CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a school, college, university or training organization.

The textbooks used, how teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students, preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and setting of standards, are all based on the curriculum. Thus without a curriculum no educational institution can function efficiently. Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences that students encounter in an educational institution. The process of providing the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum development. Which includes planning, (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment, is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better and more efficient means to accomplish the task of educating the next generation.

MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT A model consist of interacting parts that serves as a guide or procedures for action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In many instances, models are more similar that different and are often refinements or revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum development: the tyler model, the taba model, the doll model and the saylor & alexander model. Each of these models is named after their originator.

THE TYLER MODEL The tyler model was introduced by Ralph Tyler in which he asked 4 questions. 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? Tylers questions represent the four-step sequence of identifying purposes or objectives, selecting the means of achieving these objectives, organizing these teaching-learning experiences and evaluating the outcomes or what have students attained or achieved. When developing curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources, the subject area (science, mathematics, history), the learners (gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (ethics, environmental awareness, national unity). After identifying the objectives, the curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy and psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional objectives. The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the 1

attainment of objectives. The learning experiences have to take into account the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. Tyler talked about the organization and sequencing of these learning experiences. They should pre properly organized as to enhance learning. He also suggested that ideas, values and skills would serve as organizers linking content within a particular subject, and also determine the method of delivery of content. Finally tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. Through evaluation it will be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective.

THE TABA MODEL Many general principles and ideas of curriculum design developed by Hilda Taba belong to the foundations of modern curriculum theories, and are frequently referred to by other authors. Many of Tabas ideas on curriculum design can be considered as a further elaboration of Ralph Tylers rather psychological principles of curriculum development: attributing to them a more pedagogical and practical nature. It was called a grassroots effort as she advocated that the teachers themselves needed to be heavily involved in the development of the curriculum. She developed seven steps that should take place when developing curriculum. 1. 2. 3. 4. Identify the needs of the students and the expectations of society. Formulate the learning objectives. The learning content will be selected based on the objectives. How the content is organized needs to be decided upon by the teachers based on the students. 5. The learning experiences need to be selected. 6. The organization of the actual learning activities needs to be determined. 7. Determine what is going to be evaluated and how to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum.

THE DOLL MODEL In curriculum terms, Doll portrays the following principles: To begin with, the curriculum should not be a rigid linear sequence of pre-set learning activities. Instead, it should be a matrix. The curriculum should emphasize a practical rather than a theoretical perspective. Teaching and learning need to be concrete and particular.

The curriculum should be jointly decided on by the teachers and students involved. This devolution of power put the trust on teachers and students to be best experts of teaching and learning. Down to lesson planning, the same principle should be followed by teachers to ensure due flexibility for conjoint planning. In talking about pedagogical relations, Doll even suggests that a curriculum at the beginning can evolve to become something different at the end, following students' choice and the discourses generated in class. The curriculum should be based on self-organization of the learners. Self-organization comes from timely and appropriate perturbation, instead of the fake sense of stability and predictability modernist education conveys. To facilitate the achieving of self-organization; two conditions need to be met. First, the learning ethos should be one of joy and relaxation instead of one which is based on pressure and rush to learn. Second, the learners should be well versed with the learning materials. Revisiting the same materials from different perspectives would help to provide the richness in content that brings forth the desired cognitive transformation. Teachers are suggested to give up their traditional authoritative role to become partners of the learners, as the first among the equals. The classroom is to transform from being a tightly controlled ward to one marked by self-discipline and communal spirit where critical attitudes are construed in a friendly and constructive manner. Tachers should give up the moribund modernist view of epistemology where truth is absolute, static, external and can be ascertained by rational analysis. They should join hands with their students in exploring their version of truth in an interpretative, constructive manner, at critical dialogue with the text if necessary. In terms of cultural relations, perspectives across different cultures can help illicit the force necessary for us to go beyond the confines of our customary beliefs to other facets of the truth which can be interpreted in many respectable ways. Evaluation should not be conducted for the sole purpose of selection and screening. It should be geared towards promoting interaction between teachers and students. Students should not be measured against straight canon according to some sort of deficiency theory. Instead feedback from students should be respected as one of the many possible interpretations of a complex truth and discussed in a warm, communal way. Last, but most important, is that curriculum should promote a new post-modern mentality. The essence of the mentality would be the dedication to pursue different interpretations and to explore new patterns and relations rather than to seek security in any dogma or orthodox as exemplified in the modernist mode of thought which degenerates to become a form of scientific superstition.

THE SAYLOR AND ALEXANDER MODEL Galen Saylor and William Alexander viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps. According to them, curriculum is a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center 3

1. Goals, objectives and domains: curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each coal represents a curriculum domain and they advocate 4 major domains: personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialization. The goals, objectives and domains are selected after considering external variables such as findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups, and others. 2. Curriculum designing, once the previous have been established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum. Decision is made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each domain and how and when these opportunities will be provided.

3. Curriculum implementation: the next step is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of the curriculum plan teachers would specify instructional objectives and then select relevant teaching methods and strategies 4. Evaluation: finally, curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation. Evaluation should involve the total educational program of the school and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or not the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met.