 Push0amitra against the *aur0as :as to destro0 %uddhism and esta9$ish %rahmanism is e3idenced 90 the promu$gation o *anu Smriti as a code o $a:s8 The *anu Smriti is said to 9e di3ine in its origin8 It is said to 9e re3ea$ed to man 90 *anu to :hom it :as re3ea$ed 90 the S:a0am9hu Ii8e8 the CreatorJ8 This c$aim@ as :i$$ 9e seen rom the re erence a$read0 made to it@ is set out in the Code itse$ 8 It is surpri>ing that no9od0 has cared to examine the grounds o such a c$aim8 The resu$t is that there is a comp$ete ai$ure to rea$ise the signi icance@ p$ace and position o the *anu Smriti in the histor0 o India8 This is true e3en o the historians o India a$though the *anu Smriti is a record o the greatest socia$ re3o$ution that +indu societ0 has undergone8 There can ho:e3er 9e no dou9t that the c$aim made in the *anu Smriti regarding its authorship is an utter raud and the 9e$ie s arising out o this a$se c$aim are =uite untena9$e8 The name *anu had a great prestige in the ancient histor0 o India and it is :ith the o9Aect to in3est the code :ith this ancient prestige that its authorship :as attri9uted to *anu8 That this :as a raud to decei3e peop$e is 9e0ond =uestion8 The code itse$ is signed[f62] in the ami$0 name o %hrigu as :as the ancient custom8 HThe Text Composed 90 %hrigu Ientit$edJ HThe #harma Code o *anuH is the rea$ tit$e o the :ork8 The name %hrigu is su9scri9ed to the end o e3er0 chapter o the Code itse$ 8 6e ha3e there ore the ami$0 name o the author o the Code8 +is persona$ name is not disc$osed in the %ook8 A$$ the same it :as kno:n to man08 The Author o 1arada Smriti :riting in a9out the 4th Centur0 A8#8 kne: the name o the author o the *anu Smriti and gi3es out the secret8 According to 1arada it :as one Sumati %harga3a :ho composed the Code o *anu8 Sumati %harga3a is not a $egendar0 name@ and must ha3e 9een historica$ person or e3en *edhatithe [f63] the great commentator on the Code o *anu he$d the 3ie: that this *anu :as Fa certain

indi3idua$F8 *anu there ore is the assumed name o Sumati %harga3a :ho is the rea$ author o *anu Smriti8 6hen did this Sumati %harga3a compose this Code; It is not possi9$e to gi3e an0 precise date or its composition8 %ut =uite a precise period during :hich it :as composed can 9e gi3en8 According to scho$ars :hose authorit0 cannot 9e =uestioned Sumati %harga3a must ha3e composed the Code :hich he de$i9erate$0 ca$$ed *unu Smriti 9et:een 1(/ %8C8 and 1"/ %8C8 1o: i one 9ears in mind the act that the %rahmanic Re3o$ution 90 Push0amitra took p$ace in 1)" %8C8 there remains no dou9t that the code kno:n as *anu Smriti :as promu$gated 90 Push0amitra as em9od0ing the princip$es o %rahmanic Re3o$ution against the %uddhist state o the *aur0as8 That the *anu Smriti orms the Institutes o %rahmanism and are a proo that Push0amitra Re3o$ution :as not a pure$0 persona$ ad3enture :i$$ 9e c$ear to an0 one :ho cares to note the o$$o:ing pecu$iarities re$ating to the *anu Smriti8 !irst thing to 9e noted is that the *anu Smriti is a ne: Code o $a: promu$gated or the irst time during the reign o Push0amitra8 There :as a 3ie: once pre3a$ent that there existed a code kno:n as the *ana3a5#harma5Sutra and that :hat is kno:n as *anu Smriti is an adaptation o the o$d *ana3a #harma Sutra8 This 3ie: has 9een a9andoned as there has 9een no trace o an0 such :ork8 T:o other :orks existed prior to the present *anu Smriti8 Lne :as kno:n as *ana3a Artha Sastra@ or *ana3a5RaAa5Sastra or *ana3a5RaAa5#harma5Sastra8 The other :ork :as kno:n as *ana3a5.rih0a5Sutra8 Scho$ars ha3e compared the *anu Smriti8 Ln important points the pro3isions o one are not on$0 dissimi$ar 9ut are in e3er0 :a0 contrar0 to the pro3isions contained in the other8 This is enough to sho: that *anu Smriti contains the ne: $a: o the ne: regime8 That the ne: regime o Push0amitra :as anti5%uddhist is 9etra0ed 90 the open pro3isions enacted in the *anu Smriti against the %uddhists and %uddhism8 1ote the o$$o:ing pro3isions in *anu Smriti :G IS8 22"8 H8 8 88 *en :ho a9ide in heres0 8 8 8 the king shou$d 9anish rom his rea$m8H IS8 22&8 HThese ro99ers in disguise@ $i3ing in the kingFs rea$m constant$0 inAure the :orth0 su9Aect 90 the per ormance o their misdeeds8H 28 ),8 H'i9ations o :ater sha$$ not 9e o ered to Ithe sou$s o J those :ho Ineg$ect the prescri9ed rites and ma0 9e said toJ ha3e 9een 9orn in 3ain@ to those 9orn in conse=uence o an i$$ega$ mixture o the castes@ to those :ho are ascetics Io heretica$ sectsJ and to those :ho ha3e committed suicide8H 28,/8 I'i9ations o :ater sha$$ not 9e o ered to the sou$s o J :omen :ho ha3e Aoined a heretica$ sect88888 I28 3/8 'et him Ithe househo$derJ not honour@ e3en 90 a greeting heretics8888 $ogicians@ Iarguing against the 2edaJ8

SII8 ,"8 HA$$ those traditions and a$$ those despica9$e s0stems o Phi$osoph0@ :hich are not 9ased on the 2eda produce no re:ard a ter death@ or the0 are dec$ared to 9e ounded on #arkness8 SII8 ,&8 HA$$ those IdoctrinesJ@ di ering rom the I2edaJ@ :hich spring up and IsoonJ perish@ are :orth$ess and a$se@ 9ecause o modern date8H 6ho are the heretics to :hom *anu re ers and :hom he :ants the ne: king to 9anish rom his rea$m and the +ouseho$der not to honour in $i e as :e$$ as a ter death; 6hat is this :orth$ess phi$osoph0 o modern date@ di ering rom the 2edas@ 9ased on darkness and 9ound to perish; There can 9e no dou9t that the heretic o *anu is the %uddhist and the :orth$ess phi$osoph0 o modern date di ering rom the 2edas is %uddhism8 -a$$uck %hutt another commentator on *anu Smriti express$0 states that the re erences to heretics in these Sh$okas in *anu are to the %uddhists and %uddhism8 The third circumstance is the position assigned to the %rahmins in the *anu Smriti8 1ote the o$$o:ing pro3isions in *anu :G I8 ,38 As the %rahmana sprang rom I%ramhaFsJ mouth@ as he :as the irst 9orn@and as he possesses the 2eda@ he is 90 right the $ord o this :ho$e creation8 I8 ,&8 L created 9eings the most exce$$ent are said to 9e those :hich are animatedB o the animated@ those :hich su9sist 90 inte$$igenceB o the inte$$igent@ mankindB and o men@ the %rahmans8 I8 1//8 6hate3er exists in the :or$d is the propert0 o the %ramhans B on account o the exce$$ence o his origin the %rahmana is@ indeed@ entit$ed to it a$$8 I8 1/18 The %rahmana eats 9ut his o:n ood@ :ears 9ut his8 o:n appare$@ 9esto:s 9ut his o:n in a$msB other morta$s su9sist through the 9ene3o$ence o the %rahmana8 S8 38 Ln account o his pre5eminance@ on account o the superiorit0 o his origin@ on account o his o9ser3ance o Iparticu$arJ restricti3e ru$es@ and on account o his particu$ar sancti ication@ the %rahmana is the $ord o Ia$$J castes8 SI8 3"8 The %ramhana is dec$ared to 9e the creator o the :or$d@ the punisher@ the teacher@ and hence a 9ene actor o a$$ created 9eingsB to him $et no man sa0 an0thing unpropitious@ nor use an0 harsh :ords8 *anu :arns the -ing against disp$easing the %ramhans in the o$$o:ing terms:G IS8 3138 'et him Ithe -ingJ not@ though a$$en unto the deepest distress@ pro3oke %ramhans to angerB or the0@ :hen angered@ cou$d instant$0 destro0 him together :ith his arm0 and his 3ehic$es8 *anu urther proc$aims@ SI8 318 A %ramhana :ho kno:s the $a: need not 9ring an0 Io enceJ to the notice o the kingB 90 his o:n po:er a$one he can punish those men :ho inAure him8 SI8 328 +is o:n po:er is greater than the po:er o the kingB The %ramhana@ there ore@ ma0 punish his oes 90 his o:n po:er a$one8

This dei ication o the %rahmins@ p$acing them e3en a9o3e the -ing :ou$d ha3e 9een impossi9$e un$ess the -ing himse$ :as a %rahmin and in s0mpath0 :ith the 3ie: expressed 90 *anu8 Push0amitra and his successors cou$d not ha3e to$erated these exaggerated c$aims o the %rahmins un$ess the0 themse$3es :ere %rahmins interested in the esta9$ishment o %ramhanism8 Indeed it is =uite possi9$e that the *anu Smriti :as composed at the command o Push0amitra himse$ and orms the 9ook o the phi$osoph0 o %ramhanism8 Taking a$$ these acts into considerations there can remain no dou9tB the one and on$0 o9Aect o Push0amitraFs re3o$ution :as to destro0 %uddhism and re5esta9$ish %ramhanism8 The oregoing summar0 o the po$itica$ histor0 o India :ou$d ha3e 9een =uite unnecessar0 or the immediate purpose o this chapter i I :as satis ied :ith the :a0 in :hich the histor0 o India is :ritten8 %ut rank$0 I am not satis ied8 !or too much emphasis is $aid on the *us$im con=uest o India8 Ree$s and ree$s ha3e 9een :ritten to sho: ho: :a3e a ter :a3e o *us$im in3asions came do:n $ike a3a$anche and en3e$oped the peop$e and o3erthre: their ru$ers8 The :ho$e histor0 o India is made to appear as though the on$0 important thing in it is a cata$ogue o *us$im in3asions8 %ut e3en rom this narro: point o 3ie: it is c$ear that the *us$im in3asions are not the on$0 in3asions :orth stud08 There ha3e 9een other in3asions e=ua$$0 i not o greater importance8 I +indu India :as in3aded 90 the *us$im in3aders so :as %uddhist India in3aded 90 %ramhanic in3aders8 The *us$im in3asions o +indu India and the %ramhanic in3asions o %uddhist India ha3e man0 simi$arities8 The *usa$man in3aders o +indu India ought among themse$3es or their d0nastic am9itions8 The Ara9s@ Turks@ *ongo$s and A ghans ought or supremac0 among themse$3es8 %ut the0 had one thing in commonGname$0 the mission to destro0 ido$ator08 Simi$ar$0 the %ramhanic in3adars o %uddhist India ought among themse$3es or their d0nastic am9itions8 The Sungas@ -an3as and the Andhras ought or supremac0 among themse$3es8 %ut the0@ $ike the *us$im in3aders o +indu India@ had one o9Aect in common that :as to destro0 %uddhism and the %uddhist Empire o the *aur0as8 Sure$0 i *us$im in3asions o +indu India are :orth0 o stud0 at the hands o the historians@ the in3asions o %uddhist India 90 %ramhanic in3aders are e=ua$$0 deser3ing o stud08 The :a0s and methods emp$o0ed 90 the %ramhanic in3aders o %uddhist India to suppress %uddhism :ere not $ess 3io$ent and $ess 3iru$ent than the :a0s and means adopted 90 *us$im in3aders to suppress +induism8 !rom the point o 3ie: o the permanent e ect on the socia8$ and spiritua$ $i e o the peop$e@ the %ramhanic in3asions o %uddhist India ha3e 9een so pro ound in their e ect that compared to them@ the e ect o *us$im in3asions on +indu India ha3e 9een rea$$0 super icia$ and ephemera$8 The *us$im in3aders destro0ed on$0 the out:ard s0m9o$s o +indu re$igion such as temp$es and *aths etc8 The0 did not extirpate +induism nor did the0 cause an0 su93ersion o the

princip$es or doctrines :hich go3erned the spiritua$ $i e o the peop$e8 The e ects o the %ramhanic in3asions :ere a thorough5going change in the princip$es :hich %uddhism had preached or a centur0 as true and eterna$ princip$es o spiritua$ $i e and :hich had 9een accepted and o$$o:ed 90 the masses as the :a0 o $i e8 To a$ter the metaphor the *us$im in3aders on$0 stirred the :aters in the 9ath and that too on$0 or a :hi$e8 Therea ter the0 got tired o stirring and $e t the :aters :ith the sediments to sett$e8 The0 ne3er thre: the 9a90Gi one can speak o the princip$es o +induism as a 9a90Gout o the 9ath8 %ramhanism in its con $ict :ith %uddhism made a c$ean s:eep8 It emptied the 9ath :ith the %uddhist %a90 in it and i$$ed the 9ath :ith its o:n :aters and p$aced in it its o:n 9a908 %ramhanism did not care to stop ho: i$th0 and dirt0 :as its :ater as compared :ith the c$ean and ragrant :ater :hich $o:ed rom the no9$e source o %uddhism8 %ramhanism did not care to stop ho: hideous and ug$0 :as its o:n 9a90 as compared :ith the %uddhist 9a908 %ramhanism ac=uired 90 its in3asions po$itica$ po:er to annihi$ate %uddhism and it did annihi$ate %uddhism8 Is$am did not supp$ant +induism8 Is$am ne3er made a thorough Ao9 o its mission8 %ramhanism did8 It dro3e out %uddhism as a re$igion and occupied its p$ace8 These acts sho: that %rahmanic in3asions o %uddhist India ha3e a ar greater signi icance to the +istorian o India than the *us$im in3asions o +indu India can 9e said to ha3e produced8 ?et 3er0 $itt$e space is de3oted 90 historians to the 3issicitudes :hich 9e e$$ %uddhist India 9ui$t up 90 the *aur0as and e3en :here that is done the0 ha3e not cared to dea$ in a pointed manner :ith =uestions that =uite natura$$0 arise : =uestions such as@ :ho :ere the Sungas@ -ana3as and Andhras B :h0 did the0 destro0 the %uddhist India :hich :as 9ui$t up 90 the *aur0as@ nor has an0 attempt 9een made to stud0 the changes that %rahmanism a ter its triumph o3er %uddhism 9rought a9out in the po$itica$ and socia$ structure8 !ai$ure to appreciate this aspect o IndiaFs histor0 is due to the pre3a$ence o some 3er0 :rong notions8 It has 9een common$0 supposed that the cu$ture o India has 9een one and the same a$$ throughout histor0B that %rahmanism@ %uddhism@ <ainism are simp$0 di eent phases and that there has ne3er 9een an0 undamenta$ antagonism 9et:een them8 Second$0 it has 9een assumed that :hate3er con $icts ha3e taken p$ace in Indian po$itics :ere pure$0 po$itica$ and d0nastic and that the0 had no socia$ and spiritua$ signi icance8 It is 9ecause o these :rong notions that Indian histor0 has 9ecome a pure$0 mechanica$ thing@ a record o one d0nast0 succeeding another and one ru$er succeeding another ru$er8 A correcti3e to such an attitude and to such a method o :riting histor0 $ies in recognition o t:o acts :hich are indisputa9$e8 In the irst p$ace it must 9e recogni>ed that there has ne3er 9een such as a common Indian cu$ture@ that historica$$0 there ha3e 9een three Indias@ %rahmanic

India@ %uddhist India and +indu India@ each :ith its o:n cu$ture8 Second$0 it must 9e recogni>ed that the histor0 o India 9e ore the *us$im in3asions is the histor0 o a morta$ con $ict 9et:een %ramhanism and %uddhism8 An0 one :ho does not recogni>e these t:o acts :i$$ ne3er 9e a9$e to :rite a true histor0 o India@ a histor0 :hich :i$$ disc$ose the meaning and purpose running through it8 It is a correcti3e to Indian histor0 :ritten as it is and to disc$ose the meaning and purposes running through it that I :as o9$iged to re5cast the histor0 o the %rahmanic in3asions o %uddhist India and the po$itica$ triumph o %rahmanism o3er %uddhism8 6e must there ore 9egin :ith the recognition o the act : Push0amitraFs re3o$ution :as a po$itica$ re3o$ution engineered 90 the %rahmins to o3erthro: %uddhism8 The curious :i$$ natura$$0 ask :hat did this triumphant %rahmanism do; It is to this =uestion that I :i$$ no: turn8 The deeds or misdeeds o this triumphant %rahmanism ma0 9e cata$ogued under se3en heads I1J It esta9$ished the right o the %rahmin to ru$e and commit regicide8 I2J It made the %ramhins a c$ass o pri3i$eged persons8 I3J It con3erted the 2arna into caste8 I4J It 9rought a9out a con $ict and anti5socia$ ee$ing 9et:een the di erent castes8 I"J It degraded the Shudras and the :omen I&J It orged the s0stem o graded ine=ua$it0 and I(J It made $ega$ and rigid the socia$ s0stem :hich :as con3entiona$ and $exi9$e8 To 9egin :ith the irst8 The re3o$ution 9rought a9out 90 Push0amitra created an initia$ di icu$t0 in the :a0 o the %rahmins8 Peop$e cou$d not 9e easi$0 reconci$ed to this re3o$ution8 The resentment o the pu9$ic :as :e$$ expressed 90 the poet %ana 1[f64] :hen in re erring to this re3o$ution re3i$es Push0amitra as 9eing 9ase 9orn and ca$$s his act o regicide as Anarva. The act o Push0amitra :as proper$0 descri9ed 90 %ana as Anar%a i8e8 contrar0 to Ar0an $a:8 !or on three points the Ar0an $a: at the date o Push0amitraFs re3o$ution :as :e$$ sett$ed8 The then Ar0an $a: dec$ared I1J That -ingship is the right o the -shatri0a on$08 A %rahmin cou$d ne3er 9e a king8 I2J That no %rahmin sha$$ take to the pro ession o Arms 2[f65] and I3J That re9e$$ion against the -ingFs authorit0 :as a sin8 Push0amitra in ostering the re9e$$ion had committed a crime against each o these three $a:s8 +e :as %rahmin@ and a$though a %rahmin he re9e$$ed against the -ing@ took to the pro ession o Arms and 9ecame a -ing8 Peop$e :ere not reconci$ed to this usurption :hich constituted so $agrant a 9reach o the $a: that the %rahmins had to regu$ari>e the position created 90 Push0amitra8 This the %rahmins did 90 taking the 9o$d step o changing the $a:8 This change o $a: is =uite mani est rom the *anu Smriti8 I :i$$ =uote the appropriate sh$okas rom the Code : SII8 1//8 HThe post o the Commander5in5Chie o the -ingdom@ the 3er0 +eadship o .o3ernment@ the comp$ete empire o3er e3er0 one are deser3ed 90 the %rahmin8H +ere :e ha3e one change in the $a:8 This ne: $a: dec$ares that the %rahmin has a right to 9ecome Senapati ICommander o orcesJ@ to

con=uer a kingdom@ and to 9e the ru$er and the Emperor o it8 SI8 318 A %rahmin@ :ho :e$$ kno:s the $a:s@ need not comp$ain to the king o an0 grie3ous inAur0B since@ e3en 90 his o:n po:er@ he ma0 chastise those@ :ho inAure him8 SI8 328 +is I%rahminFsJ o:n po:er@ :hich depends on himse$ a$one is mightier than the ro0a$ po:er@ :hich depends on other men B 90 his o:n might@ there ore ma0 a %rahmin coerce his oes8 SI8 2&15&28 A %rahmin :ho has ki$$ed e3en the peop$es o the three :or$ds@ is comp$ete$0 reed rom a$$ sins on reciting three times the Rig@ ?aAur or Sama852eda :ith the 4panishadas8H +ere is the second change in the $a:8 It authori>ed the %rahmin to ki$$ not on$0 the king 9ut to engage in a genera$ massacre o men i the0 seek to do inAur0 to his po:er and position8 2III8 34)8 HThe t:ice 9orn man ma0 take arms@ :hen the right u$ occupation assigned to each 90 #harma is o9structed 90 orce B and :hen@ in some e3i$ time@ a disaster has 9e a$$en the t:ice59orn c$asses8H IS8 32/8 L a -shatri0a I*i$itar0 man or kingJ@ :ho raise his arm 3io$ent$0 on a$$ occasions against the %rahmins@ %rahmin himse$ sha$$ 9e the chastiserB since the so$dier origina$$0 proceeded rom the %rahmin8H This is the third $ega$ change8 It recogni>ed the right to re9e$$ion and the right to regicide8 The ne: $a: is 3er0 de$icate$0 ramed8 It gi3es the right o re9e$$ion to three higher c$asses8 %ut it is a$so gi3en to the %rahmins sing$0 90 :a0 o pro3iding or a situation :hen the -shatri0as and the 2aish0as ma0 not 9e prepared to Aoin the %rahmin in 9ringing a9out a re9e$$ion8 The right o re9e$$ion is :e$$ circumscri9ed8 It can 9e exercised on$0 :hen the king is gui$t0 o upsetting the occupations assigned 90 *anu to the di erent 2arnas8 These $ega$ changes :ere as necessar0 as the0 :ere re3o$utionar08 Their o9Aect :as to $ega$i>e and regu$ari>e the position created 90 Push0amitra 90 ki$$ing the $ast *aur0a -ing8 %0 3irtue o these $ega$ changes@ a %rahmin cou$d $a: u$$0 9ecome a king@ cou$d $a: u$$0 take arms@ cou$d $a: u$$0 depose or murder a king :ho :as opposed to Chatur3arna and cou$d $a: u$$0 ki$$ an0 su9Aect that opposed the authorit0 o the %rahmin8 *anu ga3e the %rahmins a right to commit %artha$omeu i it 9ecame necessar0 to sa eguard their interests8 In this :a0 %rahmanism esta9$ished the right o %rahmana to ru$e and set at rest :hate3er dou9t and dispute there :as regarding the same8 %ut that cou$d hard$0 9e enough or the %rahmins as a :ho$e8 It ma0 9e a matter o pride 9ut not o an0 ad3antage8 There can 9e no specia$ 3irtue in %rahmin ru$e i the %rahmin :as treated as common man a$ong :ith the 1on5%rahmins ha3ing the same rights and same duties8 %rahmin ru$e i it is to Austi 0 itse$ @ it must do so 90 con erring specia$ pri3i$eges and immunities on the %rahmins as a c$ass8 Indeed Push0amitraFs Re3o$ution :ou$d ha3e 9een an i$$ :ind 9$o:ing no good i it had not recogni>ed the

superior position o the %rahmins and con erred upon them specia$ ad3antages8 *anu :as a$i3e to this and according$0 proceeds to create monopo$ies or %rahmins and grant them certain immunities and pri3i$eges as ma0 9e seen rom the Code8 !irst as to monopo$ies : 18 ))8 To %rahmanas he assigned teaching and stud0ing Ithe 2edaJ sacri icing or their o:n 9ene it and or others@ gi3ing and accepting Io a$msJ8 S8 18 'et the three t:ice59orn castes I2arnaJ@ discharging their Iprescri9edJ duties@ stud0 Ithe 2edaJ B 9ut among them the %rahmana Ia$oneJ sha$$ teach it@ not the other t:oB that is an esta9$ished ru$e8 S8 28 The %rahmana must kno: the means o su9sistence Iprescri9edJ 90 $a: or a$$@ instruct others@ and himse$ $i3e according to Ithe $a:J8 S8 38 Ln account o his pre5eminence@ on account o the superiorit0 o his origin@ on account o his o9ser3ance o Iparticu$arJ restricti3e ru$es@ and on account o his particu$ar sancti ication@ the %rahmana is the $ord o Ia$$J castes I3arnaJ8 S8 (48 %rahmanas :ho are intent on the means Io gaining union :ithJ %rahman and irm in IdischargingJ their duties@ sha$$ $i3e 90 du$0 per orming the o$$o:ing six acts@ I:hich are enumeratedJ in their IproperJ order8 S8 ("8 Teaching@ stud0ing@ sacri icing or himse$ @ sacri icing or others@ making gi ts and recei3ing them are the six acts Iprescri9edJ or a %rahamana8 S8 (&8 %ut among the six acts IordainedJ or him three are his means o su9sistence@ I3i>8J sacri icing or others@ teaching@ and accepting gi ts rom pure men8 S8 ((8 IPassingJ rom the %rahmana to the -shatri0a@ three acts Iincum9entJ Ion the ormerJ are or9idden@ I3i>8J teaching@ sacri icing or others@ and@ third$0@ the acceptance o gi ts8 S8 ()8 The same are $ike:ise or9idden to a 2ais0a@ that is a sett$ed ru$eB or *anu@ the $ord o creatures IPraAapatiJ@ has not prescri9ed them or Imen o J those t:o IcastesJ8 S8 (,8 To carr0 arms or striking and or thro:ing Iis prescri9edJ or -shatri0as as a means o su9sistence B to trade@ Ito rearJ catt$e@ and agricu$ture or 2ais0asB 9ut their duties are $i9era$it0@ the stud0 o the 2eda@ and the per ormance o sacri ices8 +ere are three things :hich *anu made the monopo$0 o the %rahmin : teaching 2edas@ per orming Sacri ices and recei3ing gi ts8 The o$$o:ing are the immunities that :ere granted to the %rahmins8 The0 a$$ into t:o c$asses B reedom rom taxation and exemption rom certain orms o punishment or crimes8 2II8 1338 Though d0ing I:ith :antJ@ a king must not $e30 a tax on Srotri0as@ and no Srotri0a residing in his kingdom@ must perish rom hunger8 2III8 1228 The0 dec$are that the :ise ha3e prescri9ed these ines or perAur0@ in order to pre3ent a ai$ure o Austice@ and in order to restrain inAustice8

2III8 1238 %ut a Aust king sha$$ ine and 9anish Imen o J the three I$o:erJ castes I3arnaJ :ho ha3e gi3en a$se e3idence@ 9ut a %rahmana he sha$$ Ion$0J 9anish8 2III8 1248 *anu@ the son o the Se$ 5existent IS3a0am9huJ@ has named ten p$aces on :hich punishment ma0 9e Imade to a$$J in the cases o the three I$o:erJ castes I3arnaJB 9ut a %rahmana sha$$ depart unhurt I rom the countr0J8 2III8 3(,8 Tonsure Io the headJ is ordained or a %rahmana Iinstead o J capita$ punishmentB 9ut Imen o J other castes sha$$ su er capita$ punishment8 2III8 3)/8 'et him ne3er s$a0 a %rahmana@ though he ha3e committed a$$ Ipossi9$eJ crimesB $et him 9anish such an Io enderJ@ $ea3ing a$$ his propert0 Ito himJ and Ihis 9od0J unhurt8 Thus *anu p$aces the %rahmin a9o3e the ordinar0 pena$ $a: or e$on08 +e is to 9e a$$o:ed to $ea3e the countr0 :ithdra: a :ound on him and :ith a$$ propert0 in pro3ed o ences o capita$ punishment8 +e is not to su er or eiture o ine nor capita$ punishment8 +e su ered on$0 9anishment :hich in the :ords o +o99es :as on$0 a HChange o airH a ter ha3ing committed the most heinous crimes8 *anu ga3e him a$so certain pri3i$eges8 A <udge must 9e a %rahmin8 2III8 ,8 %ut i the king does not persona$$0 in3estigate the suits@ then $et him appoint a $earned %rahmana to tr0 them8 2III8 1/8 That ImanJ sha$$ enter that most exce$$ent court@ accompanied 90 three assessors@ and u$$0 consider Ia$$J causes I9roughtJ 9e ore the IkingJ@ either sitting do:n or standing8 The other pri3i$eges :ere inancia$ 2III8 3(8 6hen a $earned %rahmana has ound treasure@ deposited in ormer ItimesJ@ he ma0 take e3en the :ho$e Io itJ B or he is master o e3er0thing8 2III8 3)8 6hen the king inds treasure o o$d concea$ed in the ground@ $et him gi3e one ha$ to %rahmanas and p$ace the IotherJ ha$ in his treasur08 IS8 3238 %ut Ia king :ho ee$s his end dra:ing nighJ sha$$ 9esto: a$$ his :ea$th@ accumu$ated rom ines@ on %rahmanas@ make o3er his kingdom to his son@ and then seek death in 9att$e8 IS8 1)(8 A$:a0s to that Ire$ati3e :ithin three degreesJ :ho is nearest to the IdeceasedJ Sapinda the estate sha$$ 9e$ong B a ter:ards a Saku$0a sha$$ 9e Ithe heir@ thenJ the spiritua$ teacher or the pupi$8 IS8 1))8 %ut on ai$ure o a$$ IheirsJ %rahmanas Isha$$J share the estate@ I:ho areJ 3ersed in the three 2edas@ pure and se$ 5contro$$ed B thus the $a: is not 3io$ated8 IS8 1),8 The propert0 o a %rahmana must ne3er 9e taken 90 the -ing@ that is a sett$ed ru$e B 9ut Ithe propert0 o menJ o other castes the king ma0 take on ai$ure o a$$ IheirsJ8 These are some o the ad3antages@ immunities and pri3i$eges :hich *anu con erred upon the %rahmins8 This :as a token o a %rahmin ha3ing 9ecome a king8 Supporters o %rahmanismGso strong is the 9e$ie in the exce$$ence o %rahmanism that there are no appo$ogists or it as 0etGne3er ai$ to point to the disa9i$ities :hich *anu has imposed upon the %rahmins8 Their o9Aect in doing so is

to sho: that the idea$ p$aced 90 *anu 9e ore the %rahmin is po3ert0 and ser3ice8 That *anu has p$aced certain disa9i$ities upon the %rahmins is a act8 %ut to conc$ude rom it that *anuFs idea$ or a %rahmin is po3ert0 and ser3ice is a gross and de$i9erate concoction or :hich there is no oundation in *anu8 To understand the rea$ purpose :hich *anu had in imposing these disa9i$ities@ t:o things must 9e 9orne in mind8 !irst$0 the p$ace *anu has assigned to the %rahmins in the genera$ scheme o societ0 and second$0 the nature o the disa9i$ities8 The p$ace assigned 90 *anu to the %rahmins is enunciated 90 him in une=ui3oca$ terms8 The matter 9eing important I must =uote again the 2erses a$read0 =uoted8 18 ,38 As the %rahmana sprang rom I%rahmanFsJ mouth@ as he :as the irst 9orn@ and as he possesses the 2eda@ he is 90 right the $ord o this :ho$e creation8 Consider the nature o the disa9i$ities8 I28 28 A %rahamana must seek a means o su9sistence :hich either causes no@ or at $east $itt$e pain Ito othersJ@ and $i3e I90 thatJ except in times o distress8 I28 38 !or the purpose o gaining 9are su9sistence@ $et him accumu$ate propert0 90 I o$$o:ing thoseJ irreproacha9$e occupations I:hich are prescri9ed orJ his IcasteJ@ :ithout Iundu$0J atiguing his 9od08 2III8 33(8 In Ia case o J the t the gui$t o a Sudra sha8$$ 9e eight o$d@ that o a 2aish0a sixteen o$d@ that o a -shatri0a t:o5and5thirt0 o$d8 2III8 33)8 That o a %rahamana sixt05 our5 o$d@ or =uite a hundred5 o$d or Ie3enJ t:ice our5and5sixt05 o$dB Ieach o themJ kno:ing the nature o the o ence8 2III8 3)38 A %rahamana sha$$ 9e compe$$ed to pa0 a ine o one thousand IpanasJ i he has intercourse :ith guarded I ema$es o J those t:o IcastesJ B or Io ending :ithJ a IguardedJ Sudra ema$e a ine o one thousand IpanasJ Isha$$ 9e in $ictedJ on a -shatri0a or a 2aish0a8 2III8 3)48 !or Iintercourse :ithJ an unguarded -shatri0a a ine o i3e hundred Ipanas sha$$ a$$J on a 2ais0a B 9ut I or the same o enceJ a -shatri0a sha$$ 9e sha3ed :ith the urine Io a donke0J or Ipa0J the same ine8 2III8 3)"8 A %rahamana :ho approaches unguarded ema$es Io theJ -shatri0a or 2ais0a IcastesJ@ or a Sudra ema$e@ sha$$ 9e ined i3e hundred IpanasJB 9ut I or intercourse :ithJ a ema$e Io theJ $o:est IcastesJ@ one thousand8 Examining these disa9i$ities against the 9ackground urnished 90 the p$ace assigned to him 90 *anu@ it is o93ious that the o9Aect o these disa9i$ities :as not to make the %rahmin su er8 Ln the other hand it 9ecomes c$ear that the o9Aect o *anu :as to sa3e the %rahmin rom a$$ing rom the high pennac$e on :hich he had p$aced him and incurring the disgrace o the non5%rahmins8 That the o9Aect o *anu :as not to su9Aect the %rahmins to po3ert0 and destitute is c$ear rom other pro3isions rom *anu5Smriti8 In this connection re erence shou$d 9e made to the ru$e contained in the *anu Smriti regarding the course o conduct a %rahmin shou$d pursue :hen he is in distres8

S8 )/8 Among the se3era$ occupations the most commenda9$e are@ teaching the 2eda or a %rahmana@ protecting Ithe peop$eJ or a -shatri0a@ and trade or a 2ais0a8 S8 )18 %ut a %rahmana@ una9$e to su9sist 90 his pecu$iar occupations Aust mentioned@ ma0 $i3e according to the $a: app$ica9$e to -shatri0as B or the $atter is next to him in rank8 S8 )28 I it 9e asked@ F+o: sha$$ it 9e@ i he cannot maintain himse$ 90 either Io these occupations;F the ans:er isJ@ he ma0 adopt a 2ais0aFs mode o $i e@ emp$o0ing himse$ in agricu$ture and rearing catt$e8 S8 )38 %ut a %rahamana@ or a -shatri0a@ $i3ing 90 a 2ais0aFs mode o su9sistence@ sha$$ care u$$0 a3oid Ithe pursuit o J agricu$ture@ I:hich causesJ inAur0 to man0 9eings and depends on others8 S8 )48 ISomeJ dec$are that agricu$ture is something exce$$ent@ I9utJ that means o su9sistence is 9$amed 90 the 3irtuous B I orJ the :ooden Iimp$ementJ :ith iron point inAures the earth and Ithe 9eingsJ $i3ing in the earth8 S8 )"8 %ut he :ho@ through a :ant o means o su9sistence@ gi3es up the strictness :ith respect to his duties@ ma0 se$$@ in order to increase his :ea$th@ the commodities so$d 90 2ais0as@ making Iho:e3erJ the I o$$o:ingJ exceptions8 It :i$$ 9e seen that the disa9i$ities imposed upon a %rahmin $ast as $ong as he is prospering 90 the occupations :hich 9e$ong to him as o right8 As soon as he is in distress and his disa9i$ities 3anish and he is ree to do an0thing that he $ikes to do in addition to the occupations reser3ed to him and :ithout ceasing to 9e a %rahmin8 !urther :hether he is in distress or not is a matter :hich is $e t to the %rahmin to 9e decided in his o:n discretion8 There is there ore no 9ar to pre3ent e3en a prosperous %rahmin to supp$ement his earnings 90 o$$o:ing an0 o the pro essions open to him in distress 90 satis 0ing his conscience8 There are other pro3isions in *anu Smriti intended to materia$$0 9ene it the %rahmanas8 The0 are Dakshina and Dana. #akshina is the ee :hich the %rahmin is entit$ed to charge :hen he is ca$$ed to per orm a re$igious ceremon08 %rahmanism is u$$ o rites and ceremonies8 It is not 3er0 di icu$t to imagine ho: great must this source o income 9e to e3er0 %rahmin: There :as no chance o a priest 9eing cheated o his ees8 The re$igious sense attached to #akshina :as a su icient sanction or regu$ar pa0ment8 %ut *anu :anted to gi3e the %rahmins the right to reco3er his ees8 SI8 3)8 A %rahamana :ho@ though :ea$th0@ does not gi3e@ as ee or the per ormance o an Agn0adhe0a@ a horse sacred to PraAapati@ 9ecomes Ie=ua$ to oneJ :ho has not kind$ed the sacred ires8 SI8 3,8 'et him :ho has aith and contro$s his senses@ per orm other meritorious acts@ 9ut $et him on no acount o er sacri ices at :hich he gi3es sma$$er ees Ithan those prescri9edJ8

SI8 4/8 The organs Io sense and actionJ@ honour@ I9$iss inJ hea3en@ $onge3it0@ ame@ o spring@ and catt$e are destro0ed 90 a sacri ice at :hich ItooJ sma$$ sacri icia$ ees are gi3en B hence a man o sma$$ means shou$d not o er a ISrautaJ sacri ice8 +e e3en goes to the $ength o excusing a %rahmin 90 dec$aring that an0thing done 90 him to reco3er his ees sha$$ not 9e an o ence under the $a:8 2III8 34,8 In their o:n de ence@ in a stri e or the ees o o iciating priests and in order to protect :omen and %rahmanas B he :ho Iunder such circumstances ki$$s in the cause o right@ commits no sin8 %ut it is the pro3ision o #ana :hich makes a ruit u$ source o income to the %rahmins8 *anu exhorts the -ing to make Dana to %rahmins8 2II8 (,8 A -ing sha$$ o er 3arious ISrautaJ sacri ices at :hich $i9era$ ees Iare distri9utedJ@ and in order to ac=uire merit@ he sha$$ gi3e to %rahmanas enAo0ments and :ea$th8 2II8 )28 'et him honour those %rahmanas :ho ha3e returned rom their teacherFs house Ia ter stud0ing the 2edaJ B or that Imone0 :hich is gi3enJ to %rahmanas is dec$ared to 9e an imperisha9$e treasure or kings8 2II8 )38 1either thie3es nor oes can take it@ nor can it 9e $ostB hence an imperisha9$e store must 9e deposited 90 kings :ith %rahmanas8 SI8 48 %ut a king sha$$ 9esto:@ as is proper@ Ae:e$s o a$$ sorts@ and presents or the sake o sacri ices on %rahmanas $earned in the 2edas8 This admonition 90 *anu to the -ing did not remain a mere hope or the %rahmin8 !or as histor0 sho:s that this exhortation :as u$$0 exp$oited 90 the %rahmins as the num9er o dana patras disco3ered 90 Archia$ogists indicate8 It is astounding ho: the kings :ere 9e oo$ed 90 the %rahmins to trans er 3i$$age a ter 3i$$age to cra t0@ $a>0 and indo$ent %rahmins8 Indeed a $arge part o the :ea$th o the present da0 %rahmins $ies in this s:ind$e practised 90 :i$0 %rahmins upon pious 9ut oo$ish kings8 *anu :as not content to $et the %rahmin pre0 upon the -ing or dana. +e a$so a$$o:ed the %rahmin to pre0 upon the pu9$ic in the mattter o dana. This *anu does in three di erent :a0s8 In the irst p$ace he exhorts peop$e to make gi ts as a part o the dut0 o:ed 90 the pious to himse$ at the same time pointing out that the highest dana to a %rahmin8: 2II8 )"8 A gi t to one :ho is not a %rahmana I0ie$dsJ the ordinar0 Ire:ardJB a gi t to one :ho ca$$s himse$ a %rahmana@ a dou9$e Ire:ardJB a gi t to a :e$$5read %rahmana@ a hundred thousand o$d Ire:ardJB Ia gi tJ to one :ho kno:s the 2eda and the Angas I2edaparangaJ@ Ia re:ardJ :ithout end8 2II8 )&8 !or according to the particu$ar =ua$ities o the recipient and according to the aith Io the gi3erJ a sma$$ or a great re:ard :i$$ 9e o9tained or a gi t in the next :or$d8 In the next p$ace *anu dec$ares that in certain circumstances dana to a %rahmin is compu$sor08

SI8 18 +im :ho :ishes Ito marr0 or the sake o ha3ingJ o spring@ him :ho :ishes to per orm a sacri ice@ a tra3e$$er@ him :ho has gi3en a:a0 a$$ his propert0@ him :ho 9egs or the sake o his teacher@ his ather@ or his mother@ a student o the 2eda@ and a sick man8 SI8 2 These nine %rahmanas one shou$d consider as Snatakas@ 9egging in order to u$ i$$ the sacred $a:B to such poor men gi ts must 9e gi3en in proportion to their $earning8 SI8 38 To these most exce$$ent among the t:ice59orn@ ood and presents Io mone0J must 9e gi3en B it is dec$ared that ood must 9e gi3en to others outside the sacri icia$ enc$osure8 SI8 &8 Lne shou$d gi3e@ according to oneFs a9i$it0@ :ea$th to %rahmanas $earned in the 2eda and $i3ing a$one B IthusJ one o9tains a ter death hea3en$0 9$iss8 The third method adopted 90 *anu to make the ru$e o #ana 9ecome a source o secure and stead0 income is 9e0ond =uestion the most ingenuous one8 *anu $inked up dana :ith penance8 In the Scheme o *anu@ an improper act ma0 9e a sin a$though not an o ence or it ma0 9e 9oth a sin as :e$$ as an o ence8 As a sin its punishment is a matter or canonica$ $a:8 As an o ence its punishment is a matter o secu$ar $a:8 As sin@ the improper act is ca$$ed Pataka and the punishment or it is ca$$ed Penance8 In the Scheme o *anu e3er0 Pataka must 9e expunged 90 the per ormance o a penance8 SI8 448 A man :ho omits a prescri9ed act@ or per orms a 9$amea9$e act@ or c$ea3es to sensua$ enAo0ments@ must per orm a penance8 SI8 4"8 IA$$J sages prescri9e a penance or a sin unintentiona$$0 committed B some dec$are@ on the e3idence o the re3ea$ed texts@ Ithat it ma0 9e per ormedJ e3en or an intentiona$ Io encesJ8 SI8 4&8 A sin unintentiona$$0 committed is expiated 90 the recitation o 2edic texts@ 9ut that :hich ImenJ in their o$$0 commit intentiona$$0@ 90 3arious Ispecia$J penances8 SI8 "38 Thus in conse=uence o a remnant o Ithe gui$t o ormerJ crimes@ are 9orn idiots@ dum9@ 9$ind@ dea and de ormed men@ :ho are Ia$$J despised 90 the 3irtuous8 SI8 "48 Penances@ there ore@ must a$:a0s 9e per ormed or the sake o puri ication@ 9ecause those :hose sins ha3e not 9een expiated@ are 9orn IagainJ :ith disgrace u$ marks8 The penances prescri9ed 90 *anu are man0 and the curious ma0 re er to the *anu Smriti itse$ or a kno:$edge o :hat the0 are8 6hat is :orth0 o note is these penances are ca$cu$ated to materia$$0 9ene it the %rahmin8 Some penances take the orm o a simp$e dana to the %rahmin8 Lthers prescri9e the per ormance o some re$igious rites8 %ut as re$igious rites cannot 9e per ormed 90 an09od0 except 90 a %rahmin and that the per ormance o re$igious rite re=uires the pa0ment o ees the %rahmin a$one can 9e the 9ene iciar0 o the dana s0stem8

It is there ore a9surd to suggest that *anu :anted to p$ace 9e ore the %rahmins the idea$ o humi$it0@ po3ert0 and ser3ice8 The %rahmins certain$0 did not understand *anu that :a08 Indeed the0 9e$ie3ed that the0 :ere made a pri3i$eged c$ass8 1ot on$0 the0 9e$ie3ed in it 9ut the0 sought to extend their pri3i$eges in other directions a matter :hich :i$$ 9e discussed $ater on8 The0 :ere per ect$0 Austi ied@ in their 3ie:8 *anu ca$$ed the %rahmins the F$ords o the earthF and he ramed Ithe $a:J :ith such care that the0 sha$$ remain so8 +a3ing made u$$ pro3ision or %rahmin Ru$e and %rahmin dominance *anu next $aunches out to trans orm societ0 to suit his purposes8 The trans ormation o 2arna into Caste is the most stupendous and se$ ish task in :hich %rahmanism a ter its triumph 9ecame primari$0 engaged8 6e ha3e no exp$icit record o the steps that %rahmanism took to 9ring a9out this change8 Ln the contrar0 :e ha3e a $ot o con used thinking on the re$ation 9et:een 2arna and Caste8 Some think that 2arna and Caste are the same8 Those :ho think that the0 are di erent seem to 9e$ie3e that 2arna 9ecame caste :hen prohi9ition on intermarriage 9ecame part o the socia$ order8 A$$ this@ o course@ is erroneous and the error is due to the act that *anu in trans orming the 2arna into Caste has no:here exp$ained his ends and ho: his means are re$ated to those ends8 Lscar 6i$de has said that to 9e inte$$igi9$e is to 9e ound out8 *anu did not :ish to 9e ound out8 +e is there ore si$ent a9out his ends and means@ $ea3ing peop$e to imagine them8 !or +indus the su9Aect is important 9e0ond measure8 An attempt at c$ari ication is a9so$ute$0 essentia$ so that the con usion due to di erent peop$e imagining di erent$0 the design o *anu ma0 9e remo3ed and $ight thro:n on the :a0 ho: %rahmanism proceeded to gi3e a :rong and pernicious turn to the origina$ idea o 2arna as the 9asis o societ08 As I said *anuFs :a0s are si$ent and su9terranean and :e cannot gi3e the detai$ed and chrono$ogica$ histor0 o this con3ersion o" 2arna into Caste8 %ut ortunate$0 there are $andmarks :hich are c$ear enough to indicate ho: the change :as 9rought a9out8 %e ore proceeding to descri9e ho: this change :as 9rought a9out $et me c$ear the con usion 9et:een 2arna and Caste8 This can 9est 9e done 90 noting the simi$arities and di erences 9et:een the t:o8 2arna and Caste are identica$ in their de @ure connotation8 %oth connote status and occupation8 Status and occupation are the t:o concepts :hich are imp$ied 9oth in the notion 2arna as :e$$ as in the notion o Caste8 2arna and Caste ho:e3er di er in one important particu$ar8 2arna is not hereditar0 either in status or occupation8 Ln the other hand Caste imp$ies a s0stem in :hich status and occupation are hereditar0 and descend rom ather to son8 6hen I sa0 that %rahmanism con3erted 2arna into Caste :hat I mean is that it made status and occupation hereditar08

+o: :as this trans ormation e ected; As I said there are no oot prints $e t o the steps taken 90 %rahmanism to accomp$ish this change 9ut there are $andmarks :hich ser3e to gi3e us a c$ear 3ie: o ho: the deed came to 9e done8 The change :as accomp$ished 90 stages8 In the trans ormation o 2arna into Caste three stages are =uite :e$$ marked8 The irst stage :as the stage in :hich the duration o 2arna i8e8 o status and occupation o a person :as or a prescr9ied period o time on$08 The second stage :as a stage in :hich the status and occupation in3o$3ed the 2arna o a person ensured during $i etime on$08 The third stage :as a stage in :hich the status and occupation o the 2arna 9ecame hereditar08 To use $ega$ $anguage the Estate con erred 90 2arna :as at the 9eginning an Estate or a term on$08 Therea ter it 9ecame a $i e Estate and ina$$0 it 9ecame an Estate o inheritance :hich is tantamount to sa0ing that 2arna 9ecame Caste8 That these are the stages 90 :hich 2arna :as con3erted into Caste seems to ha3e amp$e support rom tradition as recorded in the re$igious $iterature8 [f66] There is no reason :h0 this tradition shou$d not 9e accepted as em9od0ing some thing that is =uite genuine8 According to this tradition@ the task o determining 2arna o a person :as e ected 90 a 9od0 o o icers ca$$ed *anu and Sapta Rishis8 !rom the mass o peop$e *anu se$ected those :ho :ere it to 9e -shatri0as and 2aishas and the Sapta Rishis se$ected those :ho :ere it to 9e %rahmanas8 A ter this se$ection :as made 90 *anu and Sapta Rishis or 9eing %rahmins@ -shatri0as@ 2aishas@ the rest that :ere not se$ected :ere ca$$ed Shudras8 The 2arna arrangement so determined $asts or one Bu$ i8e8 a period o our 0ears8 E3er0 ourth 0ear a ne: 9od0 o o icers kno:n 90 the same designation *anu and Sapta Rishi :ere appointed or making a ne: se$ection8 It happened that $ast time some o those :ho :ere $e t to 9e it on$0 or 9eing Shudras :ere se$ected or 9eing %rahmins@ -shatri0as and 2aish0as :hi$e some o those :ho :ere@ e$ected $ast time or 9eing %rahmins@ -shatri0as and 2aish0as :ere $e t as 9eing it on$0 o 9eing Shudras8 Thus the personne$ o the 2arna changed8 It :as a sort o a periodica$ shu $ing and se$ection o men to take up according to their menta$ and ph0sica$ aptitudes and occupations :hich :ere essentia$ to the $i e o the communit08 The time :hen the reshu $ing o the 2arnas took p$ace :as ca$$ed 5anwantar :hich et0mo$ogica$$0 means change o 2arna made 90 *anu8 The :ord *an:antar a$so means the period or :hich the 2arna o an indi3idua$ :as ixed8 The :ord *an:antar is 3er0 rich in its contents and expresses the essentia$ e$ements o the 2arna s0stem :hich :ere t:o8 !irst it sho:s that 2arna :as determined 90 an independent 9od0 o peop$e ca$$ed *anu and Saptarshi8 Second$0 it sho:s that the 2arna :as or a period a ter :hich a change :as made 90 *anu[f67]8 According to ancient tradition as em9odied in the Puranas the period or :hich the 2arna o a person :as ixed 90 *anu and Saptarshi :as a period o our 0ears and :as ca$$ed Bu$. At the end o the period o our 0ears there occured the *an:antar :here90 e3er0 ourth 0ear the $ist :as re3ised8 4nder the

re3ision some changed their o$d 2arna@ some retained it@ some $ost it and some gained it8[f68] The origina$ s0stem seems to ha3e in contemp$ation the determination o the 2arna o adu$ts8 It :as not 9ased on prior training or c$ose scrutin0 o 9ias and aptitude8 *anu and Saptarshi :as a sort o a %oard o Inter3ie: :hich determined the 2arna o a person rom ho: he struck them at the inter3ie:8 The determination o the 2arna :as done in a rough and tum9$e manner8 This s0stem seems to ha3e gone into a9e0ance8 A ne: s0stem gre: up in its p$ace8 It :as kno:n as the .uruku$ s0stem8 The .uruku$ :as a schoo$ maintained 90 a .uru IteacherJ a$so ca$$ed Achar0a I$earned manJ8 A$$ chi$dren :ent to this .uruku$ or their education8 The period o education extended or t:e$3e 0ears8 The chi$d :hi$e at .uruku$ :as kno:n as %ramhachari8 A ter the period o education :as o3er there :as the 4pana0an ceremon0 per ormed at the .uruku$ 90 the Achar0a8 The 4pana0an ceremon0 :as the most important ceremon08 It :as a ceremon0 at :hich the Achar0a determined the 2arna o the student and sent him out in the :or$d to per orm the duties o that 2arna8 4pana0an 90 the Achar0as :as the ne: method o determining 2arna :hich came into 3ogue in p$ace o method o determination 90 *anu and Saptarshi8 The ne: method :as undou9ted$0 superior to the o$d method8 It retained the true eature o the o$d method name$0 that the 2arna shou$d 9e determined 90 a disinterested and independent 9od08 %ut it added a ne: eature name$0 training as a pre5re=uisite or assignment o 2arna8 Ln the ground that training a$one de3e$opes indi3idua$ in the make up o a person and the on$0 sa e :a0 to determine the 2arna o a person is to kno: his indi3idua$it0@ the addition o this ne: eature :as undou9ted$0 a great impro3ement8 6ith the introduction o the Achar0a .uruku$ s0stem@ the duration o the 2arna came to 9e a$tered8 2arna instead o 9eing 2arna or a period 9ecame 2arna or $i e8 %ut it :as not hereditar08 E3ident$0 %rahmanism :as dissatis ied :ith this s0stem8 The reason or dissatis action :as =uite o93ious8 4nder the s0stem as pre3a$ent there :as e3er0 chance o the Achar0a dec$aring the chi$d o a %rahmin as it on$0 to 9e a Shudra8 %rahmanism :as natura$$0 most anxious to a3oid this resu$t8 It :anted the 2arna to 9e hereditar08 Ln$0 90 making the 2arna hereditar0 cou$d it sa3e the chi$dren o the %rahmins rom 9eing dec$ared Shudra8 To achie3e this %rahmanism proceeded in the most audacious manner one can think o 8 Ill %rahmanism made three most radica$ changes in the s0stem o determing the 2arna o the chi$d8 In the irst p$ace the s0stem o .uruku$ as the p$ace :here training to the chi$d :as gi3en and its 2arna :as determined 90 the .uru at the end o the period o training :as a9o$ished8 *anu is =uite a:are o the .uruku$ and re ers to .uru3as[f69] i8e8 training and residence in the .uruku$ under the .uru8 %ut

does not re er to it at a$$ in connection :ith the 4pana0an8 +e a9o$ishes the .uru as an authorit0 competent to per orm 4pana0an 90 omitting to make e3en the remotest re erence to him in connection :ith 4pana0an8 In p$ace o the .uru *anu a$$o:s the 4pana0an o the chi$d to 9e per ormed 90 its ather at home8 [f70] Second$0 4pana0an :as made into a Sanskara i8e8 a sacrament8 In o$den times 4pana0an :as $ike a con3ocation ceremon0[f71] he$d 90 the .uru to con er degrees o9tained 90 students in his .uruku$ in :hich certi icates o pro icienc0 in the duties o a particu$ar 2arna :ere granted8 In *anuFs $a: that 4pana0an :as a comp$ete change in the meaning and purpose o this most important institution8 Third$0 the re$ation o training to 4pana0an :as tota$$0 re3ersed8 In the o$den s0stem training came 9e ore 4pana0an8 4nder the %rahmanism 4pana0an came 9e ore training8 *anu directs that a chi$d 9e sent to the .uru or training 9ut that is a ter 4pana0an i8e8 a ter [f72] his 2arna is determined 90 his ather8 The principa$ change made 90 %rahmanism :a8s the trans er o authorit0 rom the .uru to the ather in the matter o per orming 4pana0an8 The resu$t :as that the ather ha3ing the right to per orm the 4pana0an o his chi$d ga3e his o:n 2arna to the chi$d and thus made it hereditor08 It is 90 di3esting the .uru o his authorit0 to determine the 2arna and 3esting it in the ather that %rahmanism u$timate$0 con3erted 2arna into Caste8 Such is the stor0 o the trans ormation o 2arna into Caste8 The stor0 o the transition rom one to the other is o course reconstructed8 !or the reasons a$read0 gi3en it ma0 not 9e =uite as accurate as one :ou$d :ish it to 9e in a$$ its detai$s8 %ut I ha3e no dou9t that the stages and the :a0s 90 :hich 2arna ceased to exist and caste came into 9eing must 9e some such as ha3e 9een suggested in the oregoing discussion o the su9Aect8 6hat o9Aect %rahmanism cou$d ha3e had in con3erting 2arna into caste it is not di icu$t to imagine8 The o9Aect :as to make the high status enAo0ed 90 the %rahmins rom ancient times the pri3i$ege o e3er0 %rahmin and his progen0 :ithout re erence to merits or to =ua$i ications8 To put it di erent$0 the o9Aect :as to e$e3ate and enno9$e e3er0 %rahmin@ ho:e3er mean and :orth$ess he ma0 9e@ to the high status occupied 90 some o them on account o the 3irtue8 It :as an attempt to enno9$e the :ho$e o the %rahmin Communit0 :ithout exception8 That this :as the o9Aect o %rahmanism is c$ear rom *anuFs ordinances8 *anu kne: that making 2arna hereditar0@ the most ignorant %rahmin [f73] :i$$ 9e e$e3ated to the status occupied 90 the most $earned %rahmin8 +e eared that the ormer ma0 not 9e respected as much as the most $earned@ :hich :as the o9Aect o this attempt at the enno9$ement o the :ho$e c$ass o %rahmins8 *anu is 3er0 much concerned a9out the ignorant %rahminGa ne: thing and :arns peop$e against 9eing disrespect u$ to an ignorant and mean %rahmin8

IS8 31(8 A %rahmin@ :hether $earned or ignornt@ is a po:er u$ di3init0 B e3en as ire is po:er u$ di3init0@ :hether consecrated or popu$ar8 IS8 31,8 Thus a$though %rahmins emp$o0 themse$3es in a$$ sorts o mean ocupations@ the0 must in3aria9$0 9e honoured B or the0 are something transcendent$0 di3ine8 Such a :arning :as unnecessar0 i the o9Aect :as to enno9$e the :ho$e %rahmin c$ass8 +ere is a case :here 3ice re uses to pa0 to 3irtue e3en the homage o h0pocrac08 Can there 9e greater mora$ degenerac0 than :hat is sho:n 90 *anu in insisting upon the :orship o the %rahmin e3en i he is mean and ignorant; So much or the o9Aect o change rom 2arna to caste8 6hat ha3e 9een the conse=uences o this change; !rom the spiritua$ point o 3ie: the conse=uences ha3e 9een too harm u$ to 9e contemp$ated :ith e=uanimit08 The harm done ma0 perhaps 9e 9etter rea$i>ed 90 comparing the position o the %rahmin as a priest resu$ting rom the $a: o *anu :ith that o the $a: o the c$erg0 under the Church o Eng$and8 There the c$erg0 is su9Aect to the crimina$ $a: as e3er0 citi>en is8 %ut in addition to that he is a$:a0s su9Aect to Church #escip$ine Act8 4nder the Crimina$ 'a: he :ou$d 9e punished i he o iciated as a c$erg0 :ithout 9eing =ua$i ied or it8 4nder the Church #iscip$ine Act he :ou$d 9e $ia89$e to 9e dis=ua$i ied as a c$erg0 or conduct :hich :ou$d 9e deemed to 9e mora$$0 :rong a$though it did not amount to a crime8 This dou9$e check on the c$erg0 is he$d Austi ia9$e 9ecause $earning and mora$it0 are deemed to 9e =uite essentia$ or the pro ession o the c$erg0 :ho are supposed to administer to the spiritua$ needs o the peop$e8 4nder %rahmanism the %rahmin :ho a$one can 9e the c$erg0 need not possess $earning or mora$it08 ?et he is in so$e charge o the spiritua$ a airs o the peop$eOO Ln the 3a$ue o a creed :hich permits this@ comment is unnecessar08 !rom the secu$ar point o 3ie:@ the conse=uences o this trans ormation o 2arna into Caste has to introduce a most pernicious menta$it0 among the +indus8 It is to disregard merit and ha3e regard on$0 to 9irth8 I one is descended rom the high he has respect a$though he ma0 9e utter$0 de3oid o merit or :orth8 Lne :ho is o high 9irth :i$$ 9e superior to the one :ho is o $o: 9irth a$though the $atter ma0 9e superior to the ormer in point o :orth8 4nder %rahmanism it is 9irth that a$:a0s :ins@ :hether it is against 9irth or against :orth8 *erit 90 itse$ can :in no meads8 This is entire$0 due to the dissociation o merits rom status :hich is the :ork o %rahmanism8 1othing cou$d 9e 9etter ca$cu$ated to produce an unprogressi3e societ0 :hich sacri ices the rights o inte$$igence on the a$tar o aristocratic pri3i$ege8 1o: the third deed in the cata$ogue o deeds done 90 %rahmanism a ter its triumph o3er %uddhism8 It :as to separate the %rahmins rom the resu$t o the 1on5%rahmin popu$ation and to se3er the di erent socia$ strata o the 1on5%rahmin popu$ation8 Push0amitraFs %rahmanic Re3o$ution :as undertaken or the purposes o restoring the ancient socia$ s0stem o Chatur3arna :hich under the %uddhist regime :as put

into the me$ting pot8 %ut :hen %rahmanism triumphed o3er %uddhism it did not content itse$ :ith mere$0 restoring Charut3arna as it :as in its origina$ orm8 The s0stem o Chatur3arna o the Pre5%uddhist da0s :as a $exi9$e s0stem and :as an open to s0stem8 This :as 9ecause the 2arna s0stem had no connection :ith the marriage s0stem8 6hi$e Chatur3arna recogni>ed the existence o our di erent c$asses@ it did not prohi9it inter5marriage 9et:een them8 A ma$e o one 2arna cou$d $a: u$$0 marr0 a ema$e o another 2arna8 There are numerous i$$ustrations in support o this 3ie:8 I gi3e 9e$o: some instances :hich re er to :e$$ kno:n and respecta9$e indi3idua$s :hich ha3e ac=uired a name and ame in the sacred $ore o the +indus8 18 Shantanu -shatri0a .anga Shudra Anamik 28 Shantanu -shatri0a *ats0agandha Shudra !isher :oman 38 Parashara %rahmin *ats0agandha Shudra !isher :oman 48 2ish:amitra -shatri0a *enaka Apsara "8 ?a0ati -shatri0a #e3a0ani %rahmin &8 ?a0ati -shatri0a Sharmishta Asuri5 1on5Ar0an (8 <aratkaru %rahmin <aratkari 1ag 1on5Ar0an +us9and +is 2arna 6i e +er 2arna Shou$d an09od0 retain dou9t on the =uestion that the di3ision o the societ0 into c$asses did not prohi9it intermarriages 9et:een the our 2arnas $et him consider the geneo$og0 o the ami$0 o the great %rahmin sage 20as8 )ENE959)6 91 &6A$ 2aruna *itra T 4r3ashi 2ashishtha T Akshama$a Shakti T Parashara T *ats0agandha T 20as %rahminism :ith the erocit0 o an outraged 9rute proceeded to put a stop to these intermarriage 9et:een the di erent 2arnas8 A ne: $a: is proc$aimed 90 *anu8 It is in the o$$o:ing terms :G III8 128 !or the irst marriage o t:ice 9orn men I:i3esJ o e=ua$ caste are recommended8 III8 138 It is dec$ared that a Sudra :oman a$one can 9e the :i e o a Shudra8 III8 148 A Shudra :oman is not mentioned e3en in an0 IancientJ stor0 as the I irstJ :i e o a %rahmana or o a -shatri0a@ though the0 $i3ed in the IgreatestJ distress8 III8 1"8 T:ice59orn men :ho@ in their o$$0@ :ed :i3es o the $o: ISudraJ caste@ soon degrade their ami$ies and their chi$dren to the state o Sudras8

11181&8 According to Atri and to I.autamaJ the son o 4tath0a8 he :ho :eds a Sudra :oman 9ecomes an outcast@ according to Saunaka on the 9irth o a son@ and according to %hrigu he :ho has Ima$eJ o spring rom a ISudra ema$e@ a$oneJ8 III8 1(8 A %rahmana :ho takes a Sudra :i e to his 9ed@ :i$$ Ia ter deathJ sink into he$$ B i he 9egets a chi$d 90 her@ he :i$$ $ose the rank o a %rahmana8 III8 1)8 The manes and the gods :i$$ not eat the Io eringsJ o that man :ho per orms the rites in honour o the gods@ o the manes@ and o guests chie $0 :ith a ISudra :i eFsJ assistance@ and such Ia manJ :i$$ not go to hea3en8 III8 1,8 !or him :ho drinks the moisture o a SudraFs $ips@ :ho is tainted 90 her 9reath@ and :ho 9egets a son on her8 no expiation is prescri9ed8 %rahmanism :as not satis ied :ith the prohi9ition o intermarriage8 %rahmanism :ent urther and prohi9ited interdining8 *anu $a0s do:n certain interdicts on ood8 Some are h0genic8 Some are socia$8 L the socia$ the o$$o:ing are :orth0 o attention : I28 21)8 !ood gi3en 90 a king@ impairs his man$0 3igourB 90 one o the ser3i$e c$ass@ his di3ine $ight : 90 go$dsmiths@ his $i e B 90 $eathercutters@ his good name8 I28 21,8 .i3en 90 cooks and the $ike mean arti>ans@ it destro0s his o springs : 90 a :asherman@ his muscu$ar strength B I28 2218 That o a$$ others@ mentioned in order@ :hose ood must ne3er 9e tasted@ is he$d e=ua$ 90 the :ise to the skin@ 9ones@ and hair o the head8 I28 2228 +a3ing unkno:ing$0 s:a$$o:ed the ood o an0 such persons@ he must ast during three da0sB 9ut ha3ing eaten it kno:ing$0@ he must per orm the same harsh penance@ as i he had tasted an0 semina$ impurit0@ ordure@ or urine8 I said that %rahmanism acted :ith the erocit0 o an outranged 9rute in undertaking the task o prohi9iting intermarriage and interdining8 Those :ho ha3e dou9ts in this matter ponder o3er the $anguage o *anu8 *ark the disguest *anu sho:s :ith regard to the Shudra :oman8 *ark :hat *anu sa0s a9out the ood o the Shudra8 +e sa0s it is as impure as semen or urine8 These t:o $a:s ha3e produced the caste s0stem8 Prohi9ition o intermarriage and prohi9ition against interdining@ are t:o pi$$ars on :hich it rests8 The caste s0stem and the ru$es re$ating to intermarriage and interdining are re$ated to each other as ends to means8 Indeed 90 no other means cou$d the end 9e rea$i>ed8 The orging o these means sho:s that the creation o the caste s0stem :as end and aim o %rahmanism8 %rahmanism enacted the prohi9itions against intemarriage and interdining8 %ut %rahmanism introduced other changes in the socia$ s0stem and i the purposes under$0ing these changes are those :hich I suggest them to 9e@ then it must 9e admitted that %rahmanism :as so keen in sustaining the caste s0stem that it did not mind :hether :a0s and means emp$o0ed :ere air or un air@ mora$ or immora$8 I re er to the $a:s contained in the Code o *anu regarding marriage o gir$s and the $i e o :ido:s8

See the $a: that *anu promu$gates regarding the marriage o ema$es8 IS8 48 Reprehensi9$e is the ather :ho gi3es not Ihis daughterJ in marriage at the proper time8 IS8 ))8 To a distinguished@ handsome suitor o e=ua$ caste shou$d a ather gi3e his daughter in accordance :ith the prescri9ed ru$e@ though she ha3e not attained Ithe proper ageJ@ i8e8 a$though she ma0 not ha3e reached pu9ert08 %0 this ru$e *anu enAoins that a gir$ shou$d 9e married e3en though she ma0 not ha3e reached the age o pu9ert0 i8e8 e3en :hen she is a chi$d8 1o: :ith regard to :ido:s *anu promu$gates the o$$o:ing ru$e8 28 1"(8 At her p$easure $et her Ii8e8 :ido:J emaciate her 9od0@ 90 $i3ing 3o$untari$0 on pure $o:ers@ roots and ruits B 9ut $et her not@ :hen her $ord is deceased@ e3en pronounce the name o another man8 28 1&18 %ut a :ido:@ :ho rom a :ish to 9ear chi$dren@ s$ights her deceased hus9and 90 marr0ing again@ 9rings disgrace on herse$ here 9e$o:@ and sha$$ 9e exc$uded rom the seat o her $ord Iin hea3enJ8 28 1&28 L spring 9egotten on a :oman 90 an0 other than her hus9and@ is here dec$ared to 9e no progen0 o hers B no more than a chi$d@ 9egotten on the :i e o another man 9e$ongs to the 9egetterB nor is a second hus9and an0 :here prescri9ed or a 3irtuous :oman8 This is the ru$e o en orced :ido:hood or a :oman8 A re erence ma0 a$so 9e made to Sati or a :ido: :ho 9urns herse$ on the unera$ p0re o her hus9and and thus puts an end to her $i e8 *anu is si$ent a9out it8 ?aAna3a$k0a[f74] an authorit0 near$0 as great as *anu sa0s@ she must not $i3e separate$0 or a$one8 )&8 6hen depri3ed o her hus9and@ she must not remain a:a0 rom her ather@ mother@ son@ 9rother@ mother5in5$a: or rom her materna$ unc$eB other:ise she might 9ecome $ia9$e to censure8 +ere again ?aAna3a$k0a does not suggest that a :ido: 9ecome a Sati8 %ut 2iAnanesh:ar@ the author o *itakshara a commentar0 on ?aAna3a$k0a Smriti makes the o$$o:ing o9ser3ation in commenting on the a9o3e S$oka8 HThis is in the case o the a$ternati3e o $eading a ce$i9ate $i e 3ide the text o 2ishnu[f75] : HA ter the death o the hus9and@ either ce$i9ac0 or ascending the IcremationJ pi$e a ter him8H 2iAnanesh:ar3 adds as his opinion that FThere is great merit in ascending the unera$ p0re a ter him8F !rom this one can 3er0 easi$0 and c$ear$0 see ho: the ru$e o Sati came to 9e orged8 *anuFs ru$e :as that a :ido: :as not to remarr08 %ut it appears rom the statement 90 2iAnanesh:ar that rom the time o the 2ishnu Smriti a di erent interpretation 9egan to put on the ordinance o *anu8 According to this ne: interpretation *anuFs ru$e :as exp$ained to 9e o ering to the :ido: a choice

9et:een t:o a$ternati3es: I1J Either 9urn 0ourse$ on 0our hus9andFs unera$ p0re or I2J I 0ou donFt@ remain unmarried8 This o course is tota$$0 a$se interpretation =uite un:arranted 90 the c$ear :ords o *anu8 Someho: it came to 9e accepted8 The date o the 2ishnu Smriti is some:here a9out the 3rd or 4th Centur08 It can there ore 9e said that ru$e o Sati dates rom this period8 Lne thing is certain@ these :ere ne: ru$es8 The ru$e o *anu that gir$ shou$d 9e married 9e ore she has reached pu9ert0 is a ne: ru$e8 In Pre5%uddhistic %rahmanism4 marriages :ere per ormed not on$0 a ter pu9ert0 9ut the0 :ere per ormed :hen gir$s had reached an age :hen the0 cou$d 9e ca$$ed gro:n up8 L this there is amp$e e3idence8 Simi$ar$0 the ru$e that a :oman once she had $ost her hus9and must not remarr0 is a ne: ru$e8 In the Pre5%uddhist %rahmanism there :as no prohi9ition on :ido: remarriage8 The act that the Sanskrit $anguage contains :ords such as -unarbhu I:oman :ho has undergone a second marriage ceremon0J and punarhhav Isecond hus9andJ sho: that such marriages :ere =uite common under the Pre5%uddhist %rahmanism 8 [f76]6ith regard to Sati the position as to :hen it arose@[f77] there is e3idence to suggest that it existed in ancient times8 %ut there is e3idence that it had died out and it :as re3i3ed a ter %rahmanism under Push0amitra o9tained its 3ictor0 o3er %uddhism a$though it :as some time $ater than *anu8 Muestion is this@ :h0 these changes :ere made 90 the triumphant %rahmanism; 6hat did %rahmanism :ant to achie3e 90 ha3ing gir$s married 9e ore the0 had 9ecome pu9ert@ 90 den0ing the :ido: to the right to marr0 again and 90 te$$ing her to put herse$ to death 90 immo$ating herse$ in the unera$ p0re o her deceased hus9and; 1o exp$ainations are orthcoming or these changes8 *r8 C8 28 2aid0a :ho o ers an exp$anation or gir$ marriage sa0s [f78] that gir$ marriage :as introduced to pre3ent gir$s rom Aoining the %uddhist order o nuns8 This exp$anation does not satis 0 me8 *r8 2aid0a omits to take into consideration another ru$e $aid do:n 90 *anuGname$0 the ru$e re$ating to suita9$e age or marriage8 According to that ru$e8 IS8 ,48 A man8 aged thirt0@ sha$$ marr0 a maiden o t:e$3e :ho p$eases him@ or a man o t:ent05 our a gir$ eight 0ears o age8 The =uestion is not :h0 gir$ marriage :as introduced8 The =uestion is :h0 *anu a$$o:ed so much discrepanc0 in the ages o the 9ride and the 9ridegroom8 *r8 -ane[f79] has attempted an exp$anation o Sati8 +is exp$anation is that there is nothing ne: in it8 It existed in India in ancient times as it did in other parts o the :or$d8 This again does not satis 0 the :or$d8 I it existed outside India@ it has not 9een practised on so enormous a sca$e as in India8 Second$0 i traces o it are ound in Ancient India in the -shatri0as@ :h0 :as it re3i3ed@ :h0 :as it not uni3ersa$i>ed; There is no satis actor0 exp$anation8 *r8 -aneFs exp$anation that the pre3a$ence o Sati 90 re erence to $a:s o inheritance does not appear to me 3er0 con3incing8 It ma0 9e that 9ecause under the +indu 'a: o inheritance as it pre3ai$ed in %enga$@

:omen got a share in propert08 The re$ations o the hus9and o the :ido: pressed her to 9e a Sati in order to get rid o a share ma0 exp$ain :h0 Sati :a8s practised on so $arge a sca$e in %enga$8 %ut it does not exp$ain ho: it arose nor ho: it came to 9e practised in other parts o India8 Again :ith regard to the prohi9ition o :ido: remarriage@ there is no exp$anation :hatsoe3er8 6h0 :as the :ido:@ contrar0 to esta9$ished practice@ prohi9ited rom marr0ing; 6h0 :as she re=uired to $ead a $i e o miser0; 6h0 :as she dis igured; *0 exp$anation or gir$ marriage@ en orced :ido:hood and Sati is =uite di erent and I o er it or :hat it is :orth8 [f80] HThus the superposition o endogam0 o3er exogam0 means the creation o Caste8 %ut this is not an eas0 a air8 'et us take an imaginar0 group that desire to make itse$ into a caste and ana$0se :hat means it :i$$ ha3e to adopt to make itse$ endogamous8 I a group desires to make itse$ endogamous@ a orma$ inAunction against intermarriage :ith outside groups :i$$ 9e o no a3ai$@ especia$$0 i prior to the introduction o endogam0@ exogam0 :ere to 9e the ru$e in a$$ matrimonia$ re$ations8 Again there is a tendenc0 in a$$ groups $i3ing in c$ose contact :ith one another to assimi$ate and ama$gamate@ and thus conso$idate into a homogeneous societ08 I this tendenc0 9e strong$0 counteracted in the interest o Caste ormation@ it is a9so$ute$0 necessar0 to circumscri9e a circ$e :ithout :hich peop$e shou$d not contract marriages8H H1e3erthe$ess this encirc$ing to pre3ent marriages rom :ithout creates pro9$ems rom :ithin :hich are not 3er0 eas0 o so$ution8 Rough$0 speaking in a norma$ group the t:o sexes are more or $ess e3en$0 distri9uted@ and genera$$0 speaking there is an e=ua$it0 9et:een those o the same age8 %ut this e=ua$it0 is ne3er =uite rea$ised in actua$ societies8 6hi$e to the group that is desirous o making itse$ into a caste the maintenance o this e=ua$it0 9et:een the sexes 9ecomes the u$timate goa$@ or :ithout this endogam0 can no $onger su9sist8 In other :ords@ i endogam0 is to 9e preser3ed@ conAuga$ rights rom :ithin ha3e to 9e pro3ided or@ e$se mem9ers o the group :i$$ 9e dri3en out o the circ$e to take care o themse$3es in an0 :a0 the0 p$ease8 %ut in order that the conAuga$ rights 9e pro3ided or rom :ithin@ it is a9so$ute$0 necessar0 to maintain a numerica$ e=ua$it0 9et:een the marriagea9$e units o the t:o sexes :ithin the group desirous o making itse$ into a Caste8 It is on$0 through the maintenance o this e=ua$it0 that the necessar0 endogam0 o the group cou$d 9e kept intact@ and a 3er0 $arge disparit0 is sure to 9reak it8H HThe pro9$em o Caste then u$timate$0 reso$3es itse$ into one o repairing the disparit0 9et:een the marriagea9$e units o the t:o sexes :ithin it8 The much needed parit0 9et:een the units cou$d 9e rea$i>ed on$0 :hen a coup$e dies simu$taneous$08 %ut this is a rare contingenc08 The hus9and ma0 die 9e ore the :i e and create a surp$us :oman :ho must 9e disposed o @ e$se through intermarriage she :i$$ 3io$ate the endogam0 o the group8 In $ike manner the hus9and ma0 sur3i3e

his :i e and 9e a surp$us man :hom the group@ :hi$e it ma0 s0mpathise :ith him or the sad 9erea3ement@ has to dispose o @ e$se he :i$$ marr0 outside the Caste and :i$$ 9reak the endogam08 Thus 9oth the surp$us man and the surp$us :oman constitute a menace to the Caste i not taken care o @ or@ not inding suita9$e partners inside their prescri9ed circ$e Iand the0 cannot ind an0@ or there are Aust enough pairs to go roundJ 3er0 $ike$0 the0 :i$$ transgress the 9oundar0@ marr0 outside and import popu$ation that is oreign to the Caste8 'et us see :hat our imaginar0 group is $ike$0 to do :ith this surp$us man and surp$us :oman8 6e :i$$ irst take up the case o the surp$us :oman8She can 9e disposed o in t:o di erent :a0s so as to preser3e the endogam0 o the Caste8H H!irst : 9urn her on the unera$ p0re o her deceased hus9and and get rid o her8 This@ ho:e3er@ is rather an impractica9$e :a0 o so$3ing the pro9$em o sex disparit08 In some cases it ma0 :ork@ in others it ma0 not8 Conse=uent$0 e3er0 surp$us :oman cannot thus 9e disposed o @ 9ecause it is an eas0 so$ution 9ut a hard rea$i>ation8 +o:e3er@ the surp$us :oman I:ido:J i not disposed o @ remains in the group: 9ut in her 3er0 existence $ies a dou9$e danger8 She ma0 marr0 outside the Caste and 3io$ate to endogam0 or she ma0 marr0 :ithin the Caste and through competition encroach upon the chances o marriage that must 9e reser3ed or the potentia$ 9rides in the Caste8 She there ore is a menace in an0 case and something must 9e done to her i she cannot 9e 9urned a$ong :ith her deceased hus9and8H HThe second remed0 is to en orce :ido:hood on her or the rest o her $i e8 So ar as the o9Aecti3e resu$ts are concerned 9urning is a 9etter so$ution than en orcing :ido:hood8 %urning the :ido: e$iminates a$$ the three e3i$s that a surp$us :oman is raught :ith8 %eing dead and gone she creates no pro9$em o remarriage either inside or outside the Caste8 %ut compu$sor0 :ido:hood is superior to 9urning 9ecause it is more practica9$e8 %esides 9eing comparati3e$0 humane it a$so guards against the e3i$s o remarriage as does 9urning B 9ut it ai$s to guard the mora$s o the group8 1o dou9t under compu$sor0 :ido:hood the :oman remains and@ Aust 9ecause she is depri3ed o her natura$ right o 9eing a $egitimate :i e in uture@ the incenti3e to 9ad mora$ conduct is increased8 %ut this is 90 no means an insupera9$e di icu$t08 She can 9e degraded to a condition :here she cou$d no $onger 9e a source o a$$urement8H HThe pro9$em o surp$us man IG:ido:erJ is much more important and much more di icu$t than that o the surp$us :oman in a group that desires to make itse$ into a Caste8 !rom time immemoria$ man as compared :ith :oman has had the upper hand8 +e is a dominant igure in e3er0 group and o the t:o sexes has greater prestige8 6ith this traditiona$ superiorit0 o man o3er :oman his :ishes ha3e a$:a0s 9een consu$ted8 6oman on the other hand has 9een an eas0 pre0 to a$$ kinds o ini=uitous inAunctions@ re$igious@ socia$ or economic8 %ut man as a maker o

inAunctions is most o ten a9o3e them a$$8 Such 9eing the case 0ou cannot accord the same kind o treatment to a surp$us man as 0ou can to a surp$us :oman in a Caste8H HThe proAect o 9urning him :ith his deceased :i e is ha>ardous in t:o :a0s : irst o a$$ it cannot 9e done@ simp$0 9ecause he is a man8 Second$0@ i done@ a sturd0 sou$ is $ost to the Caste8 There remain then on$0 t:o so$utions :hich can con3enient$0 dispose o him8 I sa0 con3enient$0 9ecause he is an asset to the group8H HImportant as he is to the group@ endogam0 is sti$$ more important@ and the so$ution must assure 9oth these ends8 4nder these circumstances he ma0 9e orced@ or I shou$d sa0 induced@ a ter the manner o the :ido: to remain a :ido:er or the rest o his $i e8 This so$ution is not a$together di icu$t@ or :ithout there 9eing an0 compu$sion some are so disposed as to enAo0 se$ 5imposed ce$i9ac0 or ma0 e3en take a urther step o their o:n accord to renounce the :or$d and its Ao0s8 %ut@ gi3en human nature as it is@ this so$ution can hard$0 9e expected to 9e rea$i>ed8 Ln the other hand@ as is 3er0 $ike$0 to 9e the case@ i he remains in the group as an acti3e participator in group acti3ities@ he is a danger to the mora$s o the group8 'ooked at rom a di erent 3ie:point@ cei$i9ac0 though eas0 in cases :here it succeeds@ is not so ad3antageous e3en then to the materia$ prospects o the Caste8 I he o9ser3es genuine ce$i9ac0 and renounces the :or$d@ he :ou$d not 9e a menace to the preser3ation o Caste endogam0 or Caste mora$s as undou9ted$0 :ou$d 9e@ i he remained a secu$ar person8 %ut as an ascetic ce$i9ate he is as good as 9urned@ so ar as the materia$ :e$$ 9eing o his Caste is concerned8 A Caste@ in order that it ma0 9e $arge enough to a ord a 3igorous communa$ $i e@ must 9e maintained at a certain numerica$ strength8 %ut to hope or this and to proc$aim ce$i9ac0 is the same as tr0ing to cure atroph0 90 9$eeding8 HImposing ce$i9ac0 on the surp$us man in the group there ore ai$s@ 9oth theoretica$$0 and practica$$08 It is in the interest o the Caste to keep him as a .rahastha Ione :ho raises a ami$0J to use a Sanskrit technica$it08 %ut the pro9$em is to pro3ide him :ith a :i e rom :ithin the Caste8 At the outset this is not possi9$e@ or the ru$ing ratio in a caste has to 9e one man to one :oman and none can ha3e t:o chances o marriage@ or in a Caste thorough$0 se$ enc$osed there are a$:a0s Aust enough marriagea9$e :omen to go round or the marriagea9$e men8 4nder these circumstances the surp$us man can on$0 9e pro3ided :ith a :i e 90 recruiting a 9ride rom the ranks o those not 0et marriagea9$e in order to tie him do:n to the group8 This is certain$0 the 9est o the possi9$e so$utions in the case o the surp$us man8 %0 this@ he is kept :ithin the Caste8 %0 this@ this numerica$ dep$etion through constant out $o: is guarded against@ and 90 this endogam0 and mora$s are preser3ed8 HIt :i$$ no: 9e seen that the our means 90 :hich numerica$ disparit0 9et:een the t:o sexes is con3enient$0 maintained are : I1J %urning the :ido: :ith her deceased hus9and B I2J Compu$sor0 :ido:hoodGa mi$der orm o 9urning B I3J Imposing

ce$i9ac0 on the :ido:er B I4J 6edding him to a gir$ not 0et marriagea9$e8 Though as I said a9o3e@ 9urning the :ido: and imposing ce$i9ac0 on the :ido:er are o dou9t u$ ser3ice to the group in its endea3our to preser3e its endogam0@ a$$ o them operate as means8 %ut means as orces@ :hen $i9erated or set in motion create an end8 6hat then is the end that these means create; The0 create and perpetuate endogam0@ :hi$e caste and endogam0@ according to our ana$0sis o the 3arious de initions o caste@ are one and the same thing8 Thus the existence o these means means caste and caste in3o$3es these means8H HThis@ in m0 opinion@ is the genera$ mechanism o a caste in a s0stem o castes8 'et us no: turn to the castes in the +indu Societ0 and in=uire into their mechanism8 I need hard$0 promise that there are a great man0 pit a$$s in the path o those :ho tr0 to un o$d the past@ and caste in India to 9e sure is a 3er0 ancient institutiion8 This is especia$$0 true :here there exist no authentic or :ritten histor0 or records or :here the peop$e@ $ike the +indus are so constituted that to them 6riting histor0 is a o$$0@ or the :or$d is an i$$usion8 %ut institutions do $i3e@ though or a $ong time the0 ma0 remain unrecorded and as o ten as not customs and mora$s are $ike ossi$s that te$$ their o:n histor08 I this is true@ our task :i$$ 9e amp$0 re:arded i :e scrutini>e the so$ution the +indus arri3ed at to meet the pro9$ems o the surp$us man and surp$us :oman8H HComp$ex though it 9e in its genera$ :orking the +indu Societ0@ e3en to a super icia$ o9ser3er@ presents three singu$ar uxoria$ customs@ name$0 :G IiJ Sati or the 9urning o the :ido: on the unera$ p0re o her deceased hus9and8 IiiJ En orced :ido:hood 90 :hich a :ido: is not a$$o:ed to remarr08 IiiiJ .ir$ marriage8 In addition to these@ one a$so notes a great hankering a ter Sann0asa IrenunciationJ on the part o the :ido:er@ 9ut it ma0 in some cases 9e due pure$0 'L ps0chic disposition8 HSo ar as I kno:@ no scienti ic exp$anation o the origin o these customs is orth coming e3en toda08 6e ha3e p$ent0 o phi$osoph0 to te$$ us :h0 these customs :ere honoured8 IC 8 A8 -8 Coomaras:am0G HSati : a #e ence o the Eastern 6omanH in the %ritish Socio$ogica$ Re3ie: 2o$8 2I 1,13J %ecause it is aHproo o the per ect unit0 o 9od0 and sou$H 9et:een hus9and and :i e and o Hde3otion 9e0ond the gra3eH@ 9ecause it em9odied the idea$ o :i ehood :hich is :e$$ expressed 90 4ma :hen she said H#e3otion to her 'ord is :omanFs honour@ it is her eterna$ hea3en : and L *ahesh:araH@ she adds :ith a most touching human cr0@ HI desire not paradise itse$ i thou art not satis ied :ith meO H 6h0 compu$sor0 :ido:hood is honoured I kno: not nor ha3e I 0et met :ith an0one :ho sang in praise o it@ though there are a great man0 :ho adhere to it8 The eu$og0 in honour o gir$ marriage is reported 90 #r8 -etkar to 9e as o$$o:s : HA rea$$0 aith u$ man or :oman ought not to ee$ a ection or a :oman or a man other than the one :ith :hom he or she is

united8 Such purit0 is compu$sor0 not on$0 a ter marriage@ 9ut e3en 9e ore marriage@ or that is the on$0 correct idea$ o chastit08 1o maiden cou$d 9e considered pure i she ee$s $o3e or a man other than to :hom she might get married8 As she does not kno: :hom she is going to get married to@ she must not ee$ a ection or an0 man at a$$ 9e ore marriage8 I she does so@ it is a sin8 So it is 9etter or a gir$ to kno: :hom she has to $o3e@ 9e ore an0 sexua$ consciousness has 9een a:akened in herH8 +ence gir$ marriage8 HThis high5 $o:n and ingenious sophistr0 indicates :h0 these institutions :ere honoured@ 9ut does not te$$ us :h0 the0 :ere practised8 *0 o:n interpretation is that the0 :ere honoured 9ecause the0 :ere practised8 An0 one s$ight$0 5=uainted :ith rise o indi3idua$ism in the 1)th centur0 :i$$ appreciate m0 remark8 At a$$ times@ it is the mo3ement that is most important B and the phi$osophies gro: around it $ong a ter:ards to Austi 0 it and gi3e it a mora$ support8 In $ike manner I urge that the 3er0 act that these customs :ere so high$0 eu$ogi>ed pro3es that the0 needed eu$og0 or their pre3a$ence8 Regarding the =uestion as to :h0 the0 arose@ I su9mit that the0 :ere needed to create the structure o caste and the phi$osophies in honour o them :ere intended to popu$ari>e them or to gi$d the pi$$@ as :e might sa0@ or the0 must ha3e 9een so a9omina9$e and shocking to the sense o the unsophisticated that the0 needed a great dea$ o s:eetening8 These customs are essentia$$0 o the nature o means@ though the0 are represented as idea$s8 %ut this shou$d not 9$ind us rom understanding the resu$ts that $o: rom them8 Lne might sa e$0 sa0 that idea$i>ation o means is necessar0 and in this particu$ar case :as perhaps moti3ated to endo: them :ith greater e icac08 Ca$$ing means an end does not harm except that it disguises its rea$ character@ 9ut it does not depri3e it o its rea$ nature@ that o a means8 ?ou ma0 pass a $a: that a$$ cats are dogs@ Aust as 0ou can ca$$ a means an end8 %ut 0ou can no more change the nature o means there90 than 0ou can turn cats into dogs B conse=uent$0 I am Austi ied in ho$ding that@ regard them as ends or as means8 Sati@ en orced :ido:hood and gir$ marriage are customs that :ere primari$0 intended to so$3e the pro9$em o the surp$us man and surp$us :oman in a caste and to maintain its endogam08 Strict endogam0 cou$d not 9e preser3ed :ithout these customs@ :hi$e caste :ithout endogam0 is ake8H According to m0 3ie: gir$ marriage@ en orced :ido:hood and Sati had no other purpose than that o supporting the Caste S0stem :hich %rahmanism :as seeking to esta9$ish 90 prohi9iting intermarriage8 It is di icu$t to stop intermarriage8 *em9ers o di erent castes are $ike$0 to go out o their Caste either or $o3e or or necessit08 It is to pro3ide against necessit0 that %rahmanism made these ru$es8 This is m0 exp$anation o these ne: ru$es@ made 90 %rahmanism8 That exp$anation ma0 not 9e accepta9$e to a$$8 %ut there can 9e no dou9t that %rahmanism :as taking a$$ means possi9$e to pre3ent intermarriages 9et:een the di erent c$asses taking p$ace8

Another i$$ustration o this desire on the part o %rahmanism is to 9e ound in the ru$e regarding excommunication promu$gated 90 *anu8 *anu sa0s that a person :ho is excommunicated 90 his Caste is an outcast8 [f81] According to *anu an outcast is to 9e treated as though he :as actua$$0 dead8 *anu ordains that his o9se=uies shou$d 9e per ormed and $a0s do:n the mode and manner o per orming these o9se=uies o the outcast8 SI8 1)38 The Sapindas and Samanodakas o an outcast must o er Ia $i9ation o J :ater Ito him@ as i he :ere deadJ@ outside Ithe 3i$$ageJ@ on an inauspicious da0@ in the e3ening and in the presence o the re$ati3es@ o iciating priests@ and teachers8 SI8 1)48 A ema$e s$a3e sha$$ upset :ith her oot a pot i$$ed :ith :ater@ as i it :ere or a dead person B Ihis SapindasJ as :e$$ as the Samanodakas sha$$ 9e impure or a da0 and a night8 *anu ho:e3er a$$o:s the outcast to return to Caste on per orming penance as :i$$ 9e seen rom the o$$o:ing ru$es: SI8 1)(8 %ut :hen he has per ormed his penance@ the0 sha$$ 9athe :ith him in a ho$0 poo$ and thro: do:n a ne: pot@ i$$ed :ith :ater8 SI8 1))8 %ut he sha$$ thro: that pot into :ater@ enter his house and per orm@ as 9e ore@ a$$ the duties incum9ent on a re$ati3e8 SI8 1),8 'et him o$$o: the same ru$e in the case o ema$e outcastsB 9ut c$othes@ ood@ and drink sha$$ 9e gi3en to them@ and the0 sha$$ $i3e c$ose to the I ami$05J house8 %ut i the outcast :as reca$citrant and impenitent *anu pro3ides or his punishment8 *anu :i$$ not a$$o: the outcast to $i3e in the ami$0 house8 *anu enAoins that SI8 1),8 88888C$othes@ ood@ and drink sha$$ 9e gi3en to them Ii8e8 the outcast mem9ers o the ami$0J@ and the0 sha$$ $i3e c$ose to the I ami$0J house8 III8 ,28 'et him Ii8e8 the househo$derJ gent$0 p$ace on the ground Isome oodJ or dogs@ outcasts@ chanda$s@ those a $icted :ith diseases that are punishments o ormer sins@ cro:s and insects8 *anu dec$ares that ha3ing socia$ intercourse :ith an outcast is a sin8 +e :arns the Snataka I28 (,8 88888not ItoJ sta0 together :ith outcasts8 I28 2138 888881ot Ito eat ood gi3enJ 90 outcasts8 To the househo$der *anu sa0s :G III8 1"18 'et him Ii8e8 the househo$derJ not entertain at a Shradha8 III8 1"(8 IA personJ :ho orsakes his mother@ his ather@ or a teacher :ithout Isu icientJ reason@ he :ho has contracted an a$$iance :ith outcasts either through the 2eda or through a marriage8 *anu ordains a socia$ 9o0cott o the outcast 90 pena$i>ing those :ho associate :ith him8 SI8 1)18 +e :ho associates himse$ or one 0ear :ith an outcast himse$ 9ecomes an outcast B not 90 sacri icing@ reading the 2eda@ or contracting a init0 :ith him@

since 90 those acts he $oses his c$ass immediate$0@ 9ut e3en 90 using the same carriage or seat@ or 90 taking his ood at the same 9oard8 SI8 1)28 +e :ho associates :ith an0 one o those outcasts@ must per orm@ in order to atone or IsuchJ intercourse@ the penance prescri9ed or that IsinnerJ8 Then there are pena$ties against an outcast :ho de ies his caste and choses to remain an outcast8 *anu te$$s him :hat :i$$ 9e his pena$t0 in the next :or$d8 SII8 &/8 +e :ho has associated :ith outcasts I:i$$J 9ecome %rahmarakshas Ii8e8 an e3i$ spiritJ8 *anu ho:e3er :as not prepared to $ea3e the outcast :ith this8 +e proceeds to enact pena$t0 the se3erit0 o :hich cannot 9e dou9ted8 The o$$o:ing are the pena$ sections o *anu Smriti against an outcast8 III8 1"/8 88888Those %rahmins :ho are 88888outcasts 8888 8Athesists are un:orth0 Ito partakeJ o o9$ations to the gods and manes8 IS8 2/18 88888Lutcast recei3eIsJ no share Iin inheritanceJ8 SI8 1)"8 %ut thence or:ard Ii8e8 a ter the o9se=uies o the outcast ha3e 9een per ormedJ it sha$$ 9e or9idden to con3erse :ith him@ to sit :ith him@ to gi3e him a share o the inheritance@ and to ho$d :ith him such intercourse as is usua$ among menB SI8 1)&8 And Ii the outcast 9e the e$destJ his right o primogeniture sha$$ 9e :ithhe$d and the additiona$ share@ due to the e$dest sonB and in his stead a 0ounger 9rother@ exce$$ing in 3irtue Ii8e8 :ho o9ser3es the ru$e o casteJ sha$$ o9tain the share o the e$dest8 Such is the $a: o *anu against an outcast8 The se3erit0 o the pena$ties prescri9ed against him is =uite o93ious8 Its e ect is to exc$ude him rom a$$ socia$ intercourse@ to suspend him rom e3er0 ci3i$ unction@ to dis=ua$i 0 him or a$$ o ices and to disa9$e him rom inheriting an0 propert08 4nder these pains and pena$ties the outcaste might as :e$$ 9e dead :hich indeed *anu considers him to 9e@ directing $i9ations to 9e o ered to the manes as though he :as natura$$0 so8 This s0stem o pri3ations and morti ications :as en orced 90 prescri9ing a simi$ar ate to an0one :ho endea3oured to associate :ith an outcast8 The pena$t0 :as not con ined to the: outcast8 1or :as it restricted to ma$es8 *a$es and ema$es :ere 9oth su9Aect to the $a: o the outcast8 E3en their progen0 :as su9Aect to pena$t08 The $a: :as extended to the son o the outcast8 %orn 9e o son :as entit$ed to inherit immediate$0@ as though his ather :as dead8 %orn a ter excommunication he $ost his right to inherit@ i8e8 he 9ecame an outcast a$ong :ith his ather8 The $a:s o *anu regarding the outcast are o course de3oid o Austice and humanit08 Some might think that there is nothing 3er0 strange a9out them8 That is 9ecause these $a:s are 3er0 simi$ar to the $a:s against apostac0 and heres0 to 9e ound in a$$ re$igious codes8 It is un ortunate$0 a act A$$ re$igionsG '(cept Buddhism * ha3e used or misued the $a:s o inheritance or en orcing adhesion and con ormit0 to their codes8 The con3ersion o a Christian to <udaism or paganism or an0 other re$igion :as punished 90 the Emperors Constantines and <u$ Emperors

Theodosius and 2a$entiniaus added capita$ punishment@ In case the apost$e endea3oured to per3ert others to the same ine=uit08 This :as 9orro:ed 90 a$$ the European countriesF :ho maintained a simi$ar s0stem o pena$ities to en orce the Christian aith8 Such a 3ie: o the $a: o the outcast :ou$d 9e =uite super icia$8 !irst o a$$ the outcast is a creation o %rahmanism8 It is a necessar0 coe ieient o caste8 Indeed once %rahmanism :as determined to create the caste s0stem the $a: against the outcast :as a9so$ute$0 essentia$8 !or on$0 90 punishing the outcast can the caste s0stem 9e maintained8 Second$0 there is a di erence 9et:een the Christian or *ahomedan 'a: o Apostac0 and the %rahmanic $a: o caste8 The dis=ua$i ication under the Christian or *ahomedan $a: o apostac0 :as restricted to :ant o re$igious 9e$ie or the pro ession o :rong re$igious 9e$ie 8 4nder the %rahmanic $a w the dis=ua$i ication had no connection :ith 9e$ie or :ant o 9e$ie 8 It :as connected :ith the sanctit0 o a certain orm o socia$ organi>ation name$0 Caste8 It is the act o going out o oneFs caste that :as made punisha9$e8 This is a 3er0 important di erence8 The %rahmanic $a: o the outcast as compared :ith the $a: o apostac0 in other re$igions sho:s that a 9e$ie in .od is not essentia$ to %rahmanismB that a 9e$ie in $i e a ter death is not essentia$ to %rahmanism B that a 9e$ie in sa$3ation either 90 good deeds or 90 a 9e$ie in a prophet is not essentia$ to %rahmanismB that a 9e$ie in the sacredness o the 2edas is essentia$ to %rahmanism8 This is on$0 one thing that is essentia$ to %rahmanism8 !or it is on$0 9reach o caste :hich is pena$i>ed8 A$$ e$se is $e t to 3io$ation8 Those :ho are not 9$ind to these orces o integration :i$$ admit that this act o %rahmanism in prohi9iting intermarriage and interdining is nothing short o a comp$ete dismem9erment o societ08 It is a deathkne$$ to unit0@ an e ecti3e 9ar to united action8 As :i$$ 9e sho:n herea ter %rahmanism :as keen on pre3enting united action 90 1on5%rahmins to o3erthro: %rahmanism and that is :h0 %rahmanism 9rought a9out this segmentation o Indian Societ08 %ut the ata$ e ects o a poison can ne3er 9e con ined to the $imits o the origina$ intention o the perpetrator8 The same thing has happened in the case o Caste8 %rahmanism intended to para$0se the 1on5%rahmans or action against %rahmins@ it did not design that the0 as a nation shou$d 9e para$0sed or action against a oreign nation8 %ut the resu$t o the poison o Caste has 9een the0 ha3e 9ecome stricken or action aga8inst %rahmanism as :e$$ as against oreigners8 In other :ords %rahmanism in instituting Caste s0stem has put the greatest impediment against the gro:th o nationa$ism8 In spite o :hat others sa0 the +indu :i$$ not admit that there is an0 thing e3i$ in the Caste s0stem8@ and rom one point o 3ie: he is right8 There is $o3e@ unit0 and mutua$ aid among mem9ers o a ami$08 There is honour among thie3es8 A 9and o ro99ers

ha3e common interests as respects to its mem9ers8 .angs are marked 90 raterna$ ee$ings and intense $o0a$t0 to their o:n ends ho:e3er opposed the0 ma0 9e to the other gangs8 !o$$o:ing this up one can sa0 that a Caste has got a$$ the praise:orth0 characteristics :hich a societ0 is supposed to ha3e8 It has got the 3irtues o a ami$0 inasmuch as there is $o3e unit0 and mutua$ aid8 It has got the honour kno:n to pre3ai$ among thie3es8 It has got the $o0a$t0 and raterna$ ee$ing :e meet :ith in gangs and it a$so possesses that sense o common interests :hich is ound among ro99ers8 A +indu ma0 take satis action in these praise:orth0 characteristics o the Caste and den0 that there is an0thing e3i$ in it8 %ut he orgets that his thesis that Caste is an idea$ orm o socia$ organi>ation is supporta9$e on the supposition that each caste is entit$ed to regard himse$ as an independent societ0@ as an end in itse$ as nations do8 %ut the theor0 9reaks do:n :hen the consideration pertains to +indu Societ0 and to the Caste5S0stem :hich goes :ith it8 E3en in such a consideration o the su9Aect the +indu :i$$ not admit that the Caste s0stem is an e3i$8 Charge +induism :ith the responsi9i$it0 or the e3i$s o the Caste5 s0stem and the +indu :i$$ at once retort8 H6hat a9out the C$ass S0stem in Europe;H 4pto a point the retort is good i it means that there exists no:here that idea$ societ0 o the phi$osophers marked 90 organic unit0@ accompanied 90 praise:orth0 communit0 o purpose@ mutua$it0 o s0mpath0@ $o0a$t0 to pu9$ic ends and concern or genera$ :e$ are8 1o9od0 can ha3e much =uarre$ i the +indu 90 :a0 o ana$og0 :ere to sa0 that in e3er0 Societ0 there are ami$ies and c$asses marked 90 exc$usi3eness8 suspicion@ and Aea$ous0 as to those :ithout: 9ands o ro99ers@ gangs8 narro: c$i=ues@ trade unions8 Emp$o0eesF Associations8 -arte$s8 Cham9ers o Commerce and po$itica$ parties8 Some o these are he$d together 90 the interest and p$under and others :hi$e aspiring to ser3e the pu9$ic do not hesitate to pre0 upon it8 It ma0 9e conceded that e3er0:here d e "acto societ0 :hether in the past or in the present is not a sing$e :ho$e 9ut a co$$ection o sma$$ groups de3oted to di3erse purposes as their immediate and particu$ar o9Aecti3es8 %ut the +indu cannot take she$ter under this ana$og0 9et:een the +indu caste s0stem and the 1on5+indu C$ass s0stem and rest there as though there is nothing more to he said a9out the su9Aect8 The act is there is a ar 9igger =uestion :hich the +indu has sti$$ $o ace8 +e must take note o the act that a$though e3er0 societ0 consists o groups there are societies in :hich the groups are on$0 non5socia$ :hi$e there are societies in :hich the groups are anti5socia$8 The di erence 9et:een a societ0 :ith the c$ass s0stem and a societ0 :ith the caste s0stem $ies Aust in this name$0 the c$ass s0stem is mere$0 nonsocia$ 9ut the caste s0stem is positi3e$0 anti5soicia$8 It ma0 9e important to rea$i>e :h0 in some societies the g@roup s0stem produces on$0 non5socia$ ee$ing and in some societies the group s0stem produces anti5socia$ ee$ing8 1o 9etter exp$anation o this di erence can 9e gi3en than the one gi3en 90

pro essor <ohn #e:e08 According to him e3er0 thing depends upon :hether the groups are iso$ated or associated@ :hether there is reciprocit0 o interest 9et:een them or :hether there is $ack o reciprocit0 o interest8 I the groups are associated@ i there is a reciprocit0 o interest 9et:een them the ee$ing 9et:een them :i$$ 9e on$0 non5socia$8 I the groups are iso$ated@ i there is no reciprocit0 9et:een them the ee$ing 9et:een them :i$$ 9e anti5socia$8 To =uote Pro essor #e:e0 [f82]: HThe iso$ation and exc$usi3eness o a gang or c$i=ue 9rings its anti5socia$ spirit into re$ie 8 %ut this same spirit is ound :here3er one group has interests Fo its o:nF :hich shut it out rom u$$ interaction :ith other groups@ so that its pre3ai$ing purpose is the protection o :hat it has got@ instead o reorgani>ation and progress through :ider re$ationships8 It marks nations in their iso$ation rom one anotherB ami$ies :hich sec$ude their domestic concerns as i the0 had no connection :ith a $arger $i eB schoo$s :hen sepa8rated rom the interest o home and communit0B the di3isions o rich and poorB $earned and un$earned8 The essentia$ point is that iso$ation makes or rigidit0 and orma$ institutiona$i>ing o $i e@ or static and se$ ish idea$s :ithin the group8H The =uestion to 9e asked is not :hether there are groups in a Societ0 or :hether the Societ0 is one sing$e :ho$e8 The =uestion to 9e asked is :hat degree o association@ cooperati3e intercourse and interaction exists among the di erent groups : ho: numerous and 3aried are the interests :hich are conscious$0 shared 90 them : ho: u$$ and ree is the interp$a0 :ith other orms o Association; A societ0 is not to 9e condemned as 9od0 9ecause there are groups in it8 It is to 9e condemned i the groups are iso$ated@ each $eading an exc$usi3e $i e o its o:n8 %ecause it is this iso$ation :hich produces the anti5socia$ spirit :hich makes co5 operati3e e ort so impossi9$e o achie3ement8 I his iso$ation among the c$asses is the :ork o %rahmanism8 The principa$ steps taken 90 it :as to a9rogate the s0stem o intermarriage and interdining that :as pre3a$ent among the our 2arnas in o$den times8 This has a$read0 9een discussed in an ear$ier section o this chapter8 There is ho:e3er one part o the stor0 that remains to 9e to$d8 I ha3e said the 2arna s0stem had nothing to do :ith marriage8 That ma$es and ema$es 9e$onging to the di erent 2arnas cou$d marr0 and did marr08 'a: did not come in the :a0 o inter53arna marriage8 Socia$ mora$it0 :as not opposed to such marriages8 Sa3arna marriage :as neither re=uired 90 $a: nor demanded 90 Societ08 A$$ marriages 9et:een di erent 2arnas irrespecti3e o the =uestion :hether the 9ride :as o a higher 2arna than the 9ride5groom or :hether the 9ride5groom :as o the higher 2arna and the 9ride o the $o:er 2arna :ere 3a$id8 Indeed as Pro 8 -ane sa0s the distinction 9et:een Anu$oma and Prati$oma marriage :as =uite unkno:n and e3en the terms Anu$oma and Prati$oma :ere not in existence8 The0 are the creation o %rahmanism8 %rahmanism put a stop to Prati$oma marriages i8e8 marriages 9et:een :omen o a higher 2arna and men o $o:er 2arna8 That :as a

step in the direction o c$osing the connection 9et:een the 2arnas and creating in them an exc$usi3e and anti5socia$ spirit regarding one another8 %ut :hi$e the inter5 connecting gate o the Prati$oma marriage :as c$osed the inter5connecting gate o Anu$oma marriage had remained open8 That :as not c$osed8 As pointed out in the section on graded ine=ua$it0 Anu$oma marriage i8e8 marriage 9et:een a ma$e o the higher 2arna and the ema$e o the $o:er 2arna :as a$$o:ed 90 %rahmanism to continue8 The gate o Anu$oma marriage :as not 3er0 respecta9$e and :as a one :a0 gate on$08 sti$$ it :as an interconnecting gate 90 :hich it :as possi9$e to pre3ent a comp$ete iso$ation o the 2arnas8 %ut e3en here %rahmanism p$a0ed :hat cannot 9ut 9e ca$$ed a dirt0 trick8 To sho: ho: dirt0 the trick :as it is necessar0 irst to state the ru$es :hich pre3ai$ed or determining the status o the chi$d8 4nder the ru$e existing rom 3er0 ancient times the status o the chi$d :as determined 90 the 2arna o the ather8 I he 2arna o the mother :as =uite unimportant8 I he o$$o:ing i$$ustrations :i$$ p$ace the point 9e0ond dou9t:
!atherFs 1ame 18 Shantanu -shatri0a IAnamikJ 28 Shantanu -shatri0a I!isherJ 38 Parashar %rahmin I!isherJ 48 2ish:amitra -shatri0a "8 ?a0ati -shatri0a &8 ?a0ati -shatri0a I1onar0anJ (8 <aratkaru %rahmin I1onar0anJ %rahmin <aratkari 1ag8 Asita -shatri0a Sharmishta Asuri #ruh0a -shatri0a #e3a0ani %rahmin ?adu -shtri0a *enaka IApsaraJ #:aipa0ana Shakunta$a %rahmin *ats0agandha Shudra -rishna5 -shatri0a *ats0agandha Shudra 2ichitra 2ir0a 2arna o ather -shatri0a *otherFs 1ame .anga 2arna o mother Shudra Chi$dFs name %hishma 2arna o chi$d

The ru$e :as kno:n as the ru$e o" Pitra Sa3arn0a8 It :ou$d he interesting to consider the e ect o this ru$e o Pitra Sa3arn0a on the Anu$oma and Prati$oma s0stems o marriage8

The e ect on Prati$oma marriage :ou$d 9e that the chi$dren o mothers o the higher 2arnas :ou$d 9e dragged do:n to the $e3e$ o the $o:er 2arnas represented 90 their athers8 Its e ect on Anu$oma marriage :ou$d 9e Aust the contrar08 The chi$dren o mothers o the $o:er 2arnas :ou$d 9e raised up and a9sor9ed in the higher 2arnas o their athers8 *anu stopped Prati$oma marriages and there90 pre3ented the higher rom 9eing dragged to the status o the $o:er8 +o:e3er regretta9$e@ not much damage :as done 90 it so $ong as the Anu$oma marriage and the ru$e o Pitra Sa3arn0a continued in operation8 The t:o together ormed a 3er0 use u$ s0stem8 The Anu$oma marriage maintained the inter5connection and the Pitra Sa3arn0a ru$e made the higher c$asses =uite composite in their make up8 !or the0 cou$d not 9ut he$p to he dra:n rom mothers o di erent 2arnas8 %rahmanism did not :ant to keep this gate o intercommunication 9et:een the 2arnas open8 It :as 9ent on c$osing it8 %ut it did it in a manner :hich is disreputa9$e8 The straight and honoura9$e :a0 :as to stop Anu$oma marriage8 %ut %rahmanism did not do that8 It a$$o:ed the s0stem o Anu$oma marriage to continue8 6hat it did :as to a$ter the ru$e o determining the status o the chi$d8 It rep$aced the ru$e o Pitra Sa3arn0a 90 the ru$e o *atra Sa3arn0a 90 :hich the status o the chi$d came to 9e determined 90 the status o the mother8 %0 this change marriage ceased to 9e that means o intersocia$ communication :hich it principa$$0 is8 It re$ie3ed men o the higher 2arna rom the responsi9i$it0 to their chi$dren simp$0 9ecause the0 :ere 9orn o a mother o $o:er 2arna8 It made Anu$oma marriage mere matter o sex8 a humi$iation and insu$t to the $o:er 2arnas and a pri3i$ege to the higher c$asses to $a: u$$0 commit prostitution :ith :omen o the $o:er c$asses8 And rom a $arger socia$ point o 3ie: it 9rought the comp$ete iso$ation among the 2arnas :hich has 9een the 9ane o +indu Societ08 1ot:ithstanding a$$ this the Lrthodox +indu sti$$ 9e$ie3es that the caste s0stem is an idea$ s0stem8 %ut :h0 ta$k a9out the orthodox +indus8 There are among en$ightened po$iticians and historians8 There are o course Indians 9oth po$iticians and historians :ho 3ehement$0 den0 that the Caste s0stem comes in the :a0 o nationa$ism8 The0 presume that India is a nation and ee$ 3er0 much o ended i an09od0 instead o speaking o the Indian 1ation speaks o the peop$e o India8 This attitude is =uite understanda9$e8 *ost o the po$iticians and historians are %rahmins and cannot 9e expected to ha3e the courage to expose the misdeeds o their ancestors or admit the e3i$s perpetrated 90 them8 Ask an0 one the =uestion@ is India a nation@ and a$$ in a chorus sa0@ F0es8F Ask or reasons@ the0 :i$$ sa0 that India is a nation irst$0 9ecause India has a geographica$ unit0 o the countr0 and second$0 9ecause o the undamenta$ unit0 o the cu$ture8 A$$ this ma0 9e admitted or the sake o argument and 0et it is true to sa0 that to dra: an in erence rom these acts that India is a nation is rea$$0 to cherish a de$usion8 !or :hat is a nation; A nation is not a countr0

in the ph0sica$ sense o the countr0 :hate3er degree o geographica$ unit0 it ma0 posses8 A nation is not peop$e s0nthesi>ed 90 a common cu$ture deri3ed rom common $anguage@ common re$igion or common race8 To reca$$ :hat I ha3e said in another p$ace H1ationa$it0 is a su9Aecti3e ps0cho$ogica$ ee$ing8 It is a ee$ing o a corporate sentiment o oneness :hich makes those :ho are charged :ith it ee$ that the0 are kith and kin8 This nationa$ ee$ing is a dou9$e edged ee$ing8 It is at once a ee$ing o e$$o:ship or oneFs o:n kith and an anti5 e$$o:ship ee$ing or those :ho are not oneFs o:n kith8 It is a ee$ing o Hconsciousness o kindH :hich 9inds together those :ho are :ithin the $imits o the kindred and se3ers them rom those :ho are outside the $imits o the kindred8 It is a $onging to 9e$ong to oneFs o:n group and a $onging not to 9e$ong to an0 other group8 This is the essence o :hat is ca$$ed a nationa$it0 and nationa$ ee$ing8 This $onging to 9e$ong to oneFs o:n kindred as I said is a su9Aecti3e ps0cho$ogica$ ee$ing and :hat is important to 9ear in mind is that the $onging to 9e$ong to oneFs o:n kindred is =uite independent o geograph0@ cu$ture or economic or socia$ con $ict8 There ma0 9e geographica$ unit0 and 0et there ma0 9e no H$onging to 9e$ongH8 There ma0 9e no geographica$ unit0 and 0et the ee$ing o $onging to 9e$ong ma0 9e 3er0 intense8 There ma0 9e cu$tura$ unit0 and 0et there ma0 9e no $onging to 9e$ong8 There ma0 9e economica$ con $icts and c$ass di3isions and 0et there ma0 9e an intense ee$ing o $onging to 9e$ong8 The point is that nationa$it0 is not primari$0 a matter o geograph0 cu$ture orH8888888888 In the dec$inging[f83] da0s o the 2edic Regime@ the Shudras as :e$$ as :omen had come to occup0 a 3er0 $o: position8 The rising tide o %uddhism had 9rought a9out a great change in the status o 9oth8 To put it 9rie $0 a Shudra under the %uddhist regime cou$d ac=uire propert0@ $earning and cou$d e3en 9ecome a king8 1a0 he cou$d e3en rise to the highest rung o the socia$ $adder occupied 90 the %rahmin in the 2edic Regime8 The %uddhist order o %hikshus :as counterpart o the 2edic order o %rahmins8 The t:o orders@ each :ithin its o:n re$igious s0stem :ere on a par in the matter o status and dignit08 The Shudra cou$d ne3er aspire to 9e a %rahmin in the 2edic regime 9ut he cou$d 9ecome a %hikshu and occup0 the same status and dignit0 as did the %rahmin8 !or8 :hi$e the 2edic order o %ramhins :as c$osed to the Shudra@ the %uddhist order o %hikshus :as open to him and man0 Shudras :ho cou$d not 9ecome %rahmins under the 2edic Regime had 9ecome their peers 90 9ecoming %hikshus under %uddhism8 Simi$ar change is noticea9$e in the case o :omen8 4nder the %uddhist regime she 9ecame a ree person8 *arriage did not make her a s$a3e8 !or marriage under the %uddhist ru$e :as a contract8 4nder the %uddhist Regime she cou$d ac=uire propert0@ she cou$d ac=uire $earning and :hat :as uni=ue@ she cou$d 9ecome a mem9er o the %uddhist order o 1uns and reach the same status and dignit0 as a %rahmin8 The e$e3ation o the status o the Shudras and :omen :as so much the resu$t o the gospe$ o %uddhism that

%uddhism :as ca$$ed 90 its enemies as the Shudra re$igion Ii8e8 the re$igion o the $o: c$assesJ8 A$$ this o course must ha3e 9een 3er0 ga$$ing to the %rahmins8 +o: 3er0 ga$$ing it must ha3e 9een to them is sho:n 90 the 3anda$$ic ur0 :ith :hich %ramhanism a ter its triumph o3er %uddhism proceeded to 9ring a9out a comp$ete demo$ition o the high status to :hich the Shudras and :omen had 9een e$e3ated 90 the re3o$utionar0 changes e ected 90 the 3i3i 0ing gospe$ o %uddhism8 Starting :ith this 9ackground one shudders at the inhumanit0 and crue$t0 o the $a:s made 90 *anu against the Shudras8 I =uote a e: o them assem9$ing them under certain genera$ heads8 *anu asks the househo$ders o the %rahmana@ -shatri0a and 2aish0a C$ass: I28 &18 'et him not d:e$$ in a countr0 :here the ru$ers are Shudra88888 This cannot mean that %rarnhana8 -ashtri0a and 2aish0a shou$d $ea3e the countr0 :here Shudra is a ru$er8 It can on$0 mean that i a Shudra 9ecomes a king he shou$d 9e ki$$ed8 1ot on$0 a Shudra is not to 9e recogni>ed as it to 9e a king@ he is not to 9e deemed as a respecta9$e person8 !or *anu enacts that:5 SI8 248 A %ramhin sha$$ ne3er 9eg rom a Shudra propert0 or Iper ormingJ a sacri ice i8e8 or re$igious purposes8 A$$ marriage ties :ith the Shudra :ere proscri9ed8 A marriage :ith a :oman 9e$onging to an0 o the three higher c$asses :as or9idden8 A Shudra :as not to ha3e an0 connection :ith a :oman o the higher c$asses and an act o adu$ter0 committed 90 a Shudra :ith her :as dec$ared 90 *anu to 9e an o ence in3o$3ing capita$ punishment8 2III8 3(48 A Shudra :ho has an intercourse :ith a :oman o the higher caste guarded[f84] or unguarded@ sha$$ 9e punished in the o$$o:ing manner i she :as unguarded@ he $oses the o ending part8 I she :as guarded then he shou$d 9e put to death and his propert0 con iscated8 *anu insists that a Shudra sha$$ 9e ser3i$e@ un it or o ice@ :ithout education@ :ithout propert0 and as a contempti9$e person@ his person and propert0 sha$$ a$:a0s 9e $ia9$e to 9e conscripted8 As to o ice *anu prescri9es8 2III8 2/8 A %ramhana :ho is on$0 a %rahmana 90 descent i8e8 one has neither studied nor per ormed an0 other act re=uired 90 the 2edas ma08 at the kingFs p$easure@ interpret the $a: to him i8e8 act as the Audge@ 9ut ne3er a Shudra Iho:e3er $earned he ma0 9eJ8 2III8 218 The -ingdom o that monarch :ho $ooks on :hi$e a Shudra sett$es the $a: :i$$ sink $o: $ike a co: in a morass8 2III8 2(28 I a Shudra arrogant$0 presumes to preach re$igion to %ramhins the -ing sha$$ ha3e poured 9urning oi$ in his mouth and ears8 In o$den times the stud0 o the 2edas stood or education8 *anu dec$are that the stud0 o the 2edas :as not a matter o right 9ut that it :as a matter o pri3i$ege8 *anu depri3ed the Shudra o the right to stud0 2eda8 +e made it a pri3i$ege o the

three higher c$asses8 1ot on$0 did he de9ar the Shudra rom the stud0 o the 2edas 9ut he enacted pena$ties against those :ho might he$p the Shudra to ac=uire kno:$edge o the 2eda8 To a person :ho is pre3i$eged to stud0 the 2edas8 *anu ordains that : I28 ,,8 +e must ne3er read the 2edas888in the presence o the Shudras8 and prescri9es that :5 III8 1"&8 +e :ho instructs Shudra pupi$s and he :hose teacher is a Shudra sha$$ 9ecome dis=ua$i ied tor 9eing in3ited to Shradha8 *anuFs successor :ent much 9e0ond him in the crue$t0 o their punishment o the Shudra or stud0ing the 2eda8 !or instance -at0a0ana $a0s do:n that i a Shudra o3erheard the 2eda or 3entured to utter a :ord o the 2eda8 the -ing sha$$ cut his tongue in t:ain and put hot mo$ten $ead in his cars8 As to propert0 *anu is 9oth ruth$ess and shame$ess8 According to the Code o *anu : S8 12,8 1o super $uous co$$ection o :ea$th must 9e made 90 a Shudra@ e3en though he has po:er to make it@ since a ser3i$e man8 :ho has amassed riches@ 9ecomes proud@ and@ 90 his inso$ence or neg$ect@ gi3es pain to %ramhans8 The reason or the ru$e is more re3o$ting than the ru$e itse$ 8 *anu :as o course not sure that the prohi9itor0 inAunction :i$$ 9e enough to pre3ent the Shudra rom ac=uiring :ea$th8 To $ea3e no room or the Shudra to gi3e o ence to the %ramhins 90 his accumu$ation o :ea$th *anu added another section to his code :here90 he dec$ared that : 2III8 41(8 A %ramhana ma0 sei>e :ithout hesitation i he 9e in distress or his su9sistence@ the goods o his Shudra8 1ot on$0 is the propert0 o a Shudra $ia9$e to conscription 9ut the $a9our o the Shudra8 *anu dec$ares@ is $ia9$e to conscription8 Compare the o$$o:ing pro3ision in *anu : 2III8 4138 A %ramhana ma0 compe$ a Shudra@ :hether 9ought or un9ought to do ser3i$e :orkB or he is created 90 the creator to 9e the s$a3e o a %ramhana8 A Shudra :as re=uired 90 *anu to 9e ser3i$e in his speech8 +o: 3er0 ser3i$e he must 9e can 9e seen rom the o$$o:ing pro3isions in *anu :G 2III8 2(/8 A Shudra :ho insu$ts a t:ice9orn man :ith gross in3ecti3e@ sha$$ ha3e his tongue cut outB or he is o $o: origin8 2III8 2(18 I he mentions the names and castes o the It:ice9ornJ :ith contume$0@ an iron nai$@ ten ingers $ong@ sha$$ 9e thrust red hot into his mouth8 *anuFs o9Aect was to make the Shudra not mere$0 a ser3i$e person 9ut an a$together contempti9$e person8 *anu :i$$ not a$$o: a Shudra the com ort o ha3ing a high sounding name8 +ad *anu not 9een there to urnish incontro3erti9$e proo it :ou$d 9e di icu$t to 9e$ie3e that %ramanism cou$d ha3e 9een so re$ent$ess and piti$ess in its persecution o the Shudra8 L9ser3e *anuFs $a: as to the names that the di erent c$asses can gi3e to their chi$dren8

II8 318 'et the irst part o a %rahmanFs name denote something auspicious@ a -shatri0aFs 9e connected :ith po:er@ and a 2aish0aFs :ith :ea$th@ 9ut a ShudraFs express something contempti9$e8 II8 328 The second part o a %ramhanFs name sha$$ 9e a :ord imp$0ing happiness@ o a -shatr0aFs a :ord imp$0ing protection@ o a 2ais0aFs a term expressi3e o thri3ing and o a ShudraFs an expression denoting ser3ice8 The 9asis o a$$ these inhuman $a:s is the theor0 enunciated 90 *anu regarding the Shudra8 At the outset o his Code@ *anu takes care to assert it emphatica$$0 and :ithout 9$ushing8 +e sa0s : I8 ,18 Lne occupation on$0@ the 'ord prescri9ed to the Shudra@ to ser3e meek$0 these other three castes Iname$0 %ramhin@ -shatri0a and 2aish0aJ8 +o$ding that the Shudra :as 9orn to 9e ser3i$e@ *anu made his $a:s according$0 so as to compe$ him to remain ser3i$e8 In the %uddhist regime a Shudra cou$d aspire to 9e aAudge@ a priest and e3en a -ing@ the highest status that he cou$d e3er aspire to8 Compare :ith This the idea$ that *anu p$aces 9e ore the Shudra and one can get an idea o :hat ate :as to 9e under %rahmanism : S8 1218 I a Shudra@ Iuna9$e to su9sist 90 ser3ing %rahmanasJ@ seeks a $i3e$ihood@ he ma0 ser3e -sharti0as@ or he ma0 a$so seek to maintain himse$ 90 attending on a :ea$th0 2aish0a8 S8 1228 %ut $et a IShudraJ ser3e %rahmanas@ either or the sake o hea3en@ or :ith a 3ie: to 9oth Ithis $i e and the nextJB or he :ho is ca$$ed the ser3ant o a %rahmana there90 gains a$$ his ends8 S8 1238 The ser3ice o %rahmanas a$one is dec$ared Ito 9eJ an exce$$ent occupation or a Shudra: or :hate3er e$se 9esides this he ma0 per orm :i$$ 9ear him no ruit8 S8 1248 The0 must a$$ot to him out o their o:n ami$0 Ipropert0J a suita9$e maintenance@ a ter considering his a9i$it0@ his industr0@ and the num9er o those :hom he is 9ound to support8 S8 12"8 The remnants o their ood must 9e gi3en to him@ as :e$$ as their o$d househo$d urniture8 *anu can hard$0 9e said to 9e more tender to :omen than he :as to the Shudra8 +e starts :ith a $o: opinion o :omen8 *anu proc$aims : 1182138 It is the nature o :omen to seduce men in this I:or$dJB or that reason the :ise are ne3er unguarded in Ithe compan0 o J ema$es8 II8 2148 !or :omen are a9$e to $ead astra0 in IthisJ :or$d not on$0 a oo$@ 9ut e3en a $earned man@ and Ito makeJ him a s$a3e o desire and anger8 II8 21"8 Lne shou$d not sit in a $one$0 p$ace :ith oneFs mother sister or daughterB or the senses are po:er u$@ and master e3en a $earned man8

IS8 148 6omen do not care or 9eaut0@ nor is their attention ixed on ageB IthinkingJ@ FIIt is enough thatJ he is a manF@ the0 gi3e themse$3es to the handsome and to the ug$08 IS8 1"8 Through their passion or men@ through their muta9$e temper@ through their natura$ heart$essness@ the0 9ecome dis$o0a$ to:ards their hus9ands@ ho:e3er care u$$0 the0 ma0 9e guarded in this I:or$dJ8 IS8 1&8 -no:ing their disposition@ :hich the 'ord o creatures $aid in them at the creation@ to 9e such@ Ie3er0J man shou$d most strenuous$0 exert himse$ to guard them8 IS8 1(8 I6hen creating themJ *anu a$$otted to :omen Ia $o3e o theirJ 9ed8 Io theirJ seat and Io J ornament@ impure desires@ :rath@ dishonest0@ ma$ice@ and 9ad conduct8 The $a:s o *anu against :omen are o a piece :ith this 3ie:8 6omen are not to 9e ree under an0 circumstances8 In the opinion o *anu :G IS8 28 #a0 and night :omen must 9e kept in dependence 90 the ma$es Io J their I ami$iesJ@ and@ i the0 attach themse$3es to sensua$ enAo0ments@ the0 must 9e kept under oneFs contro$8 IS8 38 +er ather protects IherJ in chi$dhood@ her hus9and protects IherJ in 0outh@ and her sons protect IherJ in o$d age: a :oman is ne3er it or independence8 IS8 "8 6omen must particu$ar$0 9e gurded against e3i$ inc$inations@ ho:e3er tri $ing Ithe0 ma0 appearJB or@ i the0 are not guarded@ the0 :i$$ 9ring sorro: on t:o ami$ies@ IS8 &8 Considering that the highest dut0 o a$$ castes@ e3en :eak hus9ands ImustJ stri3e to guard their :i3es8 28 14(8 %0 a gir$@ 90 a 0oung :oman@ or e3en 90 an aged one@ nothing must 9e done independent$0@ e3en in her o:n house8 28 14)8 In chi$dhood a ema$e must 9e su9Aect to her ather@ in 0outh to her hus9and@ :hen her $ord is dead to her sons: a :oman must ne3er 9e independent8 28 14,8 She must not seek to separate herse$ rom her ather@ hus9and@ or sonsB 90 $ea3ing them she :ou$d make 9oth Iher o:n and her hus9andFsJ ami$ies contempti9$e8 6oman is not to ha3e a right to di3orce8 IS8 4"8 The hus9and is dec$ared to 9e one :ith the :i e@ :hich means that there cou$d 9e no separation once a :oman is married8 *an0 +indus stop here as though this is the :ho$e stor0 regarding *anuFs $a: o di3orce and keep on ido$i>ing it 90 com orting their conscience 90 ho$ding out the 3ie: that *anu regarded marriage as sacrament and there ore did not a$$o: di3orce8 This o course is ar rom the truth8 +is $a: against di3orce had a 3er0 di erent moti3e8 It :as not to tie up a man to a :oman 9ut it :as to tie up the :oman to a man and to $ea3e the man ree8 !or *anu does not pre3ent a man or gi3ing up his :i e8 Indeed he not on$0 a$$o:s him to a9andon his :i e 9ut he a$so permits him to se$$ her8 %ut :hat he does is to pre3ent the :i e rom 9ecoming ree8 See :hat *anu Sa0s :

IS8 4&8 1either 90 sa$e nor 90 repudiation is a :i e re$eased rom her hus9and8 The meaning is that a :i e@ so$d or repudiated 90 her hus9and@ can ne3er 9ecome the $egitimate :i e o another :ho ma0 ha3e 9ought or recei3ed her a ter she :as repudiated8 I this is not monstrous nothing can 9e8 %ut *anu :as not :orried 90 considerations o Austice or inAustice o his $a:s8 +e :anted to depri3e :omen o the reedom she had under the %uddhistic regime8 +e kne:@ 90 her misuse o her $i9ert0@ 90 her :i$$ingness to marr0 the Shudra that the s0stem o the gradation o the 2arna had 9een destro0ed8 *anu :a8s outraged 90 her $icense and in putting a stop to it he depri3ed her o her $i9ert08 A :i e :as reduced 90 *anu to the $e3e$ o a s$a3e in the matter o propert08 IS8 14&8 A :i e@ a son@ and a s$a3e@ these three are dec$ared to ha3e no propert0@ the :ea$th :hich the0 earn is Iac=uiredJ or him to :hom the0 9e$ong8 6hen she 9ecomes a :ido: *anu a$$o:s her maintenance i her hus9and :as Aoint and a :ido:Fs estate in the propert0 o her hus9and i he :as separate rom his ami$08 %ut *anu ne3er a$$o:s her to ha3e an0 dominion o3er propert08 A :oman under the $a:s o *anu is su9Aect to corpora$ punishment and *anu a$$o:s the hus9and the right to 9eat his :i e8 2III8 2,,8 A :i e@ a son@ a s$a3e@ a pupi$@ and a 0ounger 9rother o the u$$ 9$ood@ :ho ha3e committed au$ts@ ma0 9e 9eaten :ith a rope or a sp$it 9am9oo8 In other matters :oman :as reduced 90 *anu to the same position as the Shudra8 The stud0 o the 2eda :as or9idden to her 90 *anu as it :as to the Shudra8 II8 &&8 E3en or a :oman the per ormance o the +anskaras are necessar0 and the0 shou$d 9e per ormed8 %ut the0 shou$d 9e per ormed :ithout uttering the 2eda *antras8 IS8 1)8 6omen ha3e no right to stud0 the 2edas8 That is :h0 their Sanskars are per ormed :ithout 2eda *antras8 6omen ha3e no kno:$edge o re$igion 9ecause the0 ha3e no right to kno: the 2edas8 The uttering o the 2eda *antras is use u$ or remo3ing sin8 As :omen cannot utter the 2eda *antras the0 are as unc$ean as untruth is8 L ering sacri ices according to %ramhanism ormed the 3er0 sou$ o re$igion8 ?et *anu :i$$ not a$$o: :omen to per orm them8 *anu ordains that:G SI8 3&8 A :oman sha$$ not per orm the dai$0 sacri ices prescri9ed 90 the 2edas8 SI8 3(8 I she does it she :i$$ go to he$$8 To disa9$e her rom per orming such sacri ices *anu pre3ents her rom getting the aid and ser3ices o a %ramhin priest8 I28 2/"8 A %ramhan must ne3er eat ood gi3en at a sacri ice per ormed 90 a :oman8 I28 2/&8 Sacri ices per ormed 90 :omen are inauspicious and not accepta9$e to .od8 The0 shou$d there ore 9e a3oided8 6oman :as not to ha3e an0 inte$$ectua$ persuits and nor ree :i$$ nor reedom o thought8 She :as not to Aoin an0 heretica$

sect such as %uddhism8 I she continues to adhere to it@ ti$$ death she is not to 9e gi3en the $i9ation o :ater as is done in the case o a$$ dead8 !ina$$0 a :ord regarding the idea$ o $i e@ *anu has sought to p$ace 9e ore a :oman8 It had 9etter 9e stated in his o:n :ords : 28 1"18 +im to :hom her ather ma0 gi3e her@ or her 9rother :ith the atherFs permission@ she sha$$ o9e0 as $ong as he $i3es and :hen he is dead@ she must not insu$t his memor08 28 1"48 Though destitute o 3irtue@ or seeking p$easure e$se:here@ or de3oid o good =ua$ities@ 0et a hus9and must 9e constant$0 :orshipped as a god 90 a aith u$ :i e8 28 1""8 1o sacri ice@ no 3o:@ no ast must 9e per ormed 90 :omen@ apart rom their hus9andsB i a :i e o9e0s her hus9and@ she :i$$ or that reason a$one 9e exa$ted in hea3en8 Then comes the choicest texts :hich orms the pith and the marro: o this idea$ :hich *anu prescri9es or the :omen : 28 1"38 The hus9and :ho :edded her :ith sacred *antras@ is a$:a0s a source o happiness to his :i e@ 9oth in season and out o season@ in this :or$d and in the next8 28 1"/8 She must a$:a0s 9e cheer u$@ c$e3er in the management o her househo$d a airs@ care u$ in c$eaning her utensi$s@ and economica$ in expenditure8 This the +indus regard as a 3er0 $o t0 idea$ or a :omanOOO The se3erit0 o these $a:s against Shudras and :omen sho: that the phenomena$ rise o these c$asses during the %uddhist regime had not on$0 o ended the %rahmins 9ut had 9ecome into$era9$e to them8 It :as a comp$ete re3ersa$ o their sacred socia$ order rom top to 9ottom8 The irst had 9ecome $ast and the $ast had 9ecome irst8 The $a:s o *anu a$so exp$ain@ the determined :a0 in :hich the %rahmins proceeded to use their po$itica$ po:er to degrade the Shudras and the :omen to their o$d status8 The triumphant %ramhanism 9ega8n its ons$aught on 9oth the Shudras and the :omen in pursuit o the o$d idea$ name$0 ser3i$it0 and %ramhanism did succeed in making the Shudras and :omen the ser3i$e c$asses@ Shudras the ser s to the three higher c$asses and :omen the ser s to their hus9ands8 L the 9$ack deeds committed 90 %rahmanism a ter its triumph o3er %uddhism this one is the 9$ackest8 There is no para$$e$ in histor0 or so ou$ deeds o degradation committed 90 a c$ass o usurpers in the interest o c$ass domination8 The co$$osa$ character o this deed o degradation perpetrated 90 %arahmanism is un ortunate$0 not u$$0 rea$i>ed8 It is concea$ed 90 those sma$$ monos0$$a9$ic :ords@ Stri and Shudra8 'et those :ho :ish to get an idea o the enormit0 o their deed think o the num9ers that $ie 9ehind these t:o terms8 6hat part o the popu$ation do the0 app$0 to; The :oman represents one ha$ o the popu$ation8 L the 9a$ance the Shudra represents not $ess than t:o third8 The t:o together make up a9out (",/ o the tota$ popu$ation8 It is this huge mass o peop$e that has 9een doomed 90 %rahmanism to eterna$ ser3i$it0 and eterna$ degradation8 It

is 9ecause o the co$$osa$ sca$e o degradation :here90 ("U o her peop$e :ere depri3ed o their right to $i e8 $i9ert0 and persuit o happiness that India 9ecame a deca0ing i not a dead nation8 The princip$e o graded ine=ua$it0 runs through the :ho$e o the *anu Smriti8 There is no department o $i e in :hich he has not introduced his princip$e o graded ine=ua$it08 !or a comp$ete and thorough exposition o it@ it :ou$d 9e necessar0 to reproduce the :ho$e o *anu Smriti8 I :i$$ take on$0 a e: departments to i$$ustrate ho: in the hands o *anu the princip$e o graded ine=ua$it0 9ecame im9edded in the socia$ $i e8 Take the ie$d o marriage8 L9ser3e the ru$e o *anu :G III8 138 It is dec$ared that a Shudra :oman a$one Ican 9eJ the :i e o a Shudra@ she and one o his o:n caste Ithe :i3esJ o a 2aish0a@ those t:o and one o his o:n caste the :i3es o a -shatri0a@ those three and one o his o:n caste Ithe :i3es o a %ramhanJ8 Take the ru$es o *anu regarding the treatment o guests:G III8 11/8 %ut a -shatri0a I:ho comesJ to the house o a %rahmana is not ca$$ed a guest IatithiJ@ nor a 2ais0a@ nor a Shudra@ nor a persona$ riend@ nor a re$ati3e@ nor the teacher8 III8 1118 %ut i -shatri0a comes to the house o a %rahmana in the manner o a guest@ Ithe house5ho$derJ ma0 eed him according to his desire@ a ter the a9o3e mentioned %rahmanas ha3e eaten8 III8 1 128 E3en a 2ais0a and a Shudra :ho ha3e approached his house in the manner o guests@ he ma0 a$$o: to eat :ith his ser3ants@ sho:ing Ithere90J his compassionate disposition8 In the house o a %rahmana8 no9od0 except a %rahmin is to ha3e the honour o 9eing a guest8 [f85] I the -shatri0a comes in the manner o a guest to the house o a %rahmin he is to 9e ed a ter a$$ the %rahmins are ed and i the 2aish0as and Shudras come in the manner o guests the0 are to 9e ed a ter e3er09od0 is ed and on$0 in the compan0 o ser3ants8 Take the ru$es o *anu regarding Sanskaras : S8 12&8 A Shudra has no right to recei3e the sacraments8 S8 &)8 The $a: prescri9es that neither o the t:o Ithat is those :ho 9e$ong to mixed castesJ sha$$ recei3e the sacraments the irst 9eing exc$uded on account o $o:ness o his origin o his parents :as against the order o the castes8 II8 &&8 The :ho$e series[f86] o sacraments must 9e per ormed or ema$es a$so in order to sancti 0 the 9od0 at the proper time and in the proper order@ 9ut :ithout the recitaion o sacred 2edic *antras8 *anu urther $a0s do:n that : 2I8 18 A t:ice 9orn Snataka@ :ho has thus $i3ed according to the $a: in the order o househo$ders@ ma0@ taking a irm reso$ution and keeping his organs in su9Aection@ d:e$$ in the orest@ du$0 Io9ser3ing the ru$es gi3en 9e$o:J8 2I8 338 %ut ha3ing thus passed the third part o Ia manFs natura$ term o J $i e in the orest@ he ma0 $i3e as an ascetic during the ourth part o his existence@ a ter a9andoning a$$ attanchment to :or$d$0 o9Aects8

E3en in $a: *anu introduces the princip$e o graded ine=ua$it08 To take on$0 t:o i$$ustrations@ the $a: o de amation@ a9use and the $a: o assau$t : 2III8 2&(8 A -shatri0a ha3ing de amed a %rahmana@ sha$$ 9e ined one hundred IpanasJB A 2ais0a one hundred and i t0 or t:o hundred B a Shudra sha$$ su er corpora$ punishment8 2III8 2&)8 A %rahamna sha$$ 9e ined i t0 IpanasJ or de aming a -shatri0a B in Ithe case o J a 2ais0a the ine sha$$ 9e t:ent0 i3e IpanasJ@ in Ithe case o J a Shudra t:e$3e8 2III8 2&,8 !or o ences o t:ice 9orn men against those o e=ua$ caste I3arna@ the ine sha$$ 9eJ a$so t:e$3e IpanasJ or speeches :hich ought not to 9e uttered@ that Iand e3er0 ine sha$$ 9eJ dou9$e8 2III8 2(&8 I!or mutua$ a9useJ 90 a %rahmana and a -shatri0a a ine must 9e imposed 90 a discerning IkingJ@ on the %rahmana the $o:est amercement@ 9ut on the -shatri0a the midd$emost8 2III8 2((8 A 2ais0a and a Shudra must 9e punished exact$0 in the same manner according to their respecti3e castes@ 9ut the tongue Io the ShudraJ sha$$ not 9e cut out: that is the decision8 2III8 2(,8 6ith :hate3er $im9 a man o a $o: caste does hurt to Ia man o the threeJ highest IcastesJ@ e3en that $im9 sha$$ 9e cut o : that is the teaching o *anu8 2III8 2)/8 +e :ho raises his hand or a stick@ sha$$ ha3e his hand cut o B he :ho in anger kicks :ith his oot@ sha$$ ha3e his oot cut o 8 E3er0:here is the princip$e o graded ine=ua$it08 So ingrained it had 9ecome in the socia$ s0stem that the successors o *anu :ere care u$ to introduce it :here he had ai$ed to gi3e e ect to it8 !or instance *anu had had recogni>ed the s0stem o s$a3er08 %ut had ai$ed to prescri9e :hether the s0stem o s$a3er0 :as or :as not su9Aect to the princip$e o graded order o insu9ordination8 'est it shou$d 9e understood that the $a: o graded ine=ua$it0 did not app$0 to s$a3er0 and that a %rahmin ma0 9e a s$a3e o the Shudra@ ?aAna3a$k0a at once proceeds to c$ear the dou9t8 +e express$0 $aid do:n that :5 HS$a3er0 is in the descending order o the 2arnas and not in the ascending orderH ISI28 1)3J8 2iAnanesh:ar in his commentar0 on ?aAna3a$k0a makes it concrete 90 his i$$ustrations :hen he sa0s : HL the 2arnas such as the %rahmana and the rest@ a state o s$a3er0 sha$$ exist Anulom%ena, in the descending order8 Thus@ o a %rahmana@ a -shatri0a and the rest ma0 9ecome a s$a3eB o a -shatri0a@ the 2aish0a and the ShudraB and o a 2aish0a@ Shudra@ thus the state o s$a3er0 sha$$ operate in the descending order8H Stated in the $anguage o e=ua$it0 and ine=ua$it0@ this means that the %rahmin is the highest 9ecause he can 9e the s$a3e o no9od0 9ut is entit$ed to keep a person o an0 c$ass as his s$a3e8 The Shudra is the $o:est 9ecause e3er09od0 can keep him

as his s$a3e 9ut he can keep no one as his s$a3e except a Shudra8 The p$ace assigned to the -shatri0a and the 2aish0a introduces the s0stem o graded ine=ua$it08 A -shatri0a :hi$e he is in erior to the %rahmin he can 9e the s$a3e o the %rahmin8 6hi$e he is 0et superior to the 2aish0as and the Shudras 9ecause he can keep them as his s$a3esB the 2aish0as and the Shudras ha3e no right to keep a -sharti0a as his s$a3e8 Simi$ar$0 a 2aish0a :hi$e he is in erior to the %ramhins and the -shatri0as@ 9ecause the0 can keep him as their s$a3e and he cannot keep an0 one o them as his s$a3e@ he is proud that he is at $east superior to the Shudra 9ecause he can keep the Shudra as his s$a3e :hi$e Shudra cannot keep the 2aish0a as his s$a3e8 Such is the princip$e o graded ine=ua$it0 :hich %ramhanism inAected into the 9one and the marro: o the peop$e8 1othing :orse to para$0>e societ0 to o3erthro: ine=uit0 cou$d ha3e 9een done8 A$though its e ects ha3e not 9een c$ear$0 noticed there can 9e no dou9t that 9ecause o it the +indus ha3e 9een stricken :ith pa$s08 Students o socia$ organi>ation ha3e 9een content :ith noting the di erence 9et:een e=ua$it0 and ine=ua$it08 1one ha3e rea$i>ed that in addition to e=ua$it0 and ine=ua$it0 there is such a thing as graded ine=ua$it08 ?et ine=ua$it0 is not ha$ so dangerous as graded ine=ua$it08 Ine=ua$it0 carried :ithin itse$ the seeds o its o:n destruction8 Ine=ua$it0 does not $ast $ong8 4nder pure and simp$e ine=ua$it0 t:o things happen8 It creates genera$ discontent :hich orms the seed o re3o$ution8 Second$0 it makes the su erers com9ine against a common oe and on a common grie3ance8 %ut the nature and circumstances o the s0stem o graded ine=ua$it0 $ea3e no room or either o these t:o things to happen8 The s0stem o graded ine=ua$it0 pre3ents the rise o genera$ discontent against ine=uit08 It cannot there ore 9ecome the storm centre o re3o$ution8 Second$0 the su erers under ine=ua$it0 9ecoming une=ua$ 9oth in terms o the 9ene it and the 9urden there is no possi9i$it0 o a genera$ com9ination o a$$ c$asses to o3erthro: the ine=uit08 To make the thing concrete the %rahmanic $a: o marriage is u$$ o ine=uit08 The right o %rahmana to take a :oman rom the c$asses 9e$o: him 9ut not to gi3e a :oman to them is in ine=uit08 %ut the -shatri0a@ 2aish0a and Shudra :i$$ not com9ine to destro0 it8 The -shatri0a resents this right o the %rahmana8 %ut he :i$$ not com9ine :ith 2aish0a or the Shudra and that or t:o reasons8 !irst$0 9ecause he is satis ied that i the %rahman has the right to take the right o three communities@ the -shatri0a has the right to appropriate the :omen o t:o communities8 +e does not su er so much as the other t:o8 Second$0 i he Aoins in a genera$ re3o$ution against this marriage5ine=uit0 in one :a0 he :i$$ rise to the $e3e$ o the %ramhins 9ut in another :a0 a$$ :i$$ 9e e=ua$ :hich to him means that the 2aish0as and the Shudras :i$$ rise to his $e3e$ i8e8 the0 :i$$ c$aim -shatri0a :omen5:hich means he :i$$ a$$ to their $e3e$8 Take an0 other ine=uit0 and think o a

re3o$t against it8 The same socia$ ps0cho$og0 :i$$ sho: that a genera$ re9e$$ion against it is impossi9$e8 Lne o the reasons :h0 there has 9een no re3o$ution against %rahmanism and its ine=uities is due entire$0 to the princip$e o graded ine=ua$it08 I is a s0stem o permitting a share in the spoi$s :ith a 3ie: to en$ist them to support the spoi$s s0stem8 It is a s0stem u$$ o $o: cunning :hich man cou$d ha3e in3ented to perpetuate ine=uit0 and to pro it 90 it8 !or it is nothing e$se 9ut in3iting peop$e to share in ine=uit0 in order that the0 ma0 a$$ 9e supporters o ine=uit08 There no: remains to $i t the curtain rom the $ast act o this drama o %ramhanism8 %ramhanism inherited rom the 2edic past that s0stem o Chatur3arna8 The s0stem o Chatur3arna :hich the +indus regard as the uni=ue creation o their Ar0an ancestors is in no sense uni=ue8 There is nothing origina$ a9out it8 The :ho$e ancient :or$d had stum9$ed into it8 The Eg0ptians had it and the ancient Persians had it8 P$ato :as so con3inced a9out its exce$$ence that he presented it as idea$ orm o socia$ organi>ation8 The idea$ o the Chatur3arna is au$t08 The $umping together o indi3idua$s into a e: sharp$0 marked o c$asses is a 3er0 super icia$ 3ie: o man and his po:ers8 The Ancient Ar0ans as :e$$ as P$ato had no conception o the uni=ueness o" e3er0 indi3idua$@ o his incommensura9i$it0 :ith others and o each indi3idua$ orming a c$ass o his o:n8 The0 had no recognition o the in inite di3ersit0 o acti3e tendencies and com9ination o tendencies o :hich an indi3idua$ is capa9$e8 To them there :ere t0pes o acu$ties or po:ers in the indi3idua$ constitution and a$$ that is necessar0 or socia$ organi>ation is to c$assi 0 them8 A$$ this is demonstra9$0 :rong8 *odern science has sho:n that $umping together o indi3idua$s into a e: sharp$0 marked o c$asses each con ined to one particu$ar sphere does inAustice 9oth to the indi3idua$ and to Socict08 The strati ication o Societ0 90 c$asses and occupations is incompati9$e :ith the u$$est uti$i>ation o the =ua$ities :hich is so necessar0 or socia$ ad3ancement and is a$so incompati9$e :ith the sa et0 and securit0 o the indi3idua$ as :e$$ as o Societ0 in genera$8 [f87] There is another mistake :hich the Ancient +indus inc$uding P$ato made8 There is pro9a9$0 some truth in sa0ing that there is among human 9eings a dimorphism or po$0 ormism in human 9eings as@ there is among insects@ though in the ormer it is on$0 ps0cho$ogica$ :hi$e in the $atter it is 9oth ph0sica$ as :e$$ as ps0ch$o$gica$8 %ut assuming that there is a thing ps0cho$ogica$ dimorphism or po$0 ormism among human 9eings@ it is :rong to separate them into those :ho are 9orn to do one thing and others to do another@ some 9orn to command i8e8 to 9e masters and some 9orn to o9e0 i8e8 to 9e s$a3es8 It is :rong to suppose that in a gi3en person some =ua$ities are present and others are a9sent8 Ln the contrar0 the truth is that a$$ =ua$ities are present in e3er0 person and this truth is not diminished in an0 :a0 90 that@ some tendenc0 predominates to the extent o 9eing the on$0 one that is apparent8 So :e$$ esta9$ished is this truth that a tendenc0 :hich ma0 9e dominant in a man at one time

ma0 9e =uite di erent rom and e3en the direct opposite o the tendenc0 that ma0 9e dominant at another time8 As Pro 8 %ergson [f88] in speaking o the 1ietscheFs a$se antithesis o FmenF and Fs$a3esF o9ser3es : H6e ha3e a c$ear 3ision o this I a$sit0J in times o re3o$ution8 4nassuming citi>ens@ upto that moment hum9$e and o9edient@ :ake up one ine da0 :ith pretentions to 9e $eaders o menH8 The cases o *usso$ini and +it$er are a comp$ete disproo o the theor0 o the Ar0ans and o P$ato8 This 2edic s0stem o Chatur3arna@ ar rom 9eing an idea$ s0stem :as made positi3e$0 :orse 90 the changes :hich %ramhanism made and :hich ha3e a$read0 9een descri9ed8 E3er0 one o them :as mischie3ous in character is 9e0ond =uestion8 The %uddhist order o %hikshus and the 2edic order o %rahmins :ere designed to ser3e the same purpose8 The0 ormed the e$ite o their societ0 :hose unction :as to $ead and guide societ0 a$ong the right road8 A$though designed to discharge the same unction the %udhist %hikshu :as 9etter p$aced to discharged it :as the %ramhin8 That is 9ecause %uddha recogni>ed :hich no9od0 either 9e ore him or a ter him has done8 %uddna rea$i>ed that tor a person to gi3e a true $ead to Societ0 and he its trust:orth0 guide he must 9e inte$$ectua$$0 ree and urther@ :hich is more important@ to 9e inte$$ectua$$0 ree he must not ha3e pri3ate propert08 An e$ite charged :ith the care o his pri3ate propert0 must ai$ to discharge his dut0 o $eading and guiding Societ0 a$ong the right road8 %uddha there ore took care to inc$ude in the Code o discip$ine or the %hikshus a ru$e prohi9iting a %hikshu rom ho$ding pri3ate propert08 In the 2edic order o %ramhins there :as no such prohi9ition8 A %ramhin :as ree to ho$d propert08 This di erence produced a pro ound di erence on the character and out$ook o the %uddhist %hikshu and the 2edic %ramhin8 The %hikshus ormed an inte$$ectua$ c$ass8 The %ramhins ormed on the other hand mere$0 an educated c$ass8 There is a great di erence 9et:een an inte$$ectua$ c$ass and an ducated c$ass8 An inte$$ectua$ c$ass has no $imitations arising out o an0 a i$iations to an0 c$ass or to an0 interest8 An educated C$ass on the other hand is not an inte$$ectua$ c$ass a$though it has cu$ti3ated its inte$$ect8 The reason is that its range o 3ision and its s0mpath0 to a ne: ideo$og0 is circumscri9ed 90 its 9eing identi ied :ith the interest o the c$ass :ith :hich it is a i$iated8 The %ramhins rom the 3er0 9eginning there ore :ere inc$ined to 9e a pure$0 educated c$ass@ en$ightened 9ut se$ ish8 This e3i$ in the 2edic order o %ramhins :as extreme 90 the changes made in the o$d 2edic S0stem8 The right o the %rahmins to ru$e and the grant o specia$ pri3i$eges and immunities made them more se$ ish@ and induced in them the desire to use their education not or the ad3ancement o $earning 9ut or the use o their communit0 and against the ad3ancement o societ08 A$$ their energ0 and their education has 9een spent in maintaining their o:n pri3i$eges against the good o the pu9$ic8 It has 9een the 9oast o man0 +indu authors that the ci3i$i>ation o India is the most ancient ci3i$i>ation in the :or$d8 The0

:i$$ insist that there :as no 9ranch o kno:$edge in :hich their ancestors :ere not the pioneers8 Lpen a 9ook $ike HThe Positi3e %ackground o +indu Socio$og0H 90 Pro 8 %eno0 -umar Sarkar@ or a 9ook $ike HThe Positi3e Sciences o the Ancient +indusH 90 #r8 %raAendranath Sea$ one is o3er:he$med :ith data touching upon the kno:$edge their ancestors had a9out 3arious scienti ic su9Aects8 !rom these 9ooks it :ou$d appear that the ancient Indians kne: astronom0@ astro$og0@ 9io$og0@ chemistr0@ mathematics@ *edicine@ minero$og08 Ph0sics and in the 3ie: o the mass o peop$e e3en a3iation8 A$$ this ma0 9e 3er0 true8 The important =uestion is no: ho: the ancient Indians disco3ered these positi3e sciences8 The important =uestion is :h0 did the ancient Indians cease to make an0 progress in the sciences in :hich the0 :ere the pioneers; This sudden arrest in the progress o science in ancient India is as astounding as it is dep$ora9$e8 In the scienti ic :or$d India occupies a position :hich e3en i it 9e irst among the primiti3e is certain$0 $ast among the ci3i$i>ed nation8 +o: did it happen that a peop$e :ho 9egan the :ork o scienti ic progress stopped@ ha$ted on the :a0@ $e t in its incohate and incomp$ete condition; This is a =uestion that needs to 9e considered and ans:ered@ not :hat the ancient Indians kne:8 There is on$0 one ans:er to the =uestion and it is a 3er0 simp$e ans:er8 In ancient India the %ramhins :ere the on$0 educated c$ass8 The0 :ere a$so the C$ass :hich :as c$aiming to 9e a9o3e a$$ others8 %uddha disputed their c$aim or supremac0 and dec$ared a :ar on the %rahmins8 The %rahmins acted as an Educated C$assGas distinguished rom an inte$$ectua$ c$assG:ou$d act under the circumstances8 It a9andoned a$$ pursuits and engaged itse$ in de ending the c$aim o supremac0 and the socia$@ economic and po$itica$ interests o its c$ass8 Instead o :riting 9ooks on Science@ the %rahmins undertook to :rite Smritis8 +ere is an exp$anation :h0 the progress o science in India 9ecame arrested8 %rahmins ound it more important and more imperati3e to :rite Smritis to repe$ the %uddhist doctrine o socia$ e=ua$it08 +o: man0 Smritis did the %rahmins :rite; *r8 -ane a great authorit0 on the Smriti $iterature has computed their num9er to 9e 12)8 And :hat or; The Smritis are ca$$ed $a:9ooks :hich o course hide their nature8 The0 are rea$$0 treatises expounding the supremac0 o the %rahmins and their rights to specia$ pri3i$eges8 The de ence o %ramhanism :as more important than the progress o science8 %ramhanism not on$0 de ended its pre3i$ege:s 9ut set a9out extending them in a manner that :ou$d co3er e3er0 descent man :ith shame8 The %rahmins started particu$ar$0 to expand the meaning o certain pri3i$eges granted to them 90 *anu8 *anu had gi3en the %ramhins the right to dana, gi t8 The dana :as a$:a0s intended to 9e mone0 or chatte$8 %ut in course o time the concept o dana :as expanded so as to inc$ude the gi t o a :oman :hich a %rahmin cou$d keep as his mistress or :ho cou$d 9e re$eased 90 the %ramhin on commutation [f89] o mone0 pa0ment8

*anu designated the %ramhins as %hu5de3as@ $ords o the Earth8 The %ramhins en$arged the scope o this statement and 9egan to c$aim the right to sexua$ intercourse :ith :omen o other c$asses8 E3en =ueens :ere not exempt rom this c$aim8 'udo3ico #i 2arthema :ho came to India as a tra3e$$er in a9out 1"/2 A8#8 records the o$$o:ing a9out the %rahmins o Ca$icut : HIt is a proper@ and the same time p$easant thing to kno: :ho these %rahmins are8 ?ou must kno: that the0 are the chie persons o the aith@ as priests are among us8 And :hen the -ing takes a :i e@ he se$ects the most :orth0 and the most honoured o these %rahamins and makes him s$eep the irst night :ith his :i e@ in order that he ma0 de $o:er her8 H[f90] Simi$ar$0 +ami$ton[f91]another :riter sa0s: H6hen the Samorin marries@ he must not coha9it :ith his 9ride ti$$ the 1am9ourie I1am9udari %rahminJ@ or chie priest@ has enAo0ed her@ and i he p$eases@ he ma0 ha3e three nights o her compan0@ 9ecause the irst ruits o her nuptia$s must 9e an ho$0 o9$ation to the god she :orships8H In the %om9a0 Presidenc0 the priests o the 2aishna3a sect c$aimed the right to de $o:er the :omen o their sect8 This ga3e rise to the amous *aharaAa 'i9e$ case 9rought 90 the chie priest o the Sect against one -arosondas *u$Ai in the +igh Court o %om9a0 in the 0ear 1)&, :hich sho:s that the right to c$aim the 9ene it o the irst night :as certain$0 e ecti3e ti$$ then8 6hen such a right to sexua$ coha9itation or the irst night cou$d 9e extended against the genera$it0 o the $o:er c$asses the %rahmins did not hesitate to extend it8 This the0 did particu$ar$0 in *a$a9ar8 There@ *anu designated the %rahmins as %hu5 de3as@ $ords o the earth8 The %rahmins en$arged the scope o this statement and 9egan to c$aim the right o promiscuous sexua$ intercourse :ith the :omen o$k o the other C$asses8 This happened particu$ar$0 in *a$a9ar8 There [f92] H The %rahman castes o$$o: the *akat0am S0stem that is the s0stem 90 :hich the chi$d 9e$ongs to its atherFs ami$08 The0 contract :ithin their o:n caste regu$ar marriages@ :ith a$$ the ordinar0 $ega$ and re$igious sanctions and incidents8 %ut the %rahmin men are a$so in the ha9it o entering into Sam9andhan54nions :ith :omen o the $o:er castes8H This is not a$$8 L9ser3e urther :hat the :riter has to sa0: H1either part0 to a Sam9adhan 4nions 9ecomes there90 a mem9er o the other ami$0B and the o spring o the 4nion 9e$ong to their mothers tharwad I ami$0J and ha3e no sort o c$aim@ so ar as the $a: goes@ to a share o their atherFs propert0 or to maintenance there rom8H Speaking o the origin o this practice the author o the .a>etteer o9ser3es that the origin o this institution : HIs ound in the c$aim o the %hu5de3asH or HEarth .odsH Ithat the %rahmanasJ and on a $o:er p$ain o the -shatri0as or the ru$ing c$asses@ to the irst ruits o $o:er Caste 6omanhood@ a right akin to the medie3a$ droit de Seigneurie8H

It is an understatement to sa0 that it is on$0 a right to irst ruits as the Fright to the irst nightF :as ca$$ed in the midd$e ages in Europe8 It is more than that8 It is a genera$ right o the %rahmin against the $o:er caste to c$aim an0 :oman o that c$ass or mere prostitution@ or the mere satis action o sexua$ appetite@ :ithout 9urdening the %rahmin to an0 o the o9$igations o marriage8 Such :ere the rights :hich the %rahmins the spiritua$ precepts c$aimed against the $ait0OO The %orgese Popes ha3e 9een run do:n in histor0 as the most de9auched race o spiritua$ preceptors :ho ascended the throne o Peter8 Lne :onders :hether the0 :ere rea$$0 :orse than the %rahmins o India8 A pure$0 inte$$ectua$ C$ass@ ree to consider genera$ good and ha3ing no interest o a c$ass to consider@ such as the one contemp$ated 90 %uddha is not to 9e had an0:here8 !or the $imitations resu$ting rom propert0 on the reedom o inte$$ect o the e$ite ha3e not 9een genera$$0 recogni>ed unti$ 3er0 recent$08 %ut this :ant o an inte$$ectua$ c$ass has 9een made good in other countries 90 the act that in those countries each Strata o Societ0 has its educated c$ass8 There is sa et0@ i no de inite guidance@ in the mu$tip$icit0 o 3ie:s expressed 90 di erent educated c$asses dra:n rom di erent strata o societ08 In such a mu$tip$icit0 o 3ie:s there is no danger o Societ0 9eing misguided or misdirected 90 the 3ie:s o one sing$e educated c$ass dra:n rom one sing$e c$ass o societ0 and :hich is natura$$0 9ound to p$ace the interest o its c$ass 9e ore the interests o the countr08 %0 the change made 90 %rahmanism India ceased to ha3e sa e and sure guidance o an inte$$ectua$ c$ass8 %ut :hat is :orse is that the +indus $ost the sa et0 and securit0 :hich other peop$es ha3e and :hich arises rom the mu$tip$icit0 o 3ie:s expressed 90 3arious educated c$asses dra:n rom di erent strata o Societ08 %0 the denia$ o education to the Shudras@ 90 di3erting the -shatri0as to mi$itar0 persuits@ and the 2aish0as to trade and 90 reser3ing education to themse$3es the %rahmins a$one cou$d 9ecome the educated c$assG ree to misdirect and misguide the :ho$e societ08 %0 con3erting 2arna into Caste the0 dec$ared that mere 9irth :as a rea$ and ina$ measure o the :orth o a man8 Caste and .raded ine=ua$it0 made disunit0 and discord a matter o course8 A$$ this dis igurement o the origina$ 2arna s0stem :ou$d ha3e 9een to$era9$e i it had remained a mere matter o socia$ practice8 %ut %rahmanism :as not content to $ea3e the matter there8 It :anted to gi3e the Chatur3arna in its changed and per3erted orm the orce o $a:8 This ne: Chatur3arna the making o %rahmanism occupies in the *anu Smriti as the 'a: o Persons and the 'a: o !ami$08 1o9od0 can make a mistake a9out it8 *anu made it an o ence or a person o a $o:er Caste to arrogate to himse$ the status o a higher Caste or to pass o as a mem9er o the higher Caste8 S8 ,&8 A man o $o: caste :ho through co3etousness $i3es 90 the occupations o a higher one@ the king sha$$ depri3e o his propert0 and 9anish8

SI8 "&8 !a$se$0 attri9uting to onese$ high 9irth@ gi3ing in ormation to the king Iregarding a crimeJ@ and a$se$0 accusing oneFs teacher@ Iare o encesJ e=ua$ to s$a0ing a %rahmana8 +ere there are t:o o ences@ .enera$ Impersonation IS8 ,&J and impersonation 90 the Shudra ISI8 "&J8 1ote a$so the punishments ho: se3ere the0 are8 !or the irst the punishment is con iscation o propert0 and 9anishment8 !or the second the punishment is the same as the punishment or causing the death o a %rahmin8 The o ence o personation is not unkno:n in modern Aurisprudence and the Indian Pena$ Code recogni>es it in section 41,8 %ut :hat is the punishment the Indian Pena$ Code prescri9es or cheating 90 personation; !ine@ and i imprisonment@ then 3 0ears or 9oth8 *anu must 9e turning in his gra3e to ind the %ritish .o3ernment make so $ight o his $a: o Caste8 *anu next proceeds to direct the king that he shou$d execute this $a:8 In the irst p$ace he appea$s to the -ing in the name o his pious dut0 : 2III8 1(28 %0 pre3enting the con usion o Castes 8 8 88 8the po:er o the -ing gro:s@ and he prospers in this :or$d and a ter death8 *anu perhaps kno:s that the $a: re$ating to the con usion o 2arna ma0 not 9e =uite agreea9$e to the conscience o the king and he a3oids en orcement8 Conse=uent$0 *anu te$$s the -ing ho: in the matter o the execution o the $a:s the -ing shou$d act : 2III8 1((8 There ore $et the -ing not heeding his o:n $ikes and dis$ikes 9eha3e exact$0 $ike ?ama8 i8e8 he shou$d 9e as impartia$ as ?ama the <udge o the #ead8 *anu ho:e3er does not :ish to $ea3e the matter to the -ing as a mere matter o pious dut08 *anu makes it a matter o o9$igation upon the -ing8 According$0 *anu $a0s do:n as a matter o o9$igation that : 2III8 41/8 The -ing shou$d order a 2aish0a to trade to $end mone0@ to cu$ti3ate the $and@ or to $end catt$e@ and the Shudra to ser3e the t:ice 9orn Caste8 Again *anu re3erts to the su9Aect and sa0: 2III8 41)8 The -ing shou$d care u$$0 compe$ 2aish0as and Sudras to per orm the :ork Iprescri9edJ or them B or i these t:o castes s:er3ed rom their duties the0 :ou$d thro: this :ho$e :or$d into con usion8 6hat i the -ings do not act up to this o9$igation8 This $a: o Chatur3arna is so supreme in the e0es o *anu that *anu :i$$ not a$$o: himse$ to 9e th:arted 90 a -ing :ho :i$$ not keep his o9$igation to maintain this $a:8 %o$d$0 *anu orges a ne: $a: that such a king sha$$ 9e disposed8 Lne can imagine ho: dear Chatur3arna :as $o *anu and to %rahmanism8 As I ha3e said the Chatur3arna o the 2edic s0stem :as 9etter than caste s0stem :as not 3er0 a3oura9$e to the creation o a Societ0 :hich cou$d 9e regarded as one sing$e :ho$e possessing the 4nit0 o the idea$ societ08 %0 its 3er0 theor0 the Chatur3arna has gi3en 9irth to our c$asses8 These our c$asses :ere ar rom riend$08 L ten the0 :ere =uarre$ing and their =uarre$s :ere so 9itter that the0 cannot

9ut 9e designated as C$ass :ars8 A$$ the same this o$d Chatur3arna had t:o sa3ing eatures :hich %rahminism most se$ ish$0 remo3ed8 !irst$0 there :as no iso$ation among the 2arnas8 Intermarriage and interdining the t:o strongest 9onds or unit0 had u$$ p$a08 There :as no room or the di erent 2arnas to de3e$op that anti5socia$ ee$ing :hich destro0s the 3er0 9asis o Societ08 6hi$e the -shatri0as ought against the %rahmins and the %rahmins ought against the -shatri0as there :ere not :anting -shatri0as :ho ought against the -shatri0as [f93] or the sake o %rahmins and there :ere not :anting %rahmins[f94] :ho Aoined hands :ith -shatri0as to put do:n the %rahmins8 Second$0 this o$d Chatur3arna :as con3entiona$8 It :as the idea$ o the Societ0 9ut it :as not the $a: o the State8 %rahmanism iso$ated the 2arnas and so:ed the seed o antagonism8 %rahmanism made $ega$ :hat :as on$0 con3entiona$8 %0 gi3ing it a $ega$ 9asis it perpetrated the mischie 8 The 2edic Chatur3arna i it :as an e3i$ :ou$d ha3e died out 90 orce o time and circumstances8 %0 gi3ing it the orce o 'a: %rahmanism has made it eterna$8 This is pro9a9$0 the greatest mischie that %rahmanism has done to +indu Societ08 In considering this =uestion one cannot ai$ to notice that the o9$igation imposed upon the -ing or the maintenance o the $a: o Chatur3arna :hich is another name or the s0stem o graded ine=ua$it0 does not re=uire the -ing to en orce it against the %rahmins and the -shatri0as8 The o9$igation is $imited to the en orcement o the $a: against the 2aish0as and the Shudras8 +a3ing regard to the act that %rahmanism :as so intent on gi3ing the s0stem the orce o $a: the resu$t has 9een 3er0 a:k:ard to sa0 the $east a9out it8 1ot:ithstanding this attempt at $ega$i>ation the s0stem remained ha$ $ega$ and ha$ con3entiona$@ $ega$ as to the 2aish0as and the Shudras and mere$0 con3entiona$ as to %rahmins and -shatri0as8 This di erence needs to 9e accounted or8 6as %rahmanism honest in its attempt to gi3e the s0stem the orce o $a:; #id it :ish that each o the our 2arnas 9e 9ound 90 it; The act that %rahmanism :ou$d not 9ind the %rahmins and the -shatri0as 90 the $a: it made@ sho:s that in this 9usiness %rahmainsm :as ar rom honest8 I it 9e$ie3ed in the s0stem as idea$ it cou$d not ha3e ai$ed to make it an uni3ersa$ 9inding orce8 %ut there is more than dishonest0 in this ou$ game8 Lne can =uite understand :h0 the %rahmins :ere $e t ree and untrame$$ed 90 the shack$es o the $a:8 *anu ca$$ed them .ods on earth and .ods must 9e a9o3e the $a:8 %ut :h0 :ere the -shatri0as $e t ree in the same :a0 as the %rahmins8 +e kno:s that the -shatri0as :i$$ not hum9$e themse$3es 9e ore the %rahmins8 +e then proceeds to :arn them@ ho: the %rahmins can punish them i the -shatri0as sho: arrogance and p$an re9e$$ion8 IS8 32/ 6hen the -shatri0as 9ecome in an0 :a0 o3er9earing to:ards the %rahmanas@ the %rahmanas themse$3es sha$$ du$0 restrain themB or the -shatri0as sprang rom the %rahmanas8

IS8 3218 !ire sprang rom :ater@ -shatri0a rom %rahmanas@ iron rom stone B the a$$5penetrating orce o those IthreeJ has no e ect on that :hence the0 :ere produced8 Lne might think that the reason :h0 *anu does not impose a8n o9$igation upon the -ing to en orce the $a: against the -shatri0a :as 9ecause the %rahmins e$t themse$3es =uite capa9$e o dea$ing :ith -shatri0as 90 their o:n pro:ess and :ithout the aid o the -ing and that the0 meant to put their sanctions against the -shatri0as :hen the time came and :ithout ear o conse=uences8 A$$ this cou$d not ha3e 9een meant 90 *anu8 !or a ter uttering this 3o:s o 3engeance@ and threats and imprecations *anu sudden$0 come do:n and 9egins to p$ead :ith the -shatri0as or cooperation and common ront :ith the %rahmins8 In a 3erse next a ter the 3erse in :hich he utters the threats and imprecations against the -shatri0as *anu p$eads : IS8 3238 %ut Ia king :ho ee$s his end dra:ing nighJ sha$$ 9esto: a$$ his :ea$th@ accumu$ated rom ines on %rahmanas@ make o3er his kingdom to his son and then seek death in 9att$e8 !rom imprecations to supp$ication is a 3er0 =ueer cr08 6hat is the exp$anation o this anti5c$imax in the attitude o this strange 9eha3iour o *anu to:ards the -shatri0as; 6hat is the o9Aect o this cooperation 9et:een %rahmins and -shatri0as; Against :hom is this common ront to 9e; *anu does not exp$ain8 A :ho$e histor0 o a thousand 0ears must 9e to$d 9e ore this pu>>$e is so$3ed and the =uestions satis actori$0 ans:ered8 The histor0 :hich urnishes the c$ue to the so$ution o this pu>>$e is the histor0 o the c$ass :ars 9et:een the %rahmins and the -shatri0as8 *ost o the orthdox +indus are repe$$ed 90 the doctrine o C$ass :ar :hich :as propounded 90 -ar$ *arx and :ou$d 9e certain$0 shocked i the0 :ere to$d that the histor0 o their o:n ancestors pro9a9$0 urnishes the most cogent e3idence that *arx :as searching or support o his theor08 Indeed there ha3e 9een numerous c$ass :ars 9et:een %rahmins and the -shatri0as and on$0 the most important o them ha3e 9een recorded[f95] in the ancient +indu $iterature8 6e ha3e record o the con $ict 9et:een the %rahmins and the -ings :ho :ere a$$ -shatri0as8 The irst o these con $icts :as a con $ict :ith -ing 2ena@ the second :ith Purura3as@ the third :ith 1ahusha@ ourth :ith 1imi and i th :ith Sumukha8 There is a record o a con $ict 9et:een 2ashishtha a %rahmin and 2ish3amitra an ordinar0 -shatri0a and not a king8 Then :e ha3e the record o the :ho$esa$e massacre o the %rahmins o %hrigu c$an 90 the -shatri0a decendants o -rata3ir0a and then :e ha3e the record o the :ho$e c$ass o -shatri0as exterminated 90 Parashuram acting on 9eha$ o the %rahmanas8 The issues that 9rought them in con $ict extended o3er a :ide range and sho: ho: 9itter and strained must ha3e 9een the ee$ings 9et:een %rahmins and -shatri0as8 There :ere con $icts o3er the =uestion :hether the -shatri0a had a right to 9ecome a %rahmana8 There :ere con $icts o3er the =uestion@ :hether the

%rahmins :ere su9Aect to the authorit0 or not8 There :ere con $icts on the =uestion :ho shou$d sa$ute irst and :ho shou$d gi3e :a0 to :hom8 The :ars :ere :ars [f96] o authorit0@ status and dignit08 The resu$ts o these :ars cou$d not 9ut 9e o93ious to the %rahmins8 1ot:ithstanding their 9oast u$ utterances the0 must ha3e rea$i>ed that it :as not possi9$e or them to crush the -shatri0as and that not:ithstanding the :ars o extermination the -shatri0as sur3i3ed in su icient num9ers to p$ague the %rahmins8 Lne need not pa0 an0 attention to the i$th0 stor0 to$d 90 the %rahmins and a$$uded to 90 *anu that the -shatri0as o the *anuFs da0 :ere not the origina$ -shatri0as 9ut a race o ne: -shatri0as 9egotten 90 the %rahmins upon the :ido:s o the o$d -shatri0as :ho :ere massacred 90 Parashuram8 %$ackmai$ing is one o the means :hich %rahmanism is ne3er ashamed o using to ad3ance its o:n purposes8 The ight o %rahmanism against the -shatri0as :as rom the 3er0 9eginning a ight 9et:een a oo$ and a 9u$$08 %rahmanas :ere ighting against the -shatri0as or the maintenance o the Chatur3arna8 1o: it is this 3er0 Chatur3arna :hich a$$o:ed 9a0onets to the -shatri0as and denied them to the %rahmins8 +o: under this theor0 cou$d the %rahmin ight :ith the -shatri0a :ith an0 hope o success; It cou$d not ha3e taken $ong or the %rahmins to rea$ise the truthG:hich Ta$$0rand to$d 1apo$eon Gthat it is eas0 to gi3e 9a0onets 9ut it is 3er0 di icu$t to sit on them and that as -shatri0as had 9a0onets and %rahmins none@ :ar :ith the -shatri0a :as the :a0 to ruin8 These :ere the direct conse=uences o these :ars 9et:een the %rahmins and the -shatri0as8 %ut there :ere others :hich cou$d not ha3e escaped the attention o the %rahmins8 6hi$e the %rahmins and -shatri0as :ere ighting among themse$3es no9od0 :as $e t to check and keep the 2aish0as and the Shudras under contro$8 The0 :ere on the road o socia$ e=ua$it0 a$most nearing to the status o the %rahmins and -shatri0as8 To %rahmanism the possi9i$it0 o suppressing the -shatri0a :as 3er0 remote and the danger o 9eing o3ertaken 90 2aish0as and Shudras :ere rea$ and 3er0 rea$8 Shou$d the %rahmana continue to ight the -shatri0a and ignore the danger o the 2aish0as and the Shudras; Lr Shou$d the %rahmana gi3e up the hope$ess strugg$e against the -shatri0a and 9e riend him and make :ith him a common cause and suppress the gro:ing menace o the 2aish0as and Shudras; %rahmanism a ter it :as exhausted in the :ars :ith the -shatri0as chose the second a$ternati3e8 It sought to 9e riend their :orth:hi$e enemies the -shatri0as to :ork or a ne: idea$ name$0 to ens$a3e and exp$oit the t:o c$asses 9e$o: them name$0 the 2aish0as and the Shudras8 This ne: idea$ must ha3e taken shape some time :hen the Satpatha %rahmana came to 9e composed8 It is in the Satpatha %rahmana :e ind the ne: idea$ expressed it :as :e$$ esta9$ished8 The $anguage in :hich it is expressed@ and the su9Aect to :hich it is app$ied are so te$$ing that I ee$ it shou$d 9e =uoted in its origina$ terms8 Sa0s the author o the Satpatha[f97] :

HThe0 then make the 9east return Ito the Aha3ani0a [f98]J the he5goat goes irst o them@ then the ass@ then the horse8 1o: in going a:a0 rom this IAha3ani0aJ the horse goes irst@ then the ass@ then the he5goatG or the horse corresponds to the -shatra Ino9i$it0J@ the ass to the 2aish0a and Shudra@ the he5goat to the %rahman and in5as5much as@ in going rom here@ the horse goes irst@ there ore the -shatri0a@ going irst@ is o$$o:ed 90 the three others castes B and in5as5much as@ in returning rom here@ the he5goat goes irst@ there ore the %rahman@ going irst@ is o$$o:ed 90 the three other castes8 And in5as5rnuch as the ass does not go irst@ either in going 9ack rom here@ or in coming 9ack rom there@ there ore the %rahmana and -shatri0a ne3er go 9ehind the 2aish0a and Sudra B hence the0 :a$k thus in order to a3oid a con usion 9et:een good and 9ad8 And@ moreo3er@ he thus enc$oses those t:o castes Ithe 2aish0as and SudraJ on 9oth sides 90 the priesthood and the no9i$it0 and makes them su9missi3e8H +ere is the exp$anation o the pu>>$ing attitude o *anu to:ards the -shatri0as@ attitude o :i$$ing to :ound 9ut a raid to strike@ o :ishing to dictate 9ut pre erring to 9e riend8 It is these :ars and the compromise that had taught *anu that it :as no use tr0ing to coerce the -shatri0as to su9mit to the domination o the %rahmin8 It ma0 9e an idea$ to 9e kept up8 %ut as practica$ po$itics it :as an impossi9$e idea$8 'ike %ismark88 *anu kne: that po$itics :as the game o the possi9$e8 6hat :as possi9$e :as to make a common cause and to 9ui$d up a common ront 9et:een the %rhamins and the -shatri0as against the 2aish0as and the Shudras and this is :hat *anu did8 The pit0 o it is that it :as done in the name o re$igion8 This need not shock an09od0 :ho has studied the sou$ and spirit o %rahmanism8 6ith %rahmanism re$igion is a c$oak to co3er and hide its ac=uisiti3e po$itics8

Part III

Revolution and Counter-Revolution in Ancient India ______________________________________________

Contents
PART III

Chapter ): The *ora$s o the +ouse Chapter ,: -rishna and +is .ita Chapter 1/: Ana$0tica$ 1otes o 2irat Par3a and 4d0og Par3a Chapter 11: %rahmins 2ersus -shatri0as Chapter 12: Shudras and the Counter5Re3o$ution Chapter 13: The 6oman and the Counter5Re3o$ution

C,APTER : The +orals o* the ,ouse !his is 1& pa$e t%ped manuscript. !his is a second cop% hut it is havin$ corrections and modi"ications b% Dr. Ambedkar himsel". It is reproduced here takin$ all the corrections into account. !here is one separate "ile entitled 5anu +mriti or the 6ospel o" Counter-Revolution . In that cop% notes on 5anu +mriti under various cate$ories have been drawn. #owever, all these notes have been "ound to be incorporated in this essa%, 5orals o" the #ouse. It is "elt that the printin$ o" these notes would be a mere repetition o" this essa%. #ence, the said cop% is not separatel% printedJ I The mora$s o the +indus and their re$igious creed are prescri9ed 90 the +mritis :hich orm a part o the Sacred $iterature o the +indus8 It is to the Smritis that one must go to understand the Ethics and the Re$igion o the +indus8 The Smritis are 90 no means e: in num9er8 A conser3ati3e estimate gi3es the tota$ num9er o Smritis to 9e 1/)8 The $arge num9er o +mritis cannot ho:e3er make our pro9$em di icu$t8 !or though the Smritis are numerous the0 do not di er in essentia$s8 Indeed the0 repeat one another so c$ose$0 that reading the Smritis creates a most monotonous task8 The0 are a$$ deri3ed rom one common source8 That source is the Smriti o *anu other:ise kno:n as *ana3a #harma Shastra8 The other Smritis are aith u$ repetitions o the *anu Smriti8 A stud0 o the *anu Smriti is there ore =uite su icient to o9tain an ade=uate conception o the mora$ standards and Re$igious notions o the +indus8 It ma0 9e said that *anu SmritiGand the same is true o the other SmritisG5is a Code o 'a:s8 It is not a 9ook o Ethics nor is it a 9ook o Re$igion and to take a 9ook o 'a:s and to treat it as though it is a 9ook o Ethics and Re$igion is to con ound Ethics@ Re$igion and 'a:8 In the irst p$ace it is on$0 in modern times that 'a: has 9een separated rom Re$igion8 In a$$ ancient Societ0@ 'a: and Re$igion :ere one8 As Pro 8 *ax *u$$er [f1] points out that though :G H'a: seems natura$$0 to 9e the oundation o societ0@ and the 9ond that 9inds a nation together8 Those :ho $ook 9e$o: the sur ace ha3e =uick$0 percei3ed that $a: itse$ @ at $east ancient $a:@ deri3es its authorit0@ its orce@ its 3er0 $i e rom re$igion8 8 8 88 The 9e$ie that the $a:gi3er enAo0ed some c$oser intimac0 :ith the #eit0 than ordinar0 morta$s@ per3ades the ancient traditions o man0 nations8 According to a :e$$ kno:n passage in #iodorus Sicu$us@ the Eg0ptians 9e$ie3ed their $a:s to ha3e 9een communicated to *en3is 90 +ermesB the Cretaus he$d that *inos recei3ed his $a:s rom Veus@ the 'acedaemonians that '0kurgus recei3ed his $a:s rom Apo$$on8 According to the Arians@ their $a:gi3er Varathustras had recei3ed his 'a:s rom the

.ood SpiritB According to the Stoe@ Vamo$ixis recei3ed his $a:s rom the goddess +estiaB and according to the <e:s@ *oses recei3ed his $a:s rom the .od $as8 H 1o one has pointed out more orci9$0 than Sir +enr0 *ains [f2] that in ancient times re$igion as a di3ine in $uence :as under$0ing and supporting e3er0 re$ation o $i e and e3er0 socia$ institution :hen he sa0s o Re$igion as : HA supernatura$ presidenc0 I:hichJ is supposed to consecrate and keep together a$$ the cardina$ institutions o those times@ the state@ the Race@ and the !ami$0 H8 !rom this superntura$ presidenc0 o Reigion@ 'a: had not succeded in inding an escape unti$ at a $ater time :hen $a: ina$$0 9reaks a:a0 rom re$igion 9ut not :ithout $ea3ing man0 traces to sho: the $ink it had :ith Re$igion at the 3er0 9eginning o human histor08 Again it is on$0 in modern times that a di erence is 9eing made 9et:een Re$igion and Ethics8 Re$igion and Ethics are inextrica9$0 and indisso$u9$0 9ound together8 *ora$it0 and Ethics are essentia$$0 practica$8 As Pro 8 <acks insists [f3] that the pro9$em o Ethics is not mere$0 getting the .ood understood 9ut realised, not mere$0 getting the Right p$aced on scienti ic 9asis 9ut done. *ora$it0 is a mere matter o de ining :hat is good and :hat is right8 Pro 8 <acks: right$0 sa0s : H6hen3er :e em9ark on the stud0 o mora$it0 :ithout interest in its app$ication I cannot 9ut think that it is not mora$it0 :e are stud0ing8 *ora$it0 does not arise ti$$ the point o app$ication is reached8 The e ect o a mora$ theor0 $aunched upon the :or$d is next to nothing un$ess the app$ication o it can 9e rein orced 90 po:er u$ moti3es8 The good $i e@ as Aristot$e pointed out is a 3er0 di icu$t a airB di icu$t e3en :hen it goes no urther than con ormit0 to existing con3entions8 %ut :hen the good $i e demands that existing standards must 9e transcended ho: can this 9e e ected :ithout an immense $i9eration o po:er; *ere in ormation as to :h0 men shou$d do right has no e ect against their natura$ tendencies to do :rong5it is no match or the di icu$ties that 9eset good $i e8 H 4n$ess some moti3e orce comes to its aid mora$it0 remains inert8 There can 9e no dou9t that :hat gi3es moti3e orce to mora$it0 is Re$igion8 It is a prope$$ing orce :hich creates@ to use again the $anguage o Principa$ <acks : H*oti3es :hich are strong enough to o3ercome the enormous di icu$ties in3o$3ed in $i3ing the good $i e@ e3en in its simp$er orms@ and ade=uate to maintain that continuous impro3ement o the mora$ idea$8H Re$igion as a moti3e orce rein orces the mora$ :i$$ in 3arious :a0s8 Sometimes it takes the orm o sanctions 90 $a0ing do:n a scheme o re:ards and punishments a ter deathB some times it makes ru$es o mora$it0 as the commandments o .odB some times it in3ests these ru$es :ith sanctit0 :hich e3okes :i$$ing o9edience8 %ut these are on$0 di erent :a0s in :hich moti3e po:er generated 90 Re$igion he$ps to sustain mora$ $i e in action8 Re$igion is the d0namics :hich mo3es the :hee$s o mora$it08

I Ethics and *ora$it0 are duties then there can 9e no dou9t that *anu Smriti is a 9ook o Ethics8 An0 one :ho takes the trou9$e to read the Smriti o *anu :i$$ ha3e to admit that i there is an0 su9Aect :hich igures prominent$0 in the 9ook it is that o duties8 *anu :as the irst to s0atematise and codi 0 the duties to :hich a +indu :as 9ound8 +e distinguishes 9et:een <arnashramadharmas and +adharandharmas. The 2arnashramdharmas are the speci ic duties re$ating to oneFs station in $i e i8e8 oneFs station as determined 90 oneFs 2arna or caste and oneFs Ashram or particu$ar stage o $i e8 The Sadharandharmas are duties irrespecti3e o oneFs age@ caste or creed i8e8 duties o9$igator0 on man as man and not as a mem9er o a particu$ar communit0 or socia$ c$ass or as 9eing at a particu$ar stage or period o $i e8 The :ho$e 9ook dea$s :ith duties and :ith nothing e$se8 *anu Smriti is thus a 9ook o 'a:@ Re$igion and Ethics ro$$ed into one8 It is Ethics 9ecause it dea$s :ith duties o men8 It is re$igion 9ecause it dea$s :ith Caste :hich is the sou$ o +induism8 It is 'a: 9ecause it prescri9es pena$ties or 9reach o duties8 In this 3ie: there is nothing :rong in going to *anu Smriti to ascertain the mora$ standards and re$igious notions o the +indus8 That *anu Smriti is a 9ook o Re$igion ma0 not 9e =uite o93ious8 That is 9ecause +induism is a 3er0 i$$usi3e term8 #i erent :riters ha3e de ined it in 3arious :a0s8 Sir #8 $99etson[f4] de ines +induism as : HA hereditar0 sacerdota$ism :ith %rahmins or its de3ices@ the 3ita$it0 o :hich is preser3ed 90 the socia$ institution o caste and :hich inc$ude a$$ shades and di3ersities o re$igion nati3e to India@ as distinct rom oreign importations o Christianit0 and Is$am@ and rom the $ater outgro:ths o %uddhism@ more dou9t u$$0 o Sikhism and sti$$ more dou9t u$$0 o <ainism H8 Sir <8 A8 %aines [f5] de ined +induism as :G HThe $arge residium that is not Sikh@ or <ain@ or %uddhist or pro essed$0 Animistic@ or inc$uded in one o the oreign re$igions such as Is$am@ *a>daism@ Christianit0@ or +e9raism8H To Sir Ed:ard .ait[f6] +induism :G His a comp$ex congenies o creeds and doctrines8 It she$ters :ithin its porta$s monotheists@ po$0theists@ and pantheistsB 6orshippers o the great .od Si3a and 2ishnu@ or o their ema$e counterparts@ as :e$$ as :orshippers o the di3ine mothers@ o the spirits o trees@rocks and streams and o the tute$ar0 3i$$age deitiesB persons :ho propitate their deit0 90 a$$ matter o 9$ood0 sacri ices@ and persons :ho :i$$ not on$0 ki$$ no $i3ing creature@ 9ut :ho must not e3en use the :ord HcutHB those :hose ritua$ consists main$0 o pra0ers and h0mns@ and those :ho indu$ge in unspeaka9$e orgies in the name o re$igionH8 This discription o comp$exit0 is u$$ 9ut is sti$$ incomp$ete8 To the $ist must 9e added those :ho re3ere the co: and those :ho eat it@ those :ho :orship natura$ orces@ and those :ho :orship a sing$e .odB those :ho are :orshippers o ido$s@ demons@ ghosts@ ancestors@ saints and heroes8

Such are the ans:ers gi3en 90 the three Census Commissioners to the simp$e =uestion :hat is +induism8 Lthers ha3e not ound it $ess di icu$t to ans:er the =uestion8 Consider ho: Sir A8 '0a$$ has ared in ans:ering the =uestion8 In his HRede 'ectureH de$i3ered at Cam9ridge in 1),1 he said [f7]: HAnd i I :ere asked or a de inition o +induism I cou$d gi3e no precise ans:er@ I cou$d not de ine it concise$0 90 gi3ing its centra$ doctrines and its essentia$ artic$es o aithB as I might do in descri9ing o the great historica$ Re$igions8 !or the :ord +indu is not exc$usi3e$0 a re$igious denominationB it denotes a$so a countr0@ and to certain degree a race8 6hen :e speak o Christian@ a *ahomedan@ or a %uddhist@ :e mean a particu$ar re$igious communit0@ in the :idest sense@ :ithout distinction o race or p$ace8 6hen :e ta$k o a Russian or a Persian@ :e indicate countr0 or parentage :ithout distinction o creed8 %ut :hen a person te$$s me that he is a +indu@ I kno: that he means a$$ three things togetherG Re$igion8 Parentage and Countr08H Speaking o +induism as a Re$igion Sir A$ red '0a$$ said that: H+indism :as a tang$ed mug$e o disorder$0 superstitions@ the co$$ection o rights@ :orships@ 9e$ie s@ traditions and m0tho$ogies@ that are sanctioned 90 the sacred 9ooks and ordinances o the %rahmins and are propogated 90 %rahmanic teachings8H 'ast$0 I :i$$ =uote the de intion gi3en 90 a +indu *r8 .8 P8 Sen :ho not mere$0 a +indu 9ut is a student o +induism8 In his 9ook ca$$ed FIntroduction to the stud0 o +induismF *r8 Sen sa0s :G H+induism is :hat the +indus@ or a maAor portion o them in a +indu Communit0 do8H Is there then no princip$e in +induism :hich a$$ +indus no matter :hat their other di erences are@ ee$ 9ound to render :i$$ing o9edience; It seems to me there is and that princip$e is the princip$e o Caste8 There ma0 9e a di erence o opinion as to :hich matters constitute matters o essence so ar as +induism is concerned8 %ut there can 9e no dou9t that Caste is one and an essentia$ and integra$ part o +induism8 E3er0 +induGi he is not mere$0 a statutor0 +indu59e$ie3es in Caste and e3er0 +indu5e3en one :ho prides himse$ on 9eing a statutor0 +induGhas a Caste8 A +indu is as much 9orn into caste as he is 9orn in +induism8 Indeed a person connot 9e 9orn in +induism un$ess he is 9orn in a Caste8 Caste and +induism are insepara9$e8 As Pro 8 *ax *u$$er[f8] o9ser3es : H*odern +induism rests on the s0stem o Caste as on a rock :hich no arguments can shake8H It there ore o$$o:s that in so ar as *anu $a0s do:n the creed o the Caste and in so ar as +induism at its core is the creed o Caste the *anu Smriti must 9e accepted as the %ook o Re$igion8 II 6hat are the Ethica$ and Re$igious norms prescri9ed 90 *anu or +indus to o9ser3e and o$$o:;

To 9egin :ith@ *anu di3ides +indus into our 3arnas or socia$ orders8 +e not on$0 di3ides +indus into our orders he a$so grades them8 The do$$o:ing is his scheme o gradation8 S8 38 Ln account o his pre5eminence@ on account o the superiorit0 o his origin@ on account o his o9ser3ance o Iparticu$arJ restricti3e ru$es@ and on account o his particu$ar sancti ication the %rahman is the 'ord o Ia$$J 2arnas8 +e procceds to amp$i 0 his reasons and does so in the o$$o:ing characteristic manner :G 18 ,38 As the %rahmana sprang rom IPraAapatiFs i8e8.odsJ mouth@ as he :as irst5 9orn@ and as he possesses the 2eda@ he is 90 right the $ord o this :ho$e creation8 18 ,48 !or the se$ existent IS3a0am9hu i8e8 .odJ@ ha3ing per ormed austerities@ produced him irst rom his o:n mouth@ in order that the o erings might 9e con3e0ed to the .ods and *anes and that this uni3erse might 9e preser3ed8 18 ,"8 6hat created 9eing can surpass him@ through :hose mouth the .ods continua$$0 consume the sacri icia$ 3iands and the manes the o erings to the dead8 18 ,&8 L created 9eings the most exce$$ent are said to 9e those :hich are animatedB o the animated@ those :ho su9sist 90 inte$$igence: o the inte$igent@ mankindB and o the men@ the %rahmans8 %esides the reason gi3en 90 *anu the %rahmin is irst in rank 9ecause he :as produced 90 .od rom his mouth@ in order that the o erings might 9e con3e0ed to the .ods and manes8 *anu gi3es another reason or the supremac0 o the %rahmins8 +e sa0s :G 18 ,)8 The 3er0 9irth o a %rahmana is an eterna$ incarnation o the sacred 'a: I2edaJB or he is 9orn to I u$ i$J the sacred $a:@ and 9ecome one :ith %rahman I.odJ8 18 ,,8 A %rahamana@ coming into existence@ is 9orn as the highest on earth@ the $ord o a$$ created 9eings@ or the protection o the treasur0 o the 'a:8 *anu conc$udes 90 sa0ing that : 18 1/18 The %rahmana eats 9ut his o:n ood@ :ears 9ut his o:n appare$@ 9esto:s 9ut his o:n a$msB other morta$s su9sist through the 9ene3o$ence o the %rahmana8H %ecause according to *anu : 18 1//8 6hate3er exists in the :or$d is the propert0 o the %rahmanaB on account o the exce$$ence o his origin the %rahmana is@ indeed@ entit$ed to it a$$8 It is rea$$0 an understatement to sa0 that according to *anu the %rahman is a $ord o a$$ creation8 !or *anu gi3es a :arning to the e ect that :5 IS8 31(8 A %rahmana@ 9e he ignorant or $earned@ is a great di3init0@ Aust as the ire@ :hether carried orth I or the per ormance o a 9urnt o9$ationJ or not carried orth@ is a great di3init08 IS8 31,8 Thus@ though the %rahmans emp$o0 themse$3es in a$$ IsortsJ o mean occupations@ the0 must 9e honoured in e3er0 :a0B I or each o J them is a 3er0 great deit08

%eing a deit0 the %rahmin is a9o3e $a: and a9o3e the -ing8 *anu directs :5 2II8 3(8 'et the -ing@ a ter rising ear$0 in the morning@ :orship %rahmans :ho are :e$$ 3ersed in the three o$d sacred science and $earned Iin po$it0J@ and o$$o: their ad3ice 2II8 3)8 'et him dai$0 :orship aged %rahmans :ho kno: the 2eda and are pure888888 !ina$$0 *anu sa0s : SI8 3"8 The %rahman is Ihere90J dec$ared Ito 9eJ the creator Io the :or$dJ@ the punisher@ the teacher@ Iand henceJ a 9ene actor Io a$$ created 9eingsJB to him $et no man sa0 an0thing unpropitions@ nor use an0 harsh :ords8 In the Code o *anu there are ru$es regarding the di erent occupations :hich the di erent orders are re=uired to o$$o:: I. ))8 To %rahmens he IS:a0am9hu *anuJ assigned the duties o reading the 2eda@ o teaching it@ o sacri icing@ o assisting others to sacri ice@ o gi3ing a$ms@ i the0 the rich@ and i indi=uent@ o recei3ing o gi ts8 I8 ),8 To de end the peop$e@ to gi3e a$ms@ to sacri ice@ to read the 2eda@ to shun the a$$urements o sensua$ grati iction@ are@ in a e: :ords@ the duties o a -shatri0a8 I8 ,/8 To keep herds o catt$e@ to 9esto: $argeness@ to sacri ice@ to read the scriptures@ to carr0 on trade@ to $end at interest@ and to cu$ti3ate $and are prescri9ed or permitted to a 2ais0a8 18 ,18 Lne principa$ dut0 the supreme Ru$er assigns to a SudraB name$0@ to ser3e the 9e ore mentioned c$asses@ :ithout depreciating their :orth8 S8 (48 'et such %rahmans as are intent on the means o attaining the supreme .odhead@ and irm in their o:n duties@ comp$ete$0 per orm@ in order@ the six o$$o:ing acts: S8 ("8 Reading the 2edas@ the teaching others to read them@ sacri icing@ and assisting others@ to sacri ice@ gi3ing to the poor i themse$3es ha3e enough@ and accepting gi ts rom the 3irtuous i themse$3es are poor@ are the six prescri9ed acts o the irst 9orn c$assB S8 (&8 %ut@ among those six acts o a %rahmin@ three are his means o sus9sistenceB assisting to sacri ice@ teaching the 2edas@ and recei3ing gi ts rom a pure handed gi3er8 S8 ((8 Three acts o dut0 cease :ith the %rahman@ and 9e$ong not to the -shatri0aB teaching the 2edas@ o iciating at a sacri ice@ and@ third$0@ recei3ing presents8 S8 ()8 Those three are a$so I90 the ixed ru$e o $a:J or9idden to the 2ais0aB since *anu@ the 'ord o a$$ men@ prescri9ed not those acts to the t:o c$asses@ mi$itar0 and commercia$8 S8 (,8 The means o su9sistence@ pecu$iar to the -shatri0a@ are 9earing arms@ either he$d or striking or missi$e@ to the 2ais0a@ merchandi>e@ attending on catt$e@ and agricu$ture 9ut :ith a 3ie: to the next $i e@ the duties o 9oth are a$msgi3ing@ reading@ sacri icing8H %esides prescri9ing rank and occupation *anu grants

pri3i$eges to certain orders and imposes pena$ties on certain orders8 As to pri3i$eges those re$ating to marriage ma0 9e re erred to irst8 *anu sa0s : III8 128 !or the irst marriage o the t:ice 9orn c$asses@ a :oman o the same c$ass is recommended 9ut or such as are impe$$ed 90 inc$ination to marr0 again@ :omen in the direct order o the c$asses are to 9e pre erred : III8 138 A Sudra :oman on$0 must 9e the :i e o a SudraB she and a 2ais0a@ o a 2ais0aB the0 t:o and a -shatri0a@ o a -shatri0aB those three and a %rahmani o a %rahman8 Then there are pri3i$eges re$ating to occupations8 These pri3i$eges stand out =uite prominent$0 :hen *anu dea$s :ith the =uestion as to :hat a person is to do :hen he is in distress : S8 )18 ?et a %rahmen@ una9$e to su9sist 90 his duties Aust mentioned@ ma0 $i3e 90 the dut0 o a so$dierB or that is the next in rank8 S8 )28 I it 9e asked@ ho: he must $i3e@ shou$d he 9e una9$e to get a su9sistence 90 either o those emp$o0mentsB the ans:er is@ he ma0 su9sist as a mercanti$e man@ app$0ing himse$ in person to ti$$age and attendance on catt$e8 S8 )38 %ut a %rahman and a -shatri0a@ o9$iged to su9sist 90 the acts o a 2ais0a@ must a3oid :ith care@ i the0 can $i3e 90 keeping herds@ the 9usiness o ti$$age@ :hich gi3es great pain to sentient creatures@ and is dependent on the $a9our o others@ as 9u$$s and so orth8 S8 )48 Some are o opinion@ that agricu$ture is exce$$ent@ 9ut it is a mode o su9sistence :hich the 9ene3o$ent great$0 9$ame@ or the iron mouthed pieces o :ood not on$0 :ound the earth@ 9ut the creatures d:e$$ing in it8 )"8 I through :ant o a 3irtuous $i3e$ihood@ the0 cannot o$$o: $auda9$e occupations@the0 ma0 then gain a competence o :ea$th 90 se$$ing commodities usua$$0 so$d 90 merchants@ a3oiding :hat ought to 9e a3oided8 S8 )&8 The0 must a3oid se$$ing $i=uids o a$$ sorts@ dressed grain@ seeds o ti$a@ stones@ sa$t@ catt$e@ and human creatures8 S8 )(8 A$$ :o3en c$oth d0ed red@ c$oth made o sana@ o cshuma59ark@ and o :oo$@ e3en though not redB ruit@ roots@ and medicina$ p$ants8 S8 ))8 6ater@ iron@ poison@ $esh5meat@ the moon5p$ant@ and per umes o an0 sortB mi$k@ hone0@ 9utter mi$k@ c$ari ied 9utter@ oi$ o ti$a@ :ax sugar@ and 9$ades o cusa grassB S8 ),8 A$$ 9easts o the orest@ as deer and the $ike@ ra3enous 9easts@ 9irds@ and ishB spirituous $i=uors@ ni$i@ or indigo@ and $ascha@ or $acB and a$$ 9easts :ith unc$o3en hoo s8 S8 ,/8 %ut the 9rahmen5hus9andman ma0 at p$easure se$$ pure ti$a5seeds or the purpose o ho$0 rites@ i he keep them not $ong :ith a hope o more gain@ and sha$$ ha3e produced them 90 his o:n cu$ture8B

S8 ,18 I he app$0 seeds o ti$a to an0 purpose 9ut ood@ anoiting@ and sacred o9$ations@ he sha$$ 9e p$unged@ in the shape o a :orm@ together :ith his parents@ into the ordure o dogs8 S8 ,28 %0 se$$ing $esh5meat@ $ac or sa$t@ a %rahmen immediate$0 sinks $o:B 90 se$$ing mi$k three da0s@ he a$$s to a $e3e$ :ith a Sudra8 S8 ,38 And 90 se$$ing the other or9idden commodities :ith his o:n ree :i$$@ he assumes in this :or$d@ a ter se3en nights@ the nature o a mere 2ais0a8 S8 ,48 !$uid things ma0@ ho:e3er@ 9e 9artered or other $uids@ 9ut not sa$t or an0thing $i=uidB so ma0 dressed grain or grain undressed@ and ti$a5seeds or grain in the husk@ e=ua$ :eights or measures 9eing gi3en and taken8 S8 1/28 The %rahmen ha3ing a$$en into distress@ ma0 recei3e gi ts rom an0 person :hate3erB or 90 no sacred ru$e can it 9e sho:n@ that a9so$ute purit0 can 9e su$$ied8 S8 1/38 !rom interpreting the 2eda@ rom o iciating at sacri ices@ or rom taking presents@ though in modes genera$$0 disappro3ed@ no sin is committed 90 priests in distressB $or the0 are as pure as ire or :ater8 Compare :ith this :hat *anu has to sa0 :ith regard@ to :hat the other 2arnas can do in an emergenc0@ *anu sa0s : S8 ,&8 A man o $o:est c$ass@ :ho@ through co3etousness@ $i3es 90 the acts o the highest@ $et the king strip o a$$ his :ea$th and instant$0 9anish8 S8 ,(8 +is o:n o ice@ though de ecti3e$0 per ormed@ is pre era9$e to that o another@ though per ormed comp$ete$0B or he@ :ho :ithout necessit0 discharges the duties o another c$ass@ immediate$0 or eits his o:n8 S8 ,)8 A mercanti$e man@ una9$e to su9sist 90 his o:n duties@ ma0 descend e3en to the ser3i$e acts o a Sudra@ taking care ne3er to do :hat ought ne3er to 9e doneB 9ut@ :hen he has gained a competence@ $et him depart rom ser3ice8 S8 ,,8 A man o ourth c$ass@ not inding emp$o0ment 90 :aiting on the t:ice 9orn@ :hi$e his :i e and son are tormented :ith hunger@ ma0 su9sist 90 handicra ts8 S8 1218 I a Sudra :ant a su9sistence and cannot attend priest@ he ma0 ser3e a -shatri0aB or@ i he cannot :ait on a so$dier 90 9irth@ he ma0 gain his $i3e$ihood 90 ser3ing an opu$ent 2ais0a8 S8 1228 To him@ :ho ser3es %rahmens@ :ith a 3ie: to a hea3en$0 re:ard@ or e3en :ith 3ie: to 9oth this $i e and the next@ the union o the :ord %rahmen :ith his name o ser3ant :i$$ assured$0 9ring success8 S8 1238 Attendance on %rahmens is pronounced the 9est :ork o SudraB :hate3er e$se he ma0 per orm :i$$ comparati3e$0 a3ai$ him nothing8 S8 1248 The0 must a$$ot him a it maintenance according to their o:n circumstances@ a ter considering his a9i$it0@ his exertions@ and the num9er o those@ :hom he must pro3ide :ith nourishment8

S8 12"8 6hat remains o their dressed rice must 9e gi3en to him@ and appare$ :hich the0 ha3e :orn@ and the re use o their grain@ and their o$d househo$d urniture8 S8 12&8 There is no gui$t in a man o the ser3i$e c$ass :ho eats $eeks and other or9idden 3egeta9$esB he must not ha3e the sacred in3estitureB he has no 9usiness :ith the dut0 o making o9$ations to ire and the $ike@ 9ut there is no prohi9ition against his o ering dressed grain as a sacri ice@ 90 :a0 o discharging his o:n dut08 S8 12(8 E3en Sudras@ :ho :ere anxious to per orm their entire dut0@ and@ kno:ing :hat the0 shou$d per orm@ imitate the practice o good men in the househo$d sacraments@ 9ut :ithout an0 ho$0 text@ except those containing praise and sa$utations@ are so ar rom sinning@ that the0 ac=uire Aust app$ause8 S8 12)8 As a Sudra@ :ithout inAuring another man@ per orms the $a: u$ acts o the t:ice59orn@ e3en thus@ :ithout 9eing censured@ he gains exa$tation in this :or$d and in the next8 S8 12,8 1o super $uous co$$ection o :ea$th must 9e made 90 a Sudra@ e3en though he has po:er to make it@ since a ser3i$e man@ :ho has amassed riches@ 9ecomes proud@ and@ 90 his inso$ence or neg$ect@ gi3es pain e3en to %rahmens8 +e conc$udes :G S8 13/8 Such@ as ha3e 9een u$$0 dec$ared@ are the se3era$ duties o the our c$asses in distress or su9sistence@ and@ i the0 per orm them exact$0@ the0 sha$$ attain the highest 9eatitude8 The pri3i$eges to some :ere not mere$0 socia$ the0 :ere a$so inancia$@ Sa0s *anu :G 2III8 3"8 !rom the man@ :ho sha$$ sa0 :ith truth@ FThis propert0@ :hich has 9een kept@ 9e$ongs to meF@ the king ma0 take a sixth or t:e$ th part@ or ha3ing secured it8 2III8 3&8 %ut he@ :ho sha$$ sa0 so a$se$0@ ma0 9e ined either an eighth part o his o:n propert0@ or e$se in some sma$$ proportion to the 3a$ue o the goods a$se$0 c$aimed@ a Aust ca$cu$tion ha3ing 9een made8 2III8 3(8 A $earned %rahmen@ ha3ing ound a treasure ormer$0 hidden@ ma0 take it :ithout an0 deductionB since he is the $ord o a$$8 2III8 3)8 %ut o a treasure ancient$0 deposited under ground@ :hich an0 other su9Aect or the king has disco3ered@ the king ma0 $a0 up ha$ in his treasur0 ha3ing gi3en ha$ to the %rahmens8 IS8 3238 Shou$d the king 9e near his end through some incura9$e disease@ he must 9esto: on the priests a$$ his riches@ accumu$ated his kingdom to his son@ $et him seek death in 9att$e@ or i there 9e no :ar@ 90 a9staining rom ood8 2II8 12(8 +a3ing ascertained the rates o purchase and sa$e@ the $ength o the :a0@ the expenses o ood and o condiments the charges o securing the goods carried@ and the net pro its o trade@ $et the king o9$ige traders to pa0 taxes on their sa$ea9$e commodities8

2II8 12)8 A ter u$$ consideration@ $et a king so $e30 those taxes continua$$0 in his dominions@ that 9oth he and the merchant ma0 recei3e a Aust compensation or their se3era$ acts8 2II8 12,8 As the $eech@ the suck$ing ca$ @ and the 9ee@ take their natura$ ood 90 $itt$e and $itt$e@ thus must a king dra: rom his dominions an annua$ re3enue8 2II8 13/8 L catt$e@ o gems@ o go$d and si$3er@ added each 0ear to the capita$ stock@ a i tieth part ma0 9e taken 90 the kingB o grain@ an eighth part@ a sixth@ or a t:e$ th@ according to the di erence o the soi$@ and the $a9our necessar0 to cu$ti3ate it8 2II8 1318 +e ma0 a$so take a sixth part o the c$ear annua$ increase o trees@ $eshmeat@ hone0@ c$ari ied 9utter@ per umes@ medica$ su9stances@ $i=uids@ $o:ers@ roots@ and ruit8 2II8 1328 L gathered $ea3es@ pot5her9s@ grass@ utenci$s made :ith $eather or cane@ earthen pots@ and a$$ things made o stone8 2II8 1328 A king@ e3en though d0ing :ith :ant@ must not recei3e an0 tax rom a %rahman $earned in the 2edas@ nor su er such a %rahmen@ residing in his territories@ to 9e a $icted :ith hunger8 2II8 1348 L that king@ in :hose dominion a $earned %rahmen is a $icted :ith hunger@ the :ho$e kingdom :i$$ in a short time 9e a $icted :ith amine8 2II8 13(8 'et the king order a mere tri $e to 9e paid@ in the name o the annua$ tax@ 90 the meaner inha9itants o his rea$m@ :ho su9sist 90 pett0 tra ic8 2II8 13)8 %0 $o: handicra tsmen@ arti icers@ and ser3i$e men@ :ho support themse$3es 90 $a9our@ the king ma0 cause :ork to 9e done or a da0 in each month8 2III8 3,48 1either a 9$ind man@ nor an idiot@ nor a cripp$e@ nor a man u$$ se3ent0 0ears o$d@ nor one :ho con ers great 9ene its on priests o eminent $earning@ sha$$ 9e compe$$ed 90 an0 king to pa0 taxes8 S8 11)8 A mi$itar0 king@ :ho takes e3en a ourth part o the crops o his rea$m at a time o urgent necessit0@ as o :ar or in3asion@ and protects his peop$e to the utmost o his po:er@ commits no sin : S8 11,8 +is pecu$iar dut0 is con=uest@ and he must not recede rom 9att$eB so that@ :hi$e he de ends 90 his arms the merchant and hus9andman@ he ma0 $e30 the $ega$ tax as the price o protection8 S8 12/8 The tax on the mercanti$e c$ass@ :hich in times o prosperit0 must 9e on$0 a t:e$ th part o their crops@ and a i tieth o their persona$ pro its@ ma0 9e an eighth o their crops in a time o distress@ or a sixth@ :hich is the medium@ or e3en a ourth in great pu9$ic ad3ersit0 B 9ut a t:entieth o their gains on mone0@ and other mo3ea9$es@ is the highest tax B ser3ing men@ artisans@ and mechanics8 must assist 90 their $a9our@ 9ut at no time pa0 taxes8 S8 1)(8 To the nearest sapinda@ ma$e or ema$e@ a ter him in the third degree@ the inheritance next 9e$ongs B then@ on ai$ure o sapindas and o their issue the

samanodaca@ or distant kinsman@ sha$$ 9e the heir B or the spiritua$ preceptor@ or the pupi$@ or the e$$o: student@ o the deceased8 IS8 1))8 Ln ai$ure o a$$ those@ the $a: u$ heirs are such %rahmens@ as ha3e read the three 2edas@ as are pure in 9od0 and mind@ as ha3e su9dued their passions B and the0 must conse=uent$0 o er the cakeB thus the rites o o9se=uies cannot ai$8 IS8 1),8 The propert0 o a %rahmen sha$$ ne3er 9e taken as an escheat 90 the kingB this is a ixed $a:B 9ut the :ea$th o the other c$asses@ on ai$ure o a$$ heirs@ the king ma0 take8 The terms on :hich the di erent socia$ orders shou$d carr0 on their associated $i e has 9een de ined 90 *anu in a set o ru$es :hich orm a 3er0 important part o the mora$s o the +indu +ouse8 *anu ordains that : S8 38 !rom priorit0 o 9irth@ rom superiorit0 o origin@ rom a more exact kno:$edge o scripture@ and rom a distinction in the sacri icia$ thread@ the %rahmen is the $ord o a$$ c$asses8 IS8 31(8 A %rahmen@ :hether $earned or ignorant@ is a po:er u$ di3init0 B e3en as ire is po:er u$ di3init0@ :hether consecrated or popu$ar8 IS8 31,8 Thus@ a$though %rahmens emp$o0 themse$3es in a$$ sorts o mean occupations@ the0 must in3aria9$0 9e honoured B or the0 are something transcendent$0 di3ine8 2II8 3"8 A king :as created as the protector o a$$ those c$asses and orders@ :ho@ rom the irst to the $ast@ discharge their se3era$ duties8 2II8 3&8 And a$$@ that must 9e done 90 him@ or the protection o his peop$e@ :ith the assistance o good ministers@ I :i$$ dec$are to 0ou@ as the $a: directs@ in due order8 2II8 3(8 'et the king@ ha3ing risen at ear$0 da:n@ respect u$$0 attend to %rahmen@ $earned in the three 2edas@ and in the science o ethics@ and 90 their decision $et him a9ide8 2II8 3)8 Constant$0 must he sho: respect to %rahmens@ :ho ha3e gro:n o$d@ 9oth in 0ears and in piet0@ :ho kno: the scriptures@ :ho in 9od0 and mind are pure B or he@ :ho honours the aged@ :i$$ perpetua$$0 9e honoured e3en 90 crue$ demons : IS8 3138 'et him not@ a$though in the greatest distress or mone0@ pro3oke %rahmens to anger 90 taking their prospert0 B or the0@ once enraged@ cou$d immediate$0 90 sacri ices and imprecations destro0 him :ith his troops@ e$ephants@ horses and cars8 Such :as to 9e the re$ationship in the ie$d o po$itica$ $i e8 !or ordinar0 socia$ intercourse 9et:een the di erent 2arnas *anu $a0s do:n the o$$o:ing ru$es :G III8 &)8 A house5keeper has i3e p$aces o s$aughter@ or :here sma$$ $i3ing creatures ma0 9e s$ain B his kitchen5hearth@ his grindstone@ his 9room@ his pest$e and mortar@ his :ater5pot B 90 using :hich@ he 9ecomes in 9ondage to sin : III8 &,8 !or the sake o expiating o ences committed ignorant$0 in those p$aces mentioned in order@ the i3e great sacraments :ere appointed 90 eminent sages to 9e per ormed each da0 90 such as keep house8

III8 (/8 Teaching and stud0ing the scripture is the sacrament o the 2eda B o ering cakes and :ater@ the sacrament o the *anes@ an o9$ation to ire@ the sacrament o the #eities B gi3ing rice or other ood to $i3ing creatures@ the sacrament o spirits B recei3ing guests :ith honour@ the sacrament o men8 III8 (18 6hoe3er omits not those i3e great ceremonies@ i he ha3e a9i$it0 to per orm them@ is untainted 90 the sons o the i3e s$aughtering p$aces@ e3en though he constant$0 reside at home B 1118)48 In his domestic ire or dressing the ood o a$$ the .ods@ a ter the prescri9ed ceremon0@ $et a %rahmen make an o9$ation each da0 to these o$$o:ing di3inities8 A ter it is o ered to the deities *anu directs :G III8 ,28 The share o dogs@ o outcasts@ o dog5 eeders@ o sin u$ men@ punished :ith e$ephantiasis or consumption@ o cro:s@ and o repti$es@ $et him drop on the ground 90 $itt$e and $itt$e8 6ith regard to the ru$es o hospita$it0 *anu directs the househo$der: III8 1/28 A %rahmen@ sta0ing 9ut one night as a guest@ is ca$$ed an atithi@ since continuing so short a time@ he is not e3en a soAourner or a :ho$e tithi@ or da0 o the moon8 III8 ,)8 %ut an o ering in the ire o a sacerdota$ mouth@ :hich rich$0 9$a>es :ith true kno:$edge and piet0@ :i$$ re$ease the gi3er rom distress and e3en rom dead$0 sin8 III8 1/(8 To the highest guests in the 9est orm@ to the $o:est in the :orst@ to the e=ua$ e=ua$$0@ $et him o er seats@ resting p$aces@ couchesB gi3ing them proportiona9$e attendance :hen the0 departB and honour@ as $ong as the0 sta08 III8 11/8 A mi$itar0 man is not denominated a guest in the house o a %rahmanB nor a man o the commercia$ or ser3i$e c$ass B nor his ami$iar riend@ nor his paterna$ kinsmen B nor his preceptor8 III8 1118 %ut i a :arrior come to his house in the orm o a guest@ $et ood 9e prepared or him@ according to his desire@ a ter the 9e orementioned %rahmens ha3e eaten8 III8 1128 E3en to a merchant or a $a9ourer@ approaching his house in the manner o guests@ $et him gi3e ood@ sho:ing marks o 9ene3o$ence at the same time :ith his domestics8 Ln socia$ 9earing o one c$ass to:ards another *anu has $aid do:n some 3er0 interesting ordinances8 +e has an e=uation or socia$ status : II8 13"8 The student must consider a %rahmen@ though 9ut ten 0ears o$d@ and a -shatri0a@ though aged a hundred 0ears@ as ather and son B as 9et:een those t:o@ the 0oung %rahmen is to 9e respected as the ather8 II8 13&8 6ea$th@ kindred@ age@ mora$ conduct@ and@ i th$0 di3ine kno:$edge@ entit$e men to respect B 9ut that :hich is $ast mentioned in order@ is the most respecta9$e8

II8 13(8 6hate3er man o the three highest c$asses possesses the most o those i3e@ 9oth in num9er and degree that man is entit$ed to most respect B e3en a Sudra@ i he ha3e entered the tenth decade o his age8 II8 13)8 6a0 must 9e made or a man in a :hee$ed carriage@ or a9o3e ninet0 0ears o$d@ or a $icted :ith disease@ or carr0ing a 9urthen B or a :oman B or a priest Aust returned rom the mansion o his preceptorB or a prince@ and or a 9ridegroom8 II8 13,8 Among a$$ those@ i the0 9e met at one time@ the priest Aust returned home and the prince are most to 9e honoured B and o those t:o@ the priest Aust returned@ shou$d 9e treated :ith more respect than the prince8 As i$$ustrating the ru$es o socia$ 9earing a re erence ma0 9e made to ru$es regarding sa$utation: II8 1218 A 0outh :ho ha9itua$$0 greets and constant$0 re3erses the aged@ o9tains an increase o our thingsB $i e@ kno:$edge@ ame@ strength8 II8 1228 A ter the :ord o sa$utation@ a %rahman must address an e$derB sa0ing@ HI am such an one@H pronouncing his o:n name8 II8 1238 I an0 persons@ through ignorance o the Sanskrit $anguage@ understand not the import o his name@ to them shou$d a $earned man sa0@ H It is I HB and in that manner he shou$d address a$$ c$asses o :omen8 II8 1248 In the sa$utation he shou$d pronounce@ a ter his o:n name@ the 3ocati3e partic$e K9hohFB or the partic$e F9hohF is he$d 90 the :ise to ha3e the same propert0 :ith names u$$0 expressed8 II8 12"8 A %rahmen shou$d thus 9e sa$uted in returnB H*a0Fst thou $i3e $ong@ exce$$ent manH@ and at the end o his name@ the 3o:e$ and preceding consonant shou$d 9e $engthened@ :ith an acute accent@ to three s0$$a9ic moments or short 3o:e$s8 II8 12&8 That %rahmen@ :ho kno:s not the orm o returning a sa$utation@ must not 9e sa$uted 90 a man o $earningB as a Shudra@ e3en so is he8 II8 12(8 'et a $earned man ask a priest@ :hen he meets him@ i his de3otion prospers@ a :arrior@ i he is unhurtB a merchant@ i his :ea$th is secureB and one o the ser3i$e c$asses@ i he enAo0s good hea$thB using respecti3e$0 the :ords@ cusa$am@ anama0am@ ksheman and anarog0am8 The pro3isions $aid do:n 90 *anu in re$ation to Re$igion and Re$igious Sacraments and Sacri ice are :orth0 o note8 The ordinances o *anu re$ating to Sacraments and sacri ices are as o$$o:s : III8 &)8 A house5keeper has i3e p$aces o s$aughter@ or :here sma$$ $i3ing creatures ma0 9e s$ainB his kitchen5hearth@ his grindstone@ his 9room@ his past$e and mortar@ his :ater5potB 90 using :hich@ he 9ecome in 9ondage to sin8 III8 &,8 !or the sake o expiating o ences committed ignorant$0 in those p$aces mentioned in order@ the i3e great sacraments :ere appointed 90 eminent sages to 9e per ormed each da0 90 such as keep house8

III8 (/8 Teaching and stud0ing the scriptures is the sacrament o the 2edaB o ering cakes and :ater@ the sacrament o the *anes@ an o9$ation to ire@ the sacrament o the #eitiesB gi3ing rice or other ood to $i3ing creatures@ the sacraments o spiritsB recei3ing guests :ith honour@ the sacrament o men8 III8 (18 6hoe3er omits not those i3e great ceremonies@ i he ha3e a9i$it0 to per orm them@ is untainted 90 the sons o the i3e s$aughtering p$aces@ e3en though he constant$0 reside at home8 *anu then proceeds to $a0 do:n that a$$ are not entit$ed to the 9ene it o the sacraments and a$$ ha3e not the same right to per orm the sacri ices8 +e de ines the position o :omen and Shudras in the matter o Sacraments and sacri ices8 As to :omen *anu sa0s :G II8 &&8 The same ceremonies@ except that o the sacri icia$ thread@ must 9e du$0 per ormed or :omen at the same age and in the same order@ that the 9od0 ma0 9e made per ectB 9ut :ithout an0 text rom the 2eda8H As to Shudras@ *anu sa0s:G S8 12(8 E3en Shudras@ :ho :ere anxious to per orm their entire dut0@ and@ kno:ing :hat the0 shou$d per orm initate the practice o good men in the househo$d sacraments@ 9ut :ithout an0 ho$0 text@ except those containing praise and sa$utation@ are so ar rom sinning@ that the0 ac=uire Aust app$ause8 The in3estiture o a person :ith the sacred thread is a 3er0 important sacrament8 II8 3&8 In the eighth 0ear rom the conception o a %rahman8@ in the e$e3enth rom that o a -shatri0a@ and in the t:e$ th rom that o a 2ais0a@ $et the ather in3est the chi$d :ith the mark o his c$ass8 II8 3(8 Shou$d a %rahman@ or his ather or him@ 9e desirous o his ad3ancement in sacred kno:$edgeB a -shatri0a@ o extending his po:erB or a 2ais0a o engaging in mercanti$e 9usinessB the in3estiture ma0 9e made in the i th@ sixth@ or eighth 0ears respecti3e$08 II8 3)8 The ceremon0 o in3estiture ha$$o:ed 90 the .a0atri must not 9e de$a0ed@ in the case o a priest@ 9e0ond the sixteenth 0earB nor in that o a so$dier@ 9e0ond the t:ent0 secondB nor in that o a merchant@ 9e0ond the t:ent0 ourth8 II8 3,8 A ter that@ a$$ 0ouths o these three c$asses@ :ho ha3e not 9een in3ested at the proper time@ 9ecome 3rat0as@ or outcasts@ degraded rom the .a0atri@ and condemned 90 the 3irtuous8 As to the 6a%atri it is a mantra and this is ho: *anu exp$ains its importance :G II8 (&8 %rahma mi$ked out@ as it :ere@ rom the three 2edas@ the $etter A@ the $etter 4@ and the $etter * :hich orm 90 their coa$ition the tri$itera$ monos0$$a9$e@ together :ith three m0sterious :ords 9hur@ 9hu3ah@ s3ah or earth@ sk0@ hea3en8 II8 ((8 !rom the three 2edas@ a$so@ the 'ord o creatures@ incomprehensi9$0 exa$ted@ successi3e$0 mi$ked out the three measures o that ine a9$e text@9eginning :ith the :ord tad@ and entit$ed Sa3itri or .a0atri8

II8 ()8 A priest :ho sha$$ kno: the 2eda@ and sha$$ pronounce to himse$ @ 9oth morning and e3ening@ that s0$$a9$e@ and that ho$0 text preceded 90 the three :ords@ sha$$ attain the sanctit0 :hich the 2eda con ers : II8 (,8 And a t:ice 9orn man@ :ho sha$$ a thousand times repeat those three Iom@ the 30ahritis@ and the ga0atriJ@ apart rom the mu$titude@ sha$$ 9e re$eased in a month e3en rom a great o ence@ as a snake rom his s$ough8 II8 )/8 The priest@ the so$dier@ and the merchant@ :ho sha$$ neg$ect this m0sterious text@ and ai$ to per orm in due season his pecu$iar acts o piet0@ sha$$ meet :ith contempt among the 3irtuous8 II8 )18 The great immuta9$e :ords@ preceded 90 the tri$itera$ s0$$a9$e@ and o$$o:ed 90 the ga0atri :hich consists o three measures@ must 9e considered as the mouth@ or principa$ part o the 2edaB II8 )28 6hoe3er sha$$ repeat@ da0 90 da0@ or three 0ears@ :ithout neg$igence@ that sacred text@ sha$$ herea ter approach the di3ine essence@ mo3e as ree$0 as air@ and assume an etherea$ orm8 II8 )38 The tri$itera$ monos0$$a9$e is an em9$em o the Supreme@ the suppressions o 9reath :ith a mind ixed on .od are the highest de3otionB 9ut nothing is more exa$ted than the.a0atriB a dec$aration o truth is more exce$$ant than si$ence8 II8 )48 A$$ rites ordained in the 2eda@ o9$ations to ire@ and so$emn sacri ices pass a:a0 B 9ut that :hich passes not a:a0@ is dec$ared to 9e the s0$$a9$e om@ thence ca$$ed acshara B since it is a s0m9o$ o .od@ the 'ord o created 9eings8 II8 )"8 The act o repeating his +o$0 1ame is ten times 9etter than the appointed sacri iceB an hundred times 9etter :hen it is heard 90 no man B and a thousand times 9etter :hen it is pure$0 menta$8 II8 )&8 The our domestic sacraments :hich are accompanied :ith the appointed sacri ice@ are not e=ua$ though a$$ 9e united@ to a sixteenth part o the sacri ice per ormed 90 a repetition o the ga0atri8 This in3estiture is e=ui3a$ent to a ne: 9irth8 II8 14(8 'et a man consider that as a mere human 9irth@ :hich his parents ga3e him or their mutua$ grati ication@ and :hich he recei3es a ter $0ing in the :om98 II8 14)8 %ut that 9irth :hich his principa$ achar0a@ :ho kno:s the :ho$e 2eda@ procures or him 90 his di3ine mother the ga0atri@ is a true 9irth B that 9irth is exempt rom age and rom death8 II8 1&,8 The irst 9irth is rom a natura$ mother: the second@ rom the $igation o the >one B the third rom the due per ormance o the sacri ice B such are the 9irths o him :ho is usua$$0 ca$$ed t:ice59orn@ according to a text o the 2eda8 II8 1(/8 Among them his di3ine 9irth is that@ :hich is distinguished 90 the $igation o the >one@ and sacri icia$ cord B and in that 9irth the .a0atri is his mother@ and the Achar0a@ his ather8 This sacrament is not permitted 90 *anu to Shudras and to :omen8

II8 1/38 %ut he :ho stands not repeating it in the morning and sits not repeating it in the e3ening@ must 9e prec$uded@ $ike a Sudra@ rom e3er0 sacred o9ser3ance o the t:ice 9orn c$ass8 *anu has not orgotten to mention ru$es re$ating to education and $earning8 *anu has nothing to sa0 a9out mass education8 +e does not see the uti$it0 o it and he does not see the necessit0 o imposing an0 o9$igation upon the king or the state8 +e :as mere$0 concerned :ith the $earning o the sacred and Re$igious $iterature name$0 the 2edas8 2eda must 9e $earned rom a preceptor and :ith his assent8 1o one can read and stud0 the 2edas 90 himse$ 8 +e :i$$ 9e gui$t0 o the t i he did it8 II8 11&8 +e :ho sha$$ ac=uire kno:$edge o the 2eda :ithout the assent o his preceptor@ incurs the gui$t o stea$ing the scripture and sha$$ sink to the region o torment8 %ut others cannot stud0 at a$$8 IS8 1)8 6omen ha3e no 9usiness :ith the texts o the 2edaB thus is the $a: u$$0 sett$ed B ha3ing@ there ore@ no e3idence o $a:@ and no kno:$edge o expiator0 texts@ sin u$ :omen must 9e as ou$ as a$sehood itse$ B and this is a ixed ru$e8 I28 ,,8 +e must ne3er read the 2eda :ithout accents and $etters :e$$ pronounced B nor e3en in the presence o Sudras B nor@ ha3ing 9egun to read it in the $ast :atch o the night@ must he@ though atigued@ s$eep again8 This prohi9ition app$ies to <rat%as or outcasts rom the three higher c$asses8 !or *anu sa0s : II8 4/8 6ith such impure men@ $et no %rahmen@ e3en in distress or su9sistence@ e3er orm a connexion in $a:@ either 90 the stud0 o the 2eda@ or 90 a init08 Teaching 2eda or per orming o sacri ices or dis=ua$i ied persons :as prohi9ited 90 *anu8 I28 2/"8 1e3er $et a priest eat part o a sacri ice not 9egun :ith texts o the 2eda@ nor o one per ormed 90 a common sacri icer@ 90 a :oman@ or 90 an eunuch : I28 2/&8 6hen those persons o er the c$ari ied 9utter@ it 9rings mis ortune to good men@ and raises a3ersion in the deities@ such o9$ations@ there ore@ he must care u$$0 shun8 SI8 1,)8 +e@ :ho has o iciated at a sacri ice or outcasts@ or 9urned the corpse o a stranger@ or per ormed rites to destro0 the innocent@ or made the impure sacri ice@ ca$$ed Ahimsa@ ma0 expiate his gui$t 90 three praAapat0a penances8 Take e=ua$it0 9e ore 'a:8 6hen the0 come as :itnessesGaccording to *anu the0 are to 9e s:orn as o$$o:s : 2III8 )(8 In the orenoon $et the Audge@ 9eing puri ied@ se3era$$0 ca$$ on the t:ice5 9orn@ 9eing puri ied a$so@ to dec$are the truth@ in the presence o some image@ a s0m9o$ o the di3init0@ and o %rahmens@ :hi$e the :itnesses turn their aces either to the north or to the east8

2III8 ))8 To a %rahmen he must 9egin :ith sa0ing@ H#ec$areBH to a -shatri0a@ :ith sa0ing@ H #ec$are the truthHB to a 2ais0a@ :ith comparing perAur0 to the crime o stea$ing kine@ grain@ or go$dB to a Sudra@ :ith comparing it in some or a$$ o the o$$o:ing sentences@ to e3er0 crime that men can commit8 2III8 1 138 'et the Audge cause a priest to s:ear 90 his 3eracit0 B a so$dier@ 90 his horse@ or e$ephant@ and his :eaponsB a merchant@ 90 his kine@ grain@ and go$dB a mechanic or ser3i$e man@ 90 imprecating on his o:n head@ i he speak a$se$0@ a$$ possi9$e crimeB *anu a$so dea$s :ith cases o :itnesses gi3ing a$se e3idence8 According to *anu gi3ing a$se e3idence is a crime8 Sa0s *anu: 2III8 1228 'earned men ha3e speci ied these punishments@ :hich :ere ordained 90 sage $egis$ators or perAured :itnesses@ :ith a 3ie: to pre3ent a ai$ure o Austice and to restrain ini=uit08 2III8 1238 'et a Aust prince 9anish men o the three $o:er c$asses@ i the0 gi3e a$se e3idence ha3ing irst $e3ied the ine B 9ut a %rahmen $et him on$0 9anish8H %ut *anu made one exception: 2III8 1 128 To :omen@ ho:e3er@ at a time o da$$iance@ or on a proposa$ o marriage@ in the case o grass or ruit eaten 90 a co:@ o :ood taken or a sacri ice@ or o a promise made or the preser3ation o a %rahmen@ it is dead$0 sin to take a $ight oath8 As parties to proceedingsGTheir position can 9e i$$ustrated 90 =uoting the ordinances o *anu re$ating to a e: o the importa8nt crimina$ o ences dea$t :ith 90 *anu8 Take the o ence o #e amation8 *anu sa0s : 2III8 2&(8 A so$dier@ de aming a priest@ sha$$ 9e ined ahundred panas a merchant@ thus o ending@ an hundred and i t0@ or t:o hundred : 9ut@ or such an o ence@ a mechanic or ser3i$e man sha$$ 9e :hipped8 2III8 2&)8 A priest sha$$ 9e ined i t0@ i he s$ander a so$dierB t:ent0 i3e@ i a merchant B and t:e$3e@ i he s$ander a man o the ser3i$e c$ass8 Take the o ence o Insu$tG*anu sa0s: 2III8 2(/8 A once59orn man@ :ho insu$ts the t:ice59orn :ith gross in3ecti3es@ ought to ha3e his tongue s$it B or he sprang rom the $o:est part o %rahma8 2III8 2(18 I he mention their names and c$asses :ith contume$0 as@ i he sa0@ HLh #e3adatta@ thou re use o %rahmenH@ an iron st0$e@ ten ingers $ong@ sha$$ 9e thrust red into his mouth8 2III8 2(28 Shou$d he@ through pride@ gi3e instruction to priests concerning their dut0@ $et the king order some hot oi$ to 9e dropped into his mouth and his ear8 Take the o ence o A9useG*anu sa0s: 2III8 2(&8 !or mutua$ a9use 90 a priest and a so$dier@ this ine must 9e imposed 90 a $earned kingB the $o:est amercement on the priest@ and the midd$e5most on the so$dier8 2III8 2((8 Such exact$0@ as 9e ore mentioned@ must 9e the punishment or a merchant and a mechanic@ in respect o their se3era$ c$asses@ except the s$itting o

the tongueB this is a ixed ru$e o punishment8 Take the o ence o Assau$tG*anu propounds: 2III8 2(,8 6ith :hate3er mem9er o a $o:59orn man sha$$ assau$t or hurt a superior@ e3en that mem9er o his must 9e s$it@ or cut more or $ess in proportion to the inAur0B this an ordinance o *anu8 2III8 2)/8 +e :ho raises his hand or a sta against another@ sha$$ ha3e his hand cut B and he@ :ho kicks another in :rath@ sha$$ ha3e an incision made in his oot8 Take the o ence o ArroganceGAccording to *anu : 2III8 2)18 A man o the $o:est c$ass@ :ho sha$$ inso$ent$0 p$ace himse$ on the same seat :ith one o the highest@ sha$$ either 9e 9anished :ith a mark on his hinder parts@ or the king sha$$ cause a gash to 9e made on his 9uttock8 2III8 2)28 Shou$d he spit on him through pride@ the king sha$$ order 9oth his $ips to 9e gashedB shou$d he urine on him@ his penisB shou$d he 9reak :ind against him@ his anus8 2III8 2)38 I he sei>e the %rahmen 90 the $ocks@ or 90 the eet@ or 90 the 9eard@ or 90 the throat@ or 90 the scrotum@ $et the king :ithout hesitation cause incisions to 9e made in his hands8 Take the o ence o Adu$ter08 Sa0s *anu: 2III8 3",8 A man o the ser3i$e c$ass@ :ho commits actua$ adu$ter0 :ith the :i e o a priest@ ought to su er death B the :i3es@ indeed@ o a$$ the our c$asses must e3er 9e most especia$$0 guarded8 2III8 3&&8 A $o: man@ :ho makes $o3e to a damse$ o high 9irth@ ought to 9e punished corpora$$0B 9ut he :ho addresses a maid o e=ua$ rank@ sha$$ gi3e the nuptia$ present and marr0 her@ i her ather p$ease8 2III8 3(48 A mechanic or ser3i$e man@ ha3ing an adu$terious connection :ith a :oman o a t:ice59orn c$ass@ :hether guarded at home or unguarded@ sha$$ thus 9e punished B i she :as unguarded@ he sha$$ $ose the part o ending@ and his :ho$e su9stance B i guarded@ and a priest$ess@ e3er0 thing@ e3en his $i e8 2III8 3("8 !or adu$ter0 :ith a guarded priestess@ a merchant sha$$ or eit a$$ his :ea$th a ter imprisonment or a 0earB a so$dier sha$$ 9e ined a thousand panas@ and 9e sha3ed :ith the urine o an ass8 2III8 3(&8 %ut@ i a merchant or so$dier commit adu$ter0 :ith a :oman o the sacerdota$ c$ass@ :hom her hus9and guards not at home@ the king sha$$ on$0 ine the merchant i3e hundred@ and the so$dier a thousand B 2III8 3((8 %oth o them@ ho:e3er@ i the0 commit that o ence :ith a priestess not on$0 guarded 9ut eminent or good =ua$ities@ sha$$ 9e punished $ike men o the ser3i$e c$ass@ or 9e 9urned in a ire o dr0 grass or reeds8 2III8 3)28 I a merchant con3erse crimina$$0 :ith a guarded :oman o the mi$itar0@ or a so$dier :ith one o the mercanti$e c$ass@ the0 9oth deser3e the same punishment as in the case o a priestess unguarded8

2III8 3)38 %ut a %rahmen@ :ho sha$$ commit du$ter0 :ith a guarded :oman o those t:o c$asses@ must 9e ined a thousand panas B and or the $ike o ence :ith a guarded :oman o the ser3i$e c$ass@ the ine o a so$dier or a merchant sha$$ 9e a$so one thousand8 2III8 3)48 !or adu$ter0 :ith a :oman o the mi$itar0 c$ass@ i unguarded@ the ine o a merchant is i3e hundred B 9ut a so$dier@ or the con3erse o that o ence@ must 9e sha3ed :ith urine@ or pa0 the ine Aust mentioned8 2III8 3)"8 A priest sha$$ pa0 i3e hundred panas i he connect himse$ crimina$$0 :ith an unguarded :oman o the mi$itar0@ commercia$@ or ser3i$e c$ass@ and a thousand@ or such a connexion :ith a :oman o 3i$e mixed 9reed8 Turning to the s0stem o punishment or o ences *anuFs Scheme thro:s an interesting $ight on the su9Aect8 Consider the o$$o:ing ordinances : 2III8 3(,8 Ignominious tonsure is ordained@ instead o capita$ punishment@ or an adu$terer o the priest$0 c$ass@ :here the punishment o other c$asses ma0 extend to $oss o $i e8 2III8 3)/8 1e3er sha$$ the king s$a0 a %rahmen@ though con3icted o a$$ possi9$e crimes: $et him 9anish the o ender rom his rea$m@ 9ut :ith a$$ his propert0 secure@ and his 9od0 unhurt8 SI8 12(8 !or ki$$ing intentiona$$0 a 3irtuous man o the mi$itar0 c$ass@ the penance must a ourth part o that ordained or ki$$ing a priest B or ki$$ing a 2ais0a@ on$0 an eighth B or ki$$ing a Sudra@ :ho had 9een constant in discharging his duties@ a sixteenth part8 SI8 12)8 %ut@ i a %rahmen ki$$ a -shatri0a :ithout ma$ice@ he must@ a ter a u$$ per ormance o his re$igious rites@ gi3e the priests one 9u$$ together :ith a thousand co:s8 SI8 12,8 Lr he ma0 per orm or three 0ears the penance or s$a0ing a %rahmen@ morti 0ing his organs o sensation and action@ $etting his hair gro: $ong@ and $i3ing remote rom the to:n@ :ith the root o a tree or his mansion8 SI8 13/8 I he ki$$ :ithout ma$ice a 2ais0a@ :ho had a good mora$ character@ he ma0 per orm the same penance or one 0ear@ or gi3e the priests a hundred co:s and a 9u$$8 SI8 1318 !or six months must he per orm this :ho$e penance@ i :ithout intention he ki$$ a Sudra B or he ma0 gi3e ten :hite co:s and a 9u$$ to the priests8 2III8 3)18 1o greater crime is kno:n on earth than s$a0ing a %rahmen B and the king@ there ore@ must not e3en orm in his mind an idea o ki$$ing a priest8 2III8 12&8 'et the king ha3ing considered and ascertained the re=uenc0 o a simi$ar o ence@ the p$ace and time@ the a9i$it0 o the crimina$ to pa0 or su er and the crime itse$ @ cause punishment to a$$ on those a$one@ :ho deser3e it8

2III8 1248 *anu@ son o the Se$ 5existent@ has named ten p$aces o punishment@ :hich are appropriate to the three $o:er c$asses@ 9ut a %rahmen must depart rom the rea$m unhurt in an0 one them8 2III8 12"8 The part o generation@ the 9e$$0@ the tongue@ the t:o hands@ and@ i th$0@ the t:o eet@ the e0e@ the nose@ 9oth ears@ the propert0@ and@ in a capita$ case@ the :ho$e 9od08 Ln the point o rights and duties re$ating to re$igious Sacraments and Sacri ices the 3ie:s o *anu are note:orth0 : II8 2)8 %0 stud0ing the 2eda@ 90 re$igious o9ser3ances@ 90 o9$ations to ire@ 90 the ceremon0 o Trai3id0a@ 90 o ering to the .ods and *anes@ 90 the procreation o chi$dren@ 90 the i3e great sacraments@ and 90 so$emn sacri ices@ this human 9od0 is rendered it or a di3ine state8 III8 &,8 !or the sake o expiating o ences committed ignorant$0 in those p$aces mentioned in order@ the i3e great sacrements :ere appointed 90 eminent sages to 9e per ormed each da0 90 such as keep house8 III8 (/8 Teaching and stud0ing the scripture is the sacrament o the 2edaB o ering cakes and :ater@ the sacrament o the *anesB an o9$ation to ire@ the sacrament o the #eities B gi3ing rice or other ood to $i3ing creatures@ the sacrament o spirits B recei3ing guests :ith honour@ the sacrament o men8 III8 (18 6hoe3er omits not those i3e great ceremonies@ i he ha3e a9i$it0 to per orm them@ is untained 90 the sins o the i3e s$aughtering p$aces@ e3en though he constant$0 reside at home8 Such are the ordinances o *anu8 'a:s are ne3er comp$ete enough to co3er e3er0 point8 There are a$:a0s moot =uestions8 *anu :as conscious o this and pro3ides or such contingencies8 SII8 1/)8 I it 9e asked@ ho: the $a: sha$$ 9e ascertained@ :hen particu$ar cases are not comprised under an0 o the genera$ ru$es@ the ans:er is this : HThat :hich :e$$ instructed %rahmens propound@ sha$$ 9e he$d incontesti9$e $a:8H SII8 1/,8 6e$$ instructed %rahmens are the0@ :ho can adduce occu$ar proo rom the scripture itse$ @ ha3ing studied@ as the $a: ordains@ the 2edas and their extended 9ranches@ or 2edangas@ *imansa@ 10a0a@ #harma@ Shastra@ Puranas8 SII8 1138 E3en the decision o one priest@ i more cannot 9e assem9$ed@ :ho per ect$0 kno:s the princip$es o the 2edas@ must 9e considered as $a: o the highest authorit0 B not the opinion o m0riads@ :ho ha3e no sacred kno:$edge8 The 'a:s o *anu are eterna$8 There ore there is no =uestion o considering ho: changes cou$d 9e e ected in them8 The on$0 =uestion *anu had to consider :as the upho$ding and maintaining the s0stem8 *anu has $aid do:n se3era$ pro3isions :ith this purpose in 3ie:8 As to the preser3ation o the Socia$ Code@ *anu has made it the dut0 o the -ing to upho$d and maintain:

2III8 41/8 The king shou$d order each man o the mercanti$e c$ass to practice trade@ or mone0 $ending@ or agricu$ture and attendance on catt$e B and each man o the ser3i$e c$ass to act in the ser3ice o the t:ice59orn8 2III8 41)8 6ith 3igi$ant care shou$d the king exert himse$ in compe$$ing merchants and mechanics to per orm their respecti3e duties B or@ :hen such men s:er3e rom their dut0@ the0 thro: this :or$d into con usion8 !ai$ure to maintain :as made an o ence in the -ing punisha9$e at 'a:8 2III8 33"8 1either a ather@ nor a preceptor@ nor a riend@ nor a mother@ nor a :i e@ nor a son@ nor a domestic priest must 9e $e t unpunished 90 the king@ i the0 adhere not :ith irmness to their dut08 2III8 33&8 6here another man o $o:er 9irth :ou$d 9e ined one pana@ the king sha$$ 9e ined a thousand@ and he sha$$ gi3e the ine to the priests@ or cast it into the ri3er@ this is a sacred ru$e8 !ai$ure to upho$d and maintain the s0stem on the part o the king in3o$3ed a or eiture o his right to ru$e8 !or *anu a$$o:s a right to re9e$ against such a -ing8 2III8 34)8 The t:ice59orn ma0 take arms@ :hen their dut0 is o9structed 90 orce: and :hen@ in some e3i$ time8 a disaster has 9e a$$en the t:ice59orn c$asses8 The right o re9e$$ion is gi3en to the three higher c$asses and not to the Shudra8 This is 3er0 natura$8 %ecause it is on$0 the three upper c$asses :ho :ou$d 9ene it 90 the maintenance o this s0stem8 %ut supposing the -shatri0as Aoined the -ing in destro0ing the s0stem :hat is to 9e done; *anu gi3es the authorit0 to the %rahmins to punish a$$ and particu$ar$0 the -shatri0as8 SI8 318 A priest@ :ho :e$$ kno:s the $a:s@ need not comp$ain to the king o an0 grie3ious inAur0B since@ e3en 90 his o:n po:er@ he ma0 chastise those@ :ho inAure him8 SI8 328 +is o:n po:er@ :hich depends on himse$ a$one@ is mightier than the ro0a$ po:er@ :hich depends on other men B 90 his o:n might@ there ore@ ma0 a %rahman coerce his oes8 SI8 338 +e ma0 use@ :ithout hesitation@ the po:er u$ charms re3ea$ed to Athar3an@ and 90 him to Angiras B or speech is the :eapon o a %rahmen B :ith that he ma0 destro0 his oppressors8 IS8 32/8 L a mi$itar0 man@ :ho raises his arm 3io$ent$0 on a$$ occasions against the priest$0 c$ass@ the priest himse$ sha$$ 9e the chastiserB since the so$dier origina$$0 proceeded rom the %rahmen8H +o: can the %rahmins punish the -shatri0as un$ess the0 can take arms; *anu kno:s this and there ore a$$o:s the %rahmins to arm themse$3es to punish the -shatri0as8 SII8 1//8 Command o armies@ ro0a$ authorit0@ po:er o in $icting punishment@ and so3ereign dominion o3er a$$ nations@ he on$0 :e$$ deser3es@ :ho per ect$0 understands the 2eda Shastra8 So intent is *anu on the maintenance o the s0stem o Chatur3arna that he did not hesitate to make this undamenta$ change in it8 !or to

ask a %rahman to take up arms is a undamenta$ change as compared :ith the ru$e that :as pre3a$ent 9e ore *anu8 The prohi9ition against %rahmin hand$ing arms :as 3er0 strict8 In the Apastam9a #harma Sutras :hich is prior to *anu the ru$e is $aid do:n in the o$$o:ing terms : 181/@ 2,@&8 A %rahmin sha$$ not take up a :eapon in his hand though he 9e on$0 desirous o examining it8H Successor o *anuG%audha0anaGimpro3ed upon him@ and $aid do:n in his Code o 'a:s : II8 24@ 1)8 !or the protection o the Co:s@ %rahmins@ or in the case o the con usion o 2arnas@ %rahmins and 2ais0as Ia$soJ shou$d take up arms@ out o consideration or the #harma8 and maintain the s0stem at an0 cost8 C,APTER ; Essa(s on the Bha#<at )ita ! Philosophic De*ence o* Counter-Revolution! =rishna and ,is )ita !he "irst pa$e o" 'ssa%s on the Bha$vat 6ita is auto$raphed b% Dr. Ambedkar. De(t .) pa$es consist o" anal%tical notes on <irat -arva and =dd%o$ -arva includin$ the table o" contents on this sub@ect. !he table o" contents is printed in the schemes. !his "ile contains two t%ped copies o" an essa% entitled -hilosophic De"ence o" Counter-Revolution*9rishna and #is 6ita . !he last sentence o" this essa% is le"t incomplete. !he total number o" t%ped pa$es o" this essa% is .; onl%. !he notes on <iral -arva M =d%o$ -arva are printed in the ne(t chapters.* Editors8 6hat is the p$ace o the %hag:at .ita in the $iterature o ancient India; Is it a gospe$ o the +indu Re$igion in the same :a0 as the %i9$e is o the Christian Re$igion; The +indus ha3e come to regard it as their gospe$8 I it is a gospe$@ :hat does it rea$$0 teach; 6hat is the doctrine it stands or; The 3ariet0 o ans:ers gi3en to this =uestion 90 students competent to speak on the su9Aect is rea$$0 9e:i$dering8 %oht$ingk [f9]sa0s: H The .ita contains 90 the side o man0 high and 9eauti u$ thoughts@ not on$0 a e: :eak points B contradictions I:hich the commentators ha3e tried to pass o3er as excusa9$eJ@ repetitions@ exaggerations@ a9surdities and $oathsome points8HF H +opkins[f10] speaks o the %hag3at .ita as a charactaristic :ork o the +indu 'iterature in its su9$imit0 as in its pueri$ities@ in its $ogic as in its :ant o itB 88888 an i$$5 assorted ca9inet o primiti3e phi$osophica$ opinions8H In his Audgment: H#espite its occasiona$ po:er and music exa$tation@ the #i3ine song in its present state as a poetica$ production is unsatis actor08 The same thing is said o3er again@ and the contradictions in phraseo$og0 and in meaning are as numerous as the repetitions@ so that one is not surprised to ind it descri9ed as Hthe :onder u$ song@ :hich causes the hair to stand on end8H

+o$t>rnan[f11]sa0s: H6e ha3e 9e ore us Iin the %hag3at .itaJ a 2ishnuite re3ision o a pantheistic poem8H .ar9e[f12] o9ser3es : HThe :ho$e character o the poem in its design and execution is preponderating$0 theistic8 A persona$ .od -rishna stands orth in the orm o a human hero@ expounds his doctrine@ enAoins@ a9o3e a$$ things@ on his $istener@ a$ong :ith the per ormance o his duties@ $o3ing aith in +im and se$ 5surrender:888888 And 90 the side o this .odG I:ho isJ de$ineated as persona$$0 as possi9$e@ and :ho dominates the :ho$e poemG stands out re=uent$0 the impersona$ neutra$ %rahman@ the A9so$ute@ as the highest princip$e8 At one time -rishna sa0s that +e is the so$e +ighest .od :ho has created the :or$d and a$$ 9eings and ru$es o3er it a$$ B at another time@ he expounds the 2edantic doctrine o %rahman and ma%a-the Cosmic I$$usion@ and expounds as the highest goa$ o human 9eing that he 9e reed rom the 6or$d5I$$usion and 9ecome %rahman8 These t:o doctrinesGthe theistic and the pantheisticGare mixed up :ith each other@ and o$$o: each other@ sometimes =uite unconnected and sometimes $oose$0 connected8 And it is not the case that the one is represented as a $o:er@ exoteric8 IText p8 ,J and@ Ip8 J as the higher esoteric doctrine8 It is no:here taught that the Theism is a pre$iminar0 step to the kno:$edge o the rea$it0 or that it is its s0m9o$@ and that the pantheism o the 2edanta is the Iu$timateJ rea$it0 itse$ B 9ut the t:o 9e$ie s are treated o a$most throughout as though there :as indeed no di erence 9et:een them@ either 3er9a$ or rea$8H *r8 Te$ang sa0s : [f13] HThere are se3era$ passages in the .ita :hich it is not 3er0 eas0 to reconci$e :ith one another B and no attempt is made to harmonise them8 Thus@ or examp$e@ in stan>a 1& o Chapter 2I I@ -rishna di3ides his de3otees into our c$asses@ one o :hich consists o Kmen o kno:$edgeF@ :hom@ -rishna sa0s@ he considers Fas his o:n se$ F8 It :ou$d pro9a9$0 9e di icu$t to imagine an0 expression :hich cou$d indicate higher esteem8 ?et in stan>a 4& o chapter 2I@ :e ha3e it $aid do:n@ that the de3otee is superior not on$0 to the mere per ormer o penances@ 9ut e3en to the men o kno:$edge8 The commentators 9etra0 their gnostic 9ias 90 interpreting Fmen o kno:$edgeF in this $atter passage to mean those :ho ha3e ac=uired erudition in the Shastras and their signi ications8 This is not an interpretation to 9e necessari$0 reAected8 %ut there is in it a certain t:isting o :ords@ :hich@ under the circumstances here@ I am not inc$ined to accept8 And on the other hand@ it must not 9e orgotten@ that the imp$ications air$0 deri3a9$e rom Chapter I2@ stan>a 3, Ipp8 &2@ &3J@ :ou$d seem to 9e rather than kno:$edge is superior to de3otionGis the higher stage to 9e reached 90 means o de3otion as the stepping stone8 In another passage again at .ita@ Chapter SII@ stan>a 12@ concentration is pre erred to kno:$edge@ :hich a$so seems to me to 9e irreconci$ea9$e :ith Chapter 2II@ stan>a 1&8 Take sti$$ another instance8 At .ita@ Chapter % stan>a 1"@ it is said@ that F'ord recei3es the sin or merit

o none8F ?et at Chapter 2@ stan>a 24 -rishna ca$$s himse$ the 'ord and enAo0er@H o a$$ sacri ices and penances8 +o:@ it ma0 9e :e$$ asked@ can the Supreme %eing FenAo0 that :hich he does not e3en recei3e;F Lnce more at Chapter S@ stan>a 2,@ -rishna dec$ares that Fnone is hate u$ to me@ none dear8F And 0et the remarka9$e 3erse at the c$ose o Chapter SII seem to stand in point9$ank contradiction to that dec$aration8 There through a most e$a9orate series o stan>as@ the 9urden o -rishnaFs e$o=uent sermon is Fsuch a one is dear to me8F And again in those ine 3erses@ :here -rishna :inds up his #i3ine 'a:@ he simi$ar$0 te$$s ArAuna@ that he@ ArAuna@ is FdearF to -rishna8 And -rishna a$so speaks o that de3otee as FdearF to him@ :ho ma0 pu9$ish the m0ster0 o the .ita among those :ho re erences Supreme %eing8[f14] And 0et again@ ho: are :e to reconci$e the same passage a9out none 9eing Fhate u$ or dearF to -rishna@ :ith his o:n :ords at Chapter S2I@ stan>a 1) and o$$o:ing stan>as; The $anguage used in descri9ing the FdemoniacF peop$e there mentioned is not remarka9$e or s:eetness to:ards them@ :hi$e -rishna sa0s positi3e$0@ F I hur$ do:n such peop$e into demoniac :om9s@ :here90 the0 go do:n into miser0 and the 3i$est condition8F These persons are scarce$0 characteri>ed :ith accurac0 Fas neither hate u$ nor dearF to -rishna8 It seems to me@ that a$$ these are rea$ inconsistencies in the .ita@ not such@ perhaps@ as might not 9e exp$ained a:a0@ 9ut such@ I think@ as indicate a mind making guesses at truth@ as Pro essor *ax *u$$er puts it@ rather than a mind e$a9orating a comp$ete and organi>ed s0stem o phi$osoph08 There is not e3en a trace o consciousness on the part o the author that these inconsistencies exist8 And the contexts o the 3arious pasages indicate@ in m0 Audgment@ that a ha$ 5truth is struck out here and another ha$ 5truth there@ :ith specia$ re erence to the specia$ su9Aect then under discussionB 9ut no attempt is made to organi>e the 3arious ha$ 5truths :hich are apparent$0 incompati9$e@ into a s0mmeterica$ :ho$e@ :here the apparent inconsistencies might possi9$0 3anish a$together in the higher s0nthesis8H These are the 3ie:s o :hat might 9e ca$$ed modern scho$ars8 Turning to the 3ie: o the orthodox Pandits@ :e again ind a 3ariet0 o 3ie:s8 Lne 3ie: is that the %hag3at is not a sectarian 9ook8 it pa0s e=ua$ respect to the three :a0s o sa$3ation I1J -arma marge or the path o :orks I2J %hakti marga or the path o de3otion and I3J <nana marga or the path o kno:$edge and preaches the e icac0 o a$$ three as means o sa$3ation8 In support o their contention that the .ita respects a$$ the three :a0s o sa$3ation and accepts the e icac0 o each one o them@ the Pandits point out that o the 1) Chapters o the %hag3at .ita@ Chapters I to & are de3oted to the preaching o the <nana marga@ Chapters ( to 12 to the preaching o -arma marga and Chapters 12 to 1) to the preaching o %hakti marga and sa0 that this e=ua$ distri9ution o its Chapters sho:s that the .ita upho$ds a$$ the three modes o sa$3ation8

Muite contrar0 to the 3ie: o the Pandits is the 3ie: o Shankarachar0a and *r8 Ti$ak@ 9oth o :hom must 9e c$assed amongst orthodox :riters8 Shankarachar0a he$d the 3ie: that the %hag3at .ita preached that the <nana marga :as the on$0 true :a0 o sa$3ation8 *r8 Ti$ak [f15] does not agree :ith the 3ie:s o an0 o the other scho$ars8 +e repudiates the 3ie: that the .ita is a 9und$e o inconsistencies8 +e does not agree :ith the Pandits :ho sa0 that the %hag3at .ita recogni>es a$$ the three :a0s o sa$3ation8 'ike Shankarachar0a he insists that the %hag3at .ita has a de inite doctrine to preach8 %ut he di ers rom Shankarachar0a and ho$ds that the .ita teaches -arma ?oga and not <nana ?oga8 It cannot 9ut 9e a matter o great surprise to ind such a 3ariet0 o opinion as to the message :hich the %hag3at .ita preaches8 Lne is orced to ask :h0 there shou$d 9e such di3ergence o opinion among scho$ars; *0 ans:er to this =uestion is that scho$ars ha3e gone on a a$se errand8 The0 ha3e gone on a search or the message o the %hag3at .ita on the assumption that it is a gospe$ as the -oran@ the %i9$e or the #hammapada is8 In m0 opinion this assumption is =uite a a$se assumption8 The %hag3at .ita is not a gospe$ and it can there ore ha3e no message and it is uti$e to search or one8 The =uestion :i$$ no dou9t 9e asked : 6hat is the %hag3at .ita i it is not a gospe$; *0 ans:er is that the %hag3at .ita is neither a 9ook o re$igion nor a treatise on phi$osoph08 6hat the %hag3at .ita does is to de end certain dogmas o re$igion on phi$osphic grounds8 I on that account an09od0 :ants to ca$$ it a 9ook o re$igion or a 9ook o phi$osoph0 he ma0 p$ease himse$ 8 %ut essentia$$0 it is neither8 It uses phi$osoph0 to de end re$igion8 *0 opponents :i$$ not 9e satis ied :ith a 9are statement o 3ie:8 The0 :ou$d insist on m0 pro3ing m0 thesis 90 re erence to speci ic instances8 It is not at a$$ di icu$t8 Indeed it is the easiest task8 The irst instance one comes across in reading the %hag3at .ita is the Austi ication o :ar8 ArAuna had dec$ared himse$ against the :ar@ against ki$$ing peop$e or the sake o propert08 -rishna o ers a phi$osophic de ence o :ar and ki$$ing in :ar8 This phi$osophic de ence o :ar :i$$ 9e ound in Chapter II 3erses II to 2)8 The phi$osophic de ence o :ar o ered 90 the %hag3at .ita proceeds a$ong t:o $ines o argument8 Lne $ine o argument is that an0ho: the :or$d is perisha9$e and man is morta$8 Things are 9ound to come to an end8 *an is 9ound to die8 6h0 shou$d it make an0 di erence to the :ise :hether man dies a natura$ death or :hether he is done to death as a resu$t o 3io$ence; 'i e is unrea$@ :h0 shed tears 9ecause it has ceased to 9e; #eath is ine3ita9$e@ :h0 9other ho: i has resu$ted ; The second $ine o argument in Austi ication o :ar is that it is a mistake to think that the 9od0 and the sou$ are one8 The0 are separate8 1ot on$0 are the t:o =uite distinct 9ut the0 di er in5 as5much as the 9od0 is perisha9$e :hi$e the sou$ is eterna$ and imperisha9$e8 6hen death occurs it is the 9od0 that dies8 The sou$ ne3er dies8 1ot on$0 does it ne3er die 9ut air cannot dr0 it@ ire cannot 9urn it@ and a :eapon cannot cut it8 It is there ore :rong to sa0 that :hen a man is ki$$ed his sou$ is ki$$ed8 6hat happens is that his

9od0 dies8 +is sou$ discards the dead 9od0 as a person discards his o$d c$othesG :ears a ne: ones and carries on8 As the sou$ is ne3er ki$$ed@ ki$$ing a person can ne3er 9e a matter o an0 mo3ement8 6ar and ki$$ing need there ore gi3e no ground to remorse or to shame@ so argues the %hag3at .ita8 Another dogma to :hich the %hag3at .ita comes or:ard to o er a phi$osophic de ence is Chatur3arn0a8 The %hag3at .ita@ no dou9t@ mentions that the Chatur3arn0a is created 90 .od and there ore sacrosanct8 %ut it does not make its 3a$idit0 dependent on it8 It o ers a phi$osophic 9asis to the theor0 o Chatur3arn0a 90 $inking it to the theor0 o innate@ in9orn =ua$ities in men8 The ixing o the 2arna o man is not an ar9itrar0 act sa0s the %hag3at .ita8 %ut it is ixed according to his innate@ in9orn =ua$ities8[f16] The third dogma or :hich the %hag3at .ita o ers a phi$osphic de ence is the -arma marga8 %0 -arma marga the %hag3at .ita means the per ormance o the o9ser3ances@ such as ?aAnas as a :a0 to sa$3ation8 The %hag3at .ita most stands out or the -arma marga throughout and is a great upho$der o it8 The $ine it takes to de end -arma 0oga is 90 remo3ing the excrescences :hich had gro:n upon it and :hich had made it appear =uite ug$08 The irst excrescence :as 9$ind aith8 The .ita tries to remo3e it 90 introducing the princip$e o %uddhi 0oga [f17] as a necessar0 condition or -arma 0oga8 %ecome StihtapraAna i8e8@ F%e itted :ith %uddhiF there is nothing :rong in the per ormance o -arma kanda8 The second excrescence on the -arma kanda :as the se$ ishness :hich :as the moti3e 9ehind the per ormance o the -armas8 The %hag3at .ita attempts to remo3e it 90 introducing the princip$e o Anasakti i8e8@ per ormance o karma :ithout an0 attachment or the ruits o the 9arma. [f18]!ounded in %uddhi 0oga and dissociated rom se$ ish attachment to the ruits o -arma :hat is :rong :ith the dogma o -arma kand; this is ho: the %hag3at .ita de ends the -arma marga84 It :ou$d 9e =uite possi9$e to continue in this strain@ to pick up other dogmas and sho: ho: the .ita comes or:ard to o er a phi$osophic de ence in their support :here none existed 9e ore8 %ut this cou$d 9e done on$0 i one :ere to :rite a treatise on the %hag3at .ita8 it is 9e0ond the scope o a chapter the main purpose o :hich is to assign to the %hag3at .ita its proper p$ace in the ancient Indian $iterature8 I ha3e there ore se$ected the most important dogmas Aust to i$$ustrate m0 thesis8 T:o other =uestions are sure to 9e asked in re$ation to m0 thesis8 6hose are the #ogmas or :hich the %hag3at .ita o ers this phi$osophica$ de ence; 6h0 did it 9ecome necessar0 or the %hag3at .ita to de end these #ogmas; To 9egin :ith the irst =uestion@ the dogmas :hich the .ita de ends are the dogmas o counter5re3o$ution as put orth in the %i9$e o counter5re3o$ution name$0 <aiminiFs Pur3amimamsa8 There ought to 9e no di icu$t0 in accepting this proposition8 I there is an0 it is $arge$0 due to :rong meaning attached to the :ord -arma 0oga8 *ost :riters on the %hag3at .ita trans$ate the :ord -arma 0oga as

FactionF and the :ord <anga 0oga@ as Fkno:$edgeF and proceed to discuss the %hag3at .ita as though it :as engaged in comparing and contrasting kno:$edge 3ersus action in a gener$i>ed orm8 This is =uite :rong8 The %hag3at .ita is not concerned :ith an0 genera$@ phi$osophica$ discussion o action 3ersus kno:$edge8 As a matter o act@ the .ita is concerned :ith the particu$ar and not :ith the genera$8 %0 -arma 0oga or action .ita means the dogmas contained in <aiminiFs -arma kanda and 90 <nana 0oga or kno:$edge it means the dogmas contained in %adara0anaFs %rahma Sutras8 That the .ita in speaking o -arma is not speaking o acti3it0 or inacti3it0@ =uieticism or energism@ in genera$ terms 9ut re$igious acts and o9ser3ances cannot 9e denied 90 an0one :ho has read the %hag3at .ita8 It is to $i e the .ita rom the position o a part0 pamph$et engaged in a contro3ers0 on sma$$ pett0 points and make it appear as though it :as a genera$ treatise on matters o high phi$osoph0 that this attempt is made to in $ate the meaning o the :ords -arma and <nana and make them :ords o genera$ import8 *r8 Ti$ak is $arge$0 to 9e 9$amed or this trick o patriotic Indians8 The resu$t has 9een that these a$se meanings ha3e mis$ed peop$e into 9e$ie3ing that the %hag3at .ita is an independent se$ 5contained 9ook and has no re$ation to the $iterature that has preceded it8 %ut i one :ere to keep to the meaning o the :ord -arma 0oga as one inds it in the %hag3at .ita itse$ one :ou$d 9e con3inced that in speaking o -arma 0oga the %hag3at .ita is re erring to nothing 9ut the dogmas o -arma kanda as propounded 90 <aimini :hich it tries to reno3ate and strengthen8 To take up the second =uestion : 6h0 did the %hag3at .ita ee$ it necessar0 to de end the dogmas o counter5re3o$ution; To m0 mind the ans:er is 3er0 c$ear8 It :as to sa3e them rom the attack o %uddhism that the %hag3at .ita came into 9eing8 %uddha preached non53io$ence8 +e not on$0 preached it 9ut the peop$e at $argeG5except the %rahminsGhad acepted it as the :a0 o $i e8 The0 had ac=uired a repugnance to 3io$ence8 %uddha preached against Chatur3arn0a8 +e used some o the most o ensi3e simi$es in attacking the theor0 o Chatur3arn0a8 The rame :ork o Chatur3arn0a had 9een 9roken8 The order o Chatur3arn0a had 9een turned upside do:n8 Shudras and :omen cou$d 9ecome sann0asis@ a status :hich counter5 re3o$ution had denied them8 %uddha had condemned the -arma kanda and the ?aAnas8 he condemned them on the ground o #imsa or 3io$ence8 +e condemned them a$so on the ground that the moti3e 9ehind them :as a se$ ish desire to o9tain 9onus8 6hat :as the rep$0 o the counterre3o$utionaries to this attack; Ln$0 this8 These things :ere ordained 90 the 2edas@ the 2edas :ere in a$$i9$e@ there ore the dogmas :ere not to 9e =uestioned8 In the %uddhist age@ :hich :as the most en$ightened and the most rationa$istic age India has kno:n@ dogmas resting on such si$$0@ ar9itrar0@ unrationa$istic and ragi$e oundations cou$d hard$0 stand8 Peop$e :ho had come to 9e$ie3e in non53io$ence as a princip$e o $i e and had gone so ar as to make it a ru$e o $i eG+o: cou$d the0 9e expected to accept the dogma that the

-shatri0a ma0 ki$$ :ithout sinning 9ecause the 2edas sa0 that it is his dut0 to ki$$; Peop$e :ho had accepted the gospe$ o socia$ e=ua$it0 and :ho :ere remaking societ0 on the 9asis o each one according to his meritsGho: cou$d the0 accept the chatur3arn0a theor0 o gradation@ and separation o man 9ased on 9irth simp$0 9ecause the 2edas sa0 so; Peop$e :ho had accepted the doctrine o %uddha that a$$ miser0 in societ0 is due to Tanha or :hat Ta:n0 ca$$s ac=uisiti3e instinctGho: cou$d the0 accept the re$igion :hich de$i9erat$0 in3ited peop$e to o9tain 9oons 90 sacri ices mere$0 9ecause there is 9ehind it the authorit0 o the 2edas; There is no dou9t that under the urious attack o %uddhism@ <aiminiFs counter5re3o$utionar0 dogmas :ere tottering and :ou$d ha3e co$$apsed had the0 not recei3ed the support :hich the %hag3at .ita ga3e them8 The phi$osophic de ence o the counter5 re3o$utiona8r0 doctrines gi3en 90 the %hag:at .ita is 90 no means impregna9$e8 The phi$osophic de ence o ered 90 the %hag3at .ita o the -shtri0aFs dut0 to ki$$ is to sa0 the $east pueri$e8 To sa0 that ki$$ing is no ki$$ing 9ecause :hat is ki$$ed is the 9od0 and not the sou$ is an unheard o de ence o murder8 This is one o the doctrines :hich make some peop$e sa0 that the doctrines make oneFs hair stand on their end8 I -rishna :ere to appear as a $a:0er acting or a c$ient :ho is 9eing tried or murder and p$eaded the de ence set out 90 him in the %hag3at .ita there is not the s$ightest dou9t that he :ou$d 9e sent to the $unatic as0$um8 Simi$ar$0 chi$dish is the de ence o the %hag3at .ita o the dogma o chatur3arn0a8 -rishna de ends it on the 9asis o the .una theor0 o the Sankh0a8 %ut -rishna does not seem to ha3e rea$i>ed :hat a oo$ he has made o himse$ 8 In the chatur3arn0a there are our 2arnas8 %ut the gunas according to the Sankh0as are on$0 three8 +o: can a s0stem o our 3arnas 9e de ended on the 9asis o a phi$osoph0 :hich does not recognise more than three 3arnas; The :ho$e attempt o the %hag3at .ita to o er a phi$osophic de ence o the dogmas o counterre3o$ution is chi$dishGand does not deser3e a momentFs serious thought8 1one5the5$ess there is not the s$ightest dou9t that :ithout the he$p o the %hag3at .ita the counter5re3o$ution :ou$d ha3e died out@ out o sheer stupidit0 o its dogmas8 *ischie3ous as it ma0 seem@ to the re3o$utionaries the part p$a0ed 90 the %hag3at .ita@ there is no dou9t that it resuscitated counter5re3o$ution and i the counterre3o$ution $i3es e3en toda0@ it is entire$0 due to the p$ausi9i$it0 o the phi$osophic de ence :hich it recei3ed rom the %hag3at .itaG anti52eda and anti5 ?aAna8 1othing can 9e a greater mistake than this8 As :i$$ appear rom other portions o the %hag3at .ita that it is not against the authorit0 o the 3edas and shastras IS2I@ 23@ 24: S2II@ I I@ 13@ 24J8 1or is it against the sanctit0 o the 0aAnas IIII8 ,51"J8 It upho$ds the 3irtue o 9oth8 There is there ore no di erence 9et:een <aiminiFs Pur3a *imansa and the %hag3at .ita8 I an0thing@ the %hag3at .ita is a more ormida9$e supporter o counter5re3o$ution than <aiminiFs Pur3a *irnansa cou$d ha3e e3er 9een8 It is ormida9$e 9ecause it seeks to gi3e to the doctrines o counter5re3o$ution that

phi$osophic and there ore permanent 9asis :hich the0 ne3er had 9e ore and :ithout :hich the0 :ou$d ne3er ha3e sur3i3ed8 Particu$ar$0 ormida9$e than <aiminiFs Pur3a *imansa is the phi$osophic support :hich the %hag3at .ita gi3es to the centra$ doctrine o counterre3o$utionGname$0 Chatur3arn0a8 The sou$ o the %hag3at .ita seems to 9e the de ence o Chatur3arn0a and securing its o9ser3ance in practice@ -rishna does not mere$0 rest content :ith sa0ing that Chatur3arn0a is 9ased on .una5karma 9ut he goes urther and issues t:o positi3e inAunctions8 The irst inAunction is contained in Chapter III 3erse 2&8 In this -rishna sa0s: that a :ise man shou$d not 90 counter propaganda create a dou9t in the mind o an ignorant person :ho is o$$o:er o -arma kand :hich o course inc$udes the o9ser3ance o the ru$es o Chatur3arn0a8 In other :ords@ 0ou must not agitate or excite peop$e to rise in re9e$$ion against the theor0 o -arma kand and a$$ that it inc$udes8 The second inAunction is $aid do:n in Chapter S2III 3erses 4154)8 In this -rishna te$$s that e3er0 one do the dut0 prescri9ed or his 2arna and no other and :arns those :ho :orship him and are his de3otees that the0 :i$$ not o9tain sa$3ation 90 mere de3otion 9ut 90 de3otion accompanied 90 o9ser3ance o dut0 $aid do:n or his 2arna8 In short@ a Shudra ho:e3er great he ma0 9e as a de3otee :i$$ not get sa$3ation i he has transgressed the dut0 o the ShudraGname$0 to $i3e and die in the ser3ice o the higher c$asses8 The second part o m0 thesis is that the essentia$ unction o the %hag3at gita to gi3e ne: support to <aimini at $east those portions o it :hich o er phi$osophic de ence o <aiminiFs doctrinesGhas 9ecome to 9e :ritten a ter <aiminiFs Pur3a *imansa had 9een promu$gated8 The third part o m0 thesis is that this phi$osophic de ence o the %hag3at .ita@ o the doctrines o couter5 re3o$ution 9ecame necessar0 9ecause o the attack to :hich the0 :ere su9Aected 90 the re3o$utionar0 and rationa$istic thought o %uddhism8 I must no: turn to the o9Aections that are $ike$0 to 9e raised against the 3a$idit0 o m0 thesis8 I see one $ooming $arge 9e ore me8 I sha$$ 9e to$d that I am assuming that the %hag3at .ita is posterior in time to %uddhism and to <aiminiFs Pur3a *imansa and that this asumption has no :arrant 9ehind it8 I am a:are o the act that m0 thesis runs counter to the most cherished 3ie: o Indian scho$ars a$$ o :hom@ seem to 9e more concerned in ixing a 3er0 ancient date to the compositon o the %hag3at .ita ar anterior to %uddhism and to <aimini than in inding out :hat is the message o the %hag3at .ita and :hat 3a$ue it has as a guide to manFs $i e8 This is particu$ar$0 the case :ith *r8Te$ang and *r8Ti$ak8 %ut as .ar9e [f19] o9ser3es HTo Te$ang@ as to e3er0 +induGho: much so e3er en$ightenedGit is an artic$e o aith to 9e$ie3e in so high an anti=uit0 o the %hag3at .ita and :here such necessities are po:er u$ criticism indeed comes to an end8H In the :ords o Pro 8 .ar9e : 5 HThe task o assigning a date to the .ita has 9een recogni>ed 90 e3er0 one :ho has earnest$0 tried to so$3e the pro9$em@ as 9eing 3er0 di icu$t B and the di icu$ties gro: Ia$$ the moreJ i the pro9$em is presented t:o o$d@ 3i>8@ to determine

as :e$$ the age o the origina$ .ita as a$so o its re3ision8 I am a raid that genera$$0 speaking@ :e sha$$ succeed in arri3ing@ not at an0 certainties@ 9ut on$0 at pro9a9i$ities in this matter8H 6hat are the pro9a9i$ities; I ha3e no dou9t that the pro9a9i$ities are in a3our o m0 thesis8 Indeed so ar as I can see there is nothing against it8 In examining this =uestion@ I propose irst to ad3ance direct e3idence rom the .ita itse$ sho:ing that it has 9een composed a ter <aiminiFs Pur3a *imansa and a ter %uddhism8 Chapter III 3erses ,513 o the %hag3at .ita ha3e a specia$ signi icance8 In this connection it is true that the %hag3at .ita does not re er to <aimini 90 name: nor does it mention *imansa 90 name8 %ut is there an0 dou9t that in Chapter III 3erses ,51) the %hag3at .ita is dea$ing :ith the doctrines ormu$ated 90 <aimini in his Pur3a *imansa; E3en *r8 Ti$ak[f20] :ho 9e$ie3es in the anti=uit0 o the %hag3at .ita has to admit that here the .ita is engaged in the examination o the Pur3a *imansa doctrines8 There is another :a0 o presenting this argument8 <aimini preaches pure and simp$e -arma 0oga8 The %hag3at .ita on the other hand preaches anasakti karma8 Thus the .uta preaches a doctrine :hich is undamenta$$0 modi ied 1ot on$0 the %hag3at .ita modi ies the -arma 0oga 9ut attacks the upho$ders o pure and simp$e -arma 0oga in some:hat se3ere terms8 [f21] I the .ita is prior to <aimini one :ou$d expect <aimini to take note o this attack o the %hag3at .ita and rep$0 to it8 %ut :e do not ind an0 re erence in <aimini to this anasakti karma 0oga o the %hag3at .ita8 6h0; The on$0 ans:er is that this modi ication came a ter <aimini and not 9e oreG :hich is simp$0 another :a0 o sa0ing that the %hag3at .ita :as composed a ter <aiminiFs Pur3a *imansa8 I the %hag3at .ita does not mention Pur3a *imansa it does mention 90 name the %rahma Sutras[f22] o %adara0ana8 This re erence to %rahma Sutras is a matter o great signi icance or it urnishes direct e3idence or the conc$usion that the .ita is $ater than the %rahma Sutras8 *r8 Ti$ak [f23]admits that the re erence to the %rahma Sutras is a c$ear and de niite re erence to the treatise o that name :hich :e no: ha3e8 It ma0 9e pointed out that *r8 Te$ang[f24] discusses the su9Aect in a some:hat ca3a$ier ashion 90 sa0ing that the treatise H%rahma SutrasH re erred to in the %hag3at .ita is di erent rom the present treatise :hich goes 90 that name8 +e gi3es no e3idence or so extraordinar0 a proposition 9ut re$ies on the conAectura$ statement o *r8 6e9er [f25]Ggi3en in a oot5note o his Treatise in Indian 'iterature@ again :ithout an0 e3idenceGthat the mention o %rhma Sutras in the %hag3at .ita Hma0 9e taken as an appe$$ati3e rather than as a proper name8H It :ou$d not 9e air to attri9ute an0 particu$ar moti3es to *r8 Te$ang or the 3ie: he has taken on this point8 %ut there is nothing un air in sa0ing that *r8 Te$ang [f26]shied at admitting the re erence to %rahma Sutra 9ecause he sa: that 6e9er had on the authorit0 o 6internit> assigned "// A8#8 to the

composition o the %rahma Sutras@ :hich :ou$d ha3e destro0ed his cherished theor0 regarding the anti=uit0 o the %hag3at .ita8 There is thus amp$e interna$ e3idence to support the conc$usion that the .ita :as composed a ter <aiminiFs Pur3a *imansa and %adara0anaFs %rahma Sutras8 Is the %hag3at .ita anterior to %uddhism; the =uestion :as raised 90 *r8 Te$ang: H6e come no: to another point8 6hat is the position o the .ita in regard to the great re orm o Sak0a *uni; The =uestion is one o much interest@ ha3ing regard particu$ar$0 to the remarka9$e coincidences 9et:een %uddhistic doctrines and the doctrines o the .ita to :hich :e ha3e dra:n attention in the ootnotes to our trans$ation8 %ut the materia$s or deciding the =uestion are unhappi$0 not orth coming8 Pro essor 6i$son@ indeed@ thought that there :as an a$$usion to %uddhism in the .ita8[f27] 9ut his idea :as 9ased on a con usion 9et:een the %uddhists and the Char3akas or materia$ists8[f28] !ai$ing that a$$usion@ :e ha3e nothing 3er0 tangi9$e 9ut the unsatis actor0 Fnegati3e argumentF 9ased on mere non5mention o %uddhism in the .ita8 That argument is not =uite satis actor0 to m0 o:n mind@ a$though@ as I ha3e e$se:here pointed out@[f29] some o the ground occupied 90 the .ita is common to it :ith %uddhism@ and a$though 3arious pre3ious thinkers are a$$uded to direct$0 or indirect$0 in the .ita8 There is@ ho:e3er@ one 3ie: o the acts o this =uestion@ :hich appears to me to corro9orate the conc$usion deduci9$e 90 means o the negati3e argument here re erred to8 The main points on :hich %udddhaFs protest against %rahmanism rests@ seem to 9e the true authorit0 o the 2edas and the true 3ie: o the di erences o caste8 Ln most points o doctrina$ specu$ation@ %uddhism is sti$$ 9ut one aspect o the o$der %rahmanism [f30]8 The 3arious coincidences to :hich :e ha3e dra:n attention sho: that@ i there is need to sho: it8 6e$$ no:@ on 9oth these points@ the .ita@ :hi$e it does not go the :ho$e $ength :hich %uddha goes@ itse$ em9odies a protest against the 3ie:s current a9out the time o its composition8 The .ita does not@ $ike %uddhism@ a9so$ute$0 reAect the 2edas@ 9ut it she$3es them8 The .ita does not tota$$0 root out caste8 It p$aces caste on a $ess untena9$e 9asis8 Lne o t:o h0pothesis there ore presents itse$ as a rationa$ theor0 o these acts8 Either the .ita and %uddhism :ere a$ike the out:ard mani estation o one and the same spiritua$ uphea3a$ :hich shook to its centre the current re$igion@ the .ita 9eing the ear$ier and $ess thorough going orm o it B or %uddhism ha3ing a$read0 9egun to te$$ on %rahmanism@ the .ita :as an attempt to 9o$ster it up@ so to sa0@ at its $east :eak points@ the :eaker ones 9eing a$together a9andoned8 I do not accept the $atter a$ternati3e@ 9ecause I cannot see an0 indication in the .ita o an attempt to compromise :ith a po:er u$ attack on the o$d +indu s0stem :hi$e the act that@ though strict$0 orthodox@ the author o the .ita sti$$ undermines the authorit0@ as un:ise$0 3enerated@ o the 2edic re3e$ationB and the urther act@ that in doing this@ he is doing :hat others a$so had done 9e ore him or a9out his time B go@ in m0 opinion@ a considera9$e :a0 to:ards orti 0ing the resu$ts o the negati3e argument a$read0

set orth8 To me %uddhism is per ect$0 inte$$igi9$e as one outcome o that p$a0 o thought on high spiritua$ topics@ :hich in its other@ and as :e ma0 sa0@ $ess thorough going@ mani estation :e see in the 4panishads and the .ita [f31]8H I ha3e =uoted this passage in u$$ 9ecause it is t0pica$ o a$$ +indu scho$ars8 E3er0one o them is most re$uctant to admit that the %hag3at .ita is an0:a0 in $uenced 90 %uddhism and is e3er read0 to den0 that the .ita has 9orro:ed an0thing rom %uddhism8 It is the attitude o Pro 8 Radhakrishnan and a$so o Ti$ak8 6here there is an0 simi$arit0 in thought 9et:een the %hag3at .ita and %uddhism too strong and too c$ose to 9e denied@ the argument is that it is 9orro:ed rom the 4panishads8 It is t0pica$ o the mean menta$it0 o the counterre3o$utionaries not to a$$o: an0 credit to %uddhism on an0 account8 The a9surdit0 o these 3ie:s must shock a$$ those :ho ha3e made a comparati3e stud0 o the %hag3at .ita and the %uddhist Suttas8 !or i it is true to sa0 that .ita is saturated :ith Sankh0a phi$osoph0 it is ar more true to sa0 that the .ita is u$$ o %uddhist ideas8[f32] The simi$arit0 9et:een the t:o is not mere$0 in ideas 9ut a$so in $anguage8 A e: i$$ustrations :i$$ sho: ho: true it is8 The %hag3at .ita discusses %ramha51ir3ana8 [f33] The steps 90 :hich one reaches %ramha8 1ir3ana are stated 90 the %hag3at .ita to 9e I1J Shraddha I!aith in onese$ JB I2J 20a3asa0a I!irm determinationJ: I3J Smriti IRemem9erance o the goa$JB I4J Samadhi IEarnest contemp$ationJ and I"J PraAna IInsight or True -no:$edgeJ8 !rom :here has the .ita 9orro:ed this 1ir3ana theor0; Sure$0 it is not 9orro:ed rom the 4panishads8 !or no 4panishad e3en mentions the :ord 1ir3ana8 The :ho$e idea is pecu$iar$0 %uddhist and is 9orro:ed rom %uddhism8 An0one :ho has an0 dou9t on the point ma0 compare this %ramha51ir3ana o the %hag3at .ita :ith the %uddhist conception o 1ir3ana as set out in the *ahapari5ni99ana Sutta@ It :i$$ 9e ound that the0 are the same :hich the .ita has $aid do:n or %ramha5 1ir3ana8 Is it not a act that the %hag3at .ita has 9orro:ed the entire conception o %rmhma 1ir3ana instead o 1ir3ana or no other reason except to concea$ the act o its ha3ing sto$en it rom %uddhism; Take another i$$ustration8 In Chapter 2II 3erses 1352/ there is a discussion as to :ho is dear to -rishnaB one :ho has kno:$edge@ or one :ho per orms karma or one :ho is ade3otee8 -rishna sa0s that the #e3otees is dear to him 9ut adds that he must ha3e the true marks o a #e3otee8 6hat is the charcter o a true #e3otee; According to -rishna the true de3otee is one :ho practices I1J *aitriB I$o3ing -indnessJB I2J -aruna IcompassionJ: I3J *udita Is0mpathi>ing Ao0J and I4J 4peksa IunconcernednessJ8 !rom :here has the %hag3ate .ita 9orro:ed these =ua$i ications o a per ect #e3otee; +ere again@ the source is %uddhism8 Those :ho :ant proo ma0 compare the *ahapadana Sutta@ [f34] and the Te3iAAa Sutta[f35] :here %uddha has preached :hat %ha3anas Imenta$ attitudeJ are necessar0 or one to

cherish or the training o the heart8 This comparison :i$$ sho: that the :ho$e ideo$og0 is 9orro:ed rom %uddhism and that too :ord or :ord8 Take a third i$$ustration8 In chapter SIII the %hag3at .ita descusses the su9Aect o -shetra5-shetraAna8 In 3erses (511 -rishna points out :hat is kno:$edge and :hat is ignorance in the o$$o:ing $anguage: HPride$essness I+umi$it0J@ 4npretentiousness@ 1on5inAur0 or +arm$essness@ !orgi3eness@ Straight5 or:ardness@ IuprightnessJ@ #e3otion to Preceptor@ Purit0@ Steadiness@ Se$ 5restraint@ #esire$essness to:ards o9Aects o sense@ a9sence o Egoism@ Re $ection on the su ering and e3i$ o %irth@ #eath@ decrepitude and disease@ 1on5attachment@ 1on5identi ication o onese$ :ith regard to son@ :i e and home and the rest@ Constant e3en5mindedness on approach o 9oth I:hat isJ agreea9$e and I:hat isJ disagreea9$e uns:er3ing de3otion to *e :ith undi3ided meditation o *e@ Resort to se=uestered spots Icontemp$ation@ concentration@ in so$itudeJ@ #istaste or the societ0 o :or$d$0 men@ Incessant app$ication to the kno:$edge re$ating to se$ @ Perception or rea$isation o the true purport o the kno:$edge o the Tatt3as ISamkh0a Phi$osoph0J@ a$$ this is ca$$ed Fkno:$edgeFB :hat is AAnana IIgnoranceJ :hich is the re3erse thereo 8H Can an0one :ho kno:s an0thing o the .ospe$ o %uddha den0 that the %hag3at .ita has not in these stan>as reproduced :ord or :ord the main doctrines o %uddhism; In chapter SIII 3erses "@ &@ 1)@ 1,@ the %hag3at .ita gi3es a ne: metaphorica$ interpretation o karmas under 3arious heads I1J ?aAnas Isacri icesJB I2J #ana I.i tsJB I3J Tapas IpenancesJB I4J !ood and I"J S3adh0a0a I2edic stud0J8 6hat is the source o this ne: interpretation o o$d ideas ; Compare :ith this :hat %uddha is reported to ha3e said in the *aAAhina 1ika0a 1@ 2)& Sutta S2I8 Can an0one dou9t that :hat -rishna sa0s in 3erses "@&@ 1)@ 1, o chapter S2II is a 3er9atim reproduction o the :ords o %uddha; These are on$0 a e: i$$ustrations I ha3e se$ected those o maAor doctrina$ importance8 Those :ho are interested in pursuing the su9Aect ma0 take up the re erence to simi$arities 9et:een .ita and %uddhism gi3en 90 Te$ang in the ootnotes to his edition o the %hag3at .ita and satis 0 their curiosit08 %ut the i$$ustrations I ha3e gi3en :i$$ 9e enough to sho: ho: great$0 the %hag3at .ita is permeated 90 %uddhistic ideo$og0 and ho: much the .ita has 9orro:ed rom %uddhism8 To sum up the %hag3at .ita seems to 9e de$i9erate$0 mode$$ed on %uddhists Suttas8 The %uddhists Suttas are dia$ogues8 So is the %hag3at .ita8 %uddhaFs re$igion o ered sa$3ation to :omen and Shudras8 -rishna a$so comes or:ard to o er sa$3ation to :omen and Shudras8 %uddhists sa0@ HI surrender to %uddha@ to #hamma and to Sangha8H So -rishna sa0s@ H.i3e up a$$ re$igions and surrender unto *e8H 1o para$$e$ can 9e c$oser than :hat exists 9et:een %uddhism and %hag3at .ita8

I& I ha3e sho:n that .ita is $ater than Pur3a *imansa and a$so $ater than %uddhism8 I cou$d :e$$ stop here8 %ut I ee$ I cannot8 !or there sti$$ remains one argument against m0 thesis :hich re=uires to 9e ans:ered8 It is the argument o *r8 Ti$ak8 It is an ingenious argument8 *r8 Ti$ak rea$i>es that there are man0 simi$arities in ideas and in :ords 9et:een the %hag3at .ita and %uddhism8 %uddhism 9eing ear$ier than the %hag3at .ita@ the o93ious conc$usion is that the %hag3at .ita is the de9tor and %uddhism is the creditor8 This o93ious conc$usion is not pa$ata9$e to *r8 Ti$ak or or the matter o that to a$$ upho$ders o counter5re3o$ution8 6ith them it is a =uestion o honour that counter5re3o$ution shou$d not 9e sho:n to 9e inde9ted to Re3o$ution8 To get o3er this di icu$t0 *r8 Ti$ak has struck a ne: $ine8 +e points out the distinction 9et:een +ina0ana %uddhism and *aha0ana %uddhism and sa0@ that *aha0ana %uddhism :as $ater than %hag3at .ita and i there are an0 simi$arities 9et:een the %uddhism and %hag3at .ita it is due to the 9orro:ing 90 the *aha0anist rom the %hag3at .ita8 This raises t:o =uestions8 6hat is the date o the origin o the *aha0ana %uddhism; 6hat is the date o the composition o the %hag3at .ita; The argument o *r8 Ti$ak is ingenious and c$e3er8 %ut it has no su9stance8 In the irst p$ace@ it is not origina$8 It is 9ased on certain casua$ remarks made 90 6internit> [f36] and 90 -ern[f37] in oot5notes that there are certain simi$arties 9et:een the %hag3at .ita and the *aha0an %uddhism and that there simi$arities are the resu$t o *aha0ana %uddhism 9orro:ing its ideas rom the %hag3at .ita8 %ehind these remarks there is no e3idence o specia$ research either on the part o 6internit>@ -ern or *r8 Ti$ak8 A$$ o them seem to 9e $ed a:a0 90 the assumption that the %hag3at .ita is ear$ier than *aha0ana %uddhism8 This $eads me to examine the =uestion o the date o the %hag3at .ita particu$ar$0 :ith re erence to the theor0 as put orth 90 *r8 Ti$ak8 *r8 Ti$ak [f38] is o opinion that the .ita is part o the *aha9harata and that 9oth ha3e 9een :ritten 90 one and the same author named 20asa and conse=uent$0 the date o the *aha9harata must 9e the date o the %hag3at .ita8 The *aha9harata@ *r8 Ti$ak argues@ must ha3e 9een :ritten at $east "// 0ears 9e ore the Shaka Era on the groung that the stories contained in the *aha9harata :ere kno:n to *egasthenes :ho :as in India a9out 3// %8C8 as a .reek am9assador to the court o Chandragupta *aur0a8 The Shaka Era 9egan in () A8#8 Ln this 9asis it o$$o:s that the %hag3at .ita must ha3e 9een composed 9e ore 422 %8C8 This is his 3ie: a9out the date o the composition o the present .ita8 According to him@ the origina$ .ita must ha3e 9een some centuries o$der than *aha9harata I re$iance 9e p$aced on the tradition re erred to in the %hag3at .ita that the re$igion o the %hag3at .ita :as taught 90 1ara to 1ara0an in 3er0 ancient times8 *r8 Ti$akFs theor0 as to the date o the composition o the *aha9harata is untena9$e8 In the irst p$ace@ it assumes that the :ho$e o the %hag3at .ita and the :ho$e o *aha9harat ha3e 9een :ritten at one stretch@ at one

time and 90 one hand8 There is no :arrant or such an assumption@ either in tradition@ or in the interna$ e3idence o these t:o treatises8 Con ining the discussion to the *aha9harata the assumption made 90 *r8 Ti$ak is =uite opposed to :e$$5 kno:n Indian traditions8 This tradition di3ides the compostion o the *aha9harata into three stagesB I1J <a0a I2J %harata and I3J *aha9harata and assigns to each part a di erent author8 According to this tradition 20asa :as the author o the 1st edition so to sa0 o the *aha9harata ca$$ed F<a0aF8 L the Second Edition ca$$ed F%harataF tradition assigns the authorship to 2aishampa0ana and that o the Third Edition ca$$ed *aha9harata to KSautiF8 That this tradition is :e$$5 ounded has 9een con irmed 90 the researches o Pro 8 +opkins 9ased on the examination o interna$ e3idence urnished 90 the *aha9harata8 According to Pro 8 +opkins [f39] there ha3e 9een se3era$ stages in the composition o the *aha9harata8 As has 9een pointed out 90 Pro 8 +opkins[f40] in the irst stage it :as Aust a Pandu Epic consisting o p$a0s and $egends a9out heroes :ho took part in the *aha9harata :ar :ithout the masses o didactic materia$8 Such a *aha9harata@ sa0s Pro 8 +opkins@ ma0 ha3e come into existence 9et:een 4//52// %8C8 The second stage :as the remaking o the epic 90 the inc$usion o didactic matter and the addition o Puranic materia$8 This :as 9et:een 2// %8C8 and 2// A8#8 The third stage is marked :hen I1J the $ast 9ooks :ere added to the composition as it stood at the end o the second stage :ith the introduction o the irst 9ook and I2J the s:o$$en Anushasana Par3a :as separated rom Shanti Par3a and recogni>ed as a separate 9ook8 This happened 9et:een 2// to 4// A8#8 To these three stages Pro 8 +opkins adds a ourth or a ina$ stage o occasiona$ amp$i ication :hich started rom 4// A8#8 on:ards8 In coming to this conc$usion Pro 8 +opkins has anticipated and dea$t :ith a$$ the arguments ad3anced 90 *r8 Ti$ak such as the mention o *aha9harata in Panini [f41] and in the .rih0asutras8[f42] The on$0 ne: pieces o e3idence produced 90 *r8 Ti$ak :hich has not 9een considered 90 Pro 8 +opkins are t:o8 Lne such piece o e3idence consists o the statements :hich are reported to ha3e 9een recorded 90 *egasthenes @ [f43]the .reek Am9assador to the court o Chandra .upta *aur0a@ and the other is the astronomica$ e3idence[f44]@ in the Adi Par3a :hich re ers to the 4ttara0ana starting :ith the Shra3ana conste$$ation8 The acts adduced 90 *r8 Ti$ak as coming rom *egasthenes ma0 not 9e denied and ma0 go to pro3e that at the time o *egasthenes i8e8@ a9out 3// %8C8 a cu$t o -rishna :orship had come into existence among the Sauraseni communit08 %ut ho: can this pro3e that the *aha9harata had then come into existence; It cannot8 1or can it pro3e that the $egends and stories mentioned 90 *egasthenes :ere taken 90 him rom the *aha9harata8 !or there is nothing to mi$itate against the 3ie: that these $egends and stories :ere a $oating mass o Saga and that it ser3ed as a reser3oir 9oth to the :riter o the *aha9harata as :e$$ as to .reek Am9assador8

*r8 Ti$akFs astronomica$ e3idence ma0 9e =uite sound8 +e is right in sa0ing [f45] that Hit is stated in the Anugita that 2is3amitra started the enumeration o the conste$$ation :ith Shra3ana I*a8%ha8As3a84482@ and Adi8(1834J8 That has 9een interpreted 90 commentators as sho:ing that the 4ttara0ana then started :ith the Shra3ana conste$$ation@ and no other interpretation is proper8 At the date o the 2edanga5 <0otisa@ the 4ttara0ana used to start :ith the Sun in the #hanistha conste$$ation8 According to astronomica$ ca$cu$ations@ the date :hen the 4ttara0ana shou$d start :ith the Sun in the #hanistha conste$$ation to a9out 1@"// 0ears 9e ore the Saka eraB and according to astronomica$ ca$cu$ations@ it takes a9out a thousand 0ears or the 4ttara0ana to start one conste$$ation ear$ier8 According to this ca$cu$ation@ the date :hen the 4ttara0ana ought to start :ith the Sun in the Shra3ana conste$$ation comes to a9out "// 0ears 9e ore the Saka era8 This concu$sion :ou$d ha3e 9een proper i it :as true that the *aha9harata :as one :ho$e piece@ :ritten at one time 90 one author8 It has@ ho:e3er@ 9een sho:n that there is no :arrant or such an assumption8 In 3ie: o this *r8 Ti$akFs astroncomica$ e3idence cannot 9e used to determine the date o the *aha9harata8 It cam 9e used on$0 to determine the date o that part o the *aha9harata :hich is a ected 90 itGin this case the Adi Par3a o the *aha9harata8 !or these reasons *r8 Ti$akFs theor0 as to the date o the composition o the *aha9harata must a$$ to the ground8 Indeed an0 attempt to ix a sing$e date or a :ork $ike the *aha9harata :hich is a seria$ stor0 produced in parts at $ong inter3a$s must 9e regarded as uti$e8 A$$ that one can sa0 is that the *aha9harata :as composed 9et:een 4//%8C8 to 4//A8#8 a conc$usion too 9road to 9e used or the purpose :hich *r8 Ti$ak has in 3ie:8 E3en this span seems to some scho$ars to 9e too narro:8 It is contended[f46] that the re erence to 'dukas in the 1,/th Adh0a0a o the 2anapar3a has 9een :rong$0 interpreted to mean %uddhist Stupas :hen@ as a matter o act@ it re ers to the I d$ahas created 90 the *us$im in3aders or *us$im con3erts8 I this interpretation is correct it :ou$d sho: that parts o the *aha9harata :ere :ritten a9out or a ter the in3asions o *ohammed .hori8 'et me no: turn to examine *r8 Ti$akFs theor0 as to the date o the composition o the %hag3at .ita8 There are rea$$0 t:o propositions under$0ing his theor08 !irst is that the .ita is part o the *aha9harata@ 9oth are :ritten at one time and are the handi:ork o one man8 +is second proposition is that the %hag3at .ita has 9een the same :hat it is toda0 rom the 3er0 9eginning :hen it irst came to 9e :ritten8 To a3oid con usion I propose to take them separate$08 *r8 Ti$akFs o9Aect in $inking the .ita :ith the *aha9harata in the matter o its composition is =uite o93ious8 It is to ha3e the date o the *aha9harata :hich he thinks is kno:n to derermine the date o the %hag3at .ita :hich is unkno:n8 The 9asis on :hich *r8 Ti$ak has tried to esta9$ish an integra$ connection 9et:een the *aha9harata and the %hag3at .ita is un ortunate$0 the :eakest part o his theor08 To accept that the .ita is a part o the *aha9harata 9ecause the author o 9oth is

20asa5 and this is the argument o *r8 Ti$akGis to accept a iction or a act8 It assumes that 20asa is the name o some particu$ar indi3idua$ capa9$e o 9eing identi ied8 This is e3ident rom the act that :e ha3e 20asa as the author o the *aha9harata@ 20asa as the author o the Puranas@ 20asa as the author o %hag3at .ita and 20asa as the author o the %ramha Sutras8 It cannot there ore 9e accepted as true that the same 20asa is the author o a$$ these :orks separated as the0 are 90 a $ong span o time extending to se3era$ centuries8 It is :e$$5kno:n ho: orthodox :riters :ishing to hide their identit0 get 9etter authorit0 or their :orks 90 the use o a re3ered name :ere in the ha9it o using 20asa as a nom5de5p$ume or pen name8 I the author o the .ita is a 20asa he must 9e a di erent 20asa8 There is another argument :hich seems to mi$itate against *r8 Ti$akFs theor0 o s0nchroniet0 9et:een the composition o the %hag3at .ita and the *aha9harata8 The *aha9harata consists o 1) Par3as8 There are a$so 1) Puranas8 It is curious to ind that %hag3at .ita has a$so 1) Adh0a0as8 The =uestion is : 6h0 shou$d there 9e this para$$e$ism; The ans:er is that the ancient Indian :riters regarded certain names and certain num9ers as in3ested :ith great sanctit08 The name 20asa and the num9er 1) are i$$ustrations o this act8 %ut there is more in the ixation o 1) as the chapters o the %hag3at .ita than is apparent on the ace o it8 6ho set 1) as the sacred num9er@ the *aha9harata or the .ita; I the *aha9harata@ then .ita must ha3e 9een :ritten a ter the *aha9harata8 I it is the %hag3at .ita@ then the *aha9harata must ha3e 9een :ritten a ter the .ita8 In an0 case@ the t:o cou$d not ha3e 9een :ritten at one and the same time8 These considerations ma0 not 9e accepted as decisi3e against *r8 Ti$akFs irst proposition8 %ut there is one :hich I think is decisi3e8 I re er to the re$ati3e position o -rishna in the *aha9harata and in the %hag3at .ita8 In the *aha9harata@ -rishna is no:here represented as a .od accepted 90 a$$8 The *aha9harata itse$ sho:s the peop$e :ere not prepared e3en to gi3e him the irst p$ace8 6hen at the time o the RaAasu0a ?aAna@ #harma o ered to gi3e -rishna priorit0 in the matter o honouring the guest@ Shishupa$aGthe near re$ation o -rishnaGprotested and a9used -rishna8 +e not on$0 charged him :ith $o: origin@ 9ut a$so :ith $oose mora$s@ an intriguer :ho 3io$ated ru$es o :ar or the sake o 3ictor08 So a9horent 9ut so true :as this record o -rishnaFs ou$ deeds that :hen #ur0odhan $ung them in the ace o -rishna@ the *aha9harata itse$ in the .ada Par3a records that the .ods in hea3en came out to $isten to the charges made 90 #ur0odhan against -rishna and a ter $istening sho:ered $o:ers as a token o their 3ie: that the charges contained the :ho$e truth and nothing 9ut the truth8 Ln the other hand@ the %hag3at .ita presented -rishna as .od omnipotent@ omniscient@ omnipresent@ pure@ $o3ing@ essence o goodness8 T:o such :orks containing t:o =uite contradictor0 estimates a9out one and the same persona$it0 cou$d not ha3e 9een :ritten at one and the same time 90 one and the same author8 It is a pit0 that *r8 Ti$ak in his anxiet0 to gi3e a pre5%uddhist date to the

composition o the %hag3at .ita shou$d ha3e comp$ete$0 ai$ed to take note o these important considerations8 The second proposition o *r8 Ti$ak is e=ua$$0 unsound8 The attempt to ix a date or the composition o the %hag3at .ita is nothing 9ut the pursuit o a mirage8 It is doomed to ai$ure8 The reason is that the %hag3at .ita is not a sing$e 9ook :ritten 90 a sing$e author8 It consists o di erent parts :ritten at di erent times 90 di erent authors8 Pro 8 .ar9e is the on$0 scho$ar :ho has seen the necessit0 o o$$o:ing this $ine o in=uir08 Pro 8 .ar9e ho$d that there are t:o parts o the %hag3at .ita one origina$ and one added8 I am not satis ied :ith this statement8 *0 reading o the %hag3at .ita $eads me to the conc$usion that there ha3e 9een our separate parts o %hag3at .ita8 The0 are so distinct that taking e3en the present treatise as it stands the0 can 9e easi$0 marked o 8 IiJ The origina$ .ita :as nothing more than a heroic ta$e to$d or a 9a$$ad recited 90 the 9ards o ho: ArAuna :as not prepared to ight and ho: -rishna orced him to engage in 9att$e@ ho: ArAuna 0ie$ded and so on8 It ma0 ha3e 9een a romantic stor0 9ut there :as nothing re$igious or phi$osophica$ in it8 This origina$ .ita :i$$ 9e ound em9edded in Chapter I@ Chapter II@ 3erses88 8 88 and Chapter SI 3erses 32533 in :hich -rishna is reported to ha3e ended the argument: H %e m0 too$@ carr0 out m0 :i$$@ donFt :orr0 a9out sin and e3i$ resu$ting rom ighting@ do as I te$$ 0ou@ donFt 9e impudent8H8 This is the argument :hich -rishna used to compe$ ArAuna to ight8 And this argument o coercion and compu$sion made ArAuna 0ie$d8 -rishna pro9a9$0 threatened ArAuna :ith 9rute orce i he did not actua$$0 use it8 The assumption o 2ish3a5rupa 90 -rishna is on$0 di erent :a0 o descri9ing the use o 9rute orce8 Ln that theor0 it is possi9$e that the chapter in the present %hag3at .ita dea$ing :ith 2ish3a5rupa is a$so a part o the origina$ %hag3at .ita8 IiiJ The irst patch on the origina$ %hag3at .ita is the part in :hich -rishna is spoken o as Ish3ara8 the .od o the %hag3at re$igion8 This part o the .ita is em9edded in those 3erses o the present %hag3at .ita :hich are de3oted to %hakti ?oga8 IiiiJ The second patch on the origina$ %hag3at .ita is the part :hich introduces the Sankh0a and the 2edanta phi$osoph0 as a de ence to the doctrines o Pur3a *imansa :hich the0 did not ha3e 9e ore8 The .ita :as origina$$0 on$0 a historica$ Saga :ith the cu$t o -rishna came to 9e inter:o3en8 The Phi$osoph0 portion o the %hag3at .ita :as a $ater intrusion can 9e pro3ed =uite easi$0 rom the nature o the origina$ dia$ogue and the se=uence o it8 In chapter I 3erses 2/54( ArAuna mentions those di icu$ties8 In chapter II -rishna attempts to meet the di icu$ties mentioned 90 ArAuna8 There are arguments and counter arguments8 -rishnaFs irst argument is contained in 3erse 2 and 3 in :hich -rishna te$$s ArAuna that his conduct is in amous@ un9ecoming an Ar0a and that he

shou$d not p$a0 the part o an e eminate :hich :as un:orth0 o him8 To this@ ArAuna gi3es a rep$0 :hich is em9odied in 3erses 4 to )8 In 3erses 4 to " he sa0s@ Hho: can I ki$$ %hishma and #rona :ho are entit$ed to highest re3erence: it :ou$d 9e 9etter to $i3e 90 9egging than ki$$ them8 I do not :ish to $i3e to enAo0 a kindom :on 90 ki$$ing o$d re3ered e$ders8 H In 3erses & to ) ArAuna sa0s: HI do not kno: :hich o the t:o is more meritorious@ :hether :e shou$d 3an=uish the -aura3as or :hether :e shou$d 9e 3an=uished 90 them8 H-rishnaFs rep$0 to this is contained in 3erses 11 to 3, in :hich he propounds IiJ that grie is unAusti ied 9ecause things are imperisha9$e@ IiiJ that it is a a$se 3ie: that a man is ki$$ed :hen the atman is eterna$ and IiiiJ that he must ight 9ecause it is the dut0 o the -shatri0a to ight8 An0 one :ho reads the dia$ogue :i$$ notice the o$$o:ing points: I1J The =uestions put 90 ArAuna are not phi$osophica$ =uestions8 The0 are natura$ =uestions put 90 a :or$d$0 man aced :ith :or$d$0 pro9$ems8 I2J 4pto a point -rishna treats them as natura$ =uestions and returns to them =uite natura$ rep$ies8 I3J The dia$ogue takes a ne: turn8 ArAuna a ter ha3ing in ormed -rishna positi3e$0 and de inite$0 that he :i$$ not ight@ sudden$0 takes a ne: turn and expresses a dou9t :hether it is agood to ki$$ the -aura3as or 9e ki$$ed 90 them8This is a de$i9erate departure designed to gi3e -rishna a phi$osophica$ de ence o :ar@ unca$$ed or 90 an0thing said 90 ArAuna8 I4J Again there is a drop in the tone o -rishna rom 3erses 31 to 3)8 +e treats the =uestion as natura$ and te$$s him to ight 9ecause it is the dut0 o the -shatri0a to ight8 An0one can see rom this that the introduction o the 2edanta phi$osoph0 is =uite unnatura$ and there ore a $ater intrusion8 6ith regard to the introduction o the Sankh0a phi$osoph0 the case is =uite o93ious8 L ten it is expounded :ithout an0 =uestion 90 ArAuna and :hene3er it has 9een propounded in ans:er to a =uestion that =uestion has nothing to do :ith the :ar8 This sho:s that the phi$osophic parts o the %hag3at .ita are not parts o the origina$ .ita 9ut ha3e 9een added $ater on and in order to ind a p$ace or them@ ne:@ appropriate and $eading =uestions ha3e 9een put in the mouth o ArAuna :hich ha3e nothing to do :ith the mundane pro9$ems o :ar8 Ii3J The third patch on the oriina$ %hag3at .ita consists o 3erses in :hich -rishna is e$e3ated rom the position o Ish:ara to that o Parmesh:ara8 This patch can 9e easi$0 detected as 9eing chapters S and S2 :here -rishna sa0s: IMuotation not mentionedJ 8888888888 As I said@ to go in or a precise date or the composition o the %hag3at .ita is to go on a oo$Fs errand and that i an attempt in that direction is to 9e o an0 3a$ue@ e ort must 9e directed to determine the date o each patch separate$08 Proceeding in this :a0 it is possi9$e that :hat I ha3e ca$$ed the origina$ unphi$osophic %hag3at .ita :as part o the irst edition o the *aha9harata ca$$ed

<a0a8 The irst patch on the origina$ %hag3at .ita in :hich -rishna is depicted as Ish3ara must 9e p$aced in point o date sometimes $ater than *egasthenes :hen -rishna :as on$0 a tri9a$ .od8[f47] +o: much $ater it is not possi9$e to sa08 %ut it must 9e considera9$0 $ater8 !or it must 9e remem9ered that the %rahmins :ere not riend$0 to -rishnaism in the 9eginning8 In act the0 :ere opposed to it8 [f48] It must ha3e taken some time 9e ore the %rahmins cou$d ha3e 9ecome reconci$ed to -rishna :orship8[f49] The second patch on the origina$ %ha3at .ita8 ha3ing re erence to Sankh0a and 2edanta must or reason a$read0 gi3en 9e p$aced $ater than the Sutras o <aimini and %adara0ana8 The =uestion o the date o these Sutras has care u$$0 9een examined 90 Pro 8 <aco9i[f50]8 is !"n!#usi"n is that these Sutras $ere !"m%"sed s"metime &et$een 200 and 450 A.D. The third patch on the origina$ %hag3at .ita in :hich -rishna is raised into Parmesh3ara must 9e p$aced during the reign o the .upta -ings8 The reason is o93ious8 .upta kings made -rishna52as8ude3 their ami$0 deit0 as their opponents the Shaka kings had made *ahadeo their ami$0 deit08 The %rahmins to :hom re$igion has 9een a trade@ :ho :ere ne3er de3oted to one .od 9ut came or:ard to :orship the deit0 o the ru$ing race thought o p$easing their masters 90 making their ami$0 deit0 into a high and might0 Parmesh3ar8 I this is correct exp$anation then this patch on the origina$ %hag3at .ita must 9e p$aced 9et:een 4// and 4&4 A8#8 A$$ this goes to con irm the 3ie: that the attempt to p$ace the %hag3at .ita prior in point o time to %uddhism cannot succeed8 It is the resu$t o :ish u$ thinking on the part o those :ho ha3e inherited a positi3e dis$ike to %uddha and his re3o$utionar0 gospe$8 +istor0 does not support it8 +istor0 pro3es =uite a9norma$$0 that at an0 rate those portions o the %hag3at .ita :hich ha3e an0 doctrina$ 3a$ue are considera9$0 $ater in point o time to the %uddhist canon and the Sutras o <aimini and %adara0ana8 The discussion o the dates not on$0 pro3es that the %hag3at .ita is $ater than +ina0ana %uddhism 9ut is a$so $ater than *aha0ana %uddhism8 The impression pre3ai$s that *aha0ana %uddhism is $ater in origin8 It is supposed to ha3e come into 9eing a ter A8#8 1// :hen -anishka he$d the third %uddhist Counci$ to sett$e the dissension in the %uddhist Church8 This is a9so$ute$0 a mistake8 [f51] It is not true that a ter the Counci$ a ne: creed o %uddhism came into existence8 6hat happened is that ne: names o a9use came into existence or parties :hich :ere 3er0 o$d8 As *r8 -imura has sho:n the *aha0anist is simp$0 another name or the sect o %uddhists kno:n as *ahasanghikas8 The sect o *ahasanghikas had come into 9eing 3er0 much ear$ier than is supposed to 9e the case8 I tradition 9e 9e$ie3ed the sect had come into 9eing at the time o the !irst %uddhist Counci$ he$d at Pata$iputra 23& 0ears a ter the death o %uddha i8e8@ 3/( %8C [f52] or sett$ing the %uddhist canon and is said to ha3e $ed the opposition to the Thera3ad sect o %uddhism :hich $ater

on came to 9e stigmati>ed as +ina0ana I:hich means those ho$ding to the $o: pathJ8 There cou$d hard$0 9e an0 trace o %hag3at .ita :hen the *ahasanghikas $ater kno:n as *aha0anists came into 9eing8 Apart rom this :hat ha3e the *aha0anists 9orro:ed rom the %hag3at .ita; Indeed :hat can the0 9orro: rom the %hag3at .ita; As *r8 -imura points out the doctrine o e3er0 schoo$ o %uddhism is main$0 concerned at $east :ith three doctrines: I1J Those :hich dea$ :ith cosmic existenceB I2J Those :hich dea$ :ith %uddho$og0B and I3J Those :hich dea$ :ith conception o human $i e8 *aha0ana is no exception to this8 Except pro9a9$0 on %uddho$og0 the *aha0anists cou$d hard$0 use the %hag3at .ita to dra: upon So di erent is the aproach o the t:o on the other doctrines and e3en this possi9i$it0 is exc$uded 90 the actor o time8 The oregoing discussion comp$ete$0 destro0s the on$0 argument that cou$d 9e urged against m0 thesisGname$0 that the %hag3at .ita is 3er0 ancient@ pre5 %uddhistic in origin and there ore cou$d not 9e re$ated to <aiminiFs Pur3a *imansa and treated as an attempt to gi3e a phi$osophic de ence o his counter5re3o$utionar0 doctrines8 To sum up@ m0 thesis is three5 o$d8 In other :ords it has three parts8 !irst is that the %hag3at .ita is undamenta$$0 a counter5re3o$utionar0 treatise o the same c$ass as <aminiFs Pur3a *imansaGthe o icia$ %i9$e o counter5re3o$ution8 Some :riters re$0ing on 3erses 4/54& o Chapter II ho$d the 3ie: that the %hag3at .ita is NIn all the copies available with us, the essa% has been le"t here incomplete, as is seen "rom the above sentence*Editors8J C,APTER -> Anal(tical Notes o* &irat Parva ? 7d(o# Parva &IRAT PAR&A 18 The spies sent 90 -aura3as to search or the existence o the Panda3as return to #ur0odhan and te$$ him that the0 are una9$e to disco3er them8 The0 ask his permission as to :hat to do 2irat Par3a@ Adh0a8 2"8 28 #ur0odhan asks or ad3ice rom his ad3isers8 -ama said send other spies8 #ushasan said the0 might ha3e gone 9e0ond the sea8 %ut search or them8G Ibid. * Adh0a8 2&8 38 #rona said the Panda3as are not $ike$0 to 9e de eated or destro0ed8 The0 ma0 9e $i3ing as Tapasis8 there ore send Siddhas and %rahamins as spiesG Ibid. Adh0a 2(8 48 %hishma supports #ronaGIbid Adh0a8 2)8 "8 -ripachar0a supported %hishma and addedGPanda3as are great enemies8 %ut :ise man does not neg$ect e3en sma$$ enemies8 6hi$e the0 are in A$n%atavasa 0ou shou$d go on co$$ecting armies rom no:8G Ibid Adh0a8 2,8

&8 Then Susharma -ing o Trigarth raised =uite a di erent su9Aect8 +e said that 9ichaka :ho :as the +enapati o -ing 2irat I hear dead@ -ing 2irat is to gi3e us great trou9$e8 -ichaka ha3ing 9een dead 2irat must ha3e 9ecome 3er0 :eak8 6h0 not in3ade the -ingdom o 2irat; This is the most opportune time8 -ama a$so supported Susharma8 6h0 :orr0 a9out the Panda3as@ these Panda3as are :ithout :ea$th@ :ithout arm0 and a$$en8 6h0 9other :ith them; The0 might ha3e e3en 9een dead 90 no:8 .i3e up the search and $et undertake the proAect o SusharmaG Ibid Adh0a8 3/8 (8 SusharmaFs in3asion o 2airat8 Susharma carries a:a0 the co:s o 2irat8 The co: herds go and in orm 2irat o this and ask him to pursue Susharma and rescue the co:s8GIbid Adh0a8 318 )8 2irat 9ecame read0 or :ar8 In the mean:hi$e +hatanik the 0ounger 9rother o 2irat suggested that instead o going a$one he might take :ith him -ank ISahadeoJ %a$$a3a I?udhishtiraJ Santipa$ I%himaJ and .ranthik I1aku$aJ to he$p him to ight Susharma8 2irat agreed and the0 a$$ :entG Ibid. Adh0a8 318 ,8 6ar 9et:een Shusharma and 2iratG Ibid Adh0a8 328 1/8 ?udhishthira rescues 2irat8GIbid. Adh0a8 338 118 Announcement in the 2irat 1agari that their -ing is sa e8G Ibid Adh0a8 348 ENTR6 IN &IRAT NA)ARI B6 =A7R&A$ 128 6hi$e -ing 2irat :ent a ter Susharman #ur0odhan :ith Bhishma, Drona, 9ama, 9rapa, Ashvashthama, +hakuni, Dushashana, <ivinshati, <ikarna, Chitrasen, Durmukha, Dushala and other :arriers entered the 2irat 1agari and captured the co:s o 2irat and :ere going a:a08 The co:herds came to the pa$ace o -ing 2irat and ga3e the ne:s8 The0 need not ind the -ing 9ut the0 ound his son =ttar. so the0 ga3e him the ne:s8GIbid Adh0a8 3"8 138 =ttar 9egan to 9oast sa0ing he :as superior to ArAuna and :ou$d do the Ao98 %ut his comp$aint :as that there :as no one to act his +arathi. Draupadi went and told him that Brahannada :as at one time the Sarathi o ArAuna8 6h0 not ask him; +e said he had no courage and re=uested #raupadi to make the re=uest8 6h0 not ask 0our 0ounger sister 5anorama. So he to$d *anorama to 9ring %rahannadaG Ibid Adh0a8 3&8 148 *anorama takes %rahannada to his 9rothers and 4ttara persuades him to 9e his Sarathi8 %rahannada agreed and took the Rath o 4ttara in ront o the -aura3as GIbid. Adh0a8 3(8 1"8 Ln seeing the arm0 o the -aura3as 4ttara $e t the Rath and started running a:a08 ArAuna stopped him8 The -aura3as seeing this 9egan to suspect that the man might 9e ArAuna8 ArAuna to$d him not to 9e a raidG Ibid Adh0a8 3)8

1&8 ArAuna took his Ratha to the Shami tree8 Seeing this #rona said he must 9e ArAuna8 +earing this the -aura3as :ere great$0 upset8 %ut #ur0odhana said i #rona is right it is good or us8 %ecause it is 9e ore the thirteenth 0ear that the Panda3as :i$$ ha3e 9een disco3ered and the0 :i$$ ha3e to su er 2ana3as again or 12 0ears8G Ibid Adh0a8 3,8 1(8 ArAuna asks 4ttara to c$im9 the Shami tree and to take do:n the :eapons8G Ibid Adh0a8 4/8 1)8 4ttaraFs dou9ts a9out the corpse on the Shami !ree*Ibid Adh0a8 418 1,8 4ttaraFs excitement a ter seeing the :eaponsG Ibid Adh0a8 428 2/8 ArAunaFs description o the :eapons8G Ibid Adh0a8 438 218 4ttaraFs In=uir0 regarding the :herea9outs a9out the Panda3as8G Ibid Adh0a8 448 228 C$im9ing do:n o 4ttara rom the treeGIbid Adh0a8 4"8 238 The Rath :ith 2anar S0m9o$8 #rona 9ecomes sure that he is ArAuna8 %ad omens seen 90 the arm0 o the -aura3as8G Ibid Adh0a8 4&8 248 #ur0odhan encourages the so$diers :ho :ere rightened 90 #ronaFs sa0ing that it :as ArAuna8 -amaFs s$ander o #rona and proposa$ to #ur0odhan to remo3e #rona as a Commander5in5Chie 8G Ibid Adh0a8 4(8 2"8 %oasting 90 -ama and PratiAna to de eat ArAunaG Ibid Adh0a8 4)8 2&8 -rapachar0aFs admonition to -ama not to 9rag and 9oast8 6ar is regarded as 9ad 90 the ShastrasGIbid Adh0a8 4,8 2(8 Ash3asthama a9uses -ama and #ur0odhan 9ecause o their s$ander o #rona GIbid Adh0a8 "/8 2)8 Asha3ashthama a9used -ama and #ur0odhan or speaking i$$ o #rona8 -ama rep$ied@ Fa ter a$$ I am on$0 a Suta8@F %ut ArAuna has 9eha3ed as 9ad as Rama 9eha3ed to:ards 2a$iGIbid Adh0a8 "/8 2,8 Ash3ashthama :as =uieted 90 %hisma@ #rona and -rapa@ #ur0odhan and -ama tendered apo$og0 to #ronaG -Ibid Adh0a8 "18 3/8 %hishmaFs decision that the Panda3as ha3e comp$eted 13 0ears8G ibid Adh0a8 "28 318 ArAuna has de eated the arm0 o the -aura3as8G Ibid Adh0a8 "38 328 ArAuna de eats -amaFs Bhrata. ArAuna de eats -ama and -ama runs a:a0G Ibid Adh0a8 "48 338 ArAuna destro0s the arm0 o the -aura3as and 9reaks the Rath o -ripachar0a GI9id Adh0a8 ""8 348 .ods came out in hea3en to :itness the ight 9et:een ArAuna and the arm0 o the -aura3asGIbid Adh0a8 "&8 3"8 %att$e 9et:een -rapa and ArAuna and the running a:a0 o -rapa8G Ibid Adh0a8 "(8 3&8 %att$e 9et:een #rona and ArAuna and running a:a0 o #rona8G Ibid Adh0a8 ")8 3(8 %att$e 9et:een Asha3ashthama and ArAunaG Ibid Adh0a8 ",8

3)8 %att$e 9et:een -ama and ArAuna@ de eat o -amaGAdh0a8 &/8 3,8 Attack on %hishma 90 ArAunaGIbid Adh0a8 &18 4/8 ArAuna ki$$s the -aura3as so$diersGIbid Adh0a8 &28 418 #e eat o %hishma and his running a:a0 rom the %att$e5 ie$dG Ibid Adh0a8 &48 428 !ainting o the so$diers o the -aura3as8 %hishmas te$$ing them to return home8GIbid Adh0a8 &&8 438 -aura3a so$diers surrendering to ArAuna rom Abha%. 4ttar and ArAuna return to 2irat 1agariG Ibid Adh0a8 &(8 448 2irat enters his capita$ and his peop$e honouring him8G Ibid Adh0a8 &)8 4"8 The Panda3as enter the -ingFs Assem9$08GI9id Adh0a8 &,8 4&8 ArAuna introduces his other 9rothers in 2irat855 Ibid Adh0a8 (18 4(8 *arriage 9et:een ArAunaFs son and the daughter o 2irat8G -lbid Adh0a8 (28 4)8 Therea ter the Panda3as $ea3e 2irat 1agari and $i3e in 4pap$o:0a 1agariG I9id Adh0a8 (28 4,8 ArAuna therea ter 9rought his son A9himan0u@ 2asude3@ and ?ada3 rom Anrut #eshGlbid Adh0a8 (28 "/8 !riends o ?udhisthir such as -ings -ashiraA and Sha$0a came :ith t:o Akshauhini arm08 Simi$ar$0 ?ag0asen #rupadraA came :ith one Akshauhini8 #raupadiFs a$$ sons AAink0a@ Shikhandi@ #rustadumna a$so came 8G Ibid (28 7D69)APAR&A 18 A ter the marriage o A9himan0u the ?ada3as and the Panda3as met in the Sa9ha o -ing 2irat8 -rishna addresses them as to :hat is to 9e done a9out the uture8 6e must do :hat is good 9oth -aura3as and Panda3as8 #harma :i$$ accept an0thingGe3en one 3i$$agaG90 Dharma. E3en i he is gi3en the :ho$e kingdom 90 #ur0odhana he :i$$ not accept it8 4pto no: the Panda3as ha3e o9ser3ed Diti. %ut i the -aura3as o9ser3e Aniti the Panda3as :i$$ not hesitate to ki$$ the -aura3as8 'et no9od0 9e a raid on account o the act that the Panda3as are a minorit08 The0 ha3e man0 riends :ho :i$$ come to their rescue8 6e must tr0 to kno: the :ishes o the -aura3as8 I suggest that :e shou$d send a messanger to #ur0odhan and ask him to gi3e part o the -ingdom to the Panda3as8G4d0og Par3a@ Adh0a8 18 28 %a$aram supports the proposa$ o -rishna 9ut added that it :as the au$t o #harma kno:ing that he :as $osing at the hands o Shakuni8 There ore instead o ighting :ith the -aura3as get :hat 0ou can 90 negotiation8G lhid, Adh0a8 28 38 Sat0aki got up and condemned %a$aram or his attitudeG Ibid, Adh0a8 38 48 #rupad supports Sat0aki8 #rupad agrees to send his Purohit as a messangerG Ibid, Adh0a8 48 "8 -rishna supports #rupad and goes to #:arka8 -ings in3ited 90 #rupad and 2irat arri3e8 Simi$ar$0 -ings in3ited 90 #ur0odhan arri3e8G lhid. Adh3a8 "8

&8 #rupada instructs his purohit ho: to speak in the assem9$0 and dea$ :ith the issue8GIbid Adh0a8 &8 (8 ArAuna and #ur0odhana 9oth go to #:arka to ask or his aid in the :ar8 +e said I :i$$ he$p 0ou 9oth8 I can gi3e m0 arm0 to one and I can Aoin one sing$08 Choose :hat 0ou :ant8 #ur0odhan chose the arm08 ArAuna choose -rishna8G Ibid Adh0a8 (8 )8 Coming o Sha$0a to the Panda3as :ith a$arge arm08 #ur0odhan thinks him $o:er8 *eeting o Sha$0a and Panda3as8 Panda3as re=uest Sha$0a to discourage -ama in the :ar8 Agreement o Sha$0a8G Ibid. Adh0a8 )8 ,8 Adh0a8 ,GIrre$e3ant8 1 1/8 Adh0a8 1/GIrre$e3ant8 118 Adh0a8 IIGIrre$e3ant8 128 Adh0a8 12GIrre$e3ant8 138 Adh0a8 13GIrre$e3ant8 148 Adh0a8 14GIrre$e3ant8 1"8 Adh0a8 1"GIrre$e3ant8 1&8 Adh0a8 1&GIrre$e3ant8 1(8 Adh0a8 1(GIrre$e3ant8 1)8 Adh0a8 1)GIrre$e3ant8 1,8 Adh0aGSat0aki comes to Pand3as :ith his arm0 and %hagadatta :ent to #ur0odhana8 2/8 Adh0a8 2/GThe Purohit o #rupada enters the -aura3as Sa9ha8 The Purohit said that the Pand3as are prepared to part e3i$ deeds o the -aura3as and make a compromise :ith them8 +e to$d them that the Panda3as ha3e a $arge arm0 0et the0 :ish to compromise8 218 Adh0a8 21G%hishma supports the Purohit8 -ama o9Aects8 #ispute 9et:een %hishma and -ama8 #hratrarashtra suggests that SanAa0a 9e sent or negotiation on their 9eha$ 8 228 Adh0a8 22G#hratrarashtra sends SanAa0a to go to the Pand3as and gi3e his 9$essings and sa0 :hat 0ou think 9est or the occasion and :hich :i$$ not ad3ance enmit0 9et:een the t:o8 238 Adh0a8 23GSanAa0aFs going to the Pand3as8 248 Adh0a8 24GCon3ersation 9et:en SanAa0a and ?udhistira8 2"8 Adh0a8 2"GSanAa0a condemns :ar8 2&8 Adh0a8 2&G#harma sa0s FI am prepared to compromise i the -aura3as gi3e us our -ingdom o Indraprastha8 2(8 Adh0a8 2(GIt is Adharma to ki$$ 6uru@an and o9tain a -ingdom8 I the -aura3as re use to gi3e 0ou an0 kingdom :ithout :ar 0ou had 9etter $i3e 90 9egging in the -ingdom o 2rishni and Andhakas8 2)8 Adh0a8 2)GSa0s@ #harma %$ame us SanAa0a i 0ou think :e ha3e acted or acting against #harma8 SanAa0a sa0s I :ant S:adharma

or Sama8 2,8 Adh0a8 2,G-rishnaFs address to SanAa0a :h0 :ar is $egitimate and asks him to go and te$$ his 3ie:s to #hratarashtra8 3/8 Adh0a8 3/GSanAa0a returns to -aura3as and te$$s #ur0odhana to :ar8 #ur0odhan either to return Indraprastha to the Panda3as or 9e read0 or :ar8 318 Adh0a8 3/GSanAa0a te$$s #ur0odhan to $i3e and $et $i3e8 I he cannot gi3e Indraprastha $et him gi3e us i3e 3i$$ages8 328 Adh0a8 31GSanAa0a reaches #ratrarashtra at night and te$$s him I :i$$ gi3e 0ou the message o #harma in the morning8 338 Adh0a8 32G#hratarashtra is uneas0 and :ants to kno: the message SanAa0a 9rought8 So he sends or SanAa0a immediate$08 SanAa0a gi3es him the message and sa0s sett$e the dispute 90 g:i3ing them their share o the -ingdom8 348 Adh0a8 34G#hratarashtra ca$$s or 2idura and asks his ad3ice8 +is ad3ice is@ gi3e the Panda3as their portion o the -ingdom8 3"8 Adh0a8 3"GIrre$e3ant8 3&8 Adh0a8 3&GIrre$e3ant8 2idur sa0s make the t:o sides riends8 3(8 Adh0a8 3(GIrre$e3ant8 3)8 Adh0a 3)GIrre$e3ant8 3,8 Adh0a8 3,G#hratarashtra te$$s 2idura I cannot gi3e up #ur0odhan a$though he is 9ad8 4/8 Adh0a8 4/G2idura descri9es Chatur3arna8 418 Adh0a8 41G#hratarashtra asks 2idur a9out %rahma8 +e sa0s I canFt 9ecause I am a Shudra8 Then comes Sanat5SuAata8 428 Adh0a8 42GCon3ersation 9et:een #hratarashtra N Sanat SuAata on %rahma 2id0a8 438 Adh0a8 43G#ia$ogue 9et:een Sanat SuAat and #hratarashtra on the same su9Aect8 448 Adh0a8 44GSanat SuAata on %rahma 2id0a8 4"8 Adh0a8 4"GSanat SuAata preaches 0oga8 4&8 Adh0a8 4&GSanat SuAat on Atma8 4(8 Adh0a8 4(G-aura3as come to the Sa9ha to hear the message 9rought 90 SanAa0a8 4)8 Adh0a8 4)GSanAa0a de$i3ers the message8 IParticu$ar$0 that part :hich :as gi3en 90 ArAuna;J 4,8 Adh0a8 4,GPraise o ArAuna N -rishna 90 %hishma8 -ama gets angr08 #rona supports %hisma and ad3ices compromise8 "/8 Adh0a8 "/G#hratarashtra asks SanAa0a :ho are the a$$ies o the Pand3as N their strength8 SanAa0a taunts@ gets up ans:ers8

"18 Adh0a8 "1G#hratarashtra thinks o the pro:ess o %hismna and sighs8 "28 Adh0a8 "2G#hratarashtra thinks o the pro:ess o ArAuna and sighs8 "38 Adh0a8 "3G#hratarashtra thinks o the pro:ess o #harma and his riends8 +e te$$s his sons to compromise :ith the Panda3as8 "48 Adh0a8 "4GSanAa0a predicts the de eat o the -aura3as8 ""8 Adh0a8 ""G#ur0odhan sa0s Panda3as cannot de eat us 9ecause our orces are greater8 "&8 Adh0a8 "&GSanAa0a descri9es the disposition o the arm0 made 90 the Panda3as8 "(8 Adh0a8 "(GSanAa0a descri9es ho: Panda3as ha3e designed to ki$$ the :arriors o the -aura3as8 #ur0odhan sa0s he is not a raid o the Pand3as de eating the -aura3as :ho ha3e a $arger arm08 ")8 Adh0a8 ")G#hratarashtra te$$s #ur0odhan not to ight8 #ur0odhan takes oath not to s:er3e rom 9att$e8 #hratarashtra :eeps8 ",8 Adh0a8 ",G#hratarashtra te$$s SanAa0a to te$$ him :hat con3ersation took p$ace 9et:een -rishna N ArAuna8 &/8 Adh0a8 &/G#hratarashtra te$$s #ur0odhan that the #e3as :i$$ he$p the Panda3as and :i$$ ruin the -aura3as8 &18 Adh0a8 &1G#ur0odhan sa0s he is not a raid o that8 &28 Adh0a8 &2G-ama sa0s he a$one is capa9$e o ki$$ing ArAuna8 &38 Adh0a8 &3G#ur0odhan sa0s he is ighting re$0ing on -ama N not on %hishma@ #rona etc8 &48 Adh0a8 &4G2idura te$$s #ur0odhan gi3e up enmit08 &"8 Adh0a8 &"G#ratarashtra admonishes #ur0odhan8 &&8 Adh0a8 &&GSanAa0a te$$s #ratarashtra the message o ArAuna8 &(8 Adh0a8 &(GThe kings :ho had assem9$ed in the ha$$ o the -aura3as return to their homes8 20as and .andhari come :ith 2idur8 20as to$d SanAa0a to te$$ #hratarashtra e3er0 thing he kno:s a9out the rea$ S:arup o -rishna N ArAuna8 &)8 Adh0a8 &)GSanAa0a te$$s #hratarashtra a9out -rishna8 &,8 Adh0a8 &,G#hratarashtra te$$s #ur0odhan to surrender to -rishna8 Re usa$ o #ur0odhan8 .andhari a9uses #ur0odhan8 (/8 Adh0a (/G#i erent names o -rishna N their origin8 (18 Adh0a (1G#hratarashtra surrenders to -rishna8 (28 Adh0a8 (2GCon3ersation 9et:een ?udhistira and -rishna8 ?udhistir sa0s SanAa0a to$d him not to re$0 on #hratarashtra8 ?udhistir stresses the importance o propert0 Speaks o I-shatradharmaJ N the necessit0 o o9ser3ing it -rishna proposes to go to the -aura3as8 ?udhistir does not $ike the idea 9ut sa0s to :hat 0ou think is the 9est8 (38 Adh0a8 (3G-rishna te$$s #harma the secret :hich has in mind8 #onFt use so t speech :ith the Pand3as te$$s -rishna to #harma8 There are p$ent0 o reasons :h0

0ou shou$d not make an0 compromise :ith the -aura3as8 Emphasi>es ho: the -aura3as disgraced #raupadi8 There ore Lh B #harma do not hesitate to ki$$ them8 (48 Adh0a8 (4G%hishma te$$s -rishna to use so t speech :ith the -aura3as8 ("8 Adh0a8 ("G-rishna redicu$es %hima8 (&8 Adh0a8 (&G%hima makes up his mind to ight8 ((8 Adh0a8 ((G-rishna te$$s %hima the di erence 9et:een Daiva and -aurush. ()8 Adh0a8 ()GArAuna te$$s -rishna to adopt ShamaG ai$ing :ar can 9e considered8 (,8 Adh0a8 (,G-rishnaFs ta$k to ArAun8 I :i$$ tr0 to 9ring a9out a sett$ement 90 peace8 I that is not possi9$e 9e read0 or :ar8 I :i$$ not communicate to #ur0odhan #harmaFs :i$$ingness to accept i3e 3i$$ages8 )/8 Adh0a8 )/G1aku$ te$$s -rishna to do the 9est8 )18 Adh0a8 )1GSahade3 meets -rishna and te$$s him to 9ring a9out a :ar :ith the -aura3as8 Sat0aki said that a$$ :arriors assem9$ed here agree :ith the 3ie: o Sahadeo8 )28 Adh0a8 )2G#raupadi meets -rishna N te$$s him that she :i$$ not 9e satis ied un$ess #ur0odhan is punished8 -rishna gi3es her assurance8 )38 Adh0a8 )3G'ast meeting 9et:een ArAuna and -rishna8 ArAuna makes the 9est e ort or +hama. ?udhishtir te$$s -rishna to gi3e assurances to -unti8 -rishna starts on his mission8 )48 Adh0a8 )4G.ood N %ad omens to -rishna on his :a0 to +astinapura8 )"8 Adh0a8 )"G#ur0odhana creates Resting p$aces or -rishnaFs Aourne0 to +astinapur8 -rishna arri3es in +astinapura8 )&8 Adh0a8 )&G#hratarashtra te$$s 2idura :hat gi ts are to 9e o ered to krishna8 )(8 Adh0a8 )(G2idur te$$s #hratarashtra that he cannot separate -rishna rom the Panda3as8 ))8 Adh0a8 ))G#ur0odhan sa0s -rishna is :orship8 %ut this is not the time to :orship him8 %hishma te$$s #ur0odhan to make a compromise :ith Panda3as8 #ur0odhan desires to $ook up -rishna8 %hishmaFs strong opposition to #ur0odhana8 ),8 Adh0a8 ),G-rishnaFs entr0 into +astinapur8 *eeting :ith #hratarashtra8 +is sta0 :ith 2idura8 ,/8 Adh0a8 ,/G*eeting 9et:een -unti and -rishnaG-untiFs sorro:8 -rishna conso$es her8 -unti te$$s -rishnaG I1J Te$$ m0 sons to ight or their kingdom8 I2J I am sorr0 or #raupadi8 ,18 Adh0a8 ,1G-aura3as in3ite -rishna to dinner8 -rishnaFs re usa$8 -rishna goes or mea$ to 2idur8 ,28 Adh0a8 ,2G2idur te$$s -rishna that he does not $ike his going among the -aura3as8 ,38 Adh0a8 ,3G-rishna te$$s 2idura not a$$ the -aura3as can hurt him8 I ha3e come on$0 9ecause +hama is Punn0akarak8

,48 Adh0a8 ,4G-rishna enters the assem9$0 +a$$ o the -aura3as8 ,"8 Adh0a8 ,"G-rishnaFs address to the Assem9$08 +e to$d them panda3as are read0 or 9oth peace as :e$$ as :ar8 .i3e them ha$ their kingdom8 ,&8 Adh0a8 ,&G<amadgni te$$s a stor0 against arrogance8 ,(8 Adh0a8 ,(51/"G*ata$i Akh0an8 ,)8 Adh0a8 1/&G1aradaFs ad3ice to #ur0odhana8 ,,8 Adh0a8 1/&5123G .a$a3a Akh0an8 1//8 Adh0a8 124G#ratarashtra te$$s -rishna to ad3ise #ur0odhana8 1/18 Adh0a8 12"G%hishmaFs ad3ice to #ur0odhan8#ronaFs support8 2iduraFs condemnation o #ur0odhana8 #hratarashtraFs ad3ice8 1/28 Adh0a8 12&G%hishma N #rona ad3ice #ur0odhana a second time8 1/38 Adh0a8 12(G#ur0odhana announces not to gi3e an0thing to the Panda3as8 1/48 Adh0a8 12)G-rishna condemns #ur0odhana8 #ur0odhan $ea3es the Assem9$08 #ush0asanaFs speech8 -rishna :arns %hishma8 1/48 Adh0a8 12,G#hratarashtra asks 2idur to 9ring .andhari to the Assem9$08 #ur0odhan comes 9ackG.andhari asks him to gi3e ha$ the -ingdom to Panda3as8 1/48 Adh0a8 13/G#ur0odhana $ea3es the assem9$08 +is intention to ki$$ -rishna8 Sat0aki in orms #hratarashtra o this secret p$ot8 SrikrishnaFs speech8 #hratarashtra ca$$s 9ack #ur0odhana to the assem9$0@ :arns him8 2idurFs condemnation8 1/"8 Adh0a8 131GBha$wana s <ishwarup Darshan #hratarashtra gets Div%a ChakshuH -rishna $ea3es the assem9$0 and goes to8 -unti8 1/&8 Adh0a8 132G-rishna te$$s -unti :hat happened in the assem9$08 -unti te$$s -rishna :ar is natura$ to -shatri0as8 There is no 9etter #harma than that8 1/(8 Adh0a8 133G-unti te$$s -rishna the stor0 o 2idu$a to rein orce her point8 1/)8 Adh0a8 134G2idu$aFs stor08 1/,8 Adh0a8 13"G2idu$aFs stor08 11/8 Adh0a8 13&G2idu$aFs stor08 III8 Adh0a8 13(G-untiFs ad3ice to her sons8 -rishnaFs ad3ice to -ama and his departure to =papalav%a Da$ari. 1128 Adh0a8 13)GAd3ice to #ur0odhana 90 %hishma N #rona8 1138 Adh0a8 13,G%hishmaFs sorro:8 #rona again ad3ises #ur0odhana8 1148 Adh0a8 14/GCon3ersation 9et:een #hratarashtra and SanAa0a8 -rishna ad3ices -ama8 11"8 Adh0a8 141G-amaFs rep$0 to -rishna8 11&8 Adh0a8 142G-rishnaFs assurance to -ama that the Panda3aFs :i$$ :in8 11(8 Adh0a8 143G-ama sees 9ad omens8 +is determination to inish Panda3as8 +is going home8 11)8 Adh0a8 144GCon3ersation 9et:een 2idura and Pratha8 -no:s #ur0odhana is determined to ight8 -untiFs sorro:8 +er :ish to te$$ -ama his origin8 -unti goes to the 9ank o the ri3er8

11,8 Adh0a8 14"G-unti meets -ama and te$$s him his origin and re=uest him to Aoin the Panda3as8 12/8 Adh0a8 14&GSur0a supports the proposa$ o -unti8 -ama reAects it8 Promises to sa3e a$$ the Panda3as except ArAuna8 1218 Adh0a8 14(G-rishna goes to Panda3as8 ?udhistir asks :hat happened in the -aura3a Sa9ha8 1228 Adh0a8 14(@ 14)@ 14,@ 1"/G-rishna re$ates the :ho$e stor08 1238 Adh0a8 1"1GAppointment o Senapati or the Panda3as Arm08 Entr0 o Panda3aFs Arm0 in -urushetra8 1248 Adh0a8 1"2G#escription o Panda3as arrangement or supp$0 to the Arm08 12"8 Adh0a8 1"3GArrangement on -aura3aFs side8 Lur arm0 must enter -urushetra tomorro: ear$0 morning8 12&8 Adh0a8 1"4G#harmaFs ear o a$$ rom his mora$ rectitude 90 going to :ar8 -rishna satis ied him8 ArAuna said 0ou must ight8 12(8 Adh0a8 1""G#escription o #ur0odhanFs arm08 12)8 Adh0a8 1"&G%hishma is made Senapati o the -aura3aFs arm08 -ama is o ended8 +is decision not to take command ti$$ %hishma is dead8 -aura3aFs Arm% enters 9urushetra. 12,8 Adh0a8 1"(G-rishna 9ecomes commander o Panda3aFs Arm08 13/8 %a$rarn goes on Pi$grimage sa0ing I do not $ike the -aura3as destro0ed8 1318 Adh0a8 1")GRukmi neither :anted 90 ArAuna nor 90 #ur0odhana goes home8 1328 Adh0a8 1",GCon3ersation 9et:een SanAa0a and #hratarashtra8 +e 9$ames #hratarashtra8 1338 Adh0a8 1&/GPanda3aFs Arm0 on the 9ank o the #iran%avati ri3er8 #ur0odhan sends o ensi3e messages to Panda3as and -rishna sa0ing ight i 0ou can8 1348 Adh0a8 1&18 4$uka goes :ith the messages8 13"8 Adh0a8 1&2GAngr0 Panda3as send 9ack angr0 messages8 The0 gi3e order that the :ar :i$$ start tomorro:8 C,APTER -Brahmins &ersus =shatri(as !his manuscript consists o" ., "oolscap t%ped pa$es. All the loose pa$es are ta$$ed. !he ori$inal title, Brahmins and 9shatri%as and the Counter-Revolution has been modi"ied in Dr. Ambedkar s hand-writin$ as Brahmins <ersus 9shatri%as on the title pa$e. !he essa% seems to be complete.* Editors8 The sacred $iterature o the +indus contains man0 cases o con $icts 9et:een the %rahmins and the -shatri0as and e3en o sanguinar0 :ards 9et:een the t:o8

The irst case reported :as that o the -ing 2ena8 2ena :as a -shatri0a -ing8 +is con $ict :ith the %rahmins has 9een re erred to in 3arious authorities8 The o$$o:ing account is taken rom the +ari3ansa8 H[f53]There :as ormer$0 a PraAapati I$ord o creaturesJ@ a protector o righteousness@ ca$$ed Anga@ o the race o Atrai@ and resem9$ing him in po:er8 +is son :as the PraAapati 2ena@ :ho :as 9ut indi erent$0 ski$$ed in dut0@ and :as 9orn o Sunitha@ the daughter o *rit0u8 This son o the daughter o -a$a I#eathJ@ o:ing to the taint deri3ed rom his materna$ grand5 ather@ thre: his duties 9ehind his 9ack@ and $i3ed in co3etousness under the in $uence o desire8 This king esta9$ished an irre$igious s0stem o conduct B transgressing the ordinances o the 2eda@ he :as de3oted to $a:$essness8 In his reign men $i3ed :ithout stud0 o the sacred 9ooks and :ithout the 2ashatkara@ and the gods had no some5$i9ations to drink at sacri ices8H 1o sacri ice or o9$ation sha$$ 9e o ered@Gsuch :as the ruth$ess determination o that PraAapati@ as the time o his destruction approached8 FIF@ he dec$ared@ Fam the o9Aect@ and the per ormer o sacri ice@ and the sacri ice itse$ B it is to me that sacri ice shou$d 9e presented@ and o9$ations o ered8F This transgressor o the ru$es o dut0@ :ho arrogated to himse$ :hat :as not his due@ :as then addressed 90 a$$ the great Rishis@ headed 90 *arichi : H6e are a9out to consecrate ourse$3es or a ceremon0 :hich sha$$ $ast or man0 0earsB practise not unrighteousness@ o 2ena B this is not the eterna$ ru$e o dut08 Thou art in e3er0 deed a PraAapati o AtriFs race and thou hast engaged to protect th0 su9Aect8 KThe oo$ish 2ena@ ignorant o :hat :as right@ $aughing$0 ans:ered those great Rishis :ho had so addressed him: H6ho 9ut m0se$ is the ordainer o dut0; or :hom ought I to o9e0; 6ho on earth e=ua$s me in sacred kno:$edge@ in process@ in austere er3our@ in truth; ?e :ho are de$uded and sense$ess kno: not that I am the source o a$$ 9eings and duties8 +esitate not to 9e$ie3e that I@ i I :i$$ed@ cou$d turn up the earth@ or de$uge it :ith :ater@ or c$ose up hea3en and earth8F 6hen o:ing to his de$usion and arrogance 2ena cou$d not 9e go3erned@ then the might0 Rishis 9ecoming $icensed@ sei>ed the 3igorous and strugg$ing king@ and ru99ed his $e t thigh8 !rom this thigh@ so ru99ed@ :as produced a 9$ack man@ 3er0 short in stature@ :ho@ 9eing a$armed@ stood :ith Aoined hands8 Seeing that he :as agitated@ Atri said to him FSit do:nF I1ishidaJ8 +e 9ecame the ounder o the race o the 1ishadas@ and a$so progenitor o the #hi3aras I!ishermenJ@ :ho sprang rom the corruption o 2ena8F The second case is that o Purura3as8 Purura3as is another -shatri0a -ing@ son o I$a and grandson o *anu 2ai3as3ata8 +e came in con $ict :ith the %rahmans the o$$o:ing account o :hich appears in the Adi Par3a o the *aha9harata : H [f54]Su9se=uent$0 the :ise Purura3as :as 9orn o $$a :ho@ as :e ha3e heard :as 9oth his ather and his mother8 Ru$ing o3er thirteen is$ands o the ocean@ and surrounded 90 9eings :ho :ere a$$ superhuman@ himse$ a man o great reno:n@ Purura3as@ intoxicated 90 his pro:ess@ engaged in a con $ict :ith the %rahmans@ and

ro99ed them o their Ae:e$s@ a$though the0 $oud$0 remonstrated8 Sanatkumara came rom %rahmaFs hea3en@ and addressed to him an admonition@ :hich ho:e3er@ he did not regard8 %eing then straight:a0 cursed 90 the incenses Rishis@ he perished@ this co3etous monarch@ :ho@ through piece o po:er@ had $ost his understanding8H The third and a some:hat serious con $ict :as that 9et:een -ing 1ahusha and the %rahmins8 1ahusha is the grandson o Purura3as8 The stor0 is to$d in t:o p$aces in the *aha9harata once in the 2anapar3an and a second time in the 4d0ogapar3an8 The o$$o:ing account is taken rom the 4d0ogapar3an o the *aha9harata: H [f55]A ter his s$aughter o the demon 2ritta@ Indra 9ecame a$armed at the idea o ha3ing taken the $i e o a %rahman I or 2ritta :as regarded as suchJ and hid himse$ in the :aters8 In conse=uence o the disappearance o the king o the gods@ a$$ a airs@ ce$estia$ as :e$$ as terrestria$@ e$$ into con usion8 The Rishis and gods then app$ied to 1ahusha to 9e their king8 A ter the irst excusing himse$ on the p$ea o :ant o po:er@ 1ahusha at $ength@ in comp$iance :ith their so$icitations@ accepted the high unction8 4pto the period o his e$e3ation he had $ed a 3irtuous $i e@ 9ut he no: 9ecame addicted to amusement and sensua$ p$easure@ and e3en aspired to the possession o Indrani@ IndraFs :i e@ :hom he had happened to see8 The =ueen resorted to the Angiras 2rihaspati@ the preceptor o the gods@ :ho engaged to protect her8 1ahusha :as great$0 incensed on hearing o this inter erence B 9ut the gods endea3oured to paci 0 him@ and pointed out the immora$it0 o appropriating another personFs :i e8 1ahusha@ ho:e3er@ :ou$d $isten to no remonstrance@ and insisted that in his adu$terous designs he :as no :orse than Indra himse$ 8H HThe reno:ned Aha$0a@ a rishiFs :i e@ :as ormer$0 corrupted 90 Indra in her hus9andFs $i etime8 6h0 :as he not pre3ented 90 0ou; And man0 9ar9arous acts@ and unrighteous deeds@ and rauds :ere perpetrated o o$d 90 IndraB 6h0 :as he not pre3ented 90 0ou;H The gods@ urged 1ahusha@ then :ent to 9ring IndraniB 9ut 2rihaspati :ou$d not gi3e her up8 At his recommendation@ ho:e3er@ she so$icited 1ahusha or some de$a0@ ti$$ she shou$d ascertain :hat had 9ecome o her hus9and8 This re=uest :as granted8H Indrani no: :ent in search o her hus9and B and 90 the he$p o 4pasruti Ithe goddess o night and re3ea$er o secretsJ disco3ered him existing in a 3er0 su9ti$e orm in the stem o a $otus gro:ing in a $ake situated in a continent :ithin an ocean north o the +ima$a0as8 She made kno:n to him the :icked intentions o 1ahusha@ and entreated him to exert his po:er@ rescue her rom danger@ and resume his dominion8 Indra dec$ined an0 immediate interposition on the p$ea o 1ahushaFs superior strength B 9ut suggested to his :i e a de3ice 90 :hich the usurper might 9e hur$ed rom his position8 She :as recommended to sa0 to 1ahusha that Hi he :ou$d 3isit her on a ce$estia$ 3ehic$e 9orne 90 Rishis@ she :ou$d :ith p$easure su9mit herse$ to him8H HI desire or thee@ king o the gods@ a 3ehic$e hitherto unkno:n@ such as neither 2ishnu@ nor Rudra@ nor the Asuras@ nor the Rakshases emp$o08 'et the eminent

Rishis@ a$$ united@ 9ear thee@ $ord@ in a car: this idea p$eases me8H 1ahusha recei3es a3oura9$0 this appea$ to his 3anit0@ and in the course o his rep$0 thus gi3es utterance to his se$ 5congratu$ation : H+e is a personage o no mean pro:ess :ho makes the *unis his 9earers8 I am a er3id de3otee o great might@ $ord o the past@ the uture@ and the present8 I I :ere angr0 the :or$d :ou$d no $onger stand B on me e3er0thing depends8888888888 6here ore@ / goddess@ I sha$$@ :ithout dou9t@ carr0 out :hat 0ou propose8 The se3en Rishis@ and a$$ the %rahman5rishis@ sha$$ carr0 me8 %eho$d@ 9eauti u$ goddess@ m0 maAest0 and m0 prosperit08H The narrati3e goes on : HAccording$0 this :icked 9eing@ irre$igious@ 3io$ent@ intoxicated 90 the orce o conceit@ and ar9itrar0 in his conduct@ attached to his car the Rishis :ho su9mitted to his command@ and compe$$ed them to 9ear him8H Indrani then again resorts to 2rihaspati@ :ho assures her that 3engeance :i$$ soon o3ertake 1ahusha or his presumption@ and promises that he :i$$ himse$ per orm a sacri ice :ith a 3ie: to the destruction o the oppressor@ and the disco3er0 o IndraFs $urking p$ace8 Agni is then sent to disco3er and 9ring Indra to 2rihaspati B and the $atter@ on IndraFs arri3a$@ in orms him o a$$ that had occurred during his a9sence8 6hi$e Indra@ :ith -u3era@ ?ama@ Soma and 2aruna :as de3ising means or the destruction o 1ahusha@ the sage Agast0a came up@ congratu$ated Indra on the a$$ o his ri3a$@ and proceeded to re$ate ho: it had occurred : H6earied :ith carr0ing the sinner 1ahusha the eminent di3ine5rishis@ and the spot$ess %rahman5rishis@ asked that di3ine personage 1ahusha Ito so$3eJ a di icu$t0B H#ost thou@ L 2asa3a@ most exce$$ent o con=uerors@ regard as authoritati3e or not those %rahmana texts :hich are recited at the immo$ation o kine; H F1oF@ rep$ied 1ahusha@ :hose understanding :as en3e$oped in darkness8 The Rishis reAoined : FEngaged in unrighteousness@ thou attainest not unto righteousness : these texts@ :hich :ere ormer$0 uttered 90 great Rishis@ are regarded 90 us as authoritati3e8KThen Iproceeds Agast0aJ disputing :ith the *unis@ 1ahusha@ impe$$ed 90 unrighteousness@ touched me on the head :ith his oot8 In conse=uence o this the kingFs g$or0 :as smitten and his prosperit0 departed8 6hen he had instant$0 9ecome agitated and oppressed :ith ear@ I said to him@ FSince thou@ L oo$@ contemnest that sacred text@ a$:a0s he$d in honour@ :hich has 9een composed 90 ormer sages@ and emp$o0ed 90 %rahman5rishis@ and has touched m0 head :ith th0 oot@ and emp$o0est the %rahmaG$ike the irresisti9$e Rishis as 9earers to carr0 thee@ Gthere ore@ shorn o th0 $usture@ and a$$ th0 merit exhausted@ sink do:n@ sinner@ degraded rom hea3en to earth8 !or ten thousand 0ears thou sha$t cra:$ in the orm o a huge serpent8 6hen that period is comp$eted@ thou sha$t again ascend to hea3en8 KSo e$$ that :icked :retch rom the so3ereignt0 o the gods8 +appi$0@ / Indra@ :e sha$$ no: prosper@ or the enem0 o the %rahmans has 9een smitten8 Take possession o the three :or$ds@ and protect their inha9itants@ L hus9and o Sachi

IIndraniJ su9duing th0 senses@ o3ercoming thine enemies@ and ce$e9rated 90 the great Rishis8H The ourth case is o -ing 1imi8 1imi :as one o the sons o Iksh3aku8 The acts o his con $ict :ith the %rahmans are re$ated in the 2ishnu Purrana :hich sa0s : H[f56]1imi had re=uested the %rahman Rishi 2ashistha to o iciate at a sacri ice@ :hich :as to $ast a thousand 0ears8 2ashistha in rep$0 p$eaed a pre5engagement to Indra or i3e hundred 0ears@ 9ut promised to return at the end o that period8 The king made no remark@ and 2ashistha :ent a:a0@ supposing that he had assented to his arrangement8 Ln his return@ ho:e3er@ the priest disco3ered that 1imi had retained .autama I:ho :as@ e=ua$$0 :ith 2ashistha@ a %rahmin5rishiJ and others to per orm the sacri ice B and 9eing incensed at the neg$ect to gi3e him notice o :hat :as intended@ he cursed the king@ :ho :as then as$eep@ to $ose his corporea$ orm8 6hen 1imi a:oke and $earnt that he had 9een cursed :ithout an0 pre3ious :arning@ he retorted 90 uttering a simi$ar curse on 2ashistha@ and then died8 1imiFs 9od0 :as em9$amed8 At the c$ose o the sacri ice :hich he had 9egun@ the gods@ :ere :i$$ing@ on the intercession o the priests@ to restore him to $i e@ 9ut he dec$ined the o erB and :as p$aced 90 the deities@ according to his desire@ in the e0es o a$$ $i3ing creatures8 It is in conse=uence o this that the0 are a$:a0s opening and shutting Inimisha means HThe t:ink$ing o the e0eHJ8 The i th case re$ates to the con $ict 9et:een 2ashishtha and 2ish3amitra8 2ashishtha :as a %rahmin priest8 2isha3amitra :as a -shatri0a8 +is great am9ition :as to 9ecome a %rahmin8 The o$$o:ing episode reported rom the Rama0ana exp$ains the reasons :h0 he 9ecame anxious to 9ecome a %rahmin8 H[f57]There :as ormer$0@ :e are to$d@ a king ca$$ed -usa@ son o PraAapati@ :ho had a son ca$$ed -usana9ha@ :ho :as ather o .adhi@ the ather o 2ish3amitra8 The $atter ru$ed the earth or man0 thousand 0ears8 Ln one occasion@ :hen he :as making a circuit o the earth@ he came to 2ashishthaFs hermitage@ the p$easant a9ode o man0 saints@ sages@ and ho$0 de3otees@ :here@ a ter a$$ irst dec$ining@ he a$$o:ed himse$ to 9e hospita9i$it0 entertained :ith his o$$o:ers 90 the son o %rahma8 2ish3amitra@ ho:e3er@ co3eting the :onderous co:@ :hich had supp$ied a$$ the dainties o the east@ irst o a$$ asked that she shou$d 9e gi3en to him in exchange or a hundred thousand common co:s@ adding that Hshe :as a gem@ that gems :ere the propert0 o the -ing@ and@ there ore@ the co: o:as his 90 right8H Ln this price 9eing re used@ the -ing ad3ances immense$0 in his o ers@ 9ut a$$ :ithout e ect8 +e then proceeds 3er0 ungrate u$$0@ and t0rannica$$0@ it must 9e a$$o:edG5to ha3e the cow remo3ed 90 orce@ 9ut she 9reaks a:a0 rom his attendants@ and rushes 9ack to her master@ comp$aining that he :as deserting her8 +e rep$ies that he :as not deserting her@ 9ut that the king :as much more po:er u$ than he8 She ans:ers@ F*en do not ascri9e strength to a -shatri0a : the %rahmans are stronger8 The strength o %rahmins is di3ine@ and superior to that o -shatri0as8 Th0 strength is immeasura9$e8

2ish3amitra@ though o great 3igour@ is not more po:er u$ than thou8 Th0 energ0 is in3inci9$e8 Commission me@ :ho ha3e 9een ac=uired 90 th0 %rahmanica$ po:er@ and I :i$$ destro0 the pride@ and orce@ and attempt o this :icked prince8H She according$0 90 her 9e$$o:ing creates hundred o Paha$3as@ :ho destro0 the entire host o 2ish3amitra@ 9ut are s$ain 90 him in their turn8 Sakas and ?a3anas@ o great po:er and 3a$our@ and :e$$ armed@ :ere then produced@ :ho consumed the kingFs so$diers@ 9ut :ere routed 90 him8 The co: then ca$$s into existence 90 her 9e$$o:ing@ and rom di erent parts o her 9od0@ other :arriors o 3arious tri9es@ :ho again destro0ed 2ish3amitraFs entire arm0@ oot so$diers@ e$ephants@ horses@ chariots@ and a$$8 A hundred o the monarchFs sons@ armed :ith 3arious :eapons@ then rushed in great ur0 on 2ashishtha@ 9ut :ere a$$ reduced to ashes in a moment 90 the 9$ast o that sageFs mouth8 2ish3amitra@ 9eing thus utter$0 3an=uished and hum9$ed@ appointed one o his sons to 9e regent@ and tra3e$$ed to the +ima$a0a@ :here he 9etook to austerities@ and there90 o9tained a 3ision o *ahade3a@ :ho at his desire re3ea$ed to him the science o arms in a$$ its 9ranches@ and ga3e him ce$estia$ :eapons :ith :hich@ e$ated and u$$ o price@ he consumed the hermitage o 2ashishtha@ and put its inha9itants to $ight8 2ashishtha then threatens 2ish3amitra and up$i ts his %rahmanica$ mace8 2ish3amitra@ too@ raises his ier0 :eapon and ca$$s out to his ad3ersar0 to stand8 2ashishtha 9ids him to sho: his strength and 9oasts that he :i$$ soon hum9$e his pride8 +e asks: H6hat comparison is there 9et:een a -shatri0aFs might and the might o a %rahman; %eho$d@ thou contempti9$e -shatri0a@ m0 di3ine %rhmanica$ po:er8F The dread u$ ier0 :eapon up$i ted 90 the son o .adhi :as then =uenched 90 the rod o the %rahman@ as ire is 90 :ater8H *an0 and 3arious other ce$estia$ missi$es@ as the nooses o %rahma@ -a$a ITimeJ@ and 2aruna@ the discuss o 2ishnu@ and the trident o Shi3a@ :ere hur$ed 90 2ish3amitra at his antagonist@ 9ut the son o %rahma s:a$$o:ed them up in his a$$5de3ouring mace8 !ina$$0@ to the intense consternation o a$$ the gods@ the :arrior shot o the terri ic :eapon o %rahma B 9ut this :as e=ua$$0 ine ectua$ against the %rahmanica$ sage8 2ashishtha had no: assumed a dire u$ appearance8 H<ets o ire ming$ed :ith smoke darted rom the pores o his 9od0 B the %rahmanica$ mace 9$a>ed in his hand $ike a smoke$ess mundane con $agration@ or a second sceptre o ?ama8H %eing appeased@ ho:e3er@ 90 the munis@ :ho proc$aimed his superiorit0 to his ri3a$@ the sage sta0ed his 3engeance B and 2ish3amitra exc$aimed :ith a groan: HShame on a -shatri0aFs strength : the strength o a %rahmanFs might a$one is strength B 90 the sing$e %rahmanica$ mace a$$ m0 :eapons ha3e 9een destro0ed8H 1o a$ternati3e no: remains to the humi$ated monarch@ 9ut either to ac=uiesce in this he$p $ess in eriorit0@ or to :ork out his o:n e$e3ation to the %rahmanica$ order8 +e em9races the $atter a$ternati3e : H +a3ing pondered :e$$ this de eat@ I sha$$ 9etake m0se$ @ :ith composed senses and mind@ to strenuous austere er3our@ :hich sha$$

exa$t me to the rank o a %rahman8HIntense$0 3exed and morti ied@ groaning and u$$ o hatred against his enem0@ he tra3e$$ed :ith his =ueen to the south@ and carried his reso$ution into e ect8 At the end o a thousand 0ears %rahma appeared@ and announced that he had con=uered the hea3en o ro0a$ sages IraAarshisJ: and@ in conse=uence o his austere er3our@ he :as recognised as ha3ing attained that rank8H The con $ict seems to ha3e 9egun in the reign o -ing Sudas :ho 9e$onged to the $ine o Iksha3aku8 2ashishtha :as the hereditar0 priest o -ing Sudas8 !or some reason :hich is not 3er0 c$ear$0 stated Sudas appointed 2ish3amitra as his ami$0 priest8 This 9rought a9out a con $ict 9et:een 2ish3amitra and 2ashishtha8 This con $ict once started raged on or a $ong time8 The con $ict 9et:een the t:o took a pecu$iar turn8 I 2ish3amitra :as in3o$3ed in a dispute 2ashishtha came into the ra0 and sided :ith his opponent8 I 2ish3amitra :as in3o$3ed in dispute 2ashishtha entered into ra0 and sided :ith 2ish3amitra as opponent8 It :as a case o one persecuting the other8 The irst such episode is that o Sat0a3rata other:ise ca$$ed Trishanku8 The stor0 as to$d in the +ari3amsha is as o$$o:s : H [f58]*ean:hi$e 2ashishtha@ rom the re$ation su9sisting 9et:een the -ing ISat0a3rataFs atherJ and himse$ @ a discip$e and spiritua$ preceptor@ go3erned the cit0 o A0odh0a@ the countr0@ and the interior apartments o the ro0a$ pa$ace8 %ut Sat0a3rata@ :hether through o$$0 or the orce o destin0@ cherished constant$0 an increased indignation against 2ashishtha@ :ho or a IproperJ reason had not interposed to pre3ent his exc$usion rom the ro0a$ po:er 90 his ather8 FThe ormu$as o the marriage ceremonia$ are on$0 9inding@F said Sat0a3rata@ F:hen the se3enth step has 9een taken@ and this had not 9een done :hen I sei>ed the damse$ : sti$$ 2ashishtha@ :ho kno:s the precepts o the $a:@ does not come to m0 aid8F Thus Sat0a3rata :as incensed in his mind against 2ashishtha@ :ho ho:e3er@ had acted rom a sense o :hat :as right8 1or did Sat0a3rata understand Ihe propriet0 o J that si$ent penance imposed upon him 90 his ather88888 6hen he had supported this arduous rite@ Ithe supposed thatJ he had redeemed his ami$0 position8 The 3enera9$e muni 2ashishtha did not@ ho:e3er@ Ias has 9een saidJ pre3ent his ather rom setting him aside@ 9ut reso$3ed to insta$$ his son as -ing8 6hen the po:er u$ prince Sat0a3rata had endured the penance or t:e$3e 0ears@ he 9ehe$d@ :hen he :as :ithout $esh to eat@ the mi$ch co: o 2ashishtha :hich 0ie$ded a$$ o9Aects o desire B and under the in $uence o anger B de$usion@ and exhaustion@ distressed 90 hunger@ and ai$ing in the ten duties he s$e:8888888888 and 9oth partook o her $esh himse$ @ and ga3e it to 2ish3amitraFs sons to eat8 2ashishtha hearing o this@ 9ecame incensed against himH@ and imposed on his the name o Trisanku as he had committed three sins8 Ln his return home@ 2ish3amitra :as grati ied 90 the support :hich his :i e had recei3ed@ and o ered Trisanku the choice o a 9oon8 6hen this

proposa$ :as made@ Trisanku chose the 9oon o ascending 9odi$0 to hea3en8 A$$ apprehension rom the t:e$3e 0earFs drought 9eing no: at an end@ the muni I2ish3amitraJ insta$$ed Trisanku in his atherFs kingdom@ and o ered sacri ice on his 9eha$ 8 The might0 -ausika then@ in spite o the resistance o the gods and o 2ashishtha@[f59] exa$ted the king a$i3e to hea3en8H 28 As stated in the +ari3amsa : H D &/E In conse=uence o the :ickedness :hich had 9een committed@ Indra did not rain or a period o t:e$3e 0ears8 At that time 2ish3amitra had $e t his :i e and chi$dren and gone to practise austerties on the sea5shore8 +is :i e@ dri3en to extremit0 90 :ant8 :as on the point o se$$ing her second son or a hundred co:s@ in order to support the others B 9ut this arrangement :as stopped 90 the inter3entions o Sat0a3rata@ :ho $i9erated the son :hen 9ound@ and maintained the ami$0 90 pro3iding them :ith the $esh o :i$d anima$s B and according to his atherFs inAunction@ consecrated himse$ or the per ormance o a si$ent penance or t:e$3e 0ears8H The next episode in :hich the0 appear on opposite sides is that o +arishchandra the son o Trisanku8 The stor0 is to$d in the 2ishnu Purana and in the *arkende0a Purana8 This is ho: the stor0 runs: HLn one occasion@ :hen hunting the king heard a sound o ema$e $amentation :hich proceeded@ it appears@ rom the sciences :ho :ere 9ecoming mastered 90 the austere$0 er3id sage 2ish3amitra@ in a :a0 the0 had ne3er 9een 9e ore 90 an0one e$se B and :ere conse=uent$0 cr0ing out in a$arm at his superiorit08 In u$ i$ment o his dut0 as a -shatri0a to de end the :eak@ and inspired 90 the god .anesha@ :ho had entered into him@ +arishchandra exc$aimed8 H6hat sinner is this :ho is 9inding ire in the hem o his garment@ :hi$e@ I@ his $ord8 am present@ resp$endent :ith orce and ier0 3igour;F +e sha$$ to5da0 enter on his $ong s$eep@ pierced in a$$ his $im9s 90 arro:s@ :hich@ 90 their discharge rom m0 9o:@ i$$uminate a$$ the =uarters o the irmament8H 2ish3amitra :as pro3oked 90 this address8 In conse=uence o his :rath the Sciences instant$0 perished@ and +arishchandra@ trem9$ing $ike the $ea o an As3attha tree8 su9missi3e$0 represented that he had mere$0 done his dut0 as a king@ :hich he de ined as consisting in the 9esto:$ o gi ts on eminent %rahmins and other persons o s$ender means@ the protection o the timid@ and :ar against enemies8 2ish3amitra hereupon demands a gi t as a %rahman intent upon recei3ing one8 The king o ers him :hatsoe3er he ma0 ask : .o$d@ his o:n son@ :i e8 9od0@ $ike kingdom@ good ortune8 The saint irst re=uires the present or the RaAasu0a sacri ice8 Ln this 9eing promised@ and sti$$ more o ered@ he asks or the empire o the :ho$e earth@ inc$uding e3er0thing 9ut +arishchandra himse$ @ his :i e and son8 and his 3irtue :hich o$$o:s its posses or :here3er he goes8H H+arishchandra Ao0 u$$0 agrees8 2ish3amitra then re=uires him to strip o a$$ his ornaments@ to c$othe himse$ in the 9ark o trees@ and to =uit the kingdom :ith his :i e Sa3i0a ITaramatiJ and his son8 6hen he is departing the sage stops him and demands pa0ment o his 0et unpaid sacri icia$ ee8 The king rep$ies that he has on$0

the persons o his :i e his son@ and himse$ $e t8 2ish3amitra insists that he must ne3erthe$ess pa0: and that Hun u$ i$$ed promises o gi ts to %rahmans 9ring destruction8H The un ortunate prince@ a ter 9eing threatened :ith a curse@ engages to make the pa0ment in a month B and commences his Aourne0 :ith a :i e unused to such atigues@ amid the uni3ersa$ $amentations o his su9Aects8 6hi$e he $ingers@ $istening to their a ectionate remonstrances against his desertion o his kingdom@ 2ish3amitra@ comes up and 9eing incensed at the de$a0 and the -ingFs apparent hesitation@ strikes the =ueen :ith his sta @ as she is dragged on 90 her hus9and8 +arishchandra then proceeded :ith his :i e and $itt$e son to %enares@ imagining that this di3ine cit0@ as the specia$ propert0 o Si3a@ cou$d not 9e possessed 90 an0 morta$8 +ere he ound the re$ent$ess 2ish3amitr :aiting or him@ and read0 to press his demand or the pa0ment o his sacri icia$ gi t@ e3en 9e ore the expiration o the u$$ period o grace8 In this extremit0 Sai30a the =ueen suggests :ith a so99ing 3oice that her hus9and shou$d se$$ her8 Ln hearing this proposa$ +arishchandra s:oons@ then reco3ers@ utters $amentations@ and s:oons again@ and his :i e@ seeing his said condition@ s:oon a$so8 6hi$e the0 are in a state o unconsciousness@ their amished chi$d exc$aims in distress@ H L ather@ ather@ gi3e me 9read B L mother@ mother gi3e me ood : hunger o3erpo:ers me and m0 tongue is parched8H At this moment 2ish3amitra returns@ and a ter reca$$ing +arishchandra to consciousness 90 spink$ing :ater o3er him@ again urges pa0ment o the present8 The king again s:oons@ and is again restored8 The sag threatens to curse him i his engagement is not u$ i$$ed 90 sunset8 %eing no: pressed 90 his :i e@ the -ing agrees to se$$ her ading@ ho:e3er@ HI m0 3oice can utter such a :icked :ord@ I do not :hat the most inhuman :retches cannot perpetrate8H +e then goes into the cit0 and in se$ acusing $anguage o ers his =ueen or sa$e as a s$a3e8 A rich o$d %rahman o ers to 9u0 her at a price corresponding to her 3a$ue@ to do his househo$d :ork8 Seeing his mother dragged a:a0@ the chi$d ran a ter her@ his e0es dimmed :ith tears@ and cr0ing FmotherF8 The %rahman purchaser kicked him :hen he came upK 9ut he :ou$d not $et his mother go@ and continued cr0ing Fmother@ mother8F The =ueen then said to the %rahman@ F %e so kind@ m0 master@ as to 9ut a$so this chi$d@ as :ithout him I sha$$ pro3e to thee 9ut a use$ess purchase8 %e thus merci u$ to me in m0 :retchedness@ unite me :ith m0 son@ $ike a co: to her ca$ 8H The %rahman agrees: HTake this mone0 and gi3e me the 9o08H A ter the %rahman had gone out o sight :ith his purchases@ 2ish3amitra again appeared and rene:ed his demands B and :hen the a $icted +arishchanda o ered him the sma$$ sum he had o9tained 90 the sa$e o his :i e and son@ he angri$0 rep$ied@ HI @ misera9$e -shatri0a@ thou thinkest this a sacri icia$ gi t 9e itting m0 deserts@ thou sha$$ soon 9ehe$d the transcendent po:er o m0 ardent austere er3our@ o m0 spot$ess %rahmanhood o m0 terri9$e maAest0@ and o m0 ho$0 stud08 +arishchandra promises an additiona$ gi t@ and 2ish3amitra a$$o:s him the remaining =uarter o the da0 or its $i=uidation8 Ln the terri ied and a $icted prince o ering

himse$ or sa$e@ in order to gain the mean o meeting this crue$ demand@ #harma IRighteousnessJ appears in the orm o a hideous and o ensi3e Chanda$a@ and agrees to 9u0 him at his o:n price@ $arge or sma$$8 +arishchandra dec$ines such a degrading ser3itude@ and dec$ares that he :ou$d rather 9e consumed 90 the ire o his persecutorFs curse than su9mit to such a ate8 2ish3amitra ho:e3er again comes on The scene@ asks :h0 he does not accept the $arge sum o ered 90 the Chanda$a B and@ :hen he p$eads in excuse his descent rom the so$ar race@ threatens to u$minate a curse against him i he does not accept that method o meeting his $ia9i$it08 +arishchandra imp$ores that he ma0 9e spared this extreme o degradation@ and o ers to 9ecome 2ish3amitraFs s$a3e in pa0ment o the residue o his de9tB :hereupon the sage reAoins@ HI thou art m0 s$a3e@ then I se$$ thee as such to the Chanda$a or a hundred mi$$ions o mone08H HThe Chanda$a@ de$ighted@ pa0s do:n the mone0@ and carries o +arishchandra@ 9ound 9eaten@ con used and a $icted@ to his o:n p$ace o a9ode8 +arishchandra is sent 90 the Chanda$a to stea$ gra3e c$othes in a cemetar0 and is to$d that he :i$$ recei3e t:o5sixths goind to his masters@ and one5sixth to the -ing8 In this horrid spot@ and in this degrading occupation@ he spent in great miser0@ t:e$3e months@ :hich seemed to him $ike a hundred 0ears8 +e then a$$s as$eep and has a series o dreams suggested 90 the $i e he had 9een $eading8 A ter he a:oke@ his :i e came to the cemetar0 to per orm the o9se=uies o their son@ :ho had died rom the 9ite o a serpent8 At irst the hus9and and :i e did not recogni>e each other@ rom the change in appearance :hich had 9een 9rought upon them 90 their miseries8 +arishchandra ho:e3er@ soon disco3ered rom the tenor o her $amentations that it is his :i e@ and a$$s into a s:oonB as the =ueen does a$so :hen she recogni>es her hus9and8 6hen consciousness returns@ the0 9oth 9reak out into $amentations@ the ather 9e:ai$ing in a touching strain the $oss o his son@ and the :i e the degradation o the -ing8 She then a$$s on his neck@ em9races him@ and asks H:hether a$$ this is a dream@ or a rea$it0@ as she is utter$0 9e :i$dered H@ and adds@ that Hi it 9e a rea$it0@ then righteousness is un3ai$ing to those :ho practise it8H A ter hesitating to de3ote himse$ to death on his sonFs unera$ p0re :ithout recei3ing his masterFs $ea3e@ +arishchandra8 reso$3es to do so@ 9ra3ing a$$ the conse=uences@ and conso$ing himse$ :ith the hope u$ anticipation: HI I ha3e gi3en gi ts@ and o ered sacri ices an grati ied m0 re$igious teachers@ then ma0 I 9e reunited :ith m0 son and :ith thee Im0 :i eJ in another :or$d8HThe =ueen determines to die in the same manner8 6hen +arishchandra8@ a ter p$acing his sonFs 9od0 on the unera$ pi$e@ is meditating on the 'ord Shri 1ara0an krishna@ the supreme spirit@ a$$ the gods arri3e@ headed 90 #harma IrighteousnessJ@ and accompanied 90 2ish3amitra8 #harma entreats the king to desist rom his rash intentionB and Indra announces to him that he@ his :i e@ and son ha3e con=uered hea3en 90 their good :orks8 Amrosia@ the antidote o death@ and $o:ers are rained 90 the god rom the sk0 B and the kingFs son is restored

to $i e and the 9$oom o 0outh8 The king@ adorend :ith ce$estia$ c$othing and gar$ands@ and the =ueen@ em9race their son8 +arishchandra@ ho:e3er dec$ares that he cannot go to hea3en ti$$ he has recei3ed his master the Chanda$aFs permission@ and has paid him a ransom8 #harma then re3ea$s to the king that it :as he himse$ :ho had miracu$ous$0 assumed the orm o a Chanda$a8 The king next o9Aects that he cannot depart un$ess his aith u$ su9Aects@ :ho are shares in his merits@ are a$$o:ed to acompan0 him to hea3en@ at $east or one da08 This re=uest is granted 90 IndraB and a ter 2ish3amitra has inaugurated Rohitas3a the kingFs son to 9e his successor@ +arishchandra@ his riends and o$$o:ers@ a$$ ascend in compan0 to hea3en8 E3en a ter this great consummation@ ho:e3er@ 2ashishtha@ the ami$05priest o +arishchandra@ hearing@ at the end o a t:e$3e 0earsF a9ode in the :aters o the .anges@ an account o a$$ that has occured@ 9ecomes 3ehementa$0 incensed at the humi$iation in $icted on the exce$$ent monarch@ :hose 3irtues and de3otion to the gods and %rahmans he ce$e9rates@ dec$ares that his indignation had not 9een so great roused e3en :hen his o:n hundred sons had 9een s$ain 90 2ish3amitra@ and in the o$$o:ing :ords dooms the $atter to 9e trans ormed into crane8 6here ore that :icked man@ enem0 o the %rhmans@ smitten 90 m0 curse@ sha$$ 9e expe$$ed rom the societ0 o inte$$igent 9eings@ and $osing his understanding sha$$ 9e trans ormed into a 2aka8H 2ish3amitra reciprocates the curse@ and changes 2ashishtha into a 9ird o the species ca$$ed Ari8 In their ne: shapes the t:o ha3e a urious ight8 the Ari 9eing o the portentous heiht o t:o thousand 0oAanas T 1)@/// mi$es@ and the 2aka o 3/,/ 0oAanas8 The irst assai$ each other :ith their :ings B then the 2aka smites his antagonist in the same manner@ :hi$e the Ari strikes :ith his ta$ons8 !a$$ing mountains@ o3erturned 90 the 9$asts o :ind raised 90 the $apping o their :ings@ shake the :ho$e earth@ the :aters o the ocean o3er $o:@ the earth itse$ @ thro:n o its perpendicu$ar s$opes do:n:ards pata$a@ the $o:er regions8 *an0 creatures perish 90 these 3arious con3u$sions8 Attracted 90 the dire disorder@ %rahma arri3es@ attended 90 a$$ the gods@ on the spot@ and command the comptants to desist rom their ra08 The0 :ere too ierce$0 in uiriated to regard this inAunctionB 9ut %rahma put an end to the con $ict 90 restoring them to their natura$ orms@ and conse$$ing them to 9e reconci$ed8 The next episode in :hich the0 came in as opponents is connected :ith Ambarish -ing o A0odh0a8 1 [f61]The stor0 re$ates that Am9arisha :as engaged in per orming a sacri ice@ :hen Indra carried a:a0 the 3ictim8 The priest said that this i$$5omened e3ent had occurred o:ing to the kingFs had administration@ and :ou$d ca$$ or a great expiation@ un$ess a human 3ictim cou$d 9e produced8 A ter a $ong search the ro0a$ rishi IAm9arishaJ came upon the %rahman5rishi Richika@ a descendent o %hrigu@ and asked him to se$$ one o his sons or a 3ictim@ at the price o a hundred thousand co:s8 Richika ans:ered that he :ou$d not se$$ his e$dest sonB and his :i e added

that she :ou$d not se$$ the 0oungest: e$dest sonsH she o9ser3ed@ H9eing genera$$0 the a3ourites o their athers@ and 0oungest sons o their mothers8H The second son@ Sunassena@ then said that in that case he regarded himse$ as the one :ho :as to 9e so$d@ and desired the king to remo3e him8 The hundred thousand co:s@ :ith ten mi$$ions o go$d pieces and heaps o Ae:e$s@ :ere paid do:n@ and Sunassepa carried a:a08 As the0 :ere passing through Pushkara Sunassepa 9ehe$d his materna$ unc$e 2ish3amitra :ho :as engaged in austerities there :ith other rishis@ thre: himse$ into his arms@ and imp$ored his assistance@ urging his orphan riend$ess@ and he$p$ess state@ as c$aims on the sageFs 9ene3o$ence8 H2ish3amitra soothed him: and pressed his o:n sons to o er themse$3es as 3ictim in the room o Sunassepa8 This proposition met :ith no a3our rom *adhush0anda and the other sons o the ro0a$ hermit@ :ho ans:ered :ith haughtiness and derision: H+o: is that thou sacri icest thine o:n sons@ and seekest to rescue those o others; 6e $ook upon this as :rong@ and $ike the eating o oneFs o:n $esh8H The sage :as exceeding$0 :roth at this disregard o his inAunction@ and doomed his sons to 9e 9orn in the most degraded c$asses@ $ike 2ashishthaFs sons@ and to eat dogFs $esh@ or a thousand 0ears8 +e then said to Sunassepa : 6hen thou art 9ound :ith ha$$o:ed cords@ decked :ith a red gar$and@ and annointed :ith unguents@ and astened to the sacri icia$ post o 2ishnu@ then address th0se$ to Agni@ and sing these t:o di3ine 3erses IgathasJ@ at the sacri ice o Am9arisha B then sha$t thou attain the u$ i$ment8H %eing urnished :ith the t:o gathas@ Sunassepa proposed at once to king Am9arisha that the0 shou$d set out or their destination8 6hen 9ound at the stake to 9e immo$ated@ dressed in a red garment@ H he ce$e9rated the t:o gods@ Indra and his 0ounger 9rother I2ishnuJ@ :ith the exce$$ent 3erses8 The thousand5e0ed IIndraJ :as p$eased :ith the secret h0mn@ and 9esto:ed $ong $i e on Sunassepa8H The $ast episode recorded in :hich the t:o appear as opponents is connected :ith -ing 9almashapada. The episode is recorded in the Adi Par3a o the *aha9harata8 H [f62]-a$mashapada :as a -ing o the race Iksh3aku8 2ish3amitra :ished to 9e emp$o0ed 90 him as his o iciating priestB 9ut the king pre erred 2ashishtha8H It happened@ ho:e3er@ that the king :ent out to hunt@ and a ter ha3ing ki$$ed a $arge =uantit0 o game@ he 9ecame 3er0 much atigued@ as :e$$ as hungr0 and thirst08 *eeting Saktri@ the e$dest o 2ashishthaFs hundred sons@ on the road@ he ordered him to get out o his :a08 The priest ci3i$$0 rep$ied : HThe path is mine@ / -ingB this is the immemoria$ $a:B in a$$ o9ser3ances the king must cede the :a0 to the %rahman8H 1either part0 :ou$d 0ie$d@ and the dispute :axing :armer@ the king struck the muni :ith his :hip8 The muni@ resorting to the usua$ expedient o o ended sages@ 90 a curse doomed the king to 9ecome a man eater8 HIt hapened that at that time enmit0 existed 9et:een 2ish3amitra and 2ashishtha on account o their respecti3e c$aims to 9e priest to -a$mashapada8H 2ish3amitra had o$$o:ed the kingB and approached :hi$e he :as disputing :ith Saktri8 Percei3ing@ ho:e3er@ the son o his ri3a$

2ashishtha@ 2ish3amitra made himse$ in3isi9$e@ and passed them@ :atching his opportunit08 The king 9egan to imp$ore SaktriFs c$emenc0: 9ut 2ish3amitra :ishing to pre3ent their reconci$iation@ commanded a Rakshasa Ia man5de3ouring demonJ to enter into the king8 L:ing to the conAoint in $uence o the %rahma5rishiFs curse@ and 2ish3amitraFs command@ the demon o9e0ed the inAunction8 Percei3ing that his o9Aect :as gained@ 2ish3amitra $e t things to take their course@ and a9sented himse$ rom the countr08 The king ha3ing happened to meet a hungr0 %rahman@ and sent him@ 90 the hand o his cook I:ho cou$d procure nothing e$seJ@ some human $esh to eat@ :as cursed 90 him a$so to the same e ect as 90 Saktri8 The curse@ 9eing no: augmented in orce@ took e ect@ and Saktri himse$ :as the irst 3ictim@ 9eing eaten up 90 the -ing8 The sarne ate 9e e$$ a$$ the other sons o 2ashishtha at the instigation o 2ish3amitra8 Percei3ing Saktri to 9e dead@ 2ish3amitra again and again incited the Rakshasa against the sons o 2ashishthaB and according$0 the urious demon de3oursed those o his sons :ho :ere 0ounger than Saktri as a $ion eats up the sma$$ 9easts o the orest8 Ln hearing o the destruction o his sons 90 2ish3amitra@ 2ashishtha supported his a $iction@ as the great mountain sustains the earth8 +e meditated his o:n destruction@ 9ut ne3er thought o exterminating the -ausikas8 This di3ine sage hur$ed himse$ rom the summit o *eru@ 9ut e$$ upon the rocks as i on a heap o cotton8 Escaping a$i3e rom his a$$@ he entered a g$o:ing ire in the orestB 9ut the ire@ though ierce$0 9$a>ing@ not on$0 ai$ed to 9urn him@ 9ut seemed per ect$0 coo$8 +e next thre: himse$ into the sea :ith a hea30 stone attached to his neckB 9ut :as cast up 90 the :a3es on the dr0 $and8 +e then :ent home to his hermitageB 9ut seeing it empt0 and deso$ate@ he8 :as again o3ercome 90 grie and :ent outB and seeing the ri3er 2ipasa :hich :as s:o$en 90 the recent rains and s:eeping a$ong man0 trees torn rom its 9anks@ he concei3ed the design o dro:ning himse$ into its :ater@ he according$0 tied himse$ irm$0 :ith cords@ and thre: himse$ in@ 9ut the ri3er se3ering his 9onds@ deposited him un9ound I3ipasaJ on dr0 $andB :hence the name o the stream@ as imposed 90 the sage8 +e a ter:ards sa: and thre: himse$ into the dread u$ Satadru ISut$eAJ@ :hich :as u$$ o a$$igators@ etc8@ and deri3ed its name rushing a:a0 in a hundred directions on seeing the %rahman 9ri$$iant as ire8 In conse=uence o this he :as once more strandedB and seeing he cou$d not ki$$ himse$ @ he :ent 9ack to his hermitage8H There are on$0 particu$ar instances o their genera$ enmit0 to:ards each other8 This genera$ enmit0 :as o a morta$ kind so much so that 2ish3amitra :anted e3en to murder 2ashishtha8 This is re$ated in the Sha$0apar3a o the *aha9harata8 Sa0s the author o the *aha9harata : H[f63]There existed a great enmit0@ arising rom ri3a$r0 in their austerities@ 9et:een 2ish3amitra and the %rahman rishi 2ashishtha8 2ashishtha had an extensi3e hermitage in Sthanutirtha@ to the east o :hich :as 2ish3amitraFs888888888 These t:o great ascetics :ere e3er0 da0 exhi9iting intense emu$ation in regard to their

respecti3e austerities8 %ut 2ish3amitra@ 9eho$ding the might o 2ashishtha@ :as the most chagrinedB and e$$ into deep thought8 The idea o this sage@ constant in dut0IOJ :as the o$$o:ing: FThis ri3er Saras3ati :i$$ speedi$0 9ring to me on her current the austere 2ashishtha@ the most eminent o a$$ mutterers o pra0ers8 6hen that most exce$$ent %rahman has come@ I sha$$ most assured$0 ki$$ him8K+a3ing thus determined@ the di3ine sage 2ish3amitra@ his e0es reddened 90 anger@ ca$$ed to mind the chie o ri3ers8 She 9eing thus the su9Aect o his thoughts@ 9ecame 3er0 anxious@ as she kne: him to 9e 3er0 po:er u$ and 3er0 irasci9$e8 Then trem9$ing pa$id@ and :ith Aoined hands@ the Saras3ati stood 9e ore the chie o munis8 'ike a :oman :hose hus9and has 9een s$ain@ she :as great$0 distressedB and said to him@ F6hat sha$$ I do;F The incensed muni rep$ied@ F%ring 2ashishtha hither speedi$0@ that I ma0 s$a0 him8 FThe $otus5e0ed goddess@ Aoin ing her hands trem9$ed in great ear@ $ike a creeping p$ant agitated 90 the :ind H8888888888 2ish3amitra@ ho:e3er@ a$though he sa: her condition@ repeated his command8 HThe Saras3ati@ :ho kne: ho: sin u$ :as his design@ and that the might o 2ashishtha :as une=ua$$ed@ :ent trem9$ing@ and in great dread o 9eing cursed 90 9oth the sages@ to 2ashishtha@ and to$d him :hat his ri3a$ had sa8id8 2ashishtha seeing her emaciated@ pa$e@ and anxious@ spoke thus: F#e$i3er th0se$ @ L chie o ri3ersB carr0 me unhesitating$0 to 2ish3amitra@ $est he curse theeF8 +earing these :ords o the merci u$ sage@ the Saras3ati considered ho: she cou$d act most :ise$08 She re $ected@ F2ashishtha has a$:a0s sho:n me great kindnessB I must seek his :e$ are8F Then o9sering the -ausika sage pra0ing and sacri icing on her 9rink@ she regarded that as a good opportunit0@ and s:ept a:a0 the 9ank 90 the orce o her current8 In this :a0 the son o *itra and 2aruna I2ashishthaJ :as carried do:nB and :hi$e he :as 9ieng 9orne a$ong@ he thus ce$e9rated the ri3er: FThou@ L Saras3ati@ issuest rom the $ake o %rahma@ and per3adest the :ho$e :or$d :ith th0 exce$$ent streams8 Residing in the sk0@ thou dischargest :ater into the co$ouds8 Thou a$one art a$$ :aters8 %0 these :e stud08F FThou art nourishment@ radiance@ ame@ per ection@ inte$$ect@ $ight8 Thou art speechB thou art S3ahaB this :or$d is su9Aect to thee8 Thou@ in our o$d orm@ d:e$$est in a$$ creatures F8888888888 %eho$ding 2ashishtha 9rought near 90 the Saras3ati@ 2ish3amitra searched or a :eapon :ith :hich to make an end o him8 Percei3ing his anger@ and dreading $est %rahmanicide shou$d ensue@ the ri3er prompt$0 carried a:a0 2ashishtha in an easter$0 directionB thus u$ i$$ing the commands o 9oth sages@ 9ut e$uding 2ish3amitra8 Seeing 2ashishtha so carried a:a0@ 2ish3amitra@ impatient@ and enraged 90 3exation@ said to her : F Since thou@ L chie o ri3ers@ hast e$ued me@ and hast receded@ ro$$ in :a3es o 9$ood accepta9$e to the chie o demons@H I:hich are a9$ed to g$oat on 9$oodJ8 HThe Saras3ati@ 9eing thus cursed@ $o:ed or a 0ear in a stream ming$ed :ith 9$ood8 8 8 88 Rakshasas came to the p$ace o pi$grimage@ :here 2ashishtha had 9een s:ept a:a0@ and re3ea$ed in drinking to satiet0 the 9$ood0

stream in securit0@ dancing and $aughing@ as i the0 had con=uered hea3en8H Some rishis :ho arri3ed at the spot some time a ter :ere horri ied to see the 9$ood5stained :ater@ and the Rakshasas =ua ing it@ and Hmade the most strenuous e orts to rescue the Saras3ati8H The oregoing cases re$ate to indi3idua$ con $icts 9et:een a particu$ar %rahmin and a particu$ar -shatri0a8 The cases :hich o$$o: are cases o c$ass or communa$ con $icts 9et:een %rahmins on the one hand and the -shatri0as on the other8 The0 are not mere con $icts8 1or is it correct to sa0 that the0 :ere $ike communa$ riots8 The0 :ere c$ass :ars undertaken 90 one communit0 :ith the a3o:ed intention o exterminating the other root and 9ranch8 T:o such c$ass :ars o extermination ha3e 9een recorded in the *aha9harat8 The irst is a :ar o the +aiha0a -shatri0as on the %harga3a %rahmins8 It occurred in the reign o the +aiha0a -ing -rita3ir0a8 The o$$o:ing is the description o this :ar in the Adipar3an o the *aha9harat8 H[f64]There :as a king named -rita3ir0a@ 90 :hose $i9era$it0 the %hrigu@ $earned in the 2edas@ :ho o iciated as his priest@ had 9een great$0 enriched :ith corn@ and mone08 A ter he had gone to hea3en@ his descendants :ere in :ant o mone0@ and came to 9eg or a supp$0 rom the %hrigus@ o :hose :ea$th the0 :ere a:are8 Some o the $atter hid their mone0 under ground@ others 9esto:ed it on %rahmans@ 9eing a raid o the -shatri0as@ :hi$e others again ga3e these $ast :hat the0 :anted8 It happened@ ho:e3er@ that a -shatri0a@ :hi$e digging the ground@ disco3ered some mone0 9uried in the house o a %hrigu8 The -shatri0as then assem9$ed and sa: this treasure@ and@ 9eing incensed@ s$e: in conse=uence a$$ the %hrigus@ :hom the0 regarded :ith contempt@ do:n to the chi$dren in the :om98 The :ido:s@ ho:e3er@ $ed to the +ima$a0a mountains8 Lne o them concea$ed her un9orn chi$d in her thigh8 The -shatri0as@ hearing o its existence rom a %rahmani in ormant@ sought to ki$$ itB 9ut it issued orth rom its motherFs thigh :ith $ustre@ and 9$inded the persecutors8 A ter :andering a9out 9e:i$dered among the mountains or a time@ the0 hum9$0 supp$icated the mother o the chi$d or the restoration o their sightB 9ut she re erred them to her :onder u$ in ant Aur3a into :hom the :ho$e 2eda@ :ith its six 2edangas@ had entered@ as the person :ho Iin reta$iation o the s$aughter o his re$ati3esJ had ro99ed them or their e0e5sight@ and :ho a$one cou$d restore it8 The0 according$0 had recourse to him@ and their e0e5sight :as restored8 Aur3a@ ho:e3er@ meditated the destruction o a$$ $i3ing creatures@ in re3enge or the s$aughter o the %hrigus@ and entered on a course o austerities :hich a$armed 9oth gods@ asuras@ and menB 9ut his progenitors IPitrisJ themse$3es appeared@ and sought to turn him rom his purpose 90 sa0ing that the0 had no desire to 9e re3enged on the -shatri0as : It :as not rom :eakness that the de3out %hrigus o3er$ooked the massacre perpetrated 90 the murderous -shatri0as8 6hen :e 9ecame distressed 90 o$d age@ :e ourse$3es desired to 9e s$aughtered 90 them8 The mone0 :hich :as 9uried 90 someone in a %hriguFs house :as p$aced there or the purpose o exciting hatred@ 90

those :ho :ished to pro3oke the -shatri0as8 !or :hat had :e@ :ho :ere desiring hea3en@ to do :ith mone0;H The0 add that the0 hit upon this de3ice 9ecause the0 did not :ish to 9e gui$t0 o suicide@ and conc$uded 90 ca$$ing upon Aur3a to restrain his :rathB and a9stain rom the sin he :as meditating@ H#estro0 not the -shatri0as@ L son@ nor the se3en :or$ds8 Suppress th0 kind$ed anger :hich nu$$i ies the po:er o austere5 er3our8H Aur3a@ ho:e3er@ rep$ies that he cannot a$$o: his threat to remain unexecuted8 +is anger@ un$ess :reaked upon some other o9Aect@ :i$$@ he sa0s@ consume himse$ 8 And he argues on grounds o Austice@ expedienc0@ and dut0@ against the c$emenc0 :hich his progenitors recommend8 +e is@ ho:e3er@ persuaded 90 the Pitris to thro: the ire o his anger into the sea@ :here the0 sa0 it :i$$ ind exercise in assai$ing the :ater0 e$ement@ and in this :a0 his threat :i$$ 9e u$ i$$ed8H The second c$ass :ar and :hich :as a$so a :ar o extermination :as dec$ared 90 the %harga3a %rahmins on the +aiha0a -shatri0as8 In this the $eader o %harga3a %rahmins :as one Parashuram8 The stor0 o the 9irth o Parashuram is descri9ed in the 2ishnu Purana in the o$$o:ing terms: H [f65].adhiFs daughter Sat0a3ati had 9een gi3en in marriage to an o$d %rahman ca$$ed Richika@ o the ami$0 o %hrigu8 In order that his :i e might 9ear a son :ith the =ua$ities o a %rahman@ Richika had prepared or her a dish o Charu Irice@ 9ar$e0@ and pu$se@ :ith 9utter and mi$kJ or her to eatB and a simi$ar mess or her mother@ ca$cu$ated to make her concei3e a son :ith the character o a :arrior8 Sat0a3atiFs mother@ ho:e3er@ persuaded her to exchange messes8 She :as 9$amed 90 her hus9and on her return home or :hat she had done8 I =uote the :ords o the origina$: HSin u$ :oman@ :hat improper deed is this that thou has done; I 9ehe$d th0 9od0 o a 3er0 terri9$e appearance8 Thou hast certain$0 eaten the Charu prepared or th0 mother8 This :as :rong8 !or into that Chari I had in used a$$ the endo:ments o heriosm@ 3igour@ and roce@ :hi$st into thine I had introduced a$$ these =ua$ities o =uietude@ kno:$edge@ and patnence :hich constitute the per ection o a %rahmin8 Since thou hast acted in contra3ention o m0 design a son sha$$ 9e 9orn to thee :ho sha$$ $i3e the dread u$@ martia$@ and murderous $i e o a -shatri0a and th0 motherFs o spring sha$$ exhi9it the peace u$ disposition and conduct o a %rahman8H As soon as she had heard this@ Sat0a3ati e$$ do:n and sei>ed her hus9andFs eet@ and said@ F*0 $ord@ I ha3e acted rom ignoranceB sho: kindness to me@ $et me not ha3e a son o the sort thou hast descri9edB i thou p$easest@ $et me ha3e a grandson o that description8 KSu9se=uent$0 she 9ore <amadagni@ and her mother ga3e 9irth to 2ish3amitra8 Sat0a3ati 9ecame the ri3er ca$$ed -ausiki8 <amadagni :edded Renuka@ the daughter o Renu@ o the ami$0 o Iksh3akuB and on her he 9egot a son ca$$ed Parasurama8H The o$$o:ing additiona$ detai$s a9out ParshuramFs ami$0 histor0 is gi3en in the 2enapar3an o the *aha9harata :

H [f66]<amadagni and Sat0a3ati had i3e sons@ the 0oungest o :hom :as the repu9ta9$e Parasurama8 %0 his atherFs command he ki$$s his mother I:ho 90 the indu$gence o impure desire@ had a$$en rom her 9re3ious sanctit0J@ a ter the our e$der sons had re used this matricida$ o en@ and had in conse=uence 9een depri3ed o reason 90 their atherFs curse8 At ParasuramaFs desire ho:e3er@ his mother is restored 90 his ather to $i e@ and his 9rothers to reasonB and he himse$ is a9so$3ed rom a$$ the gui$t o murderB and o9tains the 9oon o in3inci9i$it0 and $ong $i e rom his ather8H This second c$ass :ar took p$ace in the reign o the +aiha0a king ArAuna the son o -ing -arta3ir0a8 To understand it correct$0 it is necessar0 to de3ide it into t:o parts or there are t:o stages in it8 The trou9$e 9egan :ith the %rahmans c$aiming certain prerogati3es and po:ers exc$usi3e$0 or themse$3es and -ingGArAuna scouting them in most contemptuous terms8 As the Anushasanpar3an o the *ah9harata puts it8 H [f67]Then ascending his chariot g$orious as the resp$endent sun@ he exc$aimed in the intoxication o his pro:ess@ F 6ho is $ike me in ortitude@ courage@ ame@ heriosm@ energ0@ and 3igour;F At the end o this speech a 9odi$ess 3oice on the sk0 addressed him: FThou kno:est not@ L oo$@ that a %rahman is 9etter than a -shatri0a8 It is :ith the he$p o the %rahman that the -shatri0a ru$es his su9Aects8 ArAuna ans:ers FI I am p$eased@ I can create@ or@ i disp$eased@ annihi$ate@ $i3ing 9eingsB and no %rahman is superior to me in act@ thought@ or :ord8 The irst proposition is that the %rahmans are superiorB the second that the -shatri0as are superior: 9oth o these thou hast stated :ith their ground@ 9ut there is a di erence 9et:een them8 The %rahmans are dependent on the -shatri0as@ and not the -shatri0as on the %rahmansB and the -shatri0as on the %rahmansB and the -shatri0as are eaten up 90 the %rahmans@ :ho :ait upon them and on$0 make the 2edas a pretence8 <ustice the protection o the peop$e@ has its seat in the -shatri0as8 !rom them the %rahmans deri3e their $i3e$ihood: ho: then can the $atter 9e superior; I a$:a0s keep in su9Aection to m0se$ those %rahmans@ the chie o a$$ 9eings@ :ho su9sist on a$ms@ and :ho ha3e a high opinion o themse$3es8 !or truth :as apoken 90 that ema$e the .a0atri in the sk08 I sha$$ su9due a$$ those unru$0 %rahmans c$ad in hides8 1o one in the three :or$ds@ god or man can hur$ me rom m0 ro0a$ authorit0B :here ore I am superior to an0 %rahman8H Ln hearing this 2a0u comes and sa0s to ArAuna : H[f68]A9andon this sin u$ disposition@ and to o9eisance to the %rahmans8 I thou sha$t do them :rong@ th0 kingdom sha$$ 9e con3u$sed8 The0 :i$$ su9due theeB those po:er u$ men :i$$ hum9$e thee@ and expe$ thee rom th0 countr0F The king asks him@ F:ho art thou; 2a0u rep$ies@ FI 2a0u@ the messenger o the gods@ and te$$ thee :hat is or th0 9ene itF8 ArAuna reAoins@ F Ih thou disp$a0est to5da0 a great :armth o de3otion to the %rahmans8 %ut sa0 that a %rahman is $ike Ian0 otherJ earth59orn creature8 Lr sa0 that this most exce$$ent %rahman is something $ike the :ind8 %ut ire is $ike the :aters@ or the sun@ or the sk08F 2a0u then adduces 3arious instances in :hich the

superiorit0 o the %rahmins has 9een main ested8 ArAuna then drops his hosti$it0 against the %rahmins and 9ecomes their riend8 In the Anushasanpar3a he is reported to ha3e said : H[f69] I $i3e a$together and a$:a0s or the sake o the %rahmans8 I am de3oted to the %rahmans@ and do o9eisance to them continua$$08 And it is through the a3our o #attatre0a IA %rahmanJ that I ha3e o9tained a$$ this po:er and high reno:n@ and that I ha3e practised righteousness8H It is in the second stage that Parashuram comes on the scene and extreminates the -shatri0as8 The stor0 is to$d in the Shantipar3an in the o$$o:ing terms : H[f70] %eing o a meek@ pious@ kind and charita9$e turn o mind@ the 3a$iant ArAuna thought nothing o the curseB 9ut his sons@ :ho :ere o an arrogant and 9ar9arous disposition@ 9ecame the cause o its resu$ting in his death8 6ithout their atherFs kno:$edge the0 took a:a0 <amadagniFs ca$ B and in conse=uence Parasurama attacked ArAuna and cut o his arms8H +is son reta$iated 90 ki$$ing <amadagni8 Parashurama incensed at the s$aughter o his ather@ ha3ing 3o:ed in conse=uence to s:eep a:a0 a$$ -shatri0as rom the earth@ sei>ed his :eaponsB and s$a0ing a$$ the sons and grandsons o ArAuna@ :ith thousands o the +aiha0as@ he turned the earth into a mass o ensanguined mud8 +a3ing thus c$eared the earth o -shatri0as@ he 9ecame penetrated 90 deep compassion and retired to the orest8 A ter some thousands o 0ears had e$apsed@ the hero@ natura$$0 irasci9$e@ :as taunted 90 Para3su@ the son o Rai9h0a and grandson o 2is3amitra@ in a pu9$ic assem9$0 in these :ords: FAre not these 3irtuous men@ Pratardana and the others@ :ho are assem9$ed at the sacri ice in the cit0 o ?a0ati@Gare the0 not -shatri0as; Thou hast ai$ed to execute th0 threat@ and 3ain$0 9oastest in the assem9$08 Thou has :ithdra:n to the mountain rom ear o those 3a$iant -shatri0as@ :hi$e the earth has again 9ecome o3errrun 90 hundred o their race8 K+earing these :ords@ Rama sei>ed his :eapons8 The hundreds o -shatri0as :ho had 9e ore 9een spared had no: gro:n po:er u$ kings8 These@ ho:e3er@ Parasurama no: s$e: :ith their chi$dren@ and a$$ the numerous in ants then un9orn as the0 came into the :or$d8 Some@ ho:e3er@ :ere preser3ed 90 their mothers8H Those :ho are curious to kno: the su9se=uent histor0 o the -shatri0as might 9e interested in the o$$o:ing extract rom the Adipar3an8 H [f71]+a3ing one and t:ent0 time s:ept a:a0 a$$ the -shatri0as rom the earth@ the son o <amadagni engaged in austerities on *ahendra the most exce$$ent o mountains8 A ter he had c$eared the :or$d o -shatri0as@ their :ido:s came to the %rahmans@ pra0ing or o spring8 The re$igious %rahmans@ ree rom an0 impu$se o $ust coha9ited at the proper seasons :ith these :omen@ :ho in conse=uence 9ecame pregnant@ and 9rought orth 3a$iant -shatri0a 9o0s and gir$s@ to continue the -shatri0a stock8 Thus :as the -shatri0a race 3irtuous$0 9egotten 90 %rahmans on -shatri0a :omen@ and 9ecame mu$tip$ied and $ong5$i3ed@ thence arose our castes

in erior to the %rahmans8H These instances o enmit0 :ere accompanied 90 cha$$enges rom one side to the other :hich sho:s ho: high :ere the tempers running on 9oth sides8 The conduct o king 1imi in 0oking the %rahmins to his chariot and making them drag it $ike horses sho: ho: determined the -shatri0as :ere to humi$iate the %rahmans8 The cha$$enges uttered 90 ArAuna -arta3ir0a against the %rahmins indicates his determination to $e3e$ them do:n8 The %rahmins on their side :ere not s$o: to take up this cha$$enge and send counter cha$$enges to the kshatri0as not to pro3oke the %rahmins8 This is 3er0 c$ear rom the :a0 2a0u the messenger or Am9assador o the %rahmins ta$ks to ArAuna -arti3ir0a a ter he had issued his cha$$enge to the %rahmans8 2a0u te$$s ArAuna ho: the %rhmans Atri made sea :ater sa$tish 90 urinating in it@ ho: #andakas :ere o3erthro:n 90 the %rahmans@ ho: the -shatri0as o the Ta$aAaughas :ere destro0ed 90 a sing$e %rahmin Aur3aB The striking po:er o the %rahmins is not on$0 superior to that o the -shatri0a it is superior to that o the #e3as and 2a0u proceeds to te$$ ArAuna some o the 3ictories achie3ed 90 the %rahmins o3er the #e3as8 +e te$$s him ho: 2aruna ran a:a0 :ith %hadra the daughter o Soma and the :i e o the %rahman 4tath0a o the race o Angiras ho: 4tath0a 90 his curse caused the earth to 9e dried up and ho: 2aruna as a conse=uence su9mitted to 4tath0a and returned his :i e8 +e te$$s him ho: once the Devas :ere con=uered 90 the Asuras and the #ana3as@ ho: depri3ed o a$$ o9$ations@ and stripped o their dignit0 the0 came to the earth :ent to the %rahmin Agast0a and app$ied to him or protection and ho: Agast0a scorched the #ana3as rom hea3en and earth and made him $0 to the South and reinstated the #e3as in their dominion8 +e te$$s ArAuna ho: once the Adit0as :ere per orming a sacri ice and :hi$e engaged in it :ere attached 90 #an3as ca$$ed -ha$ims@ :ho came in ten in thousands to s$a0 them@ ho: the Adit0as :ent to Indra and ho: Indra himse$ attached 90 the #ait0as not 9eing a9$e to render he$p to the Adit0as :ent to the %rahmin 2ashishtha or he$p and ho: 2ashishtha taking merc0 on the Adit0as sa3ed them 90 9urning the #ana3as a$i3e8 +e next te$$s ArAuna ho: the #ana3as once ought :ith the #e3as@ ho: 90 en3e$oping them in dread u$ darkness the #ana3as s$aughtered the #e3as@ ho: the #e3as imp$ored the %rahmin Atri to 9ecome the moon and dispe$$ the g$o:n around the sun :hich Atri did there90 sa3ed the #e3as rom the #an3as8 The $ast episode o %rahmin pro:ess :hich 2a0u te$$s ArAuna is ho: the %rahmin Ch0a3ana compe$$ed Indra to admit the Ash:ins to e=ua$ rank and drink Soma :ith them as a token o e=ua$it0 and ho: :hen Indra re used he took a:a0 9oth the earth and hea3en rom them and ho: he created a #emon *ada and put the #e3as inc$uding Indra into his mouth and ho: he compe$$ed Indra to admit the Ash:ins to e=ua$ rank and drink Soma :ith them and ho: Indra u$timate$0 surrendered to Ch0a3ana8 2a0u did not mere$0 recount these exp$oits o the %rahmins8 +e did something more8 E3er0 time he ga3e ArAuna an instance o the po:er o the %rahmins he ended

90 asking ArAuna pointed =uestions such as HCan 0ou te$$ me o an0 -shatri0a :ho :as superior to him Ii8e8 the %rahmins hero o the stor0J [f72] H#ec$are on 0our part@ an0 -shatri0a :ho has 9een superior to him@ HTe$$ me o an0 -shatri0a superior to Atri8H This c$ass :ar 9et:een the %rahmins and the -shatri0as must ha3e gone on or ages8 In the $ight o this the attitude o *anu to:ards this C$ass 6ar comes as 3er0 strange8 Consider the o$$o:ing 3erses rom the *anu Smriti : I28 13"8 H'et him :ho desires prosperit0@ indeed@ ne3er despise a -shatri0a@ a snake@ and a $earned %rahmana@ 9e the0 e3er so ee9$e8H I28 13&8 H%ecause these three@ :hen treated :ith disrespect@ ma0 utter$0 destro0 himB hence a :ise man must ne3er despite them8H S8 3228 H-shatri0as prosper not :ithout %rahmans@ %rahmans prosper not :ithout -shatri0asB %rahmans and -shatri0as@ 9eing c$ose$0 united@ prosper in this I:or$dJ and in the next8H +ere there is a c$ear attempt on the part o *anu to c$ose the ranks8 Against :hom did *anu :ant the %rahmins and the -shatri0as to c$ose their ranks; 6as this an attempt to orget and orgi3e or :as the moti3e to com9ine them in a conspirac0 to achie3e some unho$0 purpose8 6hat :ere the circumstances that orced *anu to ad3ise the %rahmins to orget their age o$d enmit0 :ith -shatri0as and seek the he$ping hand; The circumstances@ must ha3e 9een 3er0 hard and 3er0 pressing8 !or there :as no room $e t or a reapproachment 9et:een the t:o8 The %rahmins had hur$ed a terri9$e insu$t against the -shatri0as and had :ounded their price 90 sa0ing =uite open$0 that the -shatri0as :ere the i$$egitimate chi$dren o %rahmins 9egotten 90 them on -shatri0a :ido:s8 The next o ensi3e thing that the %rahmins had done to :ound the ee$ings o the -shatri0as :as to extract rom the $atter a con ession that the %rahmins :ere superior to the -shatri0as in mi$itar0 pro:ess and had made %hishma sa0 : HFThe pro:ess o the %rahmans can destro0 e3en the gods8 Those :ise 9eings 9eho$da$$ these :or$ds8 To them it is indi erent :hether the0 are per umed :ith sanda$ :ood or de ormed :ith mire@ :hether the0 eat or ast@ :hether the0 are c$ad in si$k@ or in sack c$oth or skins8 The0 can turn :hat is not di3ine into :hat is di3ine@ and the con3erseB and can in their anger create other :or$ds :ith their guardians8 The0 are the gods o the godsB and the cause o the cause8 The ignorant %rahman is a god@ :hi$st a $earned %rahman is 0et more a god@ $ike the u$$ ocean8H A$$ this makes this sudden c$im9 do:n 90 the %rahmins@ this stoping do:n to :in o3er the -shatri0as 3er0 m0sterious8 6hat can 9e the ke0 to this m0ster0;
8

C,APTER -/ $hudras and the Counter-Revolution

!his is a )&-pa$e "oolscap t%ped manuscript. !he cover pa$e is havin$ a title +hudras and the Counter-Revolution and the te(t on ne(t pa$e starts with the same title. All these pa$es were loose and ta$$ed to$ether. =n"ortunatel%, onl% )& pa$es are available and the latter pa$es seem to be lost.* Editors8 The $a:s o *anu re$ating to the Status o the Shudra make a 3er0 interesting reading or the simp$e reason that the0 ha3e mou$ded thed ps0cho$og0 o the +indus and determined their attitude to:ards the Shudras :ho orms at the present and at a$$ times the most numerous part o +indu societ08 The0 are set out 9e$o: under separate heads so that it ma0 9e possi9$e or the reader to ha3e a comp$ete idea o the status gi3en 90 *anu to the Communit0 o Shudras8 *anu asks the househo$ders o the %rahmana@ -shatri0a and 2aish0a C$ass : I28 &18 'et him not d:e$$ in a countr0 :here the ru$ers are Shudra8 A Shudra is not to 9e deemed as a respecta9$e person8 !or *anu enacts that: SI8 248 A %rahmin sha$$ ne3er 9eg rom a Shudra propert0 or Iper ormingJ a sacri ice i8e8 or re$igious purpose8 A$$ marriage ties :ith the Shudra :ere proscri9ed8 *arriage :ith a :oman 9e$onging to an0 o the three other c$asses :as or9idden8 A Shudra :as not to ha3e an0 connection :ith a :oman o the higher c$asses and an act o adu$ter0 committed 90 a Shudra :ith her :as dec$ared 90 manu to 9e an o ence in3o$3ing capita$ punishment8 2III8 3(48 A Shudra :ho has an intercourse :ith a :oman o the higher caste guarded[f73] or unguarded@ sha$$ 9e punished in the o$$o:ing manner : I she :as unguarded@ he $oses the o ending part8 I she :as guarded then he shou$d 9e put to death and his propert0 con iscated8 As to o ice *anu prescri9es8 2III8 2/8 A %rahmana :ho is on$0 a %rahmana 90 decent i8e8 one :ho has neither studied nor per ormed an0 other act re=uired 90 the 2edas ma0@ at the kingFs p$easure@ interpret the $a: to him i8e8 act as the <udge@ 9ut ne3er a Shudra Iho:e3er $earned he ma0 9eJ8 2III8 218 The kingdom o that monarch :ho $ooks on :hi$e a Shudra sett$es the $a: :i$$ sink $o: $ike a co: in a morass8 2III8 2(28 I a Shudra arrogant$0 presumes to preach re$igion to %rahmins the -ing sha$$ ha3e poured 9urning oi$ in his mouth and oars8 In the matter o ac=uiring $earning the kno:$edge *anu ordains as o$$o:s : III8 1"&8 +e :ho instructs Shudra pupi$s and he :hose teacher is a Shudra sha$$ 9ecome dis=ua$i ied or 9eing in3ited to a Shudra8 I28 ,,8 +e must ne3er read the 2edas8 8 8 8 8 in the presece o the Shudras8 *anuFs successors :ent much 9e0ond him in the crue$t0 o their punishment o the Shudra or stud0ing the 2eda8 !or instance -at0a0ana $a0s do:n that i a Shudra o3erheard the 2eda or 3entured to utter a :ord o the 2eda the -ing sha$$ cut his

tongue in t:ain and pour hot mo$ten $ead in his ears8 As to right to propert0 90 the Shudra *anu enAoins as o$$o:s : S8 12,8 1o super $uous co$$ection o :ea$th must 9e made 90 a Shudra@ e3en though he has po:er to make it@ since a ser3i$e man@ :ho has amassed riches@ 9ecomes proud@ and@ 90 his inso$ence or neg$ect@ gi3es pain to %rahmans8 2III8 41(8 A %rahmanas ma0 sei>e :ithout hesitation i he 9e in distress or his su9sistence@ the goods o his Shudra8 The Shudra can ha3e on$0 one occupation8 This is one o the inexhora9$e 'a:s o *anu8 Sa0s *anu : 18 ,18 Lne occupation on$0@ the 'ord prescri9ed to the Shudra@ to ser3e meek$0 these other three castes Iname$0 %rahmin@ -shatri0a and 2aish0asJ8 S8 1218 I a Shudra@ Iuna9$e to su9sist 90 ser3ing %rahmansJ seeks a $i3e$ihood@ he ma0 ser3e -shatri0as@ or he ma0 a$so seek to maintain himse$ 90 attending on a :ea$th0 2ais0a8 S8 1228 %ut $et IShudraJ ser3e %rahmans@ either or the sake o hea3en@ or :ith a 3ie: to 9oth Ithis $i e and the nextJB or he :ho is ca$$ed the ser3ant o a %rahmana there90 gains a$$ his ends8 S8 1238 The ser3ice o %rahmanas a$one is dec$ared Ito 9eJ an exce$$ent occupation or a Shudra or :hate3er e$se 9esides this he ma0 per orm :i$$ 9ear him no ruit8 Ser3ice 90 Shudra is not $e t 90 *anu to 9e regu$ated as a ree contract8 I the Shudra re uses to ser3e there is a pro3ision or conscription :hich runs as o$$o:s : 2III8 4138 A %rahmana ma0 compe$ a Shudra@ :hether 9ought or un9ought to do ser3i$e :orkB or he is created 90 the creator to 9e the s$a3e o a %rahmana8 S8 1248 The0 must a$$ot to him out o their o:n ami$0 Ipropert0J a suita9$e maintenance@ a ter considering his a9i$it0@ his industr0@ and the num9er o those :hom he is 9ound to suport8 S8 12"8 The remnants o their ood must 9e gi3en to him@ as :e$$ as their o$d househo$d urniture8 A Shudra is re=uired 90 *anu to 9e ser3i$e in his speech and manner to:ards the other c$asses8 2III8 2(/8 A Shudra :ho insu$ts a t:ice59orn man :ith gross in3ecti3e@ sha$$ ha3e his tongue cut outB or he is o $o: origin8 2III8 2(18 I he mentions the names and castes o the It:ice59ornJ :ith contume$0@ an iron nai$@ ten ingers $ong@ sha$$ 9e thrust red hot into his mouth8 *anu is not satis ied :ith this8 +e :ants this ser3i$e status o the Shudra to 9e expressed in the names and surnames o persons 9e$onging to that communit08 *anu sa0s : II8 318 'et the irst part o a %rahmanFs name denote something auspicious@ a -shatri0aFs 9e connected :ith po:er and a 2aish0aFs :ith :ea$th@ 9ut a ShudraFs@ express something contempti9$e8

II8 328 The second part o a %rahmanFs name sha$$ 9e a :ord imp$0ing happinessB o a -shatri0aFs :ord imp$0ing protectionB o a 2aish0aFs a term expressi3e o thri3ing and o a ShudraFs an expression denoting ser3ices8 6hat :as the position o the Shudra 9e ore *anu; *anu treats the Shudra as though he :as an a$ien 1on5Ar0an not entit$ed to the socia$ and re$igious pri3i$eges o the Ar0an8 4n ortunate$0 the 3ie: that the Shudra :as a 1on5Ar0an is too readi$0 accepted 90 the genera$it0 o the peop$e8 %ut there can 9e no dou9t that this 3ie: has not the s$ightest oundation in the $iterature o the ancient Ar0ans8 Reading the Re$igious $iterature o the ancient Ar0ans one comes across the names o 3arious communities and groups o peop$e8 There :ere irst o a$$ the Ar0ans :ith their our o$d di3isions o %rahmins@ -shatri0as@ 2aish0as and Shudras8 %esides them and apart rom them there :ere 8i: Asuras 8ii: Suras or #e3as IiiiJ?akshas 8iv: .andhar3as 8v: -innars 8vi: Charanas 8vii: Ash3ins and 8viii: 1ishadas8 The 1ishadas :ere a Aung$e peop$e primiti3e and unci3i$i>ed8 The .andhar3as@ ?akshas@ -innars@ Charanas and Ash3ins :ere pro essiona$ c$asses and not communities8 The :ord Asura is generic name gi3en to 3arious tri9es kno:n 90 their tri9a$ names o #ait0as@ #ana3as@ #as0us@ -a$ananAas@ -a$e00as@ -a$ins@ 1agas@ 1i3ata5-a3achas@ Pau$omas@ Pishachas and Raxasas8 6e do not kno: i the Suras and #e3as :ere composed o 3arious tri9es as the Asuras :ere8 6e on$0 kno: the $eaders o the #e3a Communit08 The :e$$ kno:n amongst them :ere %rahma@ 2ishnu Rudra@ Sur0a@ Indra@ 2aruna@ Soma etc8 #ue most$0 to the ignorant interpretations o Sa0anachar0a some 3er0 curious 9e$ie s pre3ai$ e3en among the 9est in ormed peop$e a9out these communities name$0 the Ar0ans@ the Asuras and the #e3as and their inter5re$ation and their consanguinit08 It is 9e$ie3ed that the Asuras :ere not a human species at a$$8 The0 are he$d to ha3e 9een ghosts and go9$ins :ho p$agued the Ar0ans :ith their nocturna$ 3isitations8 The Suras or #e3as are understood to 9e poetic dei ications o natureFs orces8 6ith regard to the Ar0ans the 9e$ie is that the0 :ere a air race :ith sharp nose and had a great dea$ o co$our preAudice8 As to the #as0us it is asserted that a #as0u is on$0 another name or a Shudra8 The Shudras it is said ormed the a9origina$s o India8 The0 :ere dark and $at nosed8 The Ar0ans :ho in3aded India con=uered them and made them s$a3es and as a 9adge o s$a3er0 ga3e them the name #as0u :hich it is said comes rom the :ord #as[f74] :hich means a s$a3e8 E3er0 one o these 9e$ie s is un ounded8 The Asuras and Suras :ere communities o human 9eings as the Ar0ans :ere8 The Asuras and Suras :ere descended rom a common ather -ashapa8 The stor0 is that #aksha PraAapati had &/ daughters@ o them thirteen :ere gi3en in marriage to -ashapa8 #iti and Aditi :ere t:o among the 13 o -ashapaFs :i3es8 Those 9orn to #iti :ere ca$$ed Asuras and those 9orn to Aditi :ere ca$$ed Suras or #e3as8 The t:o aught a $ong and a 9$ood0 9att$e or the

so3erignt0 o the :or$d8 This no dou9t is m0tho$og0 and m0tho$og0 though it is histor0 in h0per9o$e is sti$$ histor08 The Ar0ans :ere not a race8 The Ar0ans :ere a co$$ection o peop$e8 The cement that he$d them together :as their interest in the maintenance o a t0pe o cu$ture ca$$ed Ar0an cu$ture8 An0 one :ho accepted the Ar0an cu$ture :as an Ar0an8 1ot 9eing a race there :as no ixed t0pe o co$our and ph0siognom0 :hich cou$d 9e ca$$ed Ar0an8 There :as no dark and $at nose peop$e or the Ar0ans to distinguish themse$3es rom[f75]8 The :ho$e o this edi ice o co$our preAudice as 9eing actors or di3ision and antagonism 9et:een Ar0ans and the #as0us is 9ased upon a :rong meaning gi3en to the t:o :ords <arna and Anas :hich are used :ith re erence to the #as0us8 The :ord 2arna is taken to mean co$our and the :ord Anas is taken to mean :ithout nose8 %oth these meanings are erroneous8 2arna means Caste or group and Anas i read as An5As means uncu$ti3ated speech8 That statement that the Ar0ans had a co$our preAudice :hich determined their socia$ order is arrant nonsense8 I there :ere an0 peop$e :ho :ere de3oid o co$our preAudice it is the Ar0ans and that is 9ecause there :as no dominant co$our to distinguish themse$3es8 It is :rong to sa0 that the #as0us :ere non5Ar0ans 90 race8 The #as0us :ere not a pre5Ar0an race o a9origina$s o India8 The #as0us :ere mem9ers o the Ar0an communit0 :ho :ere depri3ed o the tit$e o Ar0a or opposing some 9e$ie or cu$t :hich :as an essentia$ part o the Ar0an Cu$ture8 +o: this 9e$ie that the #as0us :ere 1on5Ar0ans 90 race cou$d ha3e arisen it is di icu$t to understand8 In the Rig 2eda IS8 4,J Indra sa0s : HI IIndraJ ha3e ki$$ed :ith m0 thuder9o$t or the good o the man@ kno:n as -a3i8 I ha3e protected -upa 90 adopting means o protection8 I took up the thunder9o$t or ki$$ing Susna8 I have deprived the Das%us o" the appellation o" Ar%a.E 1othing can 9e more positi3e and de inite than this statement o Indra that the #as0us :ere Ar0ans8 !urther and 9etter proo o this act can 9e had in the impeachment o Indra or the 3arious atrocities he had committed8 In the $ist o atrocities or :hich Indra :as impeached there :as one charge name$0 the ki$$ing o 2ratra8 2ratra :as the $eader o the #as0us8 It is unthinka9$e that such a charge cou$d 9e ramed against Indra i the #as0us :ere not Ar0ans8 It is erroneous to 9e$ie3e that the Shudras :ere con=uered 90 the Ar0an in3aders8 In the irst p$ace the stor0 that the Ar0ans came rom outside India and in3aded the nati3es has no e3idence to support it8 There is a $arge 9od0 o e3idence that India is the home o the Ar0ans8 In the second p$ace there is no e3idence an0:here o an0 :a8r are ha3ing taken p$ace 9et:een Ar0ans and #as0us 9ut the #as0us ha3e nothing to do :ith the Shudras8 In the third p$ace it is di icu$t to 9e$ie3e that the Ar0ans :ere a po:er u$ peop$e capa9$e o much mi$itar0 pro:ess8 An0 one :ho reads the histor0 o the Ar0ans in India in their re$ation to the #e3as :i$$ 9e reminded o the re$ationship that su9sisted 9et:een the 2ie$$ens and their $ords during the

euda$ times8 The #e3as :ere the euda$ $ords and the Ar0ans :ere the 2i$$ens8 The innumera9$e sacri ices :hich the Ar0ans per ormed ha3e the $ook o uda$ dues paid to the #e3a8 This ser3i$it0 o the Ar0ans to the #e3as :as due to the act that :ithout the he$p and the protection o the #e3as the0 cou$d not :ithstand the assua$ts o the Asuras8 It is too much to presume that so e ete a peop$e cou$d ha3e con=uered the Shudras8 'ast$0 there :as no necessit0 to con=uer the Shudra8 Th0 :ere Ar0ans in the on$0 sense in :hich the :ord Ar0an is used@ name$0@ the upho$ders o the Ar0ans Cu$ture8 T:o things are c$ear a9out the Shudras8 1o9od0 has e3er contended that the0 :ere dark and $at nosed8 1o9od0 has contended that the0 :ere de eated or ens$a3ed 90 the Ar0ans8 It is :rong to treat the #as0us and Shudras as one and the same8 As a peop$e the0 ma0 9e the same8 %ut cu$tura$$0 the0 :ere =uite di erent8The #as0us :ere 1on5Ar0ans in the sense the0 had a$$en a:a0 and re9e$$ed against the Ar0an cu$ture8 The Shudras on the other hand :ere Ar0ans i8e8 the0 :ere 9e$ie3ers in the Ar0an :a0 o $i e8 The Shudra :as accepted as an Ar0an and as $ate as -auti$0aFs Artha Shastra :as addressed an Ar0a8 The Shudra :as an intergra$@ natura$ and 3a$ued mem9er o the Ar0an Societ0 is pro3ed 90 a pra0er :hich is ound in the ?aAur 2eda [f76] and :hich is o ered 90 the Sacri icer8 It runs as o$$o:s : H888888888 / .ods .i3e $ustre to our ho$0 priests@ set $ustre in our ru$ing chie s@ 'ustre to 2ais0as@ Sudras : .i3e@ through $ustreB 'ustre unto me8H It is a remarka9$e pra0er@ remarka9$e 9ecause it sho:s that the Shudra :as a mem9er o the Ar0an Communit0 and :as a$so a respected mem9er o it8 That the Shudras :ere in3ited to 9e present at the coronation o the -ing a$ong :ith %rahmins@ -shatri0as and 2aish0as is pro3ed 90 the description gi3en in the *aha9harata o the coronation o ?udhisthira the e$dest 9rother o the Panda3as8 Shudra took part in the consecration o the -ing8 According to ancient :riter ca$$ed 1i$kantha speaking o the coronation ceremon0 express$0 sa0s : Hthat the our chie *inisters@ %rahmin@ -shatri0a@ 2aish0a and Shudra consecra8ted the ne: king8 Then the $eaders o each 2arna and 90 the Castes $o:er sti$$ consecrated him :ith the ho$0 :ater8 Then o$$o:ed acc$amation 90 the t:ice59orn8 In the post53edic period preceding *anu there :as group o the representati3es o the peop$e ca$$ed the Ratnis8 The Ratnis p$a0ed a signi icant part in the in3estiture o the -ing8 The Ratnis :ere so ca$$ed 9ecause the0 he$d the Ratna IAe:e$J :hich :as a s0m9o$ o so3ereignt08 The king recei3ed his so3ereignt0 on$0 :hen the Ratnis handed o3er to him the Ae:e$ o so3ereignt0 and on recei3ing his so3ereignt0 the -ing :ent to the house o each o the Ratnis and made an o ering to him8 It is a signi icant act that the Shudra :as one o the Ratnis8 Shudras :ere mem9ers o the t:o po$itica$ Assem9$ies o ancient times name$0 the <anapada and Paura and as a mem9er o this he :as entit$ed to specia$ respect e3en rom a %rahmin8 That the Shudra in the Ancient Ar0an Societ0 had reached a

high po$itica$ status is indisputa9$e8 The0 cou$d 9ecome ministers o State8 The *aha9harat 9ears testimon0 to this8 Enumerating the di erent c$asses o ministers :ithin his memor0 the :riter o the *aha9harata mentions a $ist [f77] o 3( *inisters o :hom our are %rahmins@ eight -shatri0as@ t:ent0 one 2aish0as@ three Shudras and one Suta8 Shudras did not stop :ith 9eing ministers o State8 The0 e3en 9ecame -ings8 The stor0 o Shudras :hich is gi3en in the Rig 2eda stands in crue$ contrast :ith the 3ie:s expressed 90 *anu regarding the e$igi9i$it0 o the Shudra to 9e a -ing8 The reign o Sudas i re erred to at a$$ is re erred on$0 in connection :ith the terri9$e contest 9et:een 2ashishtha and 2ish3amitra as to :ho shou$d 9ecome the purohit or Ro0a$ priest o -ing Sudas8 The issue in3o$3ed in the contest :as as to the right to o iciate as the Purohit or the -ing8 2ashishtha :ho :as a %rahmin and :ho :as a$read0 an o iciating priest o Sudas c$aimed that a %rahmin a$one cou$d 9ecome the Purohit o a -ing :hi$e 2ish3amitra :ho :as a -shatri0a contended that a -shatri0a :as competent or that o ice8 2ish3amitra succeeded and in his turn 9ecame the Purohit o Sudas8 The contest is indeed memora9$e 9ecause the issue in3o$3ed in it is 3er0 crucia$ a$though the resu$t has not 9een a permanent depri3ation o the %rahmins8 %ut there can 9e no dou9t the stor0 is pro9a9$0 the 9est piece o socia$ histor0 that is to 9e ound in the ancient $iterature8 4n ortunate$0 no9od0 has taken serious notice o it8 1o9od0 has e3en asked :ho this -ing :as8 Sudas :as the son o PaiAa3ana and PaiAa3ana is the son o #e3odas :ho :as the -ing o -asi i8e8 %enares8 6hat :as the 2arna o Sudas; !e: :ou$d 9e$ie3e i the0 :ere to$d that -ing Sudas :as a Shudra8 %ut that is a act and it can 9e pro3ed 90 the testimon0 o the *aha9harata[f78] :here in the Santipur3a a re erence is made to this -ai@avana. It is stated that PaiAa3ana :as a Shudra8 In the $ight o this the stor0 o Sudas sheds ne: $ight on the status o the Shudra in the Ar0an Societ08 It sho:s that a Shudra cou$d 9e a reigning monarch8 It a$so sho:s that 9oth the %rahmins and the -shatri0as not on$0 sa: no humi$iation in ser3ing a Shudra -ing 9ut the0 :ith each other to secure his patronage and :ere read0 to per orm 3edic ceremonies at his house8 It cannot 9e said that there :ere no Shudra -ings in $ater times8 Ln the contrar0 histor0 sho:s that the t:o d0nasties :hich preceded *anu :ere d0nasties o Shudras -ings8 The 1andas :ho ru$ed rom %8C8413 to %8C8 322[f79] :ere Shudras8 The maur0as :ho succeded the 1andas and :ho ru$ed rom 322 %8C@ to 1)3 %8C8 [f80] :ere a$so Shudras8 6hat more g$aring piece o e3idence can there 9e to sho: the high dignit0 enAo0ed 90 the Shudra than to point to the case o Asoka :ho :as not mere$0 the Emperor o India 9ut a Shudra and his Empire :as the Empire 9ui$t 90 the Shudras8 Ln the =uestion o the right o the Shudra to stud0 the 2edas a re erence ma0 9e made to the Chhandog0a 4panished I28 182J8 It re$ates the stor0 o one <anasruti to

:hom 2eda 2id0a :as taught 90 the preceptor Raik3a8 This <anasruti :as a Shudra8 This stor0 i it is a genuine stor0 $ea3es no dou9t that there :as a time :hen there :as no 9ar against the Shudra in the matter o stud0ing the 2edas8 1ot on$0 :as Shudra ree to stud0 the 2edas 9ut there :ere Shudras :ho had reached the status o Rishis and has 9een composers o the +0mns o the 2edas8 The stor0 o the Rishi -a3asha A$iusha [f81] is 3er0 i$$uminating8 +e :as a Rishi and the author o se3era$ h0mns o the Tenth %ook o the Rig52eda8 [f82] Ln the =uestion o the spiritua$ e$igi9i$it0 o the Shudra to per orm the 2edic ceremonies and sacri ies the o$$o:ing data ma0 9e presented8 <aimin [f83] the author o the Pur3a *imansa mentions an ancient teacher 90 name %adariG:hose :ork is $ost as an exponent o the 3ie: that e3en Shudra cou$d per orm 2edic sacri ices8 The %harad3aAa Srauta Sutra I38 2)J admits that there exists another schoo$ o thought :hich ho$ds that a Sudra can consecrate the three sacred ires necessar0 or the per ormance o a 2edic Sacri ice8 Simi$ar$0 the Commentator o the -at0a0ana Srauta Sutra II N "J admits that there are certain 2edic texts :hich $ead o the in erence that the Shudra :as e$igi9$e to per orm 2edic rites8 In the Satpath %rahmana I18 184812J there is enunciated a ru$e o eti=uette :hich the priest o iciating at the per ormance o a sacri ice is re=uired to o9ser3e8 It re$ates to the mode in :hich the priest shou$d address the +a3iskut Ithe person ce$e9rating the sacri iceJ ca$$ing upon him to 9egin the ceremon08 The ru$e sa0s: H1o: there are our di erent orms o this ca$$@ 3i>8 FCome hitherF IEhiJ in the case o a %rahmanaB FapproachF IAgahiJ and Fhasten hitherF IAdar3aJ in the case o a 2aish0a and a mem9er o the *i$itar0 caste and Frun hitherF IAdha3aJ in that o a Shudra8H In the Satpatha %rahman [f84] there is e3idence to sho: that the Shudra :as e$igi9$e to per orm the Soma ?aga and to partake o the di3ine drink Soma8 It sa0s that in the Soma ?aga in p$ace o a Fpa0o3rataF I3o: to drink mi$k on$0J *astu I:he0J is prescir9ed or the Shudra8 In another p$ace the same Satapatha %rahmana [f85]sa0s : HThere are our c$asses@ the %rahmin@ RaAan0a@ 2aish0a and Sudra8 There is no one o these :ho dis$ikes Soma8 I an0 one o them ho:e3er shou$d do so@ $et there 9e an atonment8H This means that the drinking o Soma :as not on$0 permissi9$e 9ut it :as compu$sor0 on a$$ inc$uding the Shudra8 %ut in the stor0 o the Ash3ins there is de inite e3idence that the Shudra had a right to the di3ine drink o Soma8 The Ash3ins as the stor0[f86] goes once happened to 9eho$d Sukan0a :hen she had Aust 9athed and :hen her person :as 9are8 She :as 0oung gir$ married to a Rishi 90 name Ch0a3ana :ho at the time o marriage :as so o$d as to 9e d0ing a$most an0 da08 The Ash3ins :ere capti3ated 90 the 9eaut0 o Sukan0a and said Haccept one o us or 0our hus9and@ it 9eho3eth thee not to spend th0 0outh ruit$ess$08H She re used sa0ing HI am de3oted to m0 hus9and8H The0 again spoke to her and this time proposed a 9argainGH 6e t:o are the ce$estia$ ph0sicians o note8 6e :i$$

make th0 hus9and 0oung and grace u$8 #o thou then se$ect one o us as th0 hus9and8H She :ent to her hus9and and communicated to him the terms o the 9argain8 Ch0a3ana said to Sukan0a H#o thou soH and the 9argain :as carried out and Ch0a3ana :as made a 0oung man 90 the Ash:ins8 Su9se=uent$0 a =uestion arose :hether the Ash:ins :ere entit$ed to Soma :hich :as the drink o the .ods8 Indra o9Aected sa0ing that the Ash:ins :ere Shudras and there ore not entit$ed to Soma8 Ch0a3ana :ho had recei3ed perpetua$ 0outh rom the Ash:ins set aside the contention and compe$$ed Indra to gi3e them Soma8 A$$ these pro3isions can ha3e no meaning un$ess the Shudra :as in act per orming the 2edic ceremonies to :hich the0 re$ateGthere is e3idence to sho: that a Shudra :oman took part in the 2edic sacri ice kno:n as the Ash:amedha8 [f87] 6ith regard to the 4pana0ana ceremon0 and the right to :ear the sacred thread there is no:here an express prohi9ition against the Shudra8 Ln the other hand in the Sansakara .anapati there is an express pro3ision dec$aring the Shudra to 9e e$igi9$e or 4pana0an8[f88] The Shudra though 9e$onging to a $o:er c$ass :as nonethe$ess a ree citi>en in da0s 9e ore *anu cannot 9e gainsaid8 Consider the o$$o:ing pro3isions in -auti$0aFs Artha Shastra : HThe se$$ing or mortgaging 90 kinsmen o the $i e o a Sudra :ho is not a 9orn s$a3e@ and has not attained maAorit0@ 9ut is an Ar0a in 9irth sha$$ 9e punished :ith a ine o 2 panas8H H#ecei3ing a s$a3e o his mone0 or depri3ing him o the pri3i$eges he can exercise as an Ar0a IAr0a9ha3aJ@ sha$$ 9e punished :ith ha$ the ine I$e3ied or ens$a3ing the $i e o an Ar0aJ8H H!ai$ure to set a s$a3e at $i9ert0 on the receipt o a re=uired amount o ransom sha$$ 9e punished :ith a ine o 12 panasB putting a s$a3e under con inement or no reason IsamrodhaschakaranatJ sha$$ $ike:ise 9e punished8 HThe o spring o a man :ho has so$d himse$ o as a s$a3e sha$$ 9e an Ar0a8 A s$a3e sha$$ 9e entit$ed :ithout preAudice to his masterFs :ork 9ut a$so the inheritance he has recei3ed rom his ather8H 6h0 did *anu suppress the Shudra; This ridd$e o the Shudra is not a simp$e ridd$e8 It is a comp$ex one8 The Ar0ans :ere or e3er attempting to Ar0ani>e the 1on5Ar0ans i8e8 9ringing them :ithin the pa$e o the Ar0an Cu$ture8 So keen :ere the Ar0ans on Ar0ani>ation that the0 had de3e$oped a re$igious ceremon0 or the mass con3ersion o the 1on5Ar0ans8 The ceremon0 :as ca$$ed 2rat0a5stoma8 Speaking o the 2rat0a5Stoma *ahamahopadh0a0a +araprasad Shastri sa0s : HThe ceremon0 90 :hich these 2rat0as :ere puri ied@ and :hich is descri9ed in the Panca3imsa %rahmana di ered at $east in one particu$ar rom other great ceremonies o the 2edic times@ name$0@ :hi$e other ceremonies had on$0 one sacri icer and his :i e in the ha$$ o sacri ice@ this ceremon0 had thousands o

sacri icers8 Lne o them@ the :isest@ the richest or the most po:er u$ acted as .rahapati or Patriarch and the rest simp$0 o$$o:ed him8 The .rahapati had to pa0 a higher #aksina or ee than the rest8H HI consider this to 9e a de3ice 90 :hich thousands and thousands o 2rat0as :ere admitted to the societ0 o the Rsis 90 one ceremon0@ and such ceremonies :ere o re=uent occurrence@ thus admitting hordes a ter hordes o nomadic Ar0ans into sett$ed ha9its8 The puri ied 2rat0as :ere not a$$o:ed to 9ring their possessions in 2rat0a $i e :ith them in sett$ed $i e8 The0 had to $ea3e them to those :ho remained 2rat0as sti$$ or do the so5ca$$ed %rahmins o the *agadha5desa@ :hich@ as I ha3e e$se:here sho:n@ :as most$0 inha9ited 90 men :hom the Rsis $ooked do:n upon8H H%ut :hen the 2rat0as :ere admitted to sett$ed $i e@ the0 :ere admitted as u$$0 e=ua$s8 The Rsis used to eat ood cooked 90 them@ and the0 used to eat ood cooked 90 the Ris8 The0 :ere taught a$$ the three 2id0as@ Sama@ Rk@ and ?aAus@ and the0 :ere a$$o:ed to stud0 the 2edas@ and teach them@ and to sacri ice or themse$3es and or others@ that is@ the0 :ere considered as u$$0 e=ua$8 1ot on$0 :ere the0 treated as u$$0 e=ua$ 9ut the0 attained the highest pro icienc0 o a Rsi8 Samans :ere re3ea$ed to them@ and e3en Rks8 Lne o the puri ied 2rat0as@ -ausitaki :as a$$o:ed to co$$ect %rahmans o the Rig52eda@ :hich co$$ection sti$$ goes under his name8H The Ar0ans :ere not on$0 con3erting to their :a0 o $i e the :i$$ing non5Ar0ans the0 :ere a$so attempting to make con3erts rom among the un:i$$ing Asuras :ho :ere opposed to the Ar0ans@ their cu$t o sacri ice@ their theor0 o Chatur3arna and e3en to their 2edas :hich according to the m0tho$og0 the Asuras sto$e a:a0 rom the Ar0as8 The stor0 o 2ishnu rescuing Pra$had 90 ki$$ing his ather the Asura ca$$ed +iran0a -ashapu on the ground that Pra$had :as :i$$ing to 9e con3erted to the Ar0an Cu$ture :hi$e +iran0a -ashapu :as opposed to it is an i$$ustration in point8 +ere are instances o 1on5Ar0ans 9eing natura$i>ed and en ranchi>ed8 6h0 :as an opposite attitude taken against the Shudra; 6h0 :as the Shudra u$$0 natura$i>ed and u$$0 en ranchi>ed@ denatura$i>ed and dis ranchi>ed; The treatment gi3en to the Dishadas gi3es a point to this ridd$e :hich shou$d not 9e o3er$ooked8 The Ancient Sanskrit 'iterature is u$$ o re erence to the i3e tri9es8 The0 are descri9ed under 3arious appe$$ations [f89] such as Panch5-rishta0ah@ Panch5 -shita0ah@ Panch5-shit0as *anush0ah@ Panch5Charshana0ah@ Panch5<anah@ Panchi5Aan0a 3i>8@ Pancha5%huma@ PanchaAata8 There is a di erence o opinion as to :hat these terms denote8 Sa0anachar0a the Commentator o Rig 2eda sa0s that these expressions re er to the our 2arnas and the 1ishads8 The 2ishnu Purana gi3es the o$$o:ing stor0 a9out the 1ishads : H(8 The *aiden named Sunitha@ :ho :as the irst 9orn o *rit0u I#eathJ :as gi3en as :i e to AngaB and o her 2ena :as 9orn8H

)8 This son o *rit0uFs daughter@ in ected :ith the taint o his materna$ grand ather@ :as 9orn corrupt@ as i 90 nature8 ,8 6hen 2ena :as inaugurated as king 90 the eminent rishis@ he caused this proc$amation to 9e made on the earthB H*en must not sacri ice@ or gi3e gi ts@ or present o9$ations8 6ho e$se 9ut m0se$ is the enAo0er o sacri ices; I am or e3er the $ord o o erings8F 1/8 Then a$$ the rishis approaching the king :ith respect u$ sa$utations@ said to him in a gent$e and conci$iator0 tone : 118F +ear@ L -ing@ :hat :e ha3e to sa0 : 128 6e sha$$ :orship +ari@ the monarch o the .ods@ and the $ord o a$$ sacri ices :ith a #irghasattra Ipro$onged sacri iceJ@ rom :hich the highest 9ene its :i$$ accrue to 0our kingdom@ 0our person and 0our su9Aects8 *a0 9$essing rest upon 0ou; ?ou sha$$ ha3e a share in the ceremon08 138 2ishnu the 'ord o sacri ices *a$e@ 9eing propitiated 90 us :ith this rite@ :i$$ grant a$$ the o9Aects o 0our desire8 +ari@ the 'ord o Sacri ices@ 9esto:s on those kings in :hose countr0 he is honoured :ith o9$ation e3er0thing that the0 :ish8H 2ena rep$ied : H6hat other 9eing is superior to me; 6ho e$se 9ut I shou$d 9e adored; 6ho is this person ca$$ed +ari@ :hom 0ou regard as the 'ord o sacri ice; %rahma <anardana@ Rudra@ $ndra@ 2a0u@ ?ama@ Ra3i Ithe SunJ Agni@ 2aruna@ #hatri@ Pushan@ Earth@ the *oon@G these and the other gods :ho curse and 9$ess are a$$ present in kingFs person: or he is composed o a$$ the gods8 -no:ing this8 0e must act in con ormit0 :ith m0 commands8 %rahmans 0e must neither gi3e gi ts@ nor present o9$ations nor sacri ices8 148 As o9edience to their hus9ands is esteemed the highest dut0 o :omen@ so is the o9ser3ance o m0 orders incum9ent upon 0ou8H The Rishis ans:ered8 F .i3e permission great kings: $et not re$igion perish: this :ho$e :or$d is 9ut a modi ied orm o o9$ations8 1"8 6hen re$igion perishes the :ho$e :or$d is destro0ed :ith it@ 6hen 2ena a$though thus admonished and repeated$0 addressed 90 the eminent rishis@ did not gi3e his permission@ then a$$ the munis@ i$$ed :ith :rath and indignation@ cried out to one another@ HS$a0@ s$a0 the sinner8H 1&8 This man o degraded $i e@ :ho 9$asphemes the sacri ied *a$e@ the god@ the 'ord :ithout 9eginning or end@ is not it to 9e $ord o the earth8F So sa0ing the munis smote :ith 9$ades o kusa grass consecrated 90 texts this king :ho had 9een a$read0 smitten 90 his 9$asphem0 o the di3ine 9eing and his other o ences8 The munis a ter:ards 9ehe$d dust a$$ round@ and asked the peop$e :ho :ere standing near :hat that :as8 1(8 The0 :ere in ormed: HIn this countr0 :hich has no king@ the peop$e 9eing distressed@ ha3e 9ecome ro99ers@ and ha3e 9egun to sei>e the propert0 o others8

1)8 It is rom these ro99ers rushing impetuous$0@ and p$undering other menFs goods@ that this great dust is seen;H Then a$$ the munis@ consu$ting together@ ru99ed :ith orce the thigh o the king@ :ho :as chi$d$ess@ in order to produce a son8 !rom his thigh :hen ru99ed there :as produced a man $ike a charred $og@ :ith $at ace@ and extreme$0 short8 1,8 H6hat sha$$ I do@H cried the man@ in distress@ to the %rahmans8 The0 said to him@ HSit do:n InishidaJB and rom this he 9ecame a 1ishada8 2/8 !rom his sprang the 1ishadas d:e$$ing in the 2indh0a mountains@ distinguished 90 their :icked deeds8 218 %0 this means the sin o the king departed out o himB and so :ere the 1ishads produced@ the o spring o the :ickedness o 2ena8H This is a m0tho$ogica$ origin o the 1ishads8 %ut it conta8ins historica$ acts8 It pro3es that the 1ishads :ere a $o:@ primiti3e Aung$e tri9e $i3ing in the orests o the 2indh0a mountains@ that the0 :ere a :icked peop$e i8e8 opposed to the Ar0an Cu$ture8 The0 in3ented a m0tho$og0 or exp$aining their origin and connecting them :ith the Ar0an Societ08 A$$ this :as done in order to support the inc$usion o the 1ishads into the Ar0an o$d though not in the Ar0an Societ08 1o: there is no:here an0 sort o disa9i$ities imposed upon 1ishads a $o:@ unci3i$i>ed and oreign tri9e8 Muestion is :h0 :ere the disa9i$ities imposed upon the Shudra@ :ho :as ci3i$i>ed and an Ar0a; C,APTER -' The "oman and the Counter-Revolution !here is one cop% with a title !he ?oman and the Counter-Revolution . !here is another cop% o" the same te(t with a title, !he Riddle o" the ?oman . !he 'ditorial Board "elt that this essa% would be appropriate in this <olume rather than in the volume o" Riddles in #induism .*Editors8 *anu can hard$0 9e said to 9e more tender to :omen than he :as to the Shudra8 +e starts :ith a $o: opinion o :omen8 *anu proc$aims : II8 2138 It is the nature o :omen to seduce men in this I:or$dJ: or that reason the :ise are ne3er unguarded in Ithe compan0 o J ema$es8 II8 2148 !or :omen are a9$e to $ead astra0 in IthisJ :or$d not on$0 a oo$@ 9ut e3en a $earned man@ and Ito makeJ him a s$a3e o desire and anger8 II8 21"8 Lne shou$d not sit in a $one$0 p$ace :ith oneFs mother@ sister or daughterB or the senses are po:er u$@ and master e3en a $earned man8 IS8 148 6omen do not care or 9eaut0@ nor is their attention ixed on ageB IthinkingJB FIIt is enough thatJ he is a manF@ the0 gi3e themse$3es to the handsome and to the ug$08

IS8 1"8 Through their passion or men@ through their muta9$e temper@ through their natura$ heart$essness@ the0 9ecome dis$o0a$ to:ards their hus9ands@ ho:e3er@ care u$$0 the0 ma0 9e guarded in this I:or$dJ8 IS8 1&8 -no:ing their disposition@ :hich the 'ord o creatures $aid in them at the creation@ to 9e such@ Ie3er0J man shou$d most strenuous$0 exert himse$ to guard them8 IS8 1(8 I6hen creating themJ *anu a$$otted to :omen Ia $o3e o theirJ 9ed@ Io theirJ seat and Io J ornament@ impure desires@ :rath@ dishonest0@ ma$ice@ and 9ad conduct8 The $a:s o *anu against :omen are o a piece :ith this 3ie:8 6omen are not to 9e ree under an0 circumstances8 In the opinion o *anu: IS8 28 #a0 and night :omen must 9e kept in dependence 90 the ma$es Io their ami$iesJ@ and@ i the0 attach themse$3es to sexua$ enAo0ments@ the0 must 9e kept under oneFs contro$8 IS8 38 +er ather protects IherJ in chi$dhood@ her hus9and protects IherJ in 0outh@ and her sons protect IherJ in o$d ageB a :oman is ne3er it or independence8 IS8 "8 6omen must particu$ar$0 9e guarded against e3i$ inc$inations@ ho:e3er tri $ing Ithe0 ma0 appearJB or@ i the0 are not guarded@ the0 :i$$ 9ring sorro: on t:o ami$ies8 IS8 &8 Considering that the highest dut0 o a$$ castes@ e3en :eak hus9ands ImustJ stri3e to guard their :i3es8 I28 14(8 %0 a gir$@ 90 a 0oung :oman@ or e3en 90 an aged one@ nothing must 9e done independent$0@ e3en in her o:n house8 28 14)8 In chi$dhood a ema$e must 9e su9Aect to her ather@ in 0outh to her hus9and@ :hen her $ord is dead to her sonsB a :oman must ne3er 9e independent8 28 14,8 She must not seek to separate herse$ rom her ather@ hus9and@ or sonsB 90 $ea3ing them she :ou$d make 9oth Iher o:n and her hus9andFsJ ami$ies contempti9$e8 6oman is not to ha3e a right to di3orce8 IS8 4"8 The hus9and is dec$ared to 9e one :ith the :i e@ :hich means that there cou$d 9e no separation once a :oman is married8 *an0 +indus stop here as though this is the :ho$e stor0 regarding *anuFs $a: o di3orce and keep on ido$i>ing it 90 com orting their conscience 90 ho$ding out the 3ie: that *anu regarded marriag@e as sacrament and there ore@ did not a$$o: di3orce8 This o course is ar rom the truth8 +is $a: against di3orce had a 3er0 di erent moti3e8 It :as not to tie up a man to a :oman 9ut it :as to tie up the :oman to a man and to $ea3e the man ree8 !or *anu does not pre3ent a man rom gi3ingB up his :i e8 Indeed he not on$0 a$$o:s him to a9andon his :i e 9ut he a$so permits him to se$$ her8 %ut :hat he does is to pre3ent the :i e rom 9ecoming ree8 See :hat *anu sa0s: IS8 4&8 1either 90 sa$e nor 90 repudiation is a :i e re$eased rom her hus9and8 The meaning is that a :i e@ so$d or repudiated 90 her hus9and@ can ne3er 9ecome the $egitimate :i e o another :ho ma0 ha3e 9ought or recei3ed her a ter she :as

repudiated8 I this is not monstrous nothing can 9e8 %ut *anu :as not :orried 90 consideration o Austice or inAustice o his $a:8 +e :anted to depri3e :oman o the reedom she had under the %uddhistic regime8 +e kne: that 90 her misuse o her $i9ert0@ 90 her :i$$ingness to marr0 the Shudra the s0stem o the gradation o the 2arna had 9een destro0ed8 *anu :as outraged 90 her $icense and in putting a stop to it he depri3ed her o her $i9ert08 A :i e :as reduced 90 manu to the $e3e$ o a s$a3e in the matter o propert08 IS8 41&8 A :i e@ a son@ and a s$a3e@ these three are dec$ared to ha3e no propert0B the :ea$th :hich the0 earn is Iac=uiredJ or him to :hom the0 9e$ong8 6hen she 9ecomes a :ido: *anu a$$o:s her maintenance@ i her hus9and :as Aoint@ and a :ido:Fs estate in the propert0 o her hus9and@ i he :as separate rom his ami$08 %ut *anu ne3er a$$o:s her to ha3e an0 dominion o3er propert08 A :oman under the $a:s o *anu is su9Aect to corpora$ punishment and *anu a$$o:s the hus9and the right to 9eat his :i e8 2III8 2,,8 A :i e@ a son@ a s$a3e@ a pupi$ and a 0ounger 9rother o u$$ 9$ood@ :ho ha3e committed au$ts@ ma0 9e 9eaten :ith a rope or a sp$it 9am9oo8 In other matters :oman :as reduced 90 *anu to the same position as the Shudra8 The stud0 o the 2eda :as or9idden to her 90 *anu as it :as to the Shudra8 II8 &&8 E3en or a :oman the per ormance o the +anskaras are necessar0 and the0 shou$d 9e per ormed8 %ut the0 shou$d 9e per ormed :ithout uttering the 2eda *antras8 IS8 1)8 6omen ha3e no right to stud0 the 2edas8 That is :h0 their Sanskars are per ormed :ithout 2eda *antras8 6omen ha3e no kno:$edge o re$igion 9ecause the0 ha3e no right to kno: the 2edas8 The uttering o the 2eda *antras is use u$ or remo3ing sin8 As :omen cannot utter the 2eda *antras the0 are as unc$ean as untruth is8 L ering sacri ices according to %rahmanism ormed the 3er0 sou$ o re$igion8 ?et *anu :i$$ not a$$o: :omen to per orm them8 *anu ordains that : SI8 3&8 A :oman sha$$ not per orm the dai$0 sacri ices prescri9ed 90 the 2edas8 SI@ 3(@ I she does it she :i$$ go to he$$8 To disa9$e her rom per orming such sacri ices *anu pre3ents her rom getting the aid and ser3ices o a %rahmin priest8 I28 2/"8 A %rahman must ne3er eat ood gi3en at a sacri ice per ormed 90 a :oman8 I28 2/&8 Sacri ices per ormed 90 :omen are inauspicious and not accepta9$e to .od8 The0 shou$d there ore 9e a3oided8 6oman :as not to ha3e an0 inte$$ectua$ persuits nor ree :i$$@ nor reedom o thought8 She :as not to Aoin an0 heretica$ sect such as %uddhism8 I she continues to adhere to it ti$$ death she is not to 9e gi3en the $i9ation o :ater as is done in the case o a$$ dead8

!ina$$0 a :ord regarding the idea$ o $i e@ *anu has sought to p$ace 9e ore a :oman8 It had 9etter 9e stated in his o:n :ords : 28 1"18 +im to :hom her ather ma0 gi3e her@ or her 9rother :ith the atherFs permission@ she sha$$ o9e0 as $ong as he $i3es and :hen he is dead@ she must not insu$t his memor08 28 1"48 Though destitute or 3irtue@ or seeking p$easure e$se:here@ or de3oid o good =ua$ities@ 0et a hus9and must 9e constant$0 :orshipped as a god 90 a aith u$ :i e8 28 1""8 1o sacri ice@ no 3o:@ no ast must 9e per ormed 90 :omen@ apart rom their hus9andsB i a :i e o9e0s her hus9and@ she :i$$ or that reason a$one 9e exa$ted in hea3en8 Then comes the choicest texts :hich orms the pith and the marro: o this idea$ :hich *anu prescri9es or :omen: 28 1"38 The hus9and :ho :edded her :ith sacred *antras@ is a$:a0s a source o happiness to his :i e@ 9oth in season and out o season@ in this :or$d and in the next8 28 1"/8 She must a$:a0s 9e cheer u$@ c$e3er in the management o her househo$d a airs@ care u$ in c$eaning her utensi$s@ and economica$ in expenditure8 This the +indus regard as a 3er0 $o t0 idea$ or a :omanO Compare :ith this the position o the :oman 9e ore the da0s o *anu8 That a :oman :as entit$ed to 4pana0an is c$ear rom the Athar3a 2eda :here a gir$ is spoken o as 9eing e$igi9$e or marriage ha3ing inished her %rahmachar0a8 !rom the Shrauta Sutras it is c$ear that :omen cou$d repeat the *antras o the 2edas and that :omen :ere taught to read the 2edas8 PaniniFs Ashtaadh0ai 9ears testimon0 to the act that :omen attended .uruku$ and studied the 3arious Shakhas o the 2eda and 9ecame expert in *imansa8 PatanAa$iFs *aha %hash0a sho:s that :omen :ere teachers and taught 2edas to gir$ students8 The stories o :omen entering into pu9$ic discussions :ith men on most a9struse su9Aects o re$igion@ phi$osoph0 and metaph0sics are 90 no means e:8 The stor0 o pu9$ic disputation 9et:een <anaka and Su$9ha@ 9et:een ?aAna3a$k0a and .argi@ 9et:een ?aAna3a$k0a and *aitrei and 9et:een Shankarachar0a and 2id0adhari sho:s that Indian :omen in pre5*anuFs time cou$d rise to the highest pinnac$e o $earning and education8 That :omen in pre5*anu da0s :ere high$0 respected cannot 9e disputed8 Among the Ratnis :ho p$a0ed so prominent a part in the coronation o the -ing in Ancient India :as the =ueen and the -ing made her an o ering [f90] as he did to the others8 1ot on$0 the king e$ect did homage to the Mueen@ he :orshipped his other :i3es o $o:er castes[f91]8 In the same :a0 the -ing o ers sa$utation a ter the coronation ceremon0 to the@ $adies o the chie s o the shremes Iguides [f92]J8 In the da0s o -auti$0a :omen [f93] :ere deemed to ha3e attained their age o maAorit0 at 12 and men at 1&8 The age o maAorit0 :as in a$$ pro9a9i$it0 the age o marriage8 That the marriages :ere post pu9ert0 marriages is c$ear rom

%audha0anasF .rih0a Sutras[f94]:here an expiator0 ceremon0 is specia$$0 prescri9ed in the case o a 9ride passing her menses on the occasion o her marriage8 In -auti$0a there is no $a: as to age o consent8 That is 9ecause marriages :ere post pu9ert0 marriages and -auti$0a is more concerned :ith cases in :hich a 9ride or a 9ridegroom is married :ithout disc$osing the act o his or her ha3ing had sexua$ intercouse 9e ore marriage :ith another person or maiden in menses ha3ing had sexua$ intercouse8 In the ormer case -auti$0a sa0s [f95] : HAn0 person :ho has gi3en a gir$ in marriage :ithout announcing her gui$t o ha3ing $aid :ith another sha$$ not on$0 9e punished :ith a ine 9ut a$so 9e made to return the Su$ka and Stridhana8 An0 person recei3ing a gir$ in marriage :ithout announcing the 9$emishes o the 9ridegroom sha$$ not on$0 pa0 dou9$e the a9o3e ine@ 9ut a$so or eit the Su$ka and Stridhana Ihe paid or the 9rideJ8 In regard to the $atter case the ru$e in -auti$0a [f96] is : HIt is no o ence or a man o e=ua$ caste and rank to ha3e connection :ith a maiden :ho has 9een unmarried three 0ears a ter her irst menses8 1or is it an o ence or a man@ e3en o di erent caste@ to ha3e connection :ith a maiden :ho has spent more than three 0ears a ter her irst menses and has no Ae:e$$er0 on her person8H 4n$ike *anu -auti$0aFs idea is monogam08 *an can marr0 more than one :i e on$0 under certain conditions8 The0 are gi3en 90 -auti$0a in the o$$o:ing terms1 : HI a :oman either 9rings orth no I$i3eJ chi$dren@ or has no ma$e issue@ or is 9arren@ her hus9and sha$$ :ait or eight 0ears I9e ore marr0ing anotherJ8 I she 9ears on$0 a dead chi$d@ he has to :ait or ten 0ears8 I she 9rings orth on$0 ema$es@ he has to :ait or t:e$3e 0ears8 Then i he is desirious to ha3e sons@ he ma0 marr0 another8 In case o 3io$ating this ru$e@ he sh$$ 9e made to pa0 her not on$0 Su$ks@ her propert0 IStridhanaJ and an ade=uate monetar0 compensation Iadhi3edanika marthamJ@ 9ut a$so a ine o 24 panas to the .o3ernment8 +a3ing gi3en the necessar0 amount o Su$ka and propert0 IStridhanaJ e3en to those :omen :ho ha3e not recei3ed such things on the occasion o their marriage :ith him@ and a$so ha3ing gi3en his :i3es the proportionate compensation and an ade=uate su9sistence I3ruttiJ@ he ma0 marr0 an0 num9er o :omenB or :omen are created or the sake o sons8H 4n$ike *anu in -auti$0aFs time :omen cou$d c$aim di3orce on the ground o mutua$ enmit0 and hatred8 HA :oman@ hating her hus9and@ cannot disso$3e her marriage :ith him against his :i$$8 1or can a man disso$3e his marriage :ith his :i e against her :i$$8 %ut rom mutua$ enmit0@ di3orce ma0 9e o9tained Iparasparam d3eshanmokshahJ8 I a man@ apprehending danger rom his :i e@ desires di3orce ImokshamichchhetJ@ he sha$$ return to her :hate3er she :as gi3en Ion the occasion o her marriageJ8 I a :oman@ under the apprehension o danger rom her hus9and@ desires di3orce@ she sha$$

or eit her c$aim to her propert08H A :i e can a9andon her hus9and i he is a 9ad character8 H A :oman :ho has a right to c$aim maintenance or an un$imited period o time sha$$ 9e gi3en as much ood and c$othing IgrasacchadanaJ as necessar0 or her@ or more than is neessar0 in proportion to the income o the maintainer I0athapurushapari53apam 3aJ8 I the period I or :hich such things are to 9e gi3en to her :ith one5tenth o the amount in additionJ is $imited@ then a certain amount o mone0@ ixed in proportion to the income o the maintainer@ sha$$ 9e gi3en to herB so a$so i she has not 9een gi3en her Su$ka@ propert0@ and compensation Idue to her or a$$o:ing her hus9and to re5marr0J8 I she p$aces herse$ under the protection o an0 one 9e$onging to her ather5in5$a:Fs ami$0 IS3asuraku$aJ@ or i she 9egins to $i3e independent$0@ then her hus9and sha$$ not 9e sued I or her maintenanceJ8 Thus the determination o maintenance is dea$t :ith8H In the da0s o -auti$0a there :as no 9an on :oman or a :ido: remarr0ing : HLn the death o her hus9and a :oman@ desirous to $ead a pious $i e@ sha$$ at once recei3e not on$0 her endo:ment and Ae:e$$er0 Isthap0a9haranamJ@ 9ut a$so the 9a$ance o Su$ka due to her8 I a ter o9taining these t:o things she re5married another@ she sha$$ 9e caused to pa0 them 9ack together :ith interest Ion their 3a$ueJ8 I she is desirous o a second marriage Ikutum9arkamaJ@ she sha$$ 9e gi3en on the occasion o her re5marriage Ini3esaka$eJ :hate3er either her ather5in5$a: or her hus9and or 9oth had gi3en to her8 The time at :hich :omen can re5marr0 sha$$ 9e exp$ained in connection :ith the su9Aect o $ong soAourn o hus9ands8 HI a :ido: marries an0 man other than o her ather5in5$a:Fs se$ection Is3asuraprati$om0enani3ishtaJ@ she sha$$ or eit :hate3er had 9een gi3en to her 90 her ather5in5$a: and her deceased hus9and8 HThe kinsmen IgnatisJ o a :oman sha$$ return to her o$d ather5in5$a: :hate3er propert0 o her o:n she had taken :ith her :hi$e re5marr0ing a kinsman8 6hoe3er Aust$0 takes a :oman under his protection sha$$ e=ua$$0 protect her propert08 1o :oman sha$$ succeed in her attempt to esta9$ish her tit$e to the propert0 o her deceased hus9and@ a ter she re5marries8 Hi she $i3es a pious $i e@ she ma0 enAo0 it Idharmakama 9hunAitaJ8 1o :oman :ith a son or sons sha$$ Ia ter re5marriageJ 9e at $i9ert0 to make ree use o her o:n propert0 IstridhanaJB or that propert0 o hers@ her sons sha$$ recei3e8 HI a :oman a ter re5marriage attempts to take possession o her o:n propert0 under the p$ea o maintaining her sons 90 her ormer hus9and@ she sha$$ 9e made to endo: it in their name8 I a :oman has man0 ma$e chi$dren 90 man0 hus9ands@ then she sha$$ conser3e her propert0 in the same condition as she had recei3ed rom her hus9ands8 E3en that propert0 :hich has 9een gi3en her :ith u$$ po:ers o enAo0ment and disposa$@ a remarried :oman sha$$ endo: in the name o her sons8

HA 9arren :ido: :ho is aith u$ to the 9ed o her dead hus9and ma0@ under the protection o her teacher@ enAo0 her propert0 as $ong as she $i3esB or it is to :ard o ca$amities that :omen are endo:ed :ith propert08 Ln her death@ her propert0 sha$$ pass into the hands o her kinsman I#a0adaJ8 I the hus9and is a$i3e and the :i e is dead@ then her sons and daughters sha$$ di3ide her propert0 among themse$3es8 I there are no sons@ her daughters sha$$ ha3e it8 In their a9sence her hus9and sha$$ take that amount o mone0 Isu$kaJ :hich he had gi3en her@ and her re$ati3es sha$$ re5 take :hate3er in the shape o gi t or do:r0 the0 had presented her8 Thus the determination o the propert0 o a :oman is dea$t :ith8H H6i3es :ho 9e$ong to Sudra@ 2ais0a@ -shatri0a or %rahman caste@ and :ho ha3e not gi3en 9irth to chi$dren@ shou$d :ait as $ong as a 0ear@ t:o@ three and our 0ears respecti3e$0 or their hus9a8nds :ho ha3e gone a9road or a short timeB 9ut i the0 are such as ha3e gi3en 9irth to chi$dren@ the0 shou$d :ait or their a9sent hus9ands or more than a 0ear8 I the0 are pro3ided :ith maintenance@ the0 shou$d :ait or t:ice the period o time Aust mentioned8 I the0 are not so pro3ided :ith@ their :e$$5to5 do gnatis shou$d maintain them either or our or eight 0ears8 Then the gnatis shou$d $ea3e them to marr0@ a ter taking :hat had 9een presented to them on the occasion o their marriages8 I the hus9and is a %rahman@ stud0ing a9road@ his :i e :ho has no issue shou$d :ait or him or ten 0earsB 9ut i she has gi3en 9irth to chi$dren@ she shou$d :ait or t:e$3e 0ears8 I the hus9and is a ser3ant o the king@ his :i e shou$d :ait or him ti$$ her deathB 9ut e3en i she 9ears chi$dren to a sa3arna hus9and Ii8e8 a second hus9and 9e$onging to the same gotra as that o the ormer hus9andJ@ :ith a 3ie: to a3oid the extinction o her race@ she sha$$ not 9e $ia9$e to contempt thereo Isa3arnatascha praAata na F pa3adam $a9hetaJ8 I the :i e o an a9sent hus9and $acks maintenance and is deserted 90 :e$$5to5do gnatis@ she ma0 re5marr0 one :hom she $ikes and :ho is in a position to maintian her and re$ie3e her miser08H 4n$ike *anu e3er0 precaution :as taken to guarantee economic independence to a married :oman8 This is c$ear rom the o$$o:ing pro3isions in -auti$0aFs Arthashastra re$ating to :i eFs endo:ment and maintenance : H*eans o su9sistence I3rutiJ or Ae:e$$er0 Ia9adh0aJ constitutes :hat is ca$$ed the propert0 o a :oman8 *eans o su9sistence 3a$ued at a9o3e t:o thousand sha$$ 9e endo:ed Iin her nameJ8 There is no $imit to Ae:e$$er08 It is no gui$t or the :i e to make use o this propert0 in maintaining her son@ her daughter5in5$a:@ or herse$ @ :hene3er her a9sent hus9and has made no pro3ision or her maintenance8 In ca$amities@ disease and amine@ in :arding o dangers and in charita9$e acts@ the hus9and@ too@ ma0 make use o this propert08 1either sha$$ there 90 an0 comp$aint against the enAo0ment o this propert0 90 mutua$ consent 90 a coup$e :ho ha3e 9rought orth a t:in8 1or sha$$ there 9e an0 comp$aint i this propert0 has 9een enAo0ed or three 0ears 90 those :ho are :edded in accordance :ith the customs o the irst our kinds o marriage8 %ut the enAo0ment o this propert0 in the cases o

.andhar3a and Asura marriages sha$$ 9e $ia9$e to 9e restored together :ith interest on it8 In the case o such marriages as are ca$$ed Rakshasa and Paisacha@ the use o this propert0 sha$$ 9e dea$t :ith as the t8 Thus the dut0 o marriage is dea$t :ith8H HA :oman :ho has a right to c$aim maintenance or an un$imited period o time sha$$ 9e gi3en as much ood and c$othing IgrasachhadanJ as is necessar0 or her@ or more than is necessar0 in proportion to the income o the maintainer I0atha5 purushapari3apam 3aJ8 I the period I or :hich such things are to 9e gi3en to her :ith one5tenth o the amount in additionJ is $imited@ then a certain amount o mone0@ ixed in proportion to the income o the maintainer@ sha$$ 9e gi3en to herB so a$so i she has not 9een gi3en her su$ka@ propert0@ and compensation Idue to her or a$$o:ing her hus9and to re5marr0J8 I she p$aces herse$ under the protection o an0 one 9e$onging to her ather5in5$a:Fs ami$0 Is3asurku$aJ@ or i she 9egins to $i3e independent$0@ then her hus9and sha$$ not 9e sued I or her maintenanceJ8 Thus the determination o maintenance is dea$t :ith8H Surprising as it ma0 appear in -auti$0aFs time a :i e cou$d 9ring an action in a court o $a: against her hus9and or assau$t and de amation8 In short in pre5*anu da0s a :oman :as ree and e=ua$ partner o man8 6h0 did *anu degrade her;