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2 0 0 1 S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p l o r a t i o n a n d P r o d u c t i o n B . V.
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Invasion Profiles
In a water bearing zone all the formation water will be replaced by mud filtrate. In an oil or gas bearing zone residual hydrocarbons will be left behind as a result of capillary effects. The diameter of an invaded zone is typically up to 1m. Figure 2.60 a & b shows typical invasion profiles for a water bearing and an oil bearing zone.
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2 0 0 1 S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p l o r a t i o n a n d P r o d u c t i o n B . V.
In a high permeability interval the formation fluids and mud filtrate can flow rapidly away from the borehole, and there is no detectable pressure gradient in the formation. The pressure differential between the borehole and the formation is supported entirely by the mudcake. The pressure gradient through the invaded zone in a low permeability zone may be quite large, because the fluids can flow only slowly away from the borehole. This pressure gradient is maintained while drilling, because mud filtrate continues to invade the formation as fresh mudcake builds up, but will decline slowly if the borehole is left undisturbed. This often complicates recording the true formation pressure in a low permeability zone by wireline techniques.
FORMATION RESISTIVITY
Well log information is required to quantify the hydrocarbon saturation, i.e. the fraction of the pore space filled with hydrocarbons. The most common logging technique for saturation determination is resistivity logging. The resistivity of the formation is measured by passing an electrical current through it.
Formation Resistivity
The resistivity of a substance is defined as its electrical resistance per unit volume. It is therefore a property of a substance that is independent of the amount of the substance being considered. The resistivity of reservoir rock is determined by the way in which an electric current can flow through it. As the formation water is the only conductive material present in the rock, it depends on: The resistivity of the formation water Depends on temperature, and the concentration of salts dissolved in the water (i.e. its salinity). The amount of formation water Depends on the amount of pore space, and the extent to which this pore space is filled with formation water (i.e. water saturation). The geometry of the formation water The more tortuous the path followed by the current, the higher will be the resistivity.
2 0 0 1 S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p l o r a t i o n a n d P r o d u c t i o n B . V.
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In the case of water bearing rock it will be easier for the current to flow than in the presence of hydrocarbons. Figure 2.61 illustrates this point. The electrical resistivity of a pore system is described by the Archie equations. These equations may be used to quantify the hydrocarbon saturation from the measured resistivity.
Ro = phi(-m) * Rw
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2 0 0 1 S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p l o r a t i o n a n d P r o d u c t i o n B . V.
The cementation exponent varies according to rock type. Typical values range from 1.4 for unconsolidated sand, to 2.2 or higher in some types of limestone. It can be determined on core plugs, provided the porosity can be measured, by filling them with water of known resistivity and then measuring the formation resistivity.
The saturation exponent (n) varies with rock type. Typically it has a value of about 2. It can be determined on core plugs, by filling a sample of known porosity with water of known resistivity, and then measuring the resistivity of the sample as a function of the water saturation as the water is replaced by oil. Combining the first and second Archie equation gives:
m n
cementation exponent from cores, or estimated for the lithology saturation exponent from cores, or estimated for the lithology
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2 0 0 1 S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p l o r a t i o n a n d P r o d u c t i o n B . V.
RESISTIVITY TOOLS
Various devices are available for measuring the resistivity of the virgin (uninvaded) formation. There are two main types of resistivity measuring devices, laterologs and induction logs.
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In any resistivity measurement, in fact in any log measurement, there will be the unwanted influence of the borehole. Logging tools are designed in such a way that these borehole influences are minimized under normal conditions. Correction procedures, which take into account the borehole size, mud resistivity, etc., are available to remove the remaining influences of the borehole. These procedures are described in a series of correction charts that are available from each logging contractor.
currents can be adjusted so that the tool simultaneously measures the "deep" resistivity (Figure 2.63 left), and the "shallow" resistivity (Figure 2.63 right). The shallow resistivity is better described as an intermediate resistivity. This gives two of the three independent resistivity measurements. As current flows from the tool into the formation, the laterolog is particularly suited for use with conductive borehole fluids, i.e. salty, water based muds. The tool will not work in oil based mud.
2 0 0 1 S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p l o r a t i o n a n d P r o d u c t i o n B . V.
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As there is no direct flow of current from the induction tool to the formation, this tool can be used with low conductivity borehole fluids, such as fresh water muds or oil base muds. The resolution of the tool is not as good as that of the laterolog, because the arrangement of the coils does not allow sharp focussing of the measurements.
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The tool has a very good resolution as a result of the pad geometry. The tool will not work in oil based mud, because current has to flow from the pad into the formation.
2 0 0 1 S h e l l I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p l o r a t i o n a n d P r o d u c t i o n B . V.
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The log shown in Figure 2.66 is an example of the three readings, recorded over a sand interval. Above 833 m there is a clear separation between the curves. Close to the borehole the resistivity is low, due to the presence of mud filtrate. Going deeper into the formation the resistivity increases. This strongly suggests the presence of hydrocarbons. The true formation resistivity will be even higher than the deep resistivity device reading. Below 833 m no separation is observed between the curves. They all read low resistivities. This indicates that even deep in the formation, where the mud filtrate did not penetrate, the resistivity is still low. We conclude that the formation is water bearing. The hydrocarbon water contact is at 833 m. The reading of the deep resistivity tool is usually taken as the true formation resistivity for a quick look evaluation. This ignores the influence of the invaded zone, which tends to make the reading of the deep resistivity tool lower than the true formation resistivity. The resulting interpretation is somewhat pessimistic in terms of hydrocarbon saturation.
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