Electricity and Magnetism:

Structure of matter: atoms are composed of protons, electrons and neurons. Electrons (-1) and
protons (+1) are charged. Protons and neutrons are about 2000 times the mass of an electron.
Objects with even charges of + and – are neutral.
– Opposites attract
– Like charges repel
– More electrons are -1
– More protons are +1
Only electrons can move, but conventional electrical flow uses a +’ve charge moving.

All material can be catergorized as either:

– Conductors: allow electrons to flow/move through the material
– Insulators: most materials are insulators and inhibit/impede electrom flow. This
resistance generates heat.
– Electron drift: describes how electrons move through a substance despite the apparent
“speed of light” of electricity. The electrons themselves move very slowly, around the
10-4
– Charging by contact: when a charged object touches a neutral object, some of the excess
electrons are repelled and moves to the neutral object
– Charging by friction: when rubbed together, substances will lose electrons to substance
lower in series
– Charging by induction: bring the neutral and charged object together, remove ground
from neutral object, then charged object. (ground; an infinitive source of reprository for
electrons)
Electric charges create fields or electric fields around them. Charges can attract or repel due to
force.
Coulombs (C) are used to measure charges where ±1.60 x 10-19 }+ = proton, – = electron
F = (K Q1 Q2 )/r2
K = 9.0 x 10 (n x m )/c2
9 2
(force created by electric field)

Current, the flow of charge per unit of time.

I = Q/Δt

Potential energy:
ΔE = VQ or ΔE = VIΔt (Q = IΔt)

Kirchoff’s voltage law: all electrons feel they are close to many electrons- want to get away-
voltage is near positive charges- pushes throught again.
Around any complete path, through an electric circuit, the sum of the increases is equal to the
sum of the decreases in electric potential

Kirchoff’s current law: at any junction point in an electric circuit, the total electric current into
the junction is equal to the total electric current out.
Current is in opposite direction to movement of electrons.
Ohm’s law: the potential difference (v) between any two points in a conductor varies directly
with the current (I) between the two points.
v = IR or R = v/I

Power:
P = VI (power (w)= voltage (v) x current (a))
and
P = I2R (power (w) = current (a) x resistance (Ω))
and
P = v2/R (power (w) = voltage (v) 2/ resistance (Ω))

Characteristics of magnetic poles:

– Spacing of the lines indicate the strenght of the field; the closer they are, the greater the
force
– They form closed loops (lines)
– Lines do not cross eachother

Domain theory: when a ferromagnetic substance becomes magnetized, all the different dipoles
temporarily align in the same direction to form a magnetic domain.

Oerstedt: oerstedt discovered that a current carrying conductor induces a magnetic field, B,
around it in concentric circles.

The direction of a field is given by applying the right hand rule;

Solenoids (coil of current carrying conductor): field inside in constant and parallel or “uniform”.
Factors affecting the magnetic field strenght, B, of a solenoid:
– Current
 – Length
– How tightly wound
– Temperature
– Core material
– Conductivity of coil
The core can affect the field the field of strenght from dramtically to not at all, all depending on
the core material. Relative magnetic permeability, K, to describe the core’s effect.
K = current after/current before = loops after/loops before = K after/ K before

Ferromagnetic: coin, nickel, cobalt- high K

Paramagnetic: aluminum, oxygen- ~K (~1)
Diamagnetic: silver, copper, water- sligthly lower K (K < 1)

Motor principle: a current-carrying conductor cuts across external magnetic field line,
experiences a force perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction of the current. The
magnitude of external field and the current, as well as the angle between the conductor and the
magnetic field lines.

Factors affecting the strength of the induced current:

– Strength of the magnet
– Number of coils
– Rate of change of magnetic field
Induced current: for solenoids, it is best to consider the induced magnetic field.
Iinduced = Vinduced / R

The magnetic fields will always be induced such that they oppose the motion of the magnet.

Lenz law: for a current induced in a coil by a changing magnetic field, the electric current will be
produced in such a direction that its own magnetic field opposes the charge that produces it

Transformers are means of changing/transforming voltage.

Vsecondary / Vprimary = secondary windings/ primary windings

When changing voltage, step up transformers and step down transformers are used.