utkarsh sachan <sachan005@gmail.

com>
22 jan 14
Ias Shikhar <shikharias@gmail.com> Wed, Jan 22, 2014 at 3:10 PM
To: utkarsh sachan <sachan005@gmail.com>
The history of India begins with evidence of human activity of Homo sapiens, as long as 75,000 years
ago, or with earlier hominids including Homo erectus from about 500,000 years ago.
[1]
The Indus Valley Civilization, which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent from c. 3300 to 1300 BCE in present-day Pakistan and northwest India, was the first major
civilization in South Asia.
[2]
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in
the Mature Harappan period, from 2600 to 1900 BCE.
[3]
This civilization collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the Iron
Age Vedic Civilization, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plain and which witness the rise of
major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms, (Magadha), Mahavira and Buddha
were born in the 6th or 5th century BCE and propagated their Shramanic philosophies.
Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE.
Various parts of India were ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next 1,500 years, among which
the Gupta Empire stands out. Southern India saw the rule of the Chalukya dynasty, Chola Empire, Pallava
dynasty, Pandyan Dynasty,Rashtrakuta dynasty and Western Chalukya Empire. This period, witnessing
a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India". During
this period, aspects of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion (Hinduism and Buddhism)
spread to much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Roman
Empire from around 77 CE.
Muslim rule started in some parts of north India in the 13th century when the Delhi Sultanate was
established in 1206 CE.
[4]
The Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th
century, but declined in the late 14th century, which saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu
kingdoms like the Vijayanagara Empire, Gajapati Kingdom and Mewar dynasty. In the 16th century Mughal
rule came from Central Asia to cover most of the northern parts of India. The Mughal Empire suffered a
gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Maratha Empire to exercise
control over large areas in the subcontinent.
[5]
Beginning in the late 18th century and over the next century, large areas of India were annexed by the
British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after
which the British provinces of India were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period
of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic stagnation. During the first half of the 20th
century, a nationwidestruggle for independence was launched with the leading party involved being the
Indian National Congress which was later joined by Muslim League as well.
The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces
werepartitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the
Bhimbetka rock
painting,Madhya Pradesh, India
(c. 30,000 years old)
Stone age (5000 BCE)
writings of Edakkal
Caves inKerala, India.
new states.
Contents [show]
Prehistoric era [edit]
Stone Age [edit]
Main article: South Asian Stone Age
Further information: Mehrgarh, Bhimbetka rock shelters, and Edakkal Caves
Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in
central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least
the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000
years ago.
[6][7]
Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back
two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the
subcontinent.
[8][9]
The ancient history of the region includes some of
South Asia's oldest settlements
[10]
and some of its major civilisations.
[11][12]
The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the
palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.
[13]
Soanian sites are
found in the Sivalik region across what are now India, Pakistan, and
Nepal.
[14]
The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by
the Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent
occurred after the end of the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago.
The first confirmed semipermanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago
in the Bhimbetka rock sheltersin modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early
Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Bhirranafindings
(7500 BCE)in Haryana, India & Mehrgarh findings (7000 BCE onwards)
in Balochistan, Pakistan.
[15][16]
Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in
India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE.
[17]
However, the one dredged piece of wood in question was found
in an area of strong ocean currents. Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region
around 5000 BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India, spreading
southwards and also northwards into Malwa around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilisation of the region
began with the Indus Valley Civilisation.
[18]
Bronze Age [edit]
Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation
The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley
Civilisation. It was centred on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra
"Priest King"
of Indus Valley
Civilisation
A map of North India in the late Vedic period.
River valley,
[11]
the Ganges-Yamuna Doab,
[19]
Gujarat,
[20]
and
southeastern Afghanistan.
[21]
The civilisation is primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and
Rajasthan provinces) and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces).
Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilisations, along
with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
[22]
Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley,
theHarappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol
products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the
beginning of urban civilisation on the subcontinent. The civilisation included urban centres such
as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India, and Harappa, Ganeriwala,
and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside
drainage system, and multistoried houses.
Vedic period (500 BCE) [edit]
Main article: Vedic Civilisation
See also: Vedas and Indo-Aryans
The Vedic period is characterised
by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the texts
of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally
composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of
the oldest extant texts in India
[23]
and next to some
writings in Egypt and Mesopotamia are the oldest in
the world. The Vedic period lasted from about 900 to
500 BCE,
[24]
laying the foundations of Hinduismand
other cultural aspects of early Indian society. In
terms of culture, many regions of the subcontinent
transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in
this period.
[25]
Vedic society [edit]
Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upperGangetic
Plain.
[25]
Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo-Aryan
migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.
[26][27]
Vedic people believed in the transmigration of
the soul, and the peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of theAtharva Veda.
[28]
Many of the
concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.
[29]
Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, distinct to Harappan urbanisation having been
abandoned.
[30]
After the time of the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly agricultural and was
socially organised around the four varnas, or social classes. In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of
The swastika is a
major element of Hindu
iconography.
Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata
are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.
[31]
The Mahabharata
remains, today, the longest single poem in the world.
[32]
The events of
Mahabharata happened in a later period than Ramayana.In fact, there are
references of Ramayana in Mahabharata.
[33]
The early Indo-Aryan presence
probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in
archaeological contexts.
[34]
Sanskritization [edit]
Main article: Sanskritization
Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their
religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes called Sanskritization.
[35]
It is reflected
in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.
[35]
The Kuru kingdom
[36]
corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Grey Ware cultures and to the
beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1000 BCE, as well as with the composition of
the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as yma ayas, literally "black metal." The Painted
Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE.
[34]
The Vedic Period also
established republics such as Vaishali, which existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in
some areas until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing
movement away from the previous tribal system towards the establishment of kingdoms,
called mahajanapadas.
"Second urbanisation" (800-200 BCE) [edit]
During the time between 800 and 200 BCE the Shramana-movement developed, from which originated
Jainism and Buddhism. In the same period the firstUpanishads were written. After 500 BCE, the so-called
"Second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the
Central Ganges plain.
[37]
The Central Ganges Plain, were Magadha gained prominence, forming the base
of the Mauryan Empire, was a distinct cultural area,
[38]
with new states arising after 500 BCE
[web 1]
during
the so-called "Second urbanisation".
[39][note 1]
It was influenced by the Vedic culture,
[40]
but differed
markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.
[38]
It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in
South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced neolithic population associated with the
sites of Chirand and Chechar".
[41]
In this region the Shramanic movements flourished,
and Jainism and Buddhism originated.
[37]
Mahajanapadas (600-300 BCE) [edit]
Main articles: Mahajanapadas and Haryanka dynasty
In the later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered the subcontinent, many
mentioned in Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature as far back as 500 BCE. sixteen monarchies and
"republics" known as the MahajanapadasKashi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji(or
The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful
kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly
across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, there were a
number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and
breadth of Ancient India.
Nalanda is considered one
of the first great universities in
recorded history. It was the
centre of Buddhist learning and
research in the world from 450
to 1193 CE.
Vriji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (or
Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Matsya (or
Machcha), Shurasena,Assaka, Av
anti, Gandhara,and Kambojastretched across
the Indo-Gangetic Plain from
modern-day Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra.
This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in
India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.
[42]
Many smaller clans mentioned within early literature
seem to have been present across the rest of the
subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary;
other states elected their rulers. The educated
speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the
languages of the general population of northern
India are referred to as Prakrits. Many of the sixteen
kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by
500/400 BCE, by the time of Gautama Buddha.
These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and
Magadha.
[42]
Upanishads and Shramana movements [edit]
Main articles: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, and History of
Jainism
See also: Gautama Buddha and Mahavira
Further information: Upanishads, Indian Religions, Indian
philosophy, and Ancient universities of India
The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the
earliest Upanishads.
[43]:183
Upanishads form the theoretical basis of
classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta (conclusion of
the Vedas).
[44]
The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing
intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self
is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by
comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and
death.
[45]
Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or shramana
movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.
[46]
Mahavira (c. 549477 BCE), proponent
of Jainism, and Buddha (c. 563-483), founder of Buddhism were the most prominent icons of this
movement. Shramana gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara,
and the concept of liberation.
[47]
Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the
Asia in 323 BCE, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai
Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors.
extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.
[48]
Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later
become Jainism.
[49]
However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all
known time and scholars believe Parshva, accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure.
The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to
the shramana movement.
[50]
Persian and Greek conquests [edit]
See also: Achaemenid Empire, Greco-Buddhism, Indo-Greek Kingdom, Alexander the Great, Nanda
Empire, and Gangaridai
In 530 BCE Cyrus the Great, King of the
Persian Achaemenid Empire crossed the
Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes
of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India
region.
[51]
By 520 BCE, during the reign of Darius I
of Persia, much of the northwestern subcontinent
(present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan)
came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid
Empire. The area remained under Persian control for
two centuries.
[52]
During this time India supplied
mercenaries to the Persian army then fighting in
Greece.
[51]
Under Persian rule the famous city of Takshashila became a centre where both Vedic and Iranian learning
were mingled.
[53]
The impact of Persian ideas was felt in many areas of Indian life. Persian coinage and
rock inscriptions were adopted by India. However, Persian ascendency in northern India ended
with Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia in 327 BCE.
[54]
By 326 BCE, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had
reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated King Porus in theBattle of
the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.
[55]
Alexander's
march east put him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai
Empire of Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at
the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further East.
Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, and learning about the might of Nanda Empire, was
convinced that it was better to return.
The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on Indian civilisation. The political systems
of the Persians were to influence future forms of governance on the subcontinent, including the
administration of the Mauryan dynasty. In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern
Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek
cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which lasted until the 5th century CE and
The Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great.
Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd
century BCE.
influenced the artistic development of Mahayana Buddhism.
Maurya Empire (322185 BCE) [edit]
Main article: Maurya Empire
Further information: Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka the Great
The Maurya Empire (322185 BCE), ruled by the
Mauryan dynasty, was a geographically extensive
and powerful political and military empire in ancient
India. The empire was established byChandragupta
Maurya in Magadha what is now Bihar.
[56]
The
empire flourished under the reign ofAshoka the
Great.
[57]
At its greatest extent, it stretched to the north to the
natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east
into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached
beyond modern Pakistan, annexingBalochistan and
much of what is now Afghanistan, including the
modern Herat and Kandaharprovinces. The empire
was expanded into India's central and southern
regions by the emperors Chandragupta
and Bindusara, but it excluded extensive unexplored tribal and
forested regions nearKalinga which were subsequently taken by
Ashoka.
[58]
the Maurya Empire is regarded largest empire ruled by
any Indian Ruler.
Ashoka ruled the Maurya Empire for 37 years from 268 BCE until
he died in 232 BCE.
[58]
During that time, Ashoka pursued an
active foreign policy aimed at setting up a unified
state.
[59]
However, Ashoka became involved in a war with the state
of Kalinga which is located on the western shore of the Bay of
Bengal.
[60]
This war forced Ashoka to abandon his attempt at a
foreign policy which would unify the Maurya Empire.
[61]
During the Mauryan Empire slavery developed rapidly and a significant amount of written records on
slavery are found.
[62]
The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society.
However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.
[63]
Although there was no
banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary with loans made at the recognized interest rate of
15% per annum.
Ashoka's reign propagated Buddhism. In this regard Ashoka established many Buddhist monuments.
Indeed, Ashoka put a strain on the economy and the government by his strong support of Buddhism.
towards the end of his reign he "bled the state coffers white with his generous gifts to promote the
promulgation of Buddha's teaching.
[64]
As might be expected, this policy caused considerable opposition
within the government. This opposition rallied around Sampadi, Ashoka's grandson and heir to the
throne.
[65]
Religious opposition to Ashoka also arose among the orthodox Brahmanists and the adherents
of Jainism.
[66]
Chandragupta's minister Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of the greatest treatises on economics,
politics, foreign affairs, administration, military arts, war, and religion produced in Asia. Archaeologically,
the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary written records of the Mauryan times. The Lion
Capital of Asoka at Sarnath, is the national emblem of India.
Epic and Early Puranic Period - Early Classical Period & Golden Age
(ca. 200 BCE700 CE) [edit]
Main article: Middle Kingdoms of India
Ancient India during
the rise of
the Sungaand Satava
hanaempires.

The Kharavela
Empire, now
inOdisha.

Kushan
Empire andWestern
Satraps ofAncient
India in the north
along
withPandyans and Ea
rly Cholas in southern
India.

Gupta Empire
The time between 200 BCE and ca. 1100 CE is the "Classical Age" of India. It can be divided in various
sub-periods, depending on the chosen periodisation. The Gupta Empire (4th-6th century) is regarded as
the "Golden Age" of Hinduism, but a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries.
The Satavahana dynasty, also known as the Andhras, ruled in southern and central India after around 230
BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana dynasty, defeated the Sunga Empire of north India.
Afterwards, Kharavela, the warrior king of Kalinga,
[67]
ruled a vast empire and was responsible for the
propagation of Jainism in the Indian subcontinent.
[67]
The Kharavelan Jain empire included a maritime empire with trading routes linking it to Sri
Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Borneo, Bali,Sumatra, and Java. Colonists from Kalinga
settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the Maldives and Maritime Southeast Asia. The Kuninda
Kingdom was a small Himalayan state that survived from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century
The founder of
the Indo-Greek
Kingdom,Demetrius
I "the
Invincible" (205171
BCE).
CE.
The Kushanas migrated from Central Asia into northwestern India in the middle of the 1st century CE and
founded an empire that stretched from Tajikistanto the middle Ganges. The Western Satraps (35-405 CE)
were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India. They were the successors of
the Indo-Scythians and contemporaries of the Kushans who ruled the northern part of the Indian
subcontinent and the Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in central and southern India.
Different dynasties such as the Pandyans, Cholas, Cheras, Kadambas, Western Gangas, Pallavas,
and Chalukyas, dominated the southern part of the Indian peninsula at different periods of time. Several
southern kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched into Southeast Asia. The kingdoms warred
with each other and the Deccan states for domination of the south. The Kalabras, a Buddhist dynasty,
briefly interrupted the usual domination of the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the south.
Southern India [edit]
During this period the southern peninsular of India was at first ruled by the Satavahana dynasty and by
the 3 Tamil kingdoms the Chola dynasty, Pandyan Dynasty and Chera dynasty. The Tamil Sangam
literature flourished during this period. After the collapse of the Satavahana Dynasty in the 3rd century
theVakataka dynasty, the Pallava dynasty and the Kadamba dynasty emerged and dominated the major
part of southern India until the 6th century. In the 6th century the famous Chalukya dynasty was
established and dominated the major part of southern India until the 8th century.
Northwestern hybrid cultures [edit]
See also: Indo-Greek kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian
Kingdom, and Indo-Sassanids
The northwestern hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indo-Greeks,
the Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first of these,
the Indo-Greek Kingdom, was founded when the Greco-Bactrian king Demetr
ius invaded the region in 180 BCE, extending his rule over various parts of
present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, the kingdom
was ruled by a succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict
with each other.
The Indo-Scythians were a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians) who
migrated from southern Siberia, first into Bactria, subsequently
into Sogdiana, Kashmir, Arachosia, and Gandhara, and finally into India. Their kingdom lasted from the
middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE.
Yet another kingdom, the Indo-Parthians (also known as the Pahlavas), came to control most of
present-day Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as
the Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanidempire of Persia, who was
contemporaneous with the Gupta Empire, expanded into the region of present-day Balochistan in
Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian culture and the culture of Iran gave birth to a hybrid culture under
the Indo-Sassanids.
Coin of the
Roman
emperorAugustus found
at
the Pudukottai,South
India.
Satavahana Dynasty [edit]
Main article: Satavahana Dynasty
The tavhana Empire (Telugu: oco `c _c:, tavhana Smrjya ?, Maharashtri: ,
Slavhaa[3]) was a royal Indian dynasty based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar
(Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered much of India from
230 BCE onward. The Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting the
onslaught of foreigners after the decline of Mauryan Empire. Stavhanas started out as feudatories to the
Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline. They are known for their patronage of
Hinduism and Buddhism which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage
Site) to Amaravati. The Stavhanas were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their
rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of
ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.
Kushan Empire [edit]
Main article: Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent
under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. By
the time of his grandson, Kanishka, (whose era is thought to have begun c. 127 CE), they had conquered
most of northern India, at least as far as Saketa and Pataliputra, in the middle Ganges Valley, and
probably as far as the Bay of Bengal.
[68]
They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia
and China. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating; their last known great emperor
being Vasudeva I (c. 190-225 CE).
Roman trade with India [edit]
Main article: Roman trade with India
Roman trade with India started around 1 CE, during the reign of Augustus and
following his conquest of Egypt, which had been India's biggest trade partner in the
West.
The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and according
to Strabo (II.5.12.
[69]
), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships set sail every year
from Myos Hormos on the Red Sea to India. So much gold was used for this trade,
and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny the
Elder (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India:
"India, China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred
million sesterces from our empire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is
what our luxuries and women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is
intended for sacrifices to the gods or the spirits of the dead?"
Queen Kumaradevi and
KingChandragupta I, depicted on
a coin of their
son Samudragupta, 335380
CE.
Pliny, Historia Naturae 12.41.84.
[70]
The maritime (but not the overland) trade routes, harbours, and trade items are described in detail in the
1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Gupta rule - Golden Age [edit]
Main article: Gupta Empire
See also: Chandra Gupta I, Samudragupta, Chandra Gupta II, Kumaragupta I, and Skandagupta
Further information: Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana
Further information: Meghadta, Abhijnakuntala, Kumrasambhava,
Panchatantra, Aryabhatiya, Indian numerals, and Kama Sutra
The Classical Age refers to the period when much of the Indian
subcontinent was reunited under the Gupta Empire (c. 320550
CE).
[71][72]
This period has been called the Golden Age of India
[73]
and
was marked by extensive achievements in science,
technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic,
mathematics, astronomy, religion, andphilosophy that crystallized the
elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.
[74]
The decimal
numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India
during this period.
[75]
The peace and prosperity created under
leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic
endeavors in India.
[76]
The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture,
sculpture, and painting.
[77]
The Gupta period produced scholars such
as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma,
and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic
fields.
[78]
Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties
also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence
nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Maritime Southeast Asia, and Indochina.
The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to
legitimize their rule, but they also patronized Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to
Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulersChandragupta I (c.
319335), Samudragupta (c. 335376), and Chandragupta II (c. 376415) brought much of India under
their leadership.
[79]
They successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Hunas,
who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital
at Bamiyan.
[80]
However, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely unaffected by these events
in the north.
[81][82]
Medieval and Late Puranic Period - Late-Classical Age (5001500 CE)
Pala Empire underDharmapala
Pala Empire under Devapala
Chola Empire underRajendra
Chola c. 1030 C.E.
The Kanauj Triangle was
the focal point of empires -
theRashtrakutas of Deccan,
theGurjara
Pratiharas of Malwa, and
the Palas of Bengal.
[edit]
Main articles: Middle Kingdoms of India, Badami Chalukyas, Rashtrakuta, Eastern Ganga
dynasty, Western Chalukyas, Rajput kingdoms, andVijayanagara Empire
The "Late-Classical Age"
[83]
in India began
after the end of the Gupta Empire
[83]
and
the collapse of the Harsha Empire in the 7th
century CE,
[83]
and ended with the fall of
theVijayanagara Empire in the south in the
16th century, due to pressure from Islamic
invaders
[84]
to the north.
This period produced some of India's finest
art, considered the epitome of classical
development, and the development of the
main spiritual and philosophical systems
which continued to be in Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism. King Harsha
of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the
7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom
collapsed after his death.
North Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century after
the White Hun invasion, who followed their own religions such as Tengri,
and Manichaeism. Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh in 711 CE
witnessed further decline of Buddhism. The Chach Nama records many
instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at Nerun
[85]
In 7th century CE, Kumrila Bhaa formulated his school
of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals
against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaa's contribution to the
decline of Buddhism.
[86]
His dialectical success against the Buddhists is
confirmed by Buddhist historian Tathagata, who reports that Kumrila
defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, Dharmadasa, Dignaga and
others.
[87]
Ronald Inden writes that by 8th century CE symbols of Hindu gods
"replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-
political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be
housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate
imperial-style puja worship".
[88]
Although Buddhism did not disappear
from India for several centuries after the eighth, royal proclivities for the
cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism's position within the
sociopolitical context and helped make possible its decline.
[89]
Northern India [edit]
From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara
Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. During this period, Indian
rulers in spite for internal struggle, were able to avert the Islamic conquest of India, for example: In Battle
of Rajasthan, alliance of Gurjar Emperor Nagabhata I of the Pratihara Dynasty with the south Indian
Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynasty and many small kingdoms defeated armies of Umayyad
Caliphate, thus maintaining kingdom of Hindu rulers till the end of millennium in India
The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented
into various states. These were the first of the Rajput states, a series of kingdoms which managed to
survive in some form for almost a millennium, until Indian independence from the British. The first
recorded Rajput kingdoms emerged in Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later
ruled much of northern India. One Gurjar
[90][91]
Rajput of the Chauhan clan,Prithvi Raj Chauhan, was
known for bloody conflicts against the advancing Islamic sultanates. The Shahi dynasty ruled portions of
eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century.
The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550
and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190. The Pallavas of Kanchipuram were their
contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of the Chalukya empire, their feudatories,
the Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, and a southern branch of
the Kalachuri, divided the vast Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century.
The Chola Empire at its peak covered much of the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Rajaraja
Chola I conquered all of peninsular south India and parts of Sri Lanka in the 11th century. Rajendra Chola
I's navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma to Vietnam,
[92]
the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia and
the Pegu islands. Later during the middle period, the Pandyan Empire emerged in Tamil Nadu, as well as
the Chera Kingdom in parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. By 1343, last of these dynasties had ceased to
exist, giving rise to the Vijayanagar empire.
The ports of south India were engaged in the Indian Ocean trade, chiefly involving spices, with the Roman
Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east.
[93][94]
Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular
architecture flourished until about the beginning of the 14th century, when southern expeditions of the
sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu Vijayanagar Empire came into conflict with the
Islamic Bahmani Sultanate, and the clashing of the two systems caused a mingling of the indigenous and
foreign cultures that left lasting cultural influences on each other.
Rashtrakuta Empire (8th-10th century) [edit]
Main articles:Rashtrakuta Dynasty
At its peak the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to
Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous
literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly
influenced by Jainism.During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in
Kannada and Sanskrit. Amoghavarsha I was the most famous king of this dynasty and wrote
Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the
Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important
contributions are the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Maharashtra as well as the
Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which
are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Arab traveler Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one
of the four great Empires of the world. The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of
southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician Mahvra (mathematician) lived in the
Rashtrakuta Empire and his text had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian mathematicians who
lived after him.
Pala Empire (8th-12th century) [edit]
Main articles: Pala Empire
The Pla Empire (Bengali: m Pal Samrajy) was an Indian imperial power, during the Classical
period of India, that existed from 7501174 CE. It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the
eastern region of the Indian subcontinent, all the rulers bearing names ending with the suffix Pala
(Modern Bengali: pl), which means protector. The Palas were often described by opponents as the
Lords of Gauda. The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism. Gopala was
the first ruler from the dynasty. The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala.
Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the Indian Subcontinent. The Pala Empire can
be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Never had the Bengali people reached such height of power
and glory to that extent. The rulers of the Pala Empire supported the Universities of Vikramashila and
Nalanda which became the premier seats of learning in Asia. The Nalanda University which is considered
one of the first great universities in recorded history, reached its height under the patronage of the Pala
Empire.The empire of pala was considered as the mostly know imperial empire during the times of ancient
India.
Chola Empire (9th-13th century) [edit]
Main articles: Chola dynasty
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the
greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and
through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.
They dominated the political affairs of Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and
occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese
empire in the east. Rajaraja Chola I and his equally distinguished son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity
to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power. Under the
Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these
spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under
the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze
reached a finesse never before achieved in India.
Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has
the second largest pre-modern
dome in the world after the
Byzantine Hagia Sophia.
Western Chalukya Empire [edit]
Main articles: Western Chalukya Empire
The Western Chalukya Empire (Kannada: pachima chlukya smrjya) ruled most
of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. Vast areas between
the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control. During this
period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri,
the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and
gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th
century. The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an
architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire.
Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well
known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti,
the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi. This was an important period in the
development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings
encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit.
The Islamic Sultanates [edit]
Main articles: Muslim conquest of India, Islamic Empires in India, Bahmani Sultanate, and Deccan
Sultanates
See also: Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests and Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India
After conquering Persia, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate incorporated parts
of what is now Pakistan around 720. The Muslim rulers were keen to
invade India,
[95]
a rich region with a flourishing international trade and the
only known diamond mines in the world.
[96]
In 712, Arab Muslim
general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region in
modern day Pakistan for the Umayyad empire, incorporating it as the
"As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, 72 km (45 mi) north of
modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After several wars,
the Hindu Rajas defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Rajasthan, halting
their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan.
[97]
The north
Indian Emperor Nagabhata of the Pratihara Dynasty and the south Indian
Emperor Vikramaditya II of the Chalukya dynastydefeated the Arab
invaders in the early 8th century and protected whole India. Many short-lived Islamic kingdoms
(sultanates) under foreign rulers were established across the north western subcontinent (Afghanistan
and Pakistan) over a period of a few centuries. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished
throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small
numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle
Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahmani
Sultanate and Deccan sultanates, founded by Turkic rulers, flourished in the south.
Qutub Minar is the world's
tallest brick minaret,
commenced by Qutb-ud-din
Aybak of the Slave dynasty.
The Vijayanagara Empire rose to prominence by the end of the 13th century as a culmination of attempts
by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions. The empire dominated all of Southern India and
fought off invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates.
[98]
The empire reached its peak during
the rule of Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.
[99]
The empire
annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern
Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the
south.
[100]
It lasted until 1646, though its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by
the Deccan sultanates. As a result, much of the territory of the former Vijaynagar Empire were captured by
Deccan Sultanates, and the remainder was divided into many states ruled by Hindu rulers.
Delhi Sultanate [edit]
Main article: Delhi Sultanate
In the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of
northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the
former Rajput holdings.
[101]
The subsequent Slave
dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India,
approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Khilji
dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful
in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a
period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion
of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music,
literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language
of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects)
was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the
intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic Prakrits with immigrants
speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi
Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few
female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (12361240).
A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din
Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.
[102]
The Sultan's army was defeated on
17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timur's
army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except
for the sayyids, scholars, and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.
[103]
Vijayanagara Empire (14th-16th century) [edit]
Main articles: Vijayanagara Empire
The Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty. The
empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic
invasions by the end of the 13th century. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose
ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka,India. The empire's legacy
Timur defeats the Sultan of
Delhi, Nasir Al-Din Mahmum
Tughluq, in the winter of
1397-1398
Extent of the Mughal Empire in
1700.
Taj Mahal, built by the Mughals
includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of
which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in
South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The
mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of
Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian
idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under
the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian
mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala
school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced
a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara,Nilakantha
Somayaji and Jyehadeva in medieval south India. Efficient administration
and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water
management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine
arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and
Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form. The
Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that
transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The
empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when
Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed
areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan,
including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many
important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya.
Mughal Empire [edit]
Main article: Mughal Empire
In 1526, Babur,
a Timurid descendant
of Timur and Genghis
Khan from Fergana Valley (modern
day Uzbekistan), swept across
the Khyber Pass and established
the Mughal Empire, covering modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India
andBangladesh.
[104]
However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warriorSher Shah Suri in the
year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah
Suri and the Hindu king Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, who had won 22 battles against Afghan
rebels and forces of Akbar, from Punjab to Bengaland had established a secular Hindu rule in North India
from Delhi till 1556. Akbar's forces defeated and killed Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6
November 1556.
The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after 1707.
The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from Marathas and Afghans, causing the Mughal
dynasty to be reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally
The Maharana
of Mewarsubmitting to Prince
Khurram, later known as
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan,
c. 1615.
defeated during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also called the 1857 War of
Independence. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent
as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the Mughal emperors, most of
whom showed religious tolerance, liberally patronising Hindu culture. The
famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a
good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such
as Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance, and as a
result several historical temples were destroyed during this period and
taxes imposed on non-Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire,
several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum and themselves were
contributing factors to the decline. In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of
the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi . Under the general Amir
Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away
the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the
novice Mughal general and the rest of the imperial Mughal army fled. In
1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the
Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army.
This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. In 1739, Nader
Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of
Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including
thePeacock Throne.
[105]
The Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. During the Mughal era, the
dominant political forces consisted of the Mughal Empire and its tributaries and, later on, the rising
successor states - including the Maratha Empire - which fought an increasingly weak Mughal dynasty. The
Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate their empire, had a policy of integration with
Indian culture, which is what made them successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed.
Akbar the Great was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the
holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local
royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with
ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition
coupled with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in the dynasty's downfall
after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively non-pluralistic policies on the general
population, which often inflamed the majority Hindu population.
Post-Mughal period [edit]
Main articles: Maratha Empire, Kingdom of Mysore, Hyderabad State, Nawab of Bengal, Sikh
Empire, Rajputs, and Durrani Empire
Further information: Shivaji, Tipu Sultan, Nizam, Nawab of Oudh, Ranjit Singh, and Ahmad Shah Abdali
Maratha Empire [edit]
Main article: Maratha Empire
Political map of Indian
subcontinent in 1758.
TheMaratha
Empire (orange)was the
last Hindu empire of India.
Harmandir Sahib or The
Golden Temple is culturally
the most significant place of
worship for the Sikhs.
The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerainty
as other small regional states (mostly late Mughal tributary states)
emerged, and also by the increasing activities of European powers (see
colonial era below). There is no doubt that the single most important
power to emerge in the long twilight of the Mughal dynasty was
theMaratha Empire.
[106]
The Maratha kingdom was founded and
consolidated by Shivaji, a Maratha aristocrat of theBhonsle clan who was
determined to establish Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule of Hindu people). By
the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under
the rule of the Peshwas (prime ministers). Gordon explains how the
Maratha systematically took control over the Malwa plateau in 1720-1760.
They started with annual raids, collecting ransom from villages and towns
while the declining Mughal Empire retained nominal control. However in
1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, Delhi itself,
and as a result, the Mughal emperor ceded Malwa to them. The Marathas
continued their military campaigns against Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of
Bengal and Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. They built an efficient system of public
administration known for its attention to detail. It succeeded in raising revenue in districts that recovered
from years of raids, up to levels previously enjoyed by the Mughals. The cornerstone of the Maratha rule in
Malwa rested on the 60 or so local tax collectors (kamavisdars) who advanced the Maratha ruler '(Peshwa)'
a portion of their district revenues at interest.
[107]
By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across
practically the entire subcontinent.
[108]
The defeat of Marathas by British in three Anglo-Maratha
Wars brought end to the empire by 1820. The last peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in
the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
Sikh Empire (North-west) [edit]
Main article: Sikh Empire
See also: History of Sikhism
The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a
political entity that governed the region of modern-day Punjab. The
empire, based around the Punjab region, existed from 1799 to 1849. It
was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership
of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (17801839) from an array of
autonomous Punjabi Misls. He consolidated many parts of northern India
into a kingdom. He primarily used his highly disciplined Sikh army that he
trained and equipped to be the equal of a European force. Ranjit Singh
proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well qualified
generals for his army. In stages, he added the central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, the
Peshawar Valley, and the Derajat to his kingdom. His came in the face of the powerful British East India
Company.
[109][110]
At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west,
to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, and Himachal in the east. This was among the last areas of
Rabindranath Tagoreis
Asia's first Nobel
laureate and composer
of India's national
anthem
Swami
Vivekanandawas a key
figure in
introducing Vedantaand Yoga
Europe and
USA,
[111]
raising
interfaith awareness
and making Hinduism a
world religion.
[112]
the subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The first and second Anglo-Sikh war marked the downfall
of the Sikh Empire.
Other kingdoms [edit]
There were several other kingdoms which ruled over parts of India in the later mediaeval period prior to the
British occupation. However, most of them were bound to pay regular tribute to the Marathas.
[108]
The rule
of Wodeyar dynasty which established the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India in around 1400 CE by
was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of 18th century. Under their rule,
Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but
mostly against the British, with Mysore receiving some aid or promise of aid from the French.
The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire.
However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748
as a result of which Bengal became a vassal state of Marathas.
Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule,
Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of
Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. Both Mysore and Hyderabad
became princely states in British India.
Around the 18th century, the modern state of Nepal was formed by Gurkha rulers.
Colonial era (1500-1947) [edit]
Main article: Colonial India
In 1498, Vasco da Gama successfully discovered a new
sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for
direct Indo-European commerce.
[113]
The Portuguese
soon set up trading posts
in Goa, Daman,Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were
the Dutch, the Britishwho set up a trading post in the
west coast port of Surat
[114]
in 1619and the French. The
internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave
opportunities to the European traders to gradually
establish political influence and appropriate lands.
Although these continental European powers controlled
various coastal regions of southern and eastern India
during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their
territories in India to the British islanders, with the
exception of the French outposts
of Pondichry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port
of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies
of Goa, Daman and Diu.
Map of India in 1857 at the end
of Company rule.
Company rule in India [edit]
Main articles: East India Company and Company rule in India
In 1617 the British East India Company was given permission by
Mughal Emperor Jahangir to trade in India.
[115]
Gradually their
increasing influence led the de jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to
grant themdastaks or permits for duty free trade in Bengal in
1717.
[116]
The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, thede facto ruler of
the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits.
The First Carnatic War extended from 1746 until 1748 and was the
result of colonial competition between France and Britain, two of the
countries involved in the War of Austrian Succession. Following the
capture of a few French ships by the British fleet in India, French
troops attacked and captured the British city of Madras located on the
east coast of India on 21 September 1746. Among the prisoners
captured at Madras was Robert Clive himself. The war was eventually
ended by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle which ended the War of
Austrian Succession in 1748.
In 1749, the Second Carnatic War broke out as the result of a war
between a son, Nasir Jung, and a grandson,Muzaffer Jung, of the
deceased Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad to take over Nizam's throne in Hyderabad. The French supported
Muzaffer Jung in this civil war. Consequently, the British supported Nasir Jung in this conflict.
Meanwhile, however, the conflict in Hyderabad provided Chanda Sahib with an opportunity to take power
as the newNawab of the territory of Arcot. In this conflict, the French supported Chandra Sahib in his
attempt to become the new Nawab of Arcot. The British supported the son of the deposed incumbent
Nawab, Anwaruddin Muhammad Khan, against Chanda Sahib. In 1751, Robert Clive led a British armed
force and captured Arcot to reinstate the incumbent Nawab. The Second Carnatic War finally came to an
end in 1754 with the Treaty of Pondicherry.
In 1756, the Seven Years War broke out between the great powers of Europe, and India became a theatre
of action, where it was called the Third Carnatic War. Early in this war, armed forces under the French
East India Company captured the British base of Calcutta in north-eastern India. However, armed forces
under Robert Clive later recaptured Calcutta and then pressed on to capture the French settlement
of Chandannagar in 1757. This led to theBattle of Plassey on 23 June 1757, in which the Bengal Army of
the East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the French-supported Nawab's forces. This was
the first real political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was
appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.
[117]
This was combined with British
victories over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondichry that, along with widerBritish successes
during the Seven Years War, reduced French influence in India. Thus as a result of the three Carnatic
Wars, the British East India Company gained exclusive control over the entire Carnatic region of
India.
[118]
The British East India Company extended its control over the whole of Bengal. After the Battle of
Viceroy Lord Canning meets
Maharaja Ranbir Singh of Jammu
and Kashmir, March 9, 1860
Buxar in 1764, the company acquired the rights of administration in Bengal from Mughal Emperor Shah
Alam II; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which within the next century engulfed most of India
and extinguished the Moghul rule and dynasty.
[119]
The East India Company monopolized the trade of
Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced
a feudal-like structure in Bengal, often with zamindars set in place. By the 1850s, the East India Company
controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their
policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between
various princely states and social and religious groups.
[120]
The Hindu Ahom Kingdom of North-east India first fell to Burmese invasion and then to British after Treaty
of Yandabo in 1826.
The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences [edit]
Main article: Indian rebellion of 1857
The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers
employed by the British East India in northern and central India against
the Company's rule. The rebels were disorganized, had differing goals,
and were poorly equipped, led, and trained, and had no outside
support or funding. They were brutally suppressed and the British
government took control of the Company and eliminated many of the
grievances that caused it. The government also was determined to
keep full control so that no rebellion of such size would ever happen
again. It favoured the princely states (that helped suppress the
rebellion), and tended to favour Muslims (who were less rebellious)
against the Hindus who dominated the rebellion.
[121]
In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which
began to administer most of India as a number of provinces; the John Company's lands were controlled
directly, while it had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely
states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual
state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad and Kashmir). They were absorbed into
the independent nation in 1947-48.
[122]
British Raj (1858-1947) [edit]
Main article: British Raj
Reforms [edit]
When the Lord Curzon (Viceroy 1899-1905) took control of higher education and then split the large
province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam," a largely Muslim
eastern half. The British goal was efficient administration but Hindus were outraged at the apparent "divide
and rule" strategy." When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906 he was removed. The new
Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India John Morley consulted with Congress
The British Indian Empire at its
greatest extent (in a map of 1909).
The princely states under British
suzerainty are in yellow.
Mohandas Karamchand
Gandhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah,
Bombay, 1944.
leader Gopal Krishna Gokhale. The Morley-Minto reforms of
1909 provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive
councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial
Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate
communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic
step towards representative and responsible government. Bengal was
reunified in 1911.
[123]
Meanwhile the Muslims for the first time began to
organise, setting up the All India Muslim League in 1906. It was not a
mass party but was designed to protect the interests of the aristocratic
Muslims, especially in the north west. It was internally divided by
conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of
Hindus.
[124]
Famines [edit]
During the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the
worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 187678 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people
died
[125]
and the Indian famine of 18991900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.
[125]
The Third
Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited
continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.
[126]
Despite persistent diseases and famines, the
population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million
by 1941.
[127]
The Indian independence movement [edit]
Main articles: Indian independence movement and Pakistan Movement
See also: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Indian independence activists
The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule
two-thirds of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable
leverage over the princely states that accounted for the remaining
one-third of the area. There were 674 of the these states in 1900, with
a population of 73 million, or one person in five. In general, the princely
states were strong supporters of the British regime, and the Raj left
them alone. They were finally closed down in 1947-48.
[128]
The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of
councillors to advise the British viceroy, in 1861; the first Indian was
appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also
set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a
large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British, and many of the troops from small minority
groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the
lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.
[129]
From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to
campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. Some others adopted a militant
approach that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle; revolutionary activities against the British
rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed
the British rule using non-violent methods likenon-cooperation, civil disobedience and economic
resistance. These movements succeeded in bringing independence to the new dominions of India and
Pakistan in august 6th, 1947.
Independence and partition (1947-present) [edit]
Main articles: Partition of India, History of the Republic of India, History of Pakistan, and History of
Bangladesh
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing
over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the subcontinent, and the prospect of an
exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu
rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the two groups in an
astonishing display of leadership. The British, extremely weakened by the Second World War, promised
that they would leave and participated in the formation of an interim government. TheBritish
Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being partitioned into the Union of
India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the controversial division of pre-partition Punjab and Bengal,
rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts
of India, leaving some 500,000 dead.
[130]
Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever
recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the
newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947
respectively).
[130]
In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.
Historiography [edit]
In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography regarding India: Cambridge,
Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common "Orientalist" approach, with its the image of a
sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship.
[131]
The "Cambridge School," led by Anil Seal,
[132]
Gordon Johnson,
[133]
Richard Gordon, and David A.
Washbrook,
[134]
downplays ideology.
[135]
The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the
Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical
events. More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history for the schools to support their
demands for "Hindutva" ("Hinduness") in Indian society.
[136]
The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in
precolonial India and of deindustrialization during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's
movement as a device for the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its
own ends.
[137]
History portal
India portal
The "subaltern school," was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash.
[138]
It focuses
attention away from the elites and politicians to "history from below," looking at the peasants using
folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on
the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasizes caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the
Marxist school.
[139]
See also [edit]
History of the Republic of India
Ancient India
Postage stamps and postal history of India
Economic history of India
Indian maritime history
Military history of India
Linguistic history of the Indian subcontinent
Chronology of Indian history
Rajamandala, a concept of friendly and enemy neighbor states mentioned in Arthashastra
Gallery [edit]
Chowmahalla Palace
in Hyderabad

Charminar at Old City
in Hyderabad
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