Many Ramayanas "d0e1254"

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Preferred Citation: Richman, Paula, editor. Many Ramayanas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991. http://ark.cdli .or!/ark:/1"#"# /ft"$%9n&h'/

Two Three Hundred Ramayanas: Five Examples and Three Thoughts on Translation

Two Three Hundred Ramayanas: Five Examples and Three Thoughts on Translation
A. K. Ramanujan (o) many Ramayanas * +hree hundred* +hree thousand* ,t the end of some Ramayanas , a -uestion is sometimes asked: (o) many Ramayanas have there een* ,nd there are stories that ans)er the -uestion. (ere is one. .ne day )hen Rama )as sittin! on his throne, his rin! fell off. /hen it touched the earth, it made a hole in the !round and disappeared into it. 0t )as !one. (is trusty henchman, (anuman, )as at his feet. Rama said to (anuman, 12ook, my rin! is lost. 3ind it for me.1 4o) (anuman can enter any hole, no matter ho) tiny. (e had the po)er to ecome the smallest of the small and lar!er than the lar!est thin!. 5o he took on a tiny form and )ent do)n the hole. (e )ent and )ent and )ent and suddenly fell into the nether)orld. +here )ere )omen do)n there. 12ook, a tiny monkey6 0t7s fallen from a ove* +hen they cau!ht him and placed him on a platter 8thali 9. +he :in! of 5pirits 8bhut 9, )ho lives in the nether)orld, likes to eat animals. 5o (anuman )as sent to him as part of his dinner, alon! )ith his ve!eta les. (anuman sat on the platter, )onderin! )hat to do. /hile this )as !oin! on in the nether)orld, Rama sat on his throne on the earth a ove. +he sa!e ;asistha and the !od Brahma came to see him. +hey said to Rama, 1/e )ant to talk privately )ith you. /e don7t )ant anyone to hear )hat )e say or interrupt it. <o )e a!ree*1 1,ll ri!ht,1 said Rama, 1)e7ll talk.1 +hen they said, 12ay do)n a rule. 0f anyone comes in as )e are talkin!, his head should e cut off.1 10t )ill e done,1 said Rama. /ho )ould e the most trust)orthy person to !uard the door* (anuman had !one do)n to fetch the rin!. Rama trusted no one more than 2aksmana, = >" = so he asked 2aksmana to stand y the door. 1<on7t allo) anyone to enter,1 he ordered. 2aksmana )as standin! at the door )hen the sa!e ;isvamitra appeared and said, 10 need to see Rama at once. 0t7s ur!ent. +ell me, )here is Rama*1 2aksmana said, 1<on7t !o in no). (e is talkin! to some people. 0t7s important.1 1/hat is there that Rama )ould hide from me*1 said ;isvamitra. 10 must !o in, ri!ht no).1 2aksmana said, 10711 have to ask his permission efore 0 can let you in.1 1?o in and ask then.1 10 can7t !o in till Rama comes out. @ou7ll have to )ait.1 10f you don7t !o in and announce my presence, 07ll urn the entire kin!dom of ,yodhya )ith a curse,1 said ;isvamitra. 2aksmana thou!ht, 10f 0 !o in no), 07ll die. But if 0 don7t !o, this hotheaded man )ill urn do)n the kin!dom. ,ll the su $ects, all thin!s livin! in it, )ill die. 0t7s etter that 0 alone should die.1 5o he )ent ri!ht in.

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Rama asked him, 1/hat7s the matter*1 1;isvamitra is here.1 15end him in.1 5o ;isvamitra )ent in. +he private talk had already come to an end. Brahma and ;asistha had come to see Rama and say to him, 1@our )ork in the )orld of human ein!s is over. @our incarnation as Rama must no) he !iven up. 2eave this ody, come up, and re$oin the !ods.1 +hat7s all they )anted to say. 2aksmana said to Rama, 1Brother, you should cut off my head.1 Rama said, 1/hy* /e had nothin! more to say. 4othin! )as left. 5o )hy should 0 cut off your head*1 2aksmana said, 1@ou can7t do that. @ou can7t let me off ecause 07m your rother. +here7ll e a lot on Rama7s name. @ou didn7t spare your )ife. @ou sent her to the $un!le. 0 must e punished. 0 )ill leave.1 2aksmana )as an avatar of 5esa, the serpent on )hom ;isnu sleeps. (is time )as up too. (e )ent directly to the river 5arayu and disappeared in the flo)in! )aters. /hen 2aksmana relin-uished his ody, Rama summoned all his follo)ers, ;i hisana, 5u!riva, and others, and arran!ed for the coronation of his t)in sons, 2ava and :usa. +hen Rama too entered the river 5arayu. ,ll this )hile, (anuman )as in the nether)orld. /hen he )as finally taken to the :in! of 5pirits, he kept repeatin! the name of Rama. 1Rama Rama Rama . . .1 +hen the :in! of 5pirits asked, 1/ho are you*1 1(anuman.1 1(anuman* /hy have you come here*1 = >% = 1Rama7s rin! fell into a hole. 07ve come to fetch it.1 +he kin! looked around and sho)ed him a platter. .n it )ere thousands of rin!s. +hey )ere all Rama7s rin!s. +he kin! rou!ht the platter to (anuman, set it do)n, and said, 1Pick out your Rama7s rin! and take it.1 +hey )ere all eAactly the same. 10 don7t kno) )hich one it is,1 said (anuman, shakin! his head. +he :in! of 5pirits said, 1+here have een as many Ramas as there are rin!s on this platter. /hen you return to earth, you )ill not find Rama. +his incarnation of Rama is no) over. /henever an incarnation of Rama is a out to e over, his rin! falls do)n. 0 collect them and keep them. 4o) you can !o.1 5o (anuman left. +his story is usually told to su!!est that for every such Rama there is a Ramayana .[ ! +he num er of Ramayanas and the ran!e of their influence in 5outh and 5outheast ,sia over the past t)entyBfive hundred years or more are astonishin!. Cust a list of lan!ua!es in )hich the Rama story is found makes one !asp: ,nnamese, Balinese, Ben!ali, Cam odian, Chinese, ?u$arati, Cavanese, :annada, :ashmiri, :hotanese, 2aotian, Dalaysian, Darathi, .riya, Prakrit, 5anskrit, 5antali, 5inhalese, +amil, +elu!u, +hai, +i etanEto say nothin! of /estern lan!ua!es. +hrou!h the centuries, some of these lan!ua!es have hosted more than one tellin! of the Rama story. 5anskrit alone contains some t)entyBfive or more tellin!s elon!in! to various narrative !enres 8epics, kavyas or ornate poetic compositions, puranas or old mytholo!ical stories, and so forth9. 0f )e add plays, danceBdramas, and other performances, in oth the classical and folk traditions, the num er of Ramayanas !ro)s even lar!er. +o these must e added sculpture and asBreliefs, mask plays, puppet plays and shado) plays, in all the many 5outh and 5outheast ,sian cultures.["! Camille Bulcke, a student of the Ramayana , counted three hundred tellin!s.[#! 0t7s no )onder that even as lon! a!o as the fourteenth century, :umaravyasa, a :annada poet, chose to )rite a Mahabharata , ecause he heard the cosmic serpent )hich upholds the earth !roanin! under the urden of Ramayana poets 8 tinikidanuphanirayaramayanadakavigalabharadali 9. 0n this paper, inde ted for its data to numerous previous translators and scholars, 0 )ould like to sort out for myself, and 0 hope for others, ho) these hundreds of tellin!s of a story in different cultures, lan!ua!es, and reli!ious traditions relate to each other: )hat !ets translated, transplanted, transposed.

$almi%i and Kampan: Two Ahalyas

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. viously, these hundreds of tellin!s differ from one another. 0 have come to prefer the )ord tellings to the usual terms versions or variants ecause the latter terms can and typically do imply that there is an invariant, an ori!inal or = >F = Ur BteAtEusually ;almiki7s 5anskrit Ramayana , the earliest and most presti!ious of them all. But as )e shall see, it is not al)ays ;almiki7s narrative that is carried from one lan!ua!e to another. 0t )ould e useful to make some distinctions efore )e e!in. +he tradition itself distin!uishes et)een the Rama story 8ramakatha 9 and teAts composed y a specific personE;almiki, :ampan, or :rttivasa, for eAample. +hou!h many of the latter are popularly called Ramayanas 8like amparamayanam 9, fe) teAts actually ear the title Ramayana G they are !iven titles like !ramavataram 8+he 0ncarnation of Rama9, Ram"aritmanas 8+he 2ake of the ,cts of Rama9, Ramakien 8+he 5tory of Rama9, and so on. +heir relations to the Rama story as told y ;almiki also vary. +his traditional distinction et)een katha 8story9 and kavya 8poem9 parallels the 3rench one et)een su#et and re"it , or the Hn!lish one et)een story and discourse.[&! 0t is also analo!ous to the distinction et)een a sentence and a speech act. +he story may e the same in t)o tellin!s, ut the discourse may e vastly different. Hven the structure and se-uence of events may e the same, ut the style, details, tone, and teAtureEand therefore the importEmay e vastly different. (ere are t)o tellin!s of the 1same1 episode, )hich occur at the same point in the se-uence of the narrative. +he first is from the first ook 8$alakanda 9 of ;almiki7s 5anskrit Ramayana G the second from the first canto 8%alakantam 9 of :ampan7s !ramavataram in +amil. Both narrate the story of ,halya.

The Ahalya Episode: Valmiki

5eein! Dithila, Canaka7s )hite and daIIlin! city, all the sa!es cried out in praise, 1/onderful6 (o) )onderful61 Ra!hava, si!htin! on the outskirts of Dithila an ashram, ancient, unpeopled, and lovely, asked the sa!e, 1/hat is this holy place, so like an ashram ut )ithout a hermit* Daster, 07d like to hear: )hose )as it*1 (earin! Ra!hava7s )ords, the !reat sa!e ;isvamitra, man of fire, eApert in )ords ans)ered, 12isten, Ra!hava, 07ll tell you )hose ashram this )as and ho) it )as cursed y a !reat man in an!er. 0t )as !reat ?autama7s, this ashram that reminds you of heaven, )orshiped even y the !ods. 2on! a!o, )ith ,halya he practiced tapas['! here

= >J =
for countless years. .nce, kno)in! that ?autama )as a)ay, 0ndra 8called +housand Hyes9, 5aci7s hus and, took on the likeness of the sa!e, and said to ,halya: 7Den pursuin! their desire do not )ait for the proper season, . you )ho have a perfect ody. Dakin! love )ith you: that7s )hat 0 )ant. +hat )aist of yours is lovely.7

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5he kne) it )as 0ndra of the +housand Hyes in the !uise of the sa!e. @et she, )ron!headed )oman, made up her mind, eAcited, curious a out the kin! of the !ods. ,nd then, her inner ein! satisfied, she said to the !od, 707m satisfied, kin! of the !ods. ?o -uickly from here. . !iver of honor, lover, protect yourself and me.7 ,nd 0ndra smiled and said to ,halya, 7/oman of lovely hips, 0 am very content. 07ll !o the )ay 0 came.7 +hus after makin! love, he came out of the hut made of leaves. ,nd, . Rama, as he hurried a)ay, nervous a out ?autama and flustered, he cau!ht si!ht of ?autama comin! in, the !reat sa!e, unassaila le y !ods and anti!ods, empo)ered y his tapas , still )et )ith the )ater of the river he7d athed in, laIin! like fire, )ith kusa !rass and kindlin! in his hands. 5eein! him, the kin! of the !ods )as terrorBstruck, his face drained of color. +he sa!e, facin! +housand Hyes no) dressed as the sa!e, the one rich in virtue and the other )ith none, spoke to him in an!er: 7@ou took my form, you fool, and did this that should never e done. +herefore you )ill lose your testicles.7 ,t once, they fell to the !round, they fell even as the !reat sa!e spoke

= >' =
his )ords in an!er to +housand Hyes. (avin! cursed 0ndra, he then cursed ,halya: 7@ou, you )ill d)ell here many thousands of years, eatin! the air, )ithout food, rollin! in ash, and urnin! invisi le to all creatures. /hen Rama, unassaila le son of <asaratha, comes to this terri le )ilderness, you )ill ecome pure, you )oman of no virtue, you )ill e cleansed of lust and confusion. 3illed then )ith $oy, you7ll )ear a!ain your form in my presence.7 ,nd sayin! this to that )oman of ad conduct, laIin! ?autama a andoned the ashram, and did his tapas on a eautiful (imalayan peak, haunt of celestial sin!ers and perfected ein!s. Hmasculated 0ndra then spoke to the !ods led y ,!ni attended y the sa!es and the celestial sin!ers.

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707ve only done this )ork on ehalf of the !ods, puttin! !reat ?autama in a ra!e, lockin! his tapas . (e has emasculated me and re$ected her in an!er. +hrou!h this !reat out urst of curses, 07ve ro ed him of his tapas . +herefore, !reat !ods, sa!es, and celestial sin!ers, help me, helper of the !ods, to re!ain my testicles.7 ,nd the !ods, led y ,!ni, listened to 0ndra of the (undred 5acrifices and )ent )ith the Darut hosts to the divine ancestors, and said, 75ome time a!o, 0ndra, infatuated, ravished the sa!e7s )ife and )as then emasculated y the sa!e7s curse. 0ndra, kin! of !ods, destroyer of cities,

= >& =
is no) an!ry )ith the !ods. +his ram has testicles ut !reat 0ndra has lost his. 5o take the ram7s testicles and -uickly !raft them on to 0ndra. , castrated ram )ill !ive you supreme satisfaction and )ill e a source of pleasure. People )ho offer it )ill have endless fruit. @ou )ill !ive them your plenty.7 (avin! heard ,!ni7s )ords, the ,ncestors !ot to!ether and ripped off the ram7s testicles and applied them then to 0ndra of the +housand Hyes. 5ince then, the divine ,ncestors eat these castrated rams and 0ndra has the testicles of the east throu!h the po)er of !reat ?autama7s tapas . Come then, Rama, to the ashram of the holy sa!e and save ,halya )ho has the eauty of a !oddess.1 Ra!hava heard ;isvamitra7s )ords and follo)ed him into the ashram )ith 2aksmana: there he sa) ,halya, shinin! )ith an inner li!ht earned throu!h her penances, laIin! yet hidden from the eyes of passers y, even !ods and anti!ods.[(!

The Ahalya Episode: Kampan

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+hey came to manyBto)ered Dithila and stood outside the fortress. .n the to)ers )ere many fla!s.

+here, hi!h on an open field, stood a lack rock that )as once ,halya,

the !reat sa!e7s )ife )ho fell ecause she lost her chastity, the mark of marria!e in a house.

F%'

= >9 = Rama7s eyes fell on the rock, the dust of his feet )afted on it.

2ike one unconscious comin! to, cuttin! throu!h i!norance,

chan!in! his dark carcass for true form as he reaches the 2ord7s feet,

so did she stand alive formed and colored a!ain as she once )as.

F%&

0n FF#, Rama asks ;isvamitra )hy this lovely )oman had een turned to stone. ;isvamitra replies: 12isten. .nce 0ndra, 2ord of the <iamond ,Ae, )aited on the a sence2ord of the <iamond ,Ae,

of ?autama, a sa!e all spirit, meanin! to reach out for the lovely reast of doeBeyed ,halya, his )ife.

FF1

(urt y love7s arro)s, hurt y the look in her eyes that pierced him like a spear, 0ndra )rithed and cast a out for strata!emsG

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one day, over)helmed and mindless, he isolated the sa!eG and sneaked into the hermita!e )earin! the eAact ody of ?autama

)hose heart kne) no falsehoods.

FF>

5neakin! in, he $oined ,halyaG coupled, they drank deep of the clear ne) )ine of firstBni!ht )eddin!sG

and she kne).

@et una le

to put aside )hat )as not hers, she dallied in her $oy, ut the sa!e did not tarry, he came ack, a very 5iva )ith three eyes in his head.

FF"

= "# = ?autama, )ho used no arro)s from o)s, could use more inescapa le po)ers of curse and lessin!.

/hen he arrived, ,halya stood there, stunned, earin! the shame of a deed that )ill not end in this endless )orld.

0ndra shook in terror, started to move a)ay in the likeness of a cat.

FF%

Hyes droppin! fire, ?autama sa) )hat )as done, and his )ords fle) like the urnin! arro)s at your hand:

7Day you e covered y the va!inas of a thousand )omen67 0n the t)inkle of an eye

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they came and covered him. FFF

Covered )ith shame, lau!hin!stock of the )orld, 0ndra left.

+he sa!e turned to his tender )ife and cursed:

7. ou!ht )oman6 Day you turn to stone67 and she fell at once

a rou!h thin! of lack rock.

FFJ

@et as she fell she e!!ed: 7+o ear and for!ive )ron!s is also the )ay of elders. . 5ivaBlike lord of mine, set some limit to your curse67

5o he said: 7Rama )ill come, )earin! !arlands that rin! the hum of ees )ith them. /hen the dust of his feet falls on you, you )ill e released from the ody of stone.7

FF'

+he immortals looked at their kin! and came do)n at once to ?autama in a dele!ation led y Brahma and e!!ed of ?autama to relent.

= "1 = ?autama7s mind had chan!ed and cooled. (e chan!ed the marks on 0ndra to a thousand eyes and the !ods )ent ack to their )orlds, )hile she lay there, a thin! of stone.

FF&

+hat )as the )ay it )as. )hile she lay there, a thin! of stone. 3rom no) on, no more misery, only release, for all thin!s in this )orld.

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. cloudBdark lord

)ho attled )ith that o!ress, lack as soot, 0 sa) there the virtue of your hands and here the virtue of your feet.1[)!

FF9

2et me rapidly su!!est a fe) differences et)een the t)o tellin!s. 0n ;almiki, 0ndra seduces a )illin! ,halya. 0n :ampan, ,halya realiIes she is doin! )ron! ut cannot let !o of the for idden $oyG the poem has also su!!ested earlier that her sa!eBhus and is all spirit, details )hich to!ether add a certain psycholo!ical su tlety to the seduction. 0ndra tries to steal a)ay in the shape of a cat, clearly a folklore motif 8also found, for eAample, in the athasaritsagara , an eleventhBcentury 5anskrit compendium of folktales9.[*! (e is cursed )ith a thousand va!inas )hich are later chan!ed into eyes, and ,halya is chan!ed into fri!id stone. +he poetic $ustice )reaked on oth offenders is fitted to their )ron!doin!. 0ndra ears the mark of )hat he lusted for, )hile ,halya is rendered incapa le of respondin! to anythin!. +hese motifs, not found in ;almiki, are attested in 5outh 0ndian folklore and other southern Rama stories, in inscriptions and earlier +amil poems, as )ell as in nonB+amil sources. :ampan, here and else)here, not only makes full use of his predecessor ;almiki7s materials ut folds in many re!ional folk traditions. 0t is often throu!h him that they then ecome part of other Ramayanas . 0n techni-ue, :ampan is also more dramatic than ;almiki. Rama7s feet transmute the lack stone into ,halya firstG only after)ard is her story told. +he lack stone standin! on a hi!h place, )aitin! for Rama, is itself a very effective, vivid sym ol. ,halya7s revival, her )akin! from cold stone to fleshly human )armth, ecomes an occasion for a movin! bhakti 8devotional9 meditation on the soul )akin! to its form in !od. 3inally, the ,halya episode is related to previous episodes in the poem such as that in )hich Rama destroys the demoness +ataka. +here he )as the destroyer of evil, the rin!er of sterility and the ashes of death to his enemies. (ere, as the reviver of ,halya, he is a cloudBdark !od of fertility. +hrou!hout = "> = :ampan7s poem, Rama is a +amil hero, a !enerous !iver and a ruthless destroyer of foes. ,nd the bhakti vision makes the release of ,halya from her rockB ound sin a paradi!m of Rama7s incarnatory mission to release all souls from )orldB ound misery. 0n ;almiki, Rama7s character is that not of a !od ut of a !odBman )ho has to live )ithin the limits of a human form )ith all its vicissitudes. 5ome ar!ue that the references to Rama7s divinity and his incarnation for the purpose of destroyin! Ravana, and the first and last ooks of the epic, in )hich Rama is clearly descri ed as a !od )ith such a mission, are later additions.[+! Be that as it may, in :ampan he is clearly a !od. (ence a passa!e like the a ove is dense )ith reli!ious feelin! and theolo!ical ima!es. :ampan, )ritin! in the t)elfth century, composed his poem under the influence of +amil bhakti . (e had for his master 4ammalvar 89th C.*9, the most eminent of the 5rivaisnava saints. 5o, for :ampan, Rama is a !od )ho is on a mission to root out evil, sustain the !ood, and rin! release to all livin! ein!s. +he encounter )ith ,halya is only the first in a series, endin! )ith Rama7s encounter )ith Ravana the demon himself. 3or 4ammalvar, Rama is a savior of all ein!s, from the lo)ly !rass to the !reat !ods:

By Rama's Grace
/hy )ould anyone )ant to learn anythin! ut Rama* Be!innin! )ith the lo) !rass and the creepin! ant )ith nothin! )hatever, he took everythin! in his city, everythin! movin!,

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everythin! still, he took everythin!, everythin! orn of the lord of four faces, he took them all to the very est of states. 4ammalvar '.F.1[ ,!

:ampan7s epic poem enacts in detail and )ith passion 4ammalvar7s vision of Rama. +hus the ,halya, episode is essentially the same, ut the )eave, the teAture, the colors are very different. Part of the aesthetic pleasure in the later poet7s tellin! derives from its artistic use of its predecessor7s )ork, from rin!B = "" = in! chan!es on it. +o some eAtent all later Ramayanas play on the kno)led!e of previous tellin!s: they are metaBRamayanas . 0 cannot resist repeatin! my favorite eAample. 0n several of the later Ramayanas 8such as the AdhyatmaRamayana , 1Jth C.9, )hen Rama is eAiled, he does not )ant 5ita to !o )ith him into the forest. 5ita ar!ues )ith him. ,t first she uses the usual ar!uments: she is his )ife, she should share his sufferin!s, eAile herself in his eAile, and so on. /hen he still resists the idea, she is furious. 5he ursts out, 1Countless Ramayanas have een composed efore this. <o you kno) of one )here 5ita doesn7t !o )ith Rama to the forest*1 +hat clinches the ar!ument, and she !oes )ith him.[ ! ,nd as nothin! in 0ndia occurs uni-uely, even this motif appears in more than one Ramayana . 4o) the +amil Ramayana of :ampan !enerates its o)n offsprin!, its o)n special sphere of influence. Read in +elu!u characters in +elu!u country, played as drama in the Dalayalam area as part of temple ritual, it is also an important link in the transmission of the Rama story to 5outheast ,sia. 0t has een convincin!ly sho)n that the ei!hteenthBcentury +hai Ramakien o)es much to the +amil epic. 3or instance, the names of many characters in the +hai )ork are not 5anskrit names, ut clearly +amil names 8for eAample, Rsyasrn!a in 5anskrit ut :alaikkotu in +amil, the latter orro)ed into +hai9. +ulsi7s (indi Ram"aritmanas and the Dalaysian &ikayat Seri Ram too o)e many details to the :ampan poem.[ "! +hus o viously transplantations take place throu!h several mutes. 0n some lan!ua!es the )ord for tea is derived from a northern Chinese dialect and in others from a southern dialectG thus some lan!ua!es, like Hn!lish and 3rench, have some form of the )ord tea , )hile others, like (indi and Russian, have some form of the )ord "ha'y( . 5imilarly, the Rama story seems to have traveled alon! three routes, accordin! to 5antosh <esai: 1By land, the northern route took the story from the Pun$a and :ashmir into China, +i et, and Hast +urkestanG y sea, the southern route carried the story from ?u$arat and 5outh 0ndia into Cava, 5umatra, and DalayaG and a!ain y land, the eastern route delivered the story from Ben!al into Burma, +hailand, and 2aos. ;ietnam and Cam odia o tained their stories partly from Cava and partly from 0ndia via the eastern route.1[ #!

-aina Tellings
/hen )e enter the )orld of Cains tellin!s, the Rama story no lon!er carries (indu values. 0ndeed the Caina teAts eApress the feelin! that the (indus, especially the Brahmins, have mali!ned Ravana, made him into a villain. (ere is a set of -uestions that a Caina teAt e!ins y askin!: 1(o) can monkeys van-uish the po)erful raksasa )arriors like Ravana* (o) can no le men and Caina )orthies like Ravana eat flesh and drink lood* (o) can :um hakarna sleep throu!h siA months of the year, and never )ake up even = "% = thou!h oilin! oil )as poured into his cars, elephants )ere made to trample over him, and )ar trumpets and conches lo) around him* +hey also say that Ravana captured 0ndra and dra!!ed him handcuffed into 2anka. /ho can do that to 0ndra* ,ll this looks a it fantastic and eAtreme. +hey are lies and contrary to reason.1 /ith these -uestions in mind :in! 5renika !oes to sa!e ?autama to have him tell the true story and clear his dou ts. ?autama says to him, 107ll tell you )hat Caina )ise men

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say. Ravana is not a demon, he is not a canni al and a flesh eater. /ron!Bthinkin! poetasters and fools tell these lies.1 (e then e!ins to tell his o)n version of the story.[ &! . viously, the Caina Ramayana of ;imalasuri, called %auma"ariya 8Prakrit for the 5anskrit %adma"arita 9, kno)s its ;almiki and proceeds to correct its errors and (indu eAtrava!ances. 2ike other Cains puranas , this too is a pratipurana , an antiB or counterBpurana . +he prefiA prati , meanin! 1antiB1 or 1counterB,1 is a favorite Caina affiA. ;imalasuri the Cains opens the story not )ith Rama7s !enealo!y and !reatness, ut )ith Ravana7s. Ravana is one of the siAtyBthree leaders or salakapurusas of the Caina tradition. (e is no le, learned, earns all his ma!ical po)ers and )eapons throu!h austerities 8tapas 9, and is a devotee of Caina masters. +o please one of them, he even takes a vo) that he )ill not touch any un)illin! )oman. 0n one memora le incident, he lays sie!e to an impre!na le fort. +he -ueen of that kin!dom is in love )ith him and sends him her messen!erG he uses her kno)led!e of the fort to reach it and defeat the kin!. But, as soon as he con-uers it, he returns the kin!dom to the kin! and advises the -ueen to return to her hus and. 2ater, he is shaken to his roots )hen he hears from soothsayers that he )ill meet his end throu!h a )oman, 5ita. 0t is such a Ravana )ho falls in love )ith 5ita7s eauty, a ducts her, tries to )in her favors in vain, )atches himself fall, and finally dies on the attlefield. 0n these tellin!s, he is a !reat man undone y a passion that he has vo)ed a!ainst ut that he cannot resist. 0n another tradition of the Caina Ramayanas , 5ita is his dau!hter, althou!h he does not kno) it: the dice of tra!edy are loaded a!ainst him further y this oedipal situation. 0 shall say more a out 5ita7s irth in the neAt section. 0n fact, to our modern eyes, this Ravana is a tra!ic fi!ureG )e are moved to admiration and pity for Ravana )hen the Cainas tell the story. 0 should mention one more motif: accordin! to the Caina )ay of thinkin!, a pair of anta!onists, ;asudeva and PrativasudevaEa hero and an antihero, almost like self and .therEare destined to fi!ht in life after life. 2aksmana and Ravana are the ei!hth incarnations of this pair. +hey are orn in a!e after a!e, meet each other in attle after many vicissitudes, and in every encounter ;asudeva inevita ly kills his counterpart, his prati . Ravana learns at the end that 2aksmana is such a ;asudeva come to take his life. 5till, overcomin! his despair after a last unsuccessful attempt at peace, he faces his destined enemy in attle )ith his most po)erful ma!ic )eapons. /hen finally he = "F = hurls his discus 8"akra 9, it doesn7t )ork for him. Reco!niIin! 2aksmana as a ;asudeva, it does not ehead him ut !ives itself over to his hand. +hus 2aksmana slays Ravana )ith his o)n cherished )eapon. (ere Rama does not even kill Ravana, as he does in the (indu Ramayanas . 3or Rama is an evolved Caina soul )ho has con-uered his passionsG this is his last irth, so he is loath to kill anythin!. 0t is left to 2aksmana to kill enemies, and accordin! to ineAora le Caina lo!ic it is 2aksmana )ho !oes to hell )hile Rama finds release 8kaivalya 9. .ne hardly need add that the %auma"ariya is filled )ith references to Caina places of pil!rima!e, stories a out Caina monks, and Caina homilies and le!ends. 3urthermore, since the Cainas consider themselves rationalistsEunlike the (indus, )ho, accordin! to them, are !iven to eAor itant and often loodthirsty fancies and ritualsEthey systematically avoid episodes involvin! miraculous irths 8Rama and his rothers are orn in the normal )ay9, lood sacrifices, and the like. +hey even rationaliIe the conception of Ravana as the +enBheaded <emon. /hen he )as orn, his mother )as !iven a necklace of nine !ems, )hich she put around his neck. 5he sa) his face reflected in them ninefold and so called him <asamukha, or the +enBfaced .ne. +he monkeys too are not monkeys ut a clan of celestials 8vidyadharas 9 actually related to Ravana and his family throu!h their !reat !randfathers. +hey have monkeys as em lems on their fla!s: hence the name ;anaras or 1monkeys.1

From .ritten to /ral

2et7s look at one of the 5outh 0ndian folk Ramayanas . 0n these, the story usually occurs in its and pieces. 3or instance, in :annada, )e are !iven separate narrative poems on 5ita7s irth, her )eddin!, her chastity test, her eAile, the irth of 2ava and :usa, their )ar )ith their father Rama, and so on. But )e do have one complete tellin! of the Rama story y traditional ards 8tamburidasayyas 9, sun! )ith a refrain repeated every t)o lines y a chorus. 3or the follo)in! discussion, 0 am inde ted to the transcription y Rame ?o)da, P. :. Ra$asekara, and 5. Basavaiah.[ '! +his folk narrative, sun! y an Untoucha le ard, opens )ith Ravana 8here called Ravula9 and his -ueen Dandodari. +hey are unhappy and childless. 5o Ravana or Ravula !oes to the forest, performs

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all sorts of selfBmortifications like rollin! on the !round till lood runs from his ack, and meets a #ogi , or holy mendicant, )ho is none other than 5iva. 5iva !ives him a ma!ic man!o and asks him ho) he )ould share it )ith his )ife. Ravula says, 1.f course, 07ll !ive her the s)eet flesh of the fruit and 07ll lick the man!o seed.1 +he #ogi is skeptical. (e says to Ravula, 1@ou say one thin! to me. @ou have poison in your elly. @ou7re !ivin! me utter to eat, ut you mean somethin! else. 0f you lie to me, you7ll eat the fruit of your actions yourself.1 = "J = Ravula has one thin! in his dreams and another in his )akin! )orld, says the poet. /hen he rin!s the man!o home, )ith all sorts of flo)ers and incense for the ceremonial pu#a , Dandodari is very happy. ,fter a ritual pu#a and prayers to 5iva, Ravana is ready to share the man!o. But he thinks, 10f 0 !ive her the fruit, 07ll e hun!ry, she7ll e full,1 and -uickly !o les up the flesh of the fruit, !ivin! her only the seed to lick. /hen she thro)s it in the yard, it sprouts and !ro)s into a tall man!o tree. Dean)hile, Ravula himself ecomes pre!nant, his pre!nancy advancin! a month each day.
0n one day, it )as a month, . 5iva. 0n the second, it )as the second month, and cravin!s e!an for him, . 5iva. (o) shall 0 sho) my face to the )orld of men, . 5iva. .n the third day, it )as the third month, (o) shall 0 sho) my face to the )orld, . 5iva. .n the fourth day, it )as the fourth month. (o) can 0 ear this, . 5iva. 3ive days, and it )as five months, . lord, you7ve !iven me trou le, . 5iva. 0 can7t ear it, 0 can7t ear it, . 5iva. (o) )ill 0 live, cries Ravula in misery. 5iA days, and he is siA months !one, . mother, in seven days it )as seven months. . )hat shame, Ravula in his seventh month, and soon came the ei!hth, . 5iva. Ravula )as in his ninth full month. /hen he )as round and ready, she7s orn, the dear, 5ita is orn throu!h his nose. /hen he sneeIes, 5itamma is orn, ,nd Ravula names her 5itamma.[ (!

0n :annada, the )ord sita means 1he sneeIed1: he calls her 5ita ecause she is orn from a sneeIe. (er name is thus !iven a :annada folk etymolo!y, as in the 5anskrit teAts it has a 5anskrit one: there she is named 5ita, ecause :in! Canaka finds her in a furro) 8sita9. +hen Ravula !oes to astrolo!ers, )ho tell him he is ein! punished for not keepin! his )ord to 5iva and for eatin! the flesh of the fruit instead of !ivin! it to his )ife. +hey advise him to feed and dress the child, and leave her some place )here she )ill e found and rou!ht up y some couple. (e puts her in a oA and leaves her in Canaka7s field. 0t is only after this story of 5ita7s irth that the poet sin!s of the irth and adventures of Rama and 2aksmana. +hen comes a lon! section on 5ita7s marria!e contest, )here Ravula appears and is humiliated )hen he falls under the heavy o) he has to lift. Rama lifts it and marries 5ita. ,fter that she is a ducted y Ravana. Rama lays sie!e to 2anka )ith his monkey allies, = "' = and 8in a rief section9 recovers 5ita and is cro)ned kin!. +he poet then returns to the theme of 5ita7s trials. 5he is slandered and eAiled, ut !ives irth to t)ins )ho !ro) up to e )arriors. +hey tie up Rama7s sacrificial horse, defeat the armies sent to !uard the horse, and finally unite their parents, this time for !ood. .ne sees here not only a different teAture and emphasis: the teller is every)here ea!er to return to 5itaEher life, her irth, her adoption, her )eddin!, her a duction and recovery. /hole sections, e-ual in len!th to those on Rama and 2aksmana7s irth, eAile, and )ar a!ainst Ravana, are devoted to her anishment, pre!nancy, and reunion )ith her hus and. 3urthermore, her a normal irth as the dau!hter orn directly to the male Ravana rin!s to the story a ne) ran!e of su!!estions: the male envy of )om and child irth, )hich is a fre-uent theme in 0ndian literature, and an 0ndian oedipal theme of fathers pursuin! dau!hters and, in this case, a dau!hter causin! the death of her incestuous father.[ )! +he motif of 5ita as Ravana7s dau!hter is not unkno)n else)here. 0t occurs in one tradition of the Caina stories 8for eAample, in the )asudevahimdi 9 and in folk traditions of :annada and +elu!u, as )ell as in several 5outheast ,sian Ramayanas . 0n some, Ravana in his lusty youth molests a youn!

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)oman, )ho vo)s ven!eance and is re orn as his dau!hter to destroy him. +hus the oral traditions seem to partake of yet another set of themes unkno)n in ;almiki.

A 0outheast Asian Example

/hen )e !o outside 0ndia to 5outheast ,sia, )e meet )ith a variety of tellin!s of the Rama story in +i et, +hailand, Burma, 2aos, Cam odia, Dalaysia, Cava, and 0ndonesia. (ere )e shall look at only one eAample, the +hai Ramakirti . ,ccordin! to 5antosh <esai, nothin! else of (indu ori!in has affected the tone of +hai life more than the Rama story.[ *! +he asBreliefs and paintin!s on the )alls of their Buddhist temples, the plays enacted in to)n and villa!e, their alletsEall of them re)ork the Rama story. 0n succession several kin!s )ith the name 1:in! Rama1 )rote Ramayana episodes in +hai: :in! Rama 0 composed a tellin! of the Ramayana in fifty thousand verses, Rama 00 composed ne) episodes for dance, and Rama ;0 added another set of episodes, most taken from ;almiki. Places in +hailand, such as 2op uri 85kt. 2avapuri9, :hidkin 85kt. :iskindha9, and ,yuthia 85kt. ,yodhya9 )ith its ruins of :hmer and +hai art, are associated )ith Rama le!ends. +he +hai Ramakirti 8Rama7s !lory9 or Ramakien 8Rama7s story9 opens )ith an account of the ori!ins of the three kinds of characters in the story, the human, the demonic, and the simian. +he second part descri es the rothers7 first encounters )ith the demons, Rama7s marria!e and anishment, the a duction of 5ita, and Rama7s meetin! )ith the monkey clan. 0t also descri es the preparations for the )ar, (anuman7s visit to 2anka and = "& = his urnin! of it, the uildin! of the rid!e, the sie!e of 2anka, the fall of Ravana, and Rama7s reunion )ith 5ita. +he third part descri es an insurrection in 2anka, )hich Rama deputes his t)o youn!est rothers to -uell. +his part also descri es the anishment of 5ita, tile irth of her sons, their )ar )ith Rama, 5ita7s descent into the earth, and the appearance of the !ods to reunite Rama and 5ita. +hou!h many incidents look the same as they do in ;almiki, many thin!s look different as )ell. 3or instance, as in the 5outh 0ndian folk Ramayanas 8as also in some Caina, Ben!ali, and :ashmiri ones9, the anishment of 5ita is !iven a dramatic ne) rationale. +he dau!hter of 5urpanakha 8the demoness )hom Rama and 2aksmana had mutilated years earlier in the forest9 is )aitin! in the )in!s to take reven!e on 5ita, )hom she vie)s as finally responsi le for her mother7s disfi!urement. 5he comes to ,yodhya, enters 5ita7s service as a maid, and induces her to dra) a picture of Ravana. +he dra)in! is rendered indeli le 8in some tellin!s, it comes to life in her edroom9 and forces itself on Rama7s attention. 0n a $ealous ra!e, he orders 5ita killed. +he compassionate 2aksmana leaves her alive in the forest, thou!h, and rin!s ack the heart of a deer as )itness to the eAecution. +he reunion et)een Rama and 5ita is also different. /hen Rama finds out she is still alive, he recalls 5ita to his palace y sendin! her )ord that he is dead. 5he rushes to see him ut flies into a ra!e )hen she finds she has een tricked. 5o, in a fit of helpless an!er, she calls upon Dother Harth to take her. (anuman is sent to su terranean re!ions to rin! her ack, ut she refuses to return. 0t takes the po)er of 5iva to reunite them. ,!ain as in the Caina instances and the 5outh 0ndian folk poems, the account of 5ita7s irth is different from that !iven in ;a1miki. /hen <asaratha performs his sacrifice, he receives a rice all, not the rice porrid!e 8payasa 9 mentioned in ;almiki. , cro) steals some of the rice and takes it to Ravana7s )ife, )ho eats it and !ives irth to 5ita. , prophecy that his dau!hter )ill cause his death makes Ravana thro) 5ita into the sea, )here the sea !oddess protects her and takes her to Canaka. 3urthermore, thou!h Rama is an incarnation of ;isnu, in +hailand he is su ordinate to 5iva. By and lar!e he is seen as a human hero, and the Ramakirti is not re!arded as a reli!ious )ork or even as an eAemplary )ork on )hich men and )omen may pattern themselves. +he +hais en$oy most the sections a out the a duction of 5ita and the )ar. Partin!s and reunions, )hich are the heart of the (indu Ramayanas , are not as important as the eAcitement and the details of )ar, the techni-ues, the fa ulous )eapons. +he *uddhakanda or the /ar Book is more ela orate than in any other tellin!, )hereas it is of minor importance in the :annada folk tellin!. <esai says this +hai emphasis on )ar is si!nificant: early +hai history is full of )arsG their concern )as survival. +he focus in the Ramakien is not on family values and spirituality. +hai audiences are more fond of (anuman than of Rama. = "9 = 4either celi ate nor devout, as in the (indu Ramayanas , here (anuman is -uite a ladies7 man, )ho doesn7t at all mind lookin! into the edrooms of 2anka and doesn7t consider seein! another man7s

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sleepin! )ife anythin! immoral, as ;almiki7s or :ampan7s (anuman does. Ravana too is different here. +he Ramakirti admires Ravana7s resourcefulness and learnin!G his a duction of 5ita is seen as an act of love and is vie)ed )ith sympathy. +he +hais are moved y Ravana7s sacrifice of family, kin!dom, and life itself for the sake of a )oman. (is dyin! )ords later provide the theme of a famous love poem of the nineteenth century, an inscription of a /at of Ban!kok.[ +! Unlike ;almiki7s characters, the +hai ones are a falli le, human miAture of !ood and evil. +he fall of Ravana here makes one sad. 0t is not an occasion for unam i!uous re$oicin!, as it is in ;almiki.

1atterns o2 3i22eren4e
+hus, not only do )e have one story told y ;almiki in 5anskrit, )e have a variety of Rama tales told y others, )ith radical differences amon! them. 2et me outline a fe) of the differences )e have not yet encountered. 3or instance, in 5anskrit and in the other 0ndian lan!ua!es, there are t)o endin!s to the story. .ne ends )ith the return of Rama and 5ita to ,yodhya, their capital, to e cro)ned kin! and -ueen of the ideal kin!dom. 0n another endin!, often considered a later addition in ;almiki and in :ampan, Rama hears 5ita slandered as a )oman )ho lived in Ravana7s !rove, and in the name of his reputation as a kin! 8)e )ould call it credi ility, 0 suppose9 he anishes her to the forest, )here she !ives irth to t)ins. +hey !ro) up in ;almiki7s hermita!e, learn the Ramayana as )ell as the arts of )ar from him, )in a )ar over Rama7s army, and in a poi!nant scene sin! the Ramayana to their o)n father )hen he doesn7t -uite kno) )ho they are. Hach of these t)o endin!s !ives the )hole )ork a different cast. +he first one cele rates the return of the royal eAiles and rounds out the tale )ith reunion, coronation, and peace. 0n the second one, their happiness is rief, and they arc separated a!ain, makin! separation of loved ones 8vipralambha 9 the central mood of the )hole )ork. 0t can even e called tra!ic, for 5ita finally cannot ear it any more and enters a fissure in the earth, the mother from )hom she had ori!inally comeEas )e sa) earlier, her name means 1furro),1 )hich is )here she )as ori!inally found y Canaka. 0t also enacts, in the rise of 5ita from the furro) and her return to the earth, a shado) of a ProserpineBlike myth, a ve!etation cycle: 5ita is like the seed and Rama )ith his cloudBdark ody the rainG Ravana in the 5outh is the PlutoBlike a ductor into dark re!ions 8the south is the a ode of death9G 5ita reappears in purity and !lory for a rief period efore she returns a!ain to the earth. 5uch a myth, )hile it should not e latantly pressed into some ri!id alle!ory, resonates in the shado)s of the tale in many details. 4ote the many references to fertility and rain, Rama7s = %# = opposition to 5ivaBlike ascetic fi!ures 8made eAplicit y :ampan in tile ,halya story9, his ancestor rin!in! the rivet ?an!es into the plains of the kin!dom to )ater and revive the ashes of the dead. Relevant also is the story of .Rsyasrn!a, the seAually naive ascetic )ho is seduced y the eauty of a )oman and there y rin!s rain to 2omapada7s kin!dom, and )ho later officiates at the ritual )hich fills <asaratha7s -ueens7 )om s )ith children. 5uch a mythic !rounds)ell also makes us hear other tones in the continual references to nature, the potent presence of irds and animals as the devoted friends of Rama in his search for his 5ita. Birds and monkeys are a real presence and a poetic necessity in the ;almiki Ramayana , as much as they are eAcrescences in the Caina vie). /ith each endin!, different effects of the story are hi!hli!hted, and the )hole tellin! alters its poetic stance. .ne could say similar thin!s a out the different e!innin!s. ;almiki opens )ith a frame story a out ;almiki himself. (e sees a hunter aim an arro) and kill one of a happy pair of love irds. +he female circles its dead mate and cries over it. +he scene so moves the poet and sa!e ;almiki that he curses the hunter. , moment later, he realiIes that his curse has taken the form of a line of verseEin a famous play on )ords, the rhythm of his !rief 8soka 9 has !iven rise to a metrical form 8sloka 9. (e decides to )rite the )hole epic of Rama7s adventures in that meter. +his incident ecomes, in later poetics, the para le of all poetic utterance: out of the stress of natural feelin! 8bhava 9, an artistic form has to e found or fashioned, a form )hich )ill !eneraliIe and capture the essence 8rasa 9 of that feelin!. +his incident at the e!innin! of ;almiki !ives the )ork an aesthetic selfBa)areness. .ne may !o further: the incident of the death of a ird and the separation of loved ones ecomes a leitmotif for this tellin! of the Rama story. .ne notes a certain rhythmic recurrence of an animal killed at many of the critical moments: )hen <asaratha shoots an arro) to kill )hat he thinks is an elephant ut instead kills a youn! ascetic fillin! his pitcher )ith )ater 8makin! noises like an elephant drinkin! at a )ater hole9, he earns a curse that later leads to the eAile of Rama and the separation of father and son. /hen Rama pursues a ma!ical !olden deer 8really a demon in dis!uise9 and kills it, )ith its last reath it calls out to 2aksmana in Rama7s voice, )hich in turn leads to his leavin! 5ita unprotectedG

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this allo)s Ravana to a duct 5ita. Hven as Ravana carries her off, he is opposed y an ancient ird )hich he slays )ith his s)ord. 3urthermore, the death of the ird, in the openin! section, and the cry of the survivin! mate set the tone for the many separations throu!hout the )ork, of rother and rother, mothers and fathers and sons, )ives and hus ands. +hus the openin! sections of each ma$or )ork set into motion the harmonics of the )hole poem, presa!in! themes and a pattern of ima!es. :ampan7s +amil teAt e!ins very differently. .ne can convey it est y citin! a fe) stanIas.

= %1 =

The River
+he cloud, )earin! )hite on )hite like 5iva, makin! eautiful the sky on his )ay from the sea

!re) dark

as the face of the 2ord )ho )ears )ith pride on his ri!ht the ?oddess of the scented reasts.

>

Distakin! the (imalayan da)n for a ran!e of !old, the clouds let do)n chains and chains of !leamin! rain.

+hey pour like a !enerous !iver !ivin! all he has, remem erin! and reckonin! all he has.

1F

0t floods, it runs over its continents like the fame of a !reat kin!, upri!ht, infalli le, rei!nin! y the 2a)s under cool royal um rellas.

1J

Concu ines caressin! their lovers7 hair, their lovers7 odies, their lovers7 lim s,

take a)ay )hole hills of )ealth yet keep little in their spendthrift hands

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as they move on: so too the )aters flo) from the peaks to the valleys,

e!innin! hi!h and reachin! lo).

1'

+he flood carryin! all efore it like merchants, caravans loaded )ith !old, pearls, peacock feathers and ro)s of )hite tusk and fra!rant )oods.

1&

Bendin! to a curve, the river, surface colored y petals, !old yello) pollen, honey, the ochre flo) of elephant lust, looked much like a rain o).

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= %> = Rava!in! hillsides, uprootin! trees, covered )ith fallen leaves all over, the )aters came,

like a monkey clan facin! restless seas lookin! for a rid!e.

>#

+hickBfaced proud elephants ran!ed )ith foamin! cavalier horses fillin! the air )ith the noise of )ar,

raisin! anners, the flood rushes as for a attle )ith the sea.

>>

5tream of num erless kin!s in the line of the 5un, continuous in virtue:

the river ranches into deltas, mother7s milk to all lives on the salt seaBsurrounded land.

>"

5catterin! a ro er camp on the hills )ith a rain of arro)s,

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the sacred )omen eatin! their ellies and !atherin! o) and arro) as they run,

the )aters assault villa!es like the armies of a kin!.

>F

5tealin! milk and uttermilk, !uIIlin! on )arm !hee and utter strai!ht from the pots on the ropes,

leanin! the marutam tree on the kuruntam carryin! a)ay the clothes and racelets of !oatherd !irls at )ater !ames,

like :rsna dancin! on the spotted snake, the )aters are nau!hty.

>J

+urnin! forest into slope, field into )ilderness, seashore into fertile land,

chan!in! oundaries, eAchan!in! landscapes, the reckless )aters

roared on like the pasts that hurry close on the heels of lives.

>&

= %" = Born of (imalayan stone and min!lin! )ith the seas, it spreads, ceaselessly various,

one and many at once,

like that .ri!inal even the measureless ;edas cannot measure )ith )ords.

"#

+hrou!h pollenBdrippin! !roves, clumps of champak, lotus pools,

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)ater places )ith ne) sands, flo)erin! fields crossBfenced )ith creepers,

like a life fillin! and emptyin! a variety of odies,

the river flo)s on.[",!

"1

+his passa!e is uni-ue to :ampanG it is not found in ;almiki. 0t descri es the )aters as they are !athered y clouds from the seas and come do)n in rain and flo) as floods of the 5arayu river do)n to ,yodhya, the capital of Rama7s kin!dom. +hrou!h it, :ampan introduces all his themes and emphases, even his characters, his concern )ith fertility themes 8implicit in ;almiki9, the )hole dynasty of Rama7s ancestors, and his vision of bhakti throu!h the Ramayana . 4ote the variety of themes introduced throu!h the similes and allusions, each aspect of the )ater sym oliIin! an aspect of the Ramayana story itself and representin! a portion of the Ramayana universe 8for eAample, monkeys9, pickin! up as it !oes alon! characteristic +amil traditions not to e found any)here else, like the five landscapes of classical +amil poetry. +he emphasis on )ater itself, the source of life and fertility, is also an eAplicit part of the +amil literary tradition. +he ural Ethe soBcalled Bi le of the +amils, a didactic )ork on the ends and means of the !ood lifeEopens )ith a passa!e on ?od and follo)s it up immediately )ith a !reat ode in cele ration of the rains 8Tirukkural >9. ,nother point of difference amon! Ramayanas is the intensity of focus on a ma$or character. ;almiki focuses on Rama and his history in his openin! sectionsG ;imalasuri7s Caina Ramayana and the +hai epic focus not on Rama ut on the !enealo!y and adventures of RavanaG the :annada villa!e tellin! focuses on 5ita, her irth, her )eddin!, her trials. 5ome later eAtensions like the Adbhuta Ramayana and the +amil story of Satakanthavana even !ive 5ita a heroic character: )hen the tenBheaded Ravana is killed, another appears )ith a hundred headsG Rama cannot handle this ne) menace, so it is 5ita = %% = +he 5antals, a tri e kno)n for their eAtensive oral )ho !oes to )ar and slays the ne) demon. traditions, even conceive of 5ita as unfaithfulEto the shock and horror of any (indu red on ;almiki or :ampan, she is seduced oth y Ravana and y 2aksmana. 0n 5outheast ,sian teAts, as )e sa) earlier, (anuman is not the celi ate devotee )ith a monkey face ut a ladies7 man )ho fi!ures in many love episodes. 0n :ampan and +ulsi, Rama is a !odG in the Caina teAts, he is only an evolved Caina man )ho is in his last irth and so does not even kill Ravana. 0n the latter, Ravana is a no le hero fated y his karma to fall for 5ita and rin! death upon himself, )hile he is in other teAts an over)eenin! demon. +hus in the conception of every ma$or character there are radical differences, so different indeed that one conception is -uite a horrent to those )ho hold another. /e may add to these many more: ela orations on the reason )hy 5ita is anished, the miraculous creation of 5ita7s second son, and the final reunion of Rama and 5ita. Hvery one of these occurs in more than one teAt, in more than one teAtual community 8(indu, Caina, or Buddhist9, in more than one re!ion. 4o), is there a common core to the Rama stories, eAcept the most skeletal set of relations like that of Rama, his rother, his )ife, and the anta!onist Ravana )ho a ducts her* ,re the stories ound to!ether only y certain family resem lances, as /itt!enstein mi!ht say * .r is it like ,ristotle7s $ack knife* /hen the philosopher asked an old carpenter ho) lon! he had had his knife, the latter said, 1.h, 07ve had it for thirty years. 07ve chan!ed the lade a fe) times and the handle a fe) times, ut it7s the same knife.1 5ome shado) of a relational structure claims the name of Ramayana for all these tellin!s, ut on closer look one is not necessarily all that like another. 2ike a collection of people )ith the same proper name, they make a class in name alone.
[" !

Thoughts on Translation

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+hat may e too eAtreme a )ay of puttin! it. 2et me ack up and say it differently, in a )ay that covers more ade-uately the differences et)een the teAts and their relations to each other, for they are related. .ne mi!ht think of them as a series of translations clusterin! around one or another in a family of teAts: a num er of them cluster around ;almiki, another set around the Caina ;imalasuri, and so on. .r these translationBrelations et)een teAts could e thou!ht of in Peircean terms, at least in three )ays. /here +eAt 0 and +eAt > have a !eometrical resem lance to each other, as one trian!le to another 8)hatever the an!les, siIes, or colors of the lines9, )e call such a relation i"oni" .[""! 0n the /est, )e !enerally eApect translations to e 1faithful,1 i.e. iconic. +hus, )hen Chapman translates (omer, he not only preserves asic teAtual features such as characters, ima!ery, and order of in"idents , ut tries to reproduce a heAameter and retain the same num er = %F = of lines as in the ori!inal ?reekEonly the lan!ua!e is Hn!lish and the idiom HliIa ethan. /hen :ampan retells ;almiki7s Ramayana in +amil, he is lar!ely faithful in keepin! to the order and se-uence of episodes, the structural relations et)een the characters of father, son, rothers, )ives, friends, and enemies. But the iconicity is limited to such structural relations. (is )ork is much lon!er than ;almiki7s, for eAample, and it is composed in more than t)enty different kinds of +amil meters, )hile ;almiki7s is mostly in the sloka meter. ;ery often, althou!h +eAt > stands in an iconic relationship to +eAt 6 in terms of asic elements such as plot, it is filled )ith local detail, folklore, poetic traditions, ima!ery, and so forthEas in :ampan7s tellin! or that of the Ben!ali :rttivasa. 0n the Ben!ali Ramayana , Rama7s )eddin! is very much a Ben!ali )eddin!, )ith Ben!ali customs and Ben!ali cuisine.["#! /e may call such a teAt inde+i"al : the teAt is em edded in a locale, a conteAt, refers to it, even si!nifies it, and )ould not make much sense )ithout it. (ere, one may say, the Ramayana is not merely a set of individual teAts, ut a !enre )ith a variety of instances. 4o) and then, as )e have seen, +eAt > uses the plot and characters and names of +eAt 1 minimally and uses them to say entirely ne) thin!s, often in an effort to su vert the predecessor y producin! a counterteAt. /e may call such a translation symboli" . +he )ord translation itself here ac-uires a some)hat mathematical sense, of mappin! a structure of relations onto another plane or another sym olic system. /hen this happens, the Rama story has ecome almost a second lan!ua!e of the )hole culture area, a shared core of names, characters, incidents, and motifs, )ith a narrative lan!ua!e in )hich +eAt 1 can say one thin! and +eAt > somethin! else, even the eAact opposite. ;almiki7s (indu and ;imalasuri7s Caina teAts in 0ndiaEor the +hai Ramakirti in 5outheast ,siaEare such sym olic translations of each other. .ne must not for!et that to some eAtent all translations, even the soBcalled faithful iconic ones, inevita ly have all three kinds of elements. /hen ?oldman and his !roup of scholars produce a modern translation of ;almiki7s Ramayana , they are iconic in the transliteration of 5anskrit names, the num er and se-uence of verses, the order of the episodes, and so forth.["&! But they are also indeAical, in that the translation is in Hn!lish idiom and comes e-uipped )ith introductions and eAplanatory footnotes, )hich inevita ly contain t)entiethBcentury attitudes and misprisionsG and sym olic, in that they cannot avoid conveyin! throu!h this translation modern understandin!s proper to their readin! of the teAt. But the proportions et)een the three kinds of relations differ vastly et)een :ampan and ?oldman. ,nd )e accordin!ly read them for different reasons and )ith different aesthetic eApectations. /e read the scholarly modern Hn!lish translation lar!ely to !ain a sense of the ori!inal ;almiki, and )e consider it successful to the eAtent that it resem les the ori!inal. /e read :ampan to read :ampan, and )e $ud!e him on his o)n termsEnot y his resem lance to ;almiki ut, if anyB = %J = thin!, y the eAtent that he differs from ;almiki. 0n the one, )e re$oice in the similarityG in the other, )e cherish and savor the differences. .ne may !o further and say that the cultural area in )hich Ramayanas are endemic has a pool of si!nifiers 8like a !ene pool9, si!nifiers that include plots, characters, names, !eo!raphy, incidents, and relationships. .ral, )ritten, and performance traditions, phrases, prover s, and even sneers carry allusions to the Rama story. /hen someone is carryin! on, you say, 1/hat7s this Ramayana no)* Hnou!h.1 0n +amil, a narro) room is called a kiskindha G a prover a out a dimB)itted person says, 1,fter hearin! the Ramayana all ni!ht, he asks ho) Rama is related to 5ita1G in a Ben!ali arithmetic

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teAt ook, children are asked to fi!ure the dimensions of )hat is left of a )all that (anuman uilt, after he has roken do)n part of it in mischief. ,nd to these must e added marria!e son!s, narrative poems, place le!ends, temple myths, paintin!s, sculpture, and the many performin! arts. +hese various teAts not only relate to prior teAts directly, to orro) or refute, ut they relate to each other throu!h this common code or common pool. Hvery author, if one may haIard a metaphor, dips into it and rin!s out a uni-ue crystalliIation, a ne) teAt )ith a uni-ue teAture and a fresh conteAt. +he !reat teAts re)ork the small ones, for 1lions are made of sheep,1 as ;alery said. ,nd sheep are made of lions, too: a folk le!end says that (anuman )rote the ori!inal Ramayana on a mountaintop, after the !reat )ar, and scattered the manuscriptG it )as many times lar!er than )hat )e have no). ;almiki is said to have captured only a fra!ment of it.["'! 0n this sense, no teAt is ori!inal, yet no tellin! is a mere retellin!Eand the story has no closure, althou!h it may e enclosed in a teAt. 0n 0ndia and in 5outheast ,sia, no one ever reads the Ramayana or the Mahabharata for the first time. +he stories are there, 1al)ays already.1

.hat Happens .hen 5ou 6isten

+his essay opened )ith a folktale a out the many Ramayanas . Before )e close, it may e appropriate to tell another tale a out (anuman and Rama7s rin!.["(! But this story is a out the po)er of the Ramayana , a out )hat happens )hen you really listen to this potent story. Hven a fool cannot resist itG he is entranced and cau!ht up in the action. +he listener can no lon!er ear to e a ystander ut feels compelled to enter the )orld of the epic: the line et)een fiction and reality is erased. , villa!er )ho had no sense of culture and no interest in it )as married to a )oman )ho )as very cultured. 5he tried various )ays to cultivate his taste for the hi!her thin!s in life ut he $ust )asn7t interested. .ne day a !reat reciter of that !rand epic the Ramayana came to the villa!e. Hvery evenin! he )ould sin!, recite, and eAplain the verses of the epic. +he )hole villa!e )ent to this oneBman performance as if it )ere a rare feast. = %' = +he )oman )ho )as married to the uncultured dolt tried to interest him in the performance. 5he na!!ed him and na!!ed him, tryin! to force him to !o and listen. +his time, he !rum led as usual ut decided to humor her. 5o he )ent in the evenin! and sat at the ack. 0t )as an allBni!ht performance, and he $ust couldn7t keep a)ake. (e slept throu!h the ni!ht. Harly in the mornin!, )hen a canto had ended and the reciter san! the closin! verses for the day, s)eets )ere distri uted accordin! to custom. 5omeone put some s)eets into the mouth of the sleepin! man. (e )oke up soon after and )ent home. (is )ife )as deli!hted that her hus and had stayed throu!h the ni!ht and asked him ea!erly ho) he en$oyed the Ramayana . (e said, 10t )as very s)eet.1 +he )ife )as happy to hear it. +he neAt day too his )ife insisted on his listenin! to the epic. 5o he )ent to the enclosure )here the reciter )as performin!, sat a!ainst a )all, and efore lon! fell fast asleep. +he place )as cro)ded and a youn! oy sat on his shoulder, made himself comforta le, and listened openBmouthed to the fascinatin! story. 0n the mornin!, )hen the ni!ht7s portion of the story came to an end, everyone !ot up and so did the hus and. +he oy had left earlier, ut the man felt aches and pains from the )ei!ht he had orne all ni!ht. /hen he )ent home and his )ife asked him ea!erly ho) it )as, he said, 10t !ot heavier and heavier y mornin!.1 +he )ife said, 1+hat7s the )ay the story is.1 5he )as happy that her hus and )as at last e!innin! to feel the emotions and the !reatness of the epic. .n the third day, he sat at the ed!e of the cro)d and )as so sleepy that he lay do)n on the floor and even snored. Harly in the mornin!, a do! came that )ay and pissed into his mouth a little efore he )oke up and )ent home. /hen his )ife asked him ho) it )as, he moved his mouth this )ay and that, made a face and said, 1+erri le. 0t )as so salty.1 (is )ife kne) somethin! )as )ron!. 5he asked him )hat eAactly )as happenin! and didn7t let up till he finally told her ho) he had een sleepin! throu!h the performance every ni!ht. .n the fourth day, his )ife )ent )ith him, sat him do)n in the very first ro), and told him sternly that he should keep a)ake no matter )hat mi!ht happen. 5o he sat dutifully in the front ro) and e!an to listen. ;ery soon, he )as cau!ht up in the adventures and the characters of the !reat epic story. .n that day, the reciter )as enchantin! the audience )ith a description of ho) (anuman the monkey had to leap across the ocean to take Rama7s si!net rin! to 5ita. /hen (anuman )as leapin! across the ocean, the si!net rin! slipped from his hand and fell into the ocean. (anuman didn7t kno) )hat to do. (e had to !et the rin! ack -uickly and take it to 5ita in the demon7s kin!dom. /hile he )as )rin!in! his hands, the hus and )ho )as listenin! )ith rapt attention in the first ro) said,

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1(anuman, don7t )orry. 07ll !et it for you.1 +hen he $umped up and dived into the ocean, found the rin! in the ocean floor, rou!ht it ack, and !ave it to (anuman. Hveryone )as astonished. +hey thou!ht this man )as someone special, = %& = really lessed y Rama and (anuman. Hver since, he has een respected in the villa!e as a )ise elder, and he has also ehaved like one. +hat7s )hat happens )hen you really listen to a story, especially to the Ramayana .
Two Three Hundred Ramayanas: Five Examples and Three Thoughts on Translation

Preferred Citation: Richman, Paula, editor. Many Ramayanas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1991 1991. http://ark.cdli .or!/ark:/1"#"# /ft"$%9n&h'/

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