By Xiang-Ning Song

PHYSICS 2425
University Physics I Laboratory Manual

M1

M2

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere thanks to all of the people whose support, help, and assistance have been important in the completion of this lab manual. I am grateful for the support from Ray Canham and Rita Maher. My gratitude goes to Afaf Abughazaleh, Claudiu Rusu, Fred Wittel, and Justin Song for reviewing the manual and providing so many helpful suggestions. I am especially thankful to Claudiu Rusu and Justin Song for assistance in creating some of the graphics.

Xiang-Ning Song Richland College

Physics 2425

Table of Contents
Lab Guide 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Measurements Linear Motion: Measuring g Value Equilibrium and Vectors: The Force Table Projectile Motion Dynamics of a Rolling Cart Centripetal Acceleration and the Determination of g Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy Impulse and Momentum 5 11 21 31 41 49 57 63 69

Dynamic Carts Collisions: Conservation of Momentum 75 83 91 99

10. The Ballistic Pendulum 11. Rotational Inertia of A Wheel 12. Simple Harmonic Motion

13. Latent Heat and Specific Heat 14. Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

109 119

LAB REPORT GUIDE

I. Format of Lab Report

PRE-LAB FORMS You are expected to have completed a Pre-Lab form for each of the experiments that we do this semester, unless instructed otherwise by your teacher. These Pre-Lab forms consist of basic questions designed to familiarize you with the concepts involved in the lab experiment. Lab data are recorded on separate paper during the course of the lab period. These forms are to be turned in (deposited) on the front desk in the laboratory before the class begins. COMPLETED LAB REPORTS The lab report containing data, analysis, answers to questions, etc., is to be turned in on the date specified by your teacher, usually at the beginning of the next lab period. Stack these next to the Pre-Lab forms that you turn in for that days experiment. A stapler is available to help you make these reports a neat package. The complete graded lab report will consist of a Pre-Lab form and final report that are put together by the lab teacher and given a unit grade. The instructor will decide the relative weighing of each part of the lab report. NEATNESS All papers must be reasonably neat and organized. The margins should not have stray notes. If there is not sufficient space available on the lab forms to answer the questions, then you should write the answers on a separate sheet of paper and staple this to the lab report. The neatness, organization, and explanation of your measurements in the lab report represent the quality of your work. REPORT FORMAT. FORMAL REPORTS Lab report has the format of the outline below. Formal reports are more detailed, and you are to type these using a word processor. Your lab teacher will specify which labs reports are to be formal reports. EXPERIMENT TITLE AUTHORS NAME LAB PARTNERS NAMES OBJECTIVES OF THE EXPERIMENT BASIC THEORY. Develop the calculation relations from first principles. DATA AND SAMPLE CALCULATIONS with units and appropriate significant digits. Please show only one sample of each non-trivial type. ERROR ANALYSIS. This is described in this LAB GUIDE CONCLUSIONS. What have we learned? You may critique the lab experiment.

QUESTIONS. Answer these on separate sheet of paper unless adequate space is available in the informal reports

ORIGINALITY Work in the laboratory is usually performed with one or more lab partners who share your data. You are expected to discuss the lab work and the data with partners, but please write your own sentences. You are to understand the mathematics you use in your report. You are to construct your own graphs and make independent calculations (for example, a slope). Do not copy work you do not understand.

II.

Experimental Error and Data Analysis

RECORDING DATA. Uncertainty in measurements. LEAST COUNT: The smallest division on a measurement scale is called the least count. Most metric rulers have a least count of 1mm (0.1 cm). The triple beam balance that we use to measure mass in this lab has a least count of 0.1g. RECORDING DATA: When you record a measurement you must record all the digits that the measuring tool is capable of producing. As a concrete example, consider measurements of the width, W, of this page with a standard metric (cm) scale. After making a few measurements, the smallest value that seems reasonable is Least W = 21.49 cm The largest value that I made (or seems reasonable) is Largest W = 21.52 cm I would record the width as W = W0 W = 21.5 0.02 cm. The 0.02 cm is my estimate of the limits of precision for this instrument. I feel that I can measure to 1/5th of the smallest division on the scale. Similarly I have measured the length, L, and I record L= L0 L = 28.00 0.02 cm. Recording L = 28 cm wont do since this implies that I dont know the digit that follows the 8. Another reasonable person might have measured and recorded 28.01cm or perhaps 27.98 cm. The last digit recorded is an uncertain or estimated digit. You can use the least count of the measuring device, repeated measurements of a value, or other reasonable approach to decide the uncertainty of a measurement and the corresponding precision that you should use to record the data. It is responsibility of the student to decide what the uncertainty of a measurement is. Some numbers are exact numbers. How many ears do you have? We record this as 2 and not 2.00

SIGNIFICANT DIGITS AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION As an example let us consider the size of a proton (which is a unit in the nucleus of an atom). A protons radius is about 0.000,000,000,000,0075 m. How many significant figures (or digits) does this number have? It has 2 significant digits. The leading zeros are not significant in the sense that they relate to the precision of the value. It is rather silly to make the reader count all those zeros to understand the size of the number. You are expected to write very large or very small numbers in scientific notation form. For the case of the proton, r = 7.5 x 10-15 m. We could use an appropriate prefix to indicate the multiplier, femto f = 10-15, r = 7.5 fm. When you record data you must write all the digits that are significant for the measuring device and the proper units. In the above example the length of the paper, L, is recorded to 4 significant digits. The last digit recorded is an uncertain digit. UNCERTAINTIES FOR ARITHMETIC COMBINATIONS When you combine numbers through arithmetic, i.e., multiplication, addition, etc., the number of significant digits in the result is to agree with the least precise number that was used in the calculation. As an example, let us compute the area, A, using the data from previous example. The area is computed as length times width: A0 = L0W0 = (28.00 cm)(21.50 cm) = 602.0 cm2 The area is recorded using 4 significant digits since the numbers that went into the calculation was good to only 4 digits. Do not simply write down all the numbers that might be on your calculator. Exact numbers, like 602, is what the calculator yields. You have to record it as 602.0 for 4 significant digits. When numbers like or (2) appear, use the appropriate keys on your calculator to make the calculations, then use the data to determine the appropriate number of significant digits for the final result. Do not round off before you have finished calculating. How does one estimate the relative uncertainty in this area? (Relative uncertainty is the uncertainty in a number divided by the number.) The relative uncertainty is given by A/ A0 = (L0W + W0L)/ A0, where W and L were both estimated to be 0.02 cm. After arithmetic, the uncertainty of area is A = 0.99 cm2, and then you can express area as A = A0 A = 602.0 0.99 cm2 . NOTE ON COMBINATION OF ERRORS: The calculation of the areas relative uncertainty as A/ A0 = (W/ W0) + (L/ L0), using positive values, is a simple approach that gives a larger relative error that one would expect from an analysis statistics. In the case of a random source of measurement variations, the correct expression would be A/ A0 = ((W/ W0)2 + (L/ L0)2)) .

PERCENT ERROR. PERCENT DIFFERENCE The standard values can be found in textbooks or references. You will compute the percent error of an experimental result using the following basic relation: % Error = (100%)(Your Result Truth/ Truth) Here Truth means the standard value of the measured quantity. The % difference between two different measured results for a quantity is computed in much the same way. The % difference is taken as positive. % Difference = (100%)x (Difference in Values/Average Value).

GRAPHS Choose graph scales so that a graph is as large as practical. Label the axes of the graph with units and numbers. Simple whole numbers are preferred. You can factor out powers of ten in the scales so that the numbers along the axes are simple whole numbers. Make the plotted points easy to see, say by small circles or crosses. Make it easy to check the accuracy of your plots. As an example consider experimental data that relates the length of a simple pendulum to the squared period of the motion which obeys the relation L= g/(4 2) T2. The pendulum length is plotted against the squared period, and the slope is computed.
Length (m) 0.25 0.44 0.70 0.95 1.25 T (s) 1.02 1.37 1.64 1.98 2.26 T 2 (s )
1.4
2

Linear Graph For Pendulum

1.04
Length of Pendulum (m)

1.88 2.69 3.92 5.11

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 2 4 6 Period Square (s.s)

The length values are plotted on the y-axis, and the squared time on the x-axis. The plotted points are marked so that they can be readily seen. A straight line fits these data.

Note that the first and last points are NOT special points. The slope is computed from two points on the line that are far apart. These are not data points. Why? The graph is a tool used to average all your data and two arbitrary points on the line weight all the data. You should mark the slope calculation points and list their coordinates. The slope is defined as the ratio of (the change in the y-values) divided by (the change in the x-values). For the case illustrated, two points on the line are (0.6, 0.15) and (4.0, 0.99). Slope = {(0.99 0.15) cm}/{(4.0 0.6)s2} = 0.247 m/s2. (Note: the free fall acceleration is g = 42(slope) = 9.8 m/s2.) Lets summarize the requirement for graph. It has an appropriate title. The axes are labeled with whole numbers, and the units are indicated. The data points are marked. The slope calculation points are labeled. A larger graph would be preferred in a lab report.

III.

Basic Formulas in Data Analysis

1. Percent error: % error is used to compare your measured value with the standard value. % error = {Measured Value Accepted Value/(Accepted Value)}100% 2. Percent difference: % difference is used to compare two measured values. % difference = {Difference in Values / [Average Value]}100% ={ Value1 Value2 / [ (Value1 + Value2)/2]} 100% 3. Mean value for a set of N measurements: xav = [x1 + x2 + .....+xN] / N 4. Deviation from the mean: Di = xi - xav 5. Mean deviation (uncertainty): Dav = [D1 + D2 + + DN] / N 6. Record the accuracy of the mean value in terms of mean deviation: Measured Value = xav Dav 7. Standard deviation(uncertainty): = ( D1 D2 ... D N ) / N
2 2 2

8. Record the accuracy of the mean value in terms of standard deviation: Measured Value = xav Note: Both the mean deviation and standard deviation represent the dispersion of experimental measurements about the mean. They are used as terms in your measured value to indicate the precision of your measurement.

10

Experiment 1

MEASUREMENTS
EQUIPMENT Triple Beam Balance Micrometer Vernier Caliper Meter Stick Metric Scale Aluminum Block Aluminum and Steel Cylinders OB ECTIVES Upon completion o! t"is e#periment you $ill %e a%le to& '( Use %asic instruments !or measurin) len)t"& t"e metric scale* Vernier caliper and micrometer( +( Compute t"e ,olume o! an aluminum %lock and cylinder( -( Measure t"e mass o! an aluminum %lock and determine its density( .( /ecord in!ormation to an appropriate num%er o! si)ni!icant !i)ures(

Figure 1: Instruments of Measurement CONCEPTS T"e !ollo$in) are some standard con,ersion !actors( '(00 l% 1 .(..2 N '(00 inc" 1 +(3. cm '(00 !t( 1 -0(.2 cm 1 0(-0.2 m '(00 mile 1 '(405 # '06 m By Xiang-Ning Song ''

Most metric s a!es are cali%rated in centimeters 7cm8 and tent"s o! cm or millimeters 7mm8( 9"en measurin) len)t" usin) a metric scale* it is o!ten %est not to measure !rom t"e end o! t"e scale %ut to start t"e measurement at '(0 cm or anot"er con,enient point( T"e reason !or t"is is t"at t"e end o! t"e scale may %e $orn due to e#tensi,e use $"ic" mi)"t cause an error in t"e measurement( T"e !ollo$in) is an e#ample o! a measurement usin) a metric scale( :e!t /eadin) 1 '(00 cm /i)"t /eadin) 1 -(.3 cm :en)t" : 1 +(.3 cm

Figure ": Metri S a!e 9"en usin) t"is type o! metric scale* a measurement can %e made accurately to 0(' cm and can %e estimated to one additional decimal place( T"us* your data* usin) t"is centimeter scale* s"ould include t$o places a!ter t"e decimal point( A measure o! t"e un ertainty o! a measurement $it" t"is type o! instrument is de!ined as one-#a!f of t#e !east ount $"ere t"e least count is t"e smallest measurin) increment on t"e instrument( Un ertainty $ %&'% x ()east *ount+ T"us* !or a metric scale $"ere t"e smallest increment is 0(' cm* t"e uncertainty is 0(30 ; 0(' 1 0(03 cm( No$ len)t" : can %e recorded as : 1 +(.3 0(03 cm(

2.92cm =>

Figure ,: -ernier *a!iper

'+

A more accurate instrument !or measurin) relati,ely s"ort len)t"s is t"e -ernier *a!iper& T"e caliper "as a second scale called t"e ,ernier $"ic" increases its measurement accuracy %y a !actor o! '0( A sketc" o! a ,ernier caliper is s"o$n in <i)ure -( 7Note: T"ere is anot"er more accurate -ernier *a!iper in t"is la%( =our instructor $ill s"o$ you "o$ to use it(8 T"e ,ernier caliper can measure accurately to 0(0' cm( In t"e a%o,e measurement* t"e top 7main8 scale indicates a readin) %et$een +(5 and -(0 cm( T"e %ottom 7,ernier8 scale is used to !ind t"e ne#t di)it %y determinin) $"ic" mark on t"at scale %est lines up $it" a mark on t"e top scale( In t"is e#ample* t"e 0(+ mm 7or 0(0+ cm8 mark lines up( T"is means t"at t"e accurate measurement is +(5+ cm( Note* t"e least count o! t"e ,ernier caliper* 0(0' cm* is also re)arded as uncertainty( T"e len)t" can %e recorded as : 1 +(5+ 0(0' cm( T"e mi rometer is t"e most accurate o! our t"ree measurin) instruments( It "as t"ree scales( A scale on t"e %arrel ser,es as t"e main scale* one on t"e rotatin) slee,e ser,es as t"e second scale* and t"e ,ernier scale is on t"e le!t side o! slee,e( T"ere are millimeter and "al!>millimeter markin)s on t"e %arrel( One rotation o! t"e slee,e is di,ided into !i!ty di,isions and t"e slee,e pro)resses one>"al! millimeter durin) one rotation( T"us* eac" di,ision on t"e slee,e is 0(0' mm or 0(00' cm( T"e ,ernier scale is read to 0(00' mm or 0(000' cm( 9"en usin) t"e micrometer* make certain t"e ?a$s are closed )ently usin) t"e clutc" mec"anism( T"is assures t"at t"e ?a$s are not o,er ti)"tened* %ut are closed $it" consistent !irmness( A sketc" o! a micrometer !ollo$s(

Figure .: Mi rometer T"e readin) on t"e t"is sketc" is& S"a!t& 4(3 mm Slee,e& 0(+' mm @ Vernier& 0(00- mm Total& 4(A'- mm Note* t"e micrometer readin)s are in millimeters and t"e least count is 0(00' mm( UNITS CONVE/SION& Bo$ many cu%ic inc"es are in a cu%ic !ootC '!t-1 7'!t-8 # 7'+inD!t8 - 1 'A+2 in-

By Xiang-Ning Song

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CA:CU:ATIONS& T"e diameter and len)t" dimensions o! an aluminum rod $ere measured to %e E 1 '(A+A3 F 0(000+ cm and 3(02 F 0(0' cm( Its mass $as measured to %e M 1 -+('3)( Calculate t"e ,olume* t"e uncertainty in t"e ,olume* and t"e rodGs density( Volume& V1 7area8 # 7len)t"8 1 H 7ED+8+ # : 1 H 7'(A+A3 cmD+8+ # 73(02 cm8 1 ''(5 cm-( T"e relati,e uncertainty in t"e ,olume is VDV 1 +#EDE @ :D: 1 7+#0(000+D'(A+A38 @ 70(0'D3(028 1 0(00++ V 1 0(0+4+ cmEensity& I1 MDV 1 7-+('3 )8D''(5 cm-1 +(A0)DcmT"e standard ,alue !or aluminum is +(A3 )DcmT"e J error is 7'00J8 # 7+(A0 K +(A38D+(A31 >'(2J 7Note minus si)nL8 Note& A less simple %ut %etter statistical met"od o! computin) t"e relati,e uncertainty in a product P1A#B#CMis PDP 1 77ADA8+ @ 7BDB8 + @ 7CDC8 + @ M8'D+

P/OCEEU/E Part A& /01 TA)) ARE 20U3 Ba,e a la% partner "elp0 you to mark your TWICE on one o! t"e paper s"eets on t"e la% doors( Make one mark $it" a strai)"t ed)e !lat on your "ead* turn around -400* and make a second mark t"at is independent o! t"e !irst( a( Measure t"e distance !rom t"e !loor to %ot" marks independently usin) t"e centimeter scale and record t"ese data usin) . si)ni!icant di)its in t"e BEINBT TAB:E( 9"at is t"e J di!!erenceC 7T"is is de!ined in t"e la% )uide(8 %( Measure t"e distance* B-* !rom t"e !loor to t"e second mark in inc"es and record t"is data usin) !our si)ni!icant di)its( 7T"is last num%er must %e measured and not computed !rom B+8 c( Compute t"e ratio o! cmDin as t"e ration B'DB-(

d( T"e standard ,alue o! t"is ratio is +(3. cmDin( Compute t"e J error and record t"is to + si)ni!icant di)its( 7T"e J error $ill %e ne)ati,e i! your ratio is less t"an +(3.(

'.

Part B& )EN4T/ 0F AN A)UMINUM B)0*5: METRI* S*A)E MEASUREMENT =ou $ill use t"e standard metric scale to measure t"e lon)est dimension o! an aluminum %lock( Oeep in mind t"at you must record all si)ni!icant di)its( Ad?ust t"e scale suc" t"at t"e le!t end is on some con,enient mark( 7I! t"e metal o! t"e scale e#tends to t"e le!t o! t"e Pero mark* t"en you may use t"e scaleGs Pero mark(8 /ecord t"e len)t" in %ot" mm and in cm* and include e#pected ,ariations( Note& t"e typical ,ariations in a measurement can %e estimated as t"e di!!erence %et$een a least reasonable value and a largest reasonable value t"at one mi)"t record !or a measurement( Part C& 1i6t# of an a!uminum 7!o 8: -ernier *a!iper Measurement Make a measurement o! t"e $idt" o! t"e aluminum %lock( /ecord ,alue $it" its uncertainty in t"e 9idt" Eata Ta%le( Part D& A!uminum B!o 8 T#i 8ness: Measurement 9it# a Mi rometer Remember to always close the micrometer gently using the friction drive thimble( Close t"e ?a$s o! t"e micrometer to)et"er to determine i! t"e scale reads Pero $"en it is empty( I! it is not Pero* t"en you $ill su%tract t"at readin) !rom t"e readin) o! t"ickness( A typical Pero readin) mi)"t %e >0(00+ mm( /ecord t"e %lock t"ickness* T* in B:OCO TBICONESS EATA TAB:E( Part E& B!o 8 Mass: Measurement 9it# t#e trip!e 7eam Ba!an e( Veri!y t"at t"e least count on t"e triple %eam %alance is 0(' )( 9"en you $ei)" t"e %lock* see i! you can determine t"e mass $it" more precision t"an to t"e nearest 0(' )( :ets take t"e mass uncertainty to %e 0(03 )( /ecord t"ese data at t"e %ottom o! t"e B:OCO TBICONESS EATA TAB:E( EENSIT= CA:CU:ATIONS( Eensity is de!ined as mass di,ided %y ,olume( T"e ,olume o! t"e %lock is t"e product o! 7len)t" :8 # 7$idt" 98 # 7t"ickness T8( Calculate t"e density o! your aluminum %lock %y di,idin) its mass %y its ,olume( <inally compute t"e J error %et$een your ,alue o! t"e density and t"e te#t%ook ,alue o! +(A3 )Dcm-( Part F& Measurement of t#e :ensity ; of a A!uminum<or Stee! Ro6 Select a rod* and use appropriate tools to measure its len)t"* :* and diameter* E* in cm* and its mass in )rams as precisely as you can( T"en compute its density and t"e estimated uncertainty o! t"e density( /ecord t"ese data in t"e AluminumDor Steel /od Eata Ta%le( =ou are to list t"e tools used to determine t"e ,olume o! t"e rod* s"o$ t"e calculation o! t"e density* I* on t"e Eata S"eet( Compute t"e J error o! your ,alue !rom t"e standard ,alue !or t"e densities o! "&=' g< m, (A!+ an6 =&>? g< m,(Stee!+&

By Xiang-Ning Song

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T"e ,olume is V1 7H E+D.8 #:( T"e relati,e uncertainty in t"e ,olume is VDV 1 +#EDE8 @ :D:( T"e uncertainty in t"e density is IDI 1 MDM > VDV(

'4

P/E>:AB <O/M

MEASU/EMENTS
'( 9rite t"e ans$ers !or t"e !ollo$in) in scienti!ic notation $it" t"ree si)ni!icant di)its( a( T"e eart"Gs circum!erence* measured t"rou)" t"e poles* is e#actly .0* 000* 000 m 7accordin) to an early standard o! t"e meter8( 9"at is t"e radius o! t"e eart"* /C / 1 QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQm( %( T"e sur!ace area o! t"e eart" is )i,en %y A 1 .H R /+( 9"at is t"e area AC

A 1 QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ m+( c( Usin) t"e units con,ersion ' inc" 1 +(3. cm* con,ert t"e ,olume V 1 -0+ in- into a ,olume in cu%ic cm 7cm-8 and in liters( 7' : 1 '000 cm-8( S"o$ your steps in %elo$L

V 1 QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQcm- 1 QQQQQQQQQQQQ :( +( Consider t"e illustration o! a standard metric scale across t"e t$o lines(

a( 9rite a s"ort de!inition o! least count* and state $"at t"e least count is !or t"is ruler(

%( S"o$ "o$ to determine x* t"e distance %et$een t"e t$o lines( /ecord data in mm( 7See t"e illustration inside t"e manual(8 /esult& x 1 QQQQQQQQ mm

By Xiang-Ning Song

'A

-( Measure t"e len)t" and $idt" o! t"is paper in cm* includin) uncertainty estimates* t"en compute t"e area o! t"is s"eet in cm+ $it" an estimate o! its uncertainty( 9 1 QQQQQQQFQQQQQQQQcm( A 1 QQQQQQQFQQQQQQQQcm+( : 1 QQQQQQQFQQQQQQQQcm(

'2

:AB /EPO/T <O/M

MEASU/EMENTS
BEINBT EATA TAB:E B'7cm8 B+7cm8 Ei!!( 7cm8 J Ei!!( B-7in8 B'DB-7cmDin8 J Error

B:OCO :ENNTB EATA TAB:E( SCA:E /EAEINNS 7Include t"e F S: uncertainties(8 :e!t Scale /i)"t Scale Uncertainty :en)t" :en)t" /eadin) 7mm8 /eadin) 7mm8 Estimated 7mm8 : 7mm8 : 7cm8 F F B:OCO 9IETB TAB:E( VE/NIE/ CA:IPE/ 7Include t"e F S9 in recorded ,alues(8 9 7mm8 /ecorded 9 7mm8 /ecorded 9 7cm8 F F B:OCO TBICONESS TAB:E( MIC/OMETE/ ANE BA:ANCE MEASU/EMENTS( TUE/OG 7mm8 B:OCO 7mm8 T 7mm8 VEi!!erenceW T 7cm8 F S T 7cm8 Mass M F SM7)8 Eensity I 7)Dcm-8 J Error

A:UMINUM O/ STEE: /OE EATA TAB:E : F S: 7cm8 E F SE 7cm8 Mass M F SM7)8

I 7)Dcm-8

J Error

Sample Calculation !or Aluminum or Steel /od& '( Measurement uncertainties& a( :en)t" :& 9"at de,ice did you use to measure :C QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ 9"at is t"e uncertainty in t"e len)t" measurementC S: 1 QQQQQQQQQQQQcm %( Eiameter E( 9"at de,ice did you use to measure EC QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ 9"at is t"e uncertainty in t"e diameter measurementC SE 1 QQQQQQQQQQQQcm C( Mass( 9"at is a reasona%le ,alue !or t"e uncertainty in t"e mass* SMC SM 1 QQQQQQQQ +( S"o$ t"e density calculation !or t"e aluminumDor steel rod(

By Xiang-Ning Song

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QUESTIONS. '( Con,ert t"e !ollo$in) ,alues !rom Britis" to SI units usin) an appropriate num%er o! si)ni!icant di)its( a( SueGs "ei)"t " is 3 !t and +(0 inc"es( 9"at is SueGs "ei)"t in metersC

" 1 QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ %( SueGs $ei)"t is '+3(0 l%( 9"at is "er mass* M* in k)(

M 1 QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ +( S"o$ t"at t"ere are '04 cm - in a ' m- ,olume(

-( A standard scale 7ruler8 is used to measure t"e $idt" o! t"is pa)e as !ollo$s& T"e one cm mark $it" t"e le!t ed)e o! t"e top o! t"e pa)e* and t"e ri)"t ed)e appears to line up exactly $it" t"e 0(3 cm mark %et$een ++ and +- cm( 9"ic" one o! t"e !ollo$in) recordin)s o! t"e $idt" is $ron)* and why is it $ron)C a( 9 1+'3(0 mm %( 9 1 +'(3 cm c( 9 1 +'(30 cm

.( T"e ,olume o! a steel rod is measured as !ollo$s& T"e diameter o! t"e rod is measured $it" a micrometer to %e E 1 3(020 F 0(00+ mm( T"e len)t" is measured to %e : 1 22(50 0(0+ mm( 9"at is t"e uncertainty in t"e ,olumeC

3( T"e density o! steel is I 1 A(24 )Dcm -( S"o$ t"e con,ersion to a ,alue in k)Dm-units(

+0

Experiment 2

Linear Motion: Measuring g Value

EQUIPMENT Free Fall Adapter Two steel balls (1.27cm and 1.91cm n d ameters! "ne bo# $or catc% n& t%e ball P c'et Fence "ne P%oto&ate ( n& )tand "ne so$t pad $or c*s% on n& t%e $all o$ t%e P c'et Fence

Two ways to hold and release the ball: A. Lock and release mechanism, as shown from the top. B. Hand held and release the ball, as shown from the bottom.

Figure 1: Free Fall Adapter "+,E-TI.E) Upon complet on o$ t% s e#per ment/ 0o* w ll be able to1 1. Properl0 set *p and operate Free Fall E2* pments. 2. Understand t%e concept o$ l near constant accelerat on mot on. 3. Meas*re t%e accelerat on o$ t%e $ree $all n& steel ball and t%e P c'et Fence. -"N-EPT) A $reel0 $all n& ob4ect s an ob4ect mo5 n& $reel0 *nder t%e n$l*ence o$ t%e &ra5 tat onal $orce onl0. (e&ardless o$ ts n t al mot on/ t%e $reel0 $all n& ob4ect e#per ences a downward accelerat on. T% s accelerat on s constant. T%e mot on o$ a $reel0 $all n& ob4ect s t%e mot on n one d mens on *nder constant accelerat on/ onl0 t% s mot on s
By Xiang-Ning Song 21

alon& t%e 5ert cal. I$ we c%oose *pward as t%e pos t 5e d rect on o$ 0 ( a0 6 7& and &69.8m9s2!/ t%e $ollow n& e2*at ons w ll descr be t%e mot on1 .eloc t0 as a $*nct on o$ t me1 .eloc t0 as a $*nct on o$ d splacement1 < splacement as a $*nct on o$ t me1 < splacement as a $*nct on o$ 5eloc t0 and t me1 50 6 50: 7 &;t 502 6 50:2 7 2;&;(070:! 070: 6 50:; t = 192;&;t 2 070: 6 192; (50: > 50!; t (1! (2! (3! (?!

P("-E<U(E art A: Measuring A!!eleration "it# t#e Free Fall Adapter 1. T*rn on t%e ) &nal Inter$ace $irst@ T%en t*rn on t%e comp*ter. 2. -onnect t%e $ree $all adapterAs stereo p%one pl*& nto t%e < & tal -%annel 1. 3. (*n B<ata)t*d oC. -l c' B-reate E#per mentC. ?. -l c' on -%annel 1 and c%oose BFree Fall AdapterC as 0o*r d & tal sensor. T%en cl c' on "D. E. Under t%e B< spla0C w ndow/ cl c' on t%e BTableC con. <ra& and drop t%e Table on BT me o$ FallC *nder t%e <ata w ndow (It s on t%e top and le$t corner o$ t%e comp*ter screen.!.
F.

Place t%e adapterAs timing pad ns de bo#/ as s%own n t%e Figure 1. Place t%em on t%e $loor d rectl0 below t%e release mec%an sm. Place t%e smaller d ameter steel ball n t%e release mec%an sm. Gold t%e ball at %6:.Em pos t on a&a nst a meterst c'/ as s%own n t%e Figure 1. -l c' on B)tartC b*tton on t%e comp*ter (*pper le$t corner!/ release t%e ball/ and t%en cl c' on B)topC b*tton. (Note1 T%e comp*ter w ll not start record n& *nt l 0o* release t%e ball/ so 0o* do not %a5e to s0nc%ron He releas n& t%e ball w t% press n& B(ec.C! (ecord t%e BT me o$ FallC. (Note1 I$ t%e ball b*mps/ t%ere are more t%an one data. (ecord t%e reasonable one.! (epeat $or :.7Em/ 1m/ 1.2Em/ 1.Em and 1.FEm. (epeat steps F79 $or t%e lar&er ball (19mm!. T*rn o$$ t%e <ata)t*d o. -alc*late t2/ &/ and a5era&e & 5al*e.
22

7.

8.

9. 1:. 11. 12.

13.

Us n& &rap% paper to &rap% % 5ers*s t2 $or +all 2/ $ nd t%e slope and &.

art B: Freely Falling i!%et Fen!e

1.

-onnect t%e p%oto&ateAs stereo p%one pl*& to < & tal -%annel 1 on t%e nter$ace. (*n t%e <ata)t*d o. -l c' B-reate E#per mentC. -l c' on -%annel 1 and c%oose BP%oto&ate I P c'et FenceC as 0o*r d & tal sensor. T%en cl c' on "D. -l c' and dra& t%e Table *nder B< spla0C w ndow. <rop t%e Table on t%e Pos t on con *nder B<ataC w ndow. -l c' on t%e .eloc t0 *nder B<ataC w ndow. <ra& and drop t on Table 1 con *nder B< spla0C w ndow. Jo* s%o*ld see t%e T me/ Pos t on/ and .eloc t0 Table on t%e screen. Place a so$t c*s% on n a bo#. Place t%e bo# d rectl0 *nder t%e $all n& p c'et $ence as s%own n F &*re 2. Ma'e s*re t%e Fence lands on t%e c*s% on.

2.

3.

?.

E.

Figure 2: i!%et Fen!e

F. -l c' t%e B)tartC b*tton. <rop t%e P c'et Fence 5ert call0 $rom 4*st abo5e t%e p%oto&ate and %a5e t mo5e t%ro*&% t%e p%oto&ateAs open n& w t%o*t % tt n& t%e &ate. 7. (ecord t%e t me/ pos t on/ and 5eloc t0 (Note1 T me s n t%e $ rst col*mn onl0/ not t%e t me $or 5eloc t0 a&a n! data on <ata Table 2.
By Xiang-Ning Song 23

8. A$ter 0o* wr te down t%e data/ 0o* can &rap% 5eloc t0 5ers*s t me on t%e comp*ter. -l c' on t%e BKrap%C con *nder t%e B< spla0sC w ndow. <ra& and drop t%e &rap% on t%e B.eloc t0C con *nder t%e B<ataC w ndow.
9.

-l c' t%e BF tC b*tton on t%e bar &rap% men* (t%e e &%t% b*tton!. -%oose Bl near $ tC. (ecord t%e slope. F n s% t%e calc*lat on $or Ltn 6 tn = tn71 / 5n 6 (#n 7 #n71!9Ltn/ and &n6 (5n 7 5n71!9Ltn on <ata Table 3. Note1 T me t and # are $rom <ata Table 2/ b*t not 5eloc t0 data.

1:. 11.

2?

P(E7MA+ F"(M

MINEA( M"TI"N1 MEA)U(INK & .AMUE

1. Us n& t%e & 5en data/ draw 5eloc t0 5ers*s t me and $ nd t%e slope. T(s! .(m9s! .(m9s! :.:?E 1.11 :.:79 1.?9 :.1:7 1.79 :.131 2.:7 :.1E3 2.27 :.173 2.?8

T(s!

By Xiang-Ning Song

2E

2. I$ we sa0 t%at one ob4ect s *nder $ree $all mot on/ w%at do we mean n p%0s csN

3. A dropp n& ball n t all0 at rest s dropped 1.Em/ calc*late (a! t%e tra5el n& t me o$ t%e ball and (b! ts 5eloc t0 4*st be$ore reac% n& t%e &ro*nd.

2F

MA+ (EP"(T F"(M

MINEA( M"TI"N1 MEA)U(INK & .AMUE

<ata Table 1
+all 1 %(m! t(s! :.E: :.7E 1.:: 1.2E 1.E: 1.7E A5era&e1 &a56 t
2

+all 2 &62%9t
2

%(m! t(s! :.E: :.7E 1.:: 1.2E 1.E: 1.7E A5era&e1 &a56

t2

&62%9t2

&AL&'LA()*NS 1. -alc*late t2/ & and a5era&e & 5al*e.

2.

Us n& &rap% paper to &rap% % 5ers*s t2 $or +all 2/ $ nd t%e slope and &. +ased on slope1 &62)lope6OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO <ata Table 2. n 1 2 3 ? E F tn(s! #n(m! 5n(m9s!

& 5al*e $rom t%e slope1 n 1 2 3 ? E F

m9s2. &n6(5n75n71!9Ltn PPPPPPPPPPP PPPPPPPPPPP

<ata Table 3 Ltn6 tn = tn71 5n 6 (#n 7 #n71!9Ltn PPPPPPPP PPPPPPPP

By Xiang-Ning Song

27

t2

28

+'ES()*NS
1.

-ompare ,n o$ <ata Table 2 w t% <ata Table 3. Is 0o*r calc*lated 5al*e same as recorded 5al*e $rom comp*terN E#pla n.

2. In t% s lab 0o* dropped t%e P c'et Fence 5ert call0 $rom 4*st abo5e t%e p%oto&ate.
(a!

-alc*late t%e t me $or t%e $ rst Ecm len&t% o$ t%e P c'et Fence pass n& t%ro*&% t%e p%oto&ate.

(b!

-alc*late t%e t me $or t%e second Ecm len&t% o$ t%e P c'et Fence pass n& t%ro*&% t%e p%oto&ate.

By Xiang-Ning Song

29

3. I$ 0o* t%row a ball *pward w t% an n t al speed o$ ?m9s at 1.Em abo5e t%e &ro*nd/ $ nd a! t%e total t me o$ $l &%t $or t% s $ree $all mot on/

b! t%e $ nal 5eloc t0 4*st be$ore to*c% n& t%e &ro*nd/ and

c! t%e ma# m*m %e &%t w t% respect to t%e &ro*nd.

3:

Experiment 3

EQUILIBRIUM AND VECTORS: THE FORCE TABLE

EQUIPMENT Force Table Object Ring with 4 Pulley Strings 4 Super Pulleys Weight Set 4 Weight Hangers

Figure 1: Force Table OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this lab you will be able to add vectors by graphical, analytical, and experimental methods. You will understand the concept of physical conditions for equilibrium. CONCEPTS An object is in equilibrium if it has neither translational acceleration nor rotational acceleration. The first condition is met when the net force, the sum of all external forces, is zero. Forces are vectors and this requires their vector sum to be zero. This Force Table

By Xiang-Ning Song

31

experiment illustrates vectors addition, as shown in the figure 1. The sum of tension forces, applied to a ring at the center by weights suspended from pulleys, is zero. AN EXAMPLE: Forces A, C, and D act on a particle leaving it in equilibrium. Given the first two force descriptions, A = 250 g @ 370 and C = 150 g @ 1430, determine the third force, the equilibrium vector D, by (a) a graphical construction method, and (b) using vector algebraic method. Assume angles are measured relative to the x-axis unless stated otherwise, (a) The rule for graphical addition is: the tail of the second vector is placed at the head of the first vector, then the resultant (sum) vector, R = A + B, is drawn from the tail of the first to the head of the second. The equilibrium vector, D = -R, is drawn from the head of the second to the tail of the first. The result for this example, as shown in Figure 2, is D = 254 g @ 2520. The graph paper serves to help align the protractor. You should convince yourself that the order of addition can be reversed.

Figure 2: Graphical Method to Determine the Equilibrium Vector (b). Vector algebraic method: Equilibrium requires that A + C + D = 0. This is a vector sum. It follows that their components sums are also zero: Ax + Cx + Dx = 0 and Ay + Cy + Dy = 0.

So we must compute terms like Ax = A x cos(A). Here A is the angle between vector A and the x-axis. The magnitude of A is A, i.e., not printed in bold type or hand written with an arrow on top. Evaluating, Ax = (250 g) x cos(37o) = 200 g. Cx = (150 g) x cos(143o) = -120 g. Dx = -(Ax + Cx) = -80 g. Ay = (250 g)x sin(37o) = 150 g. Cy = (150 g) x sin(143o) = 90 g. Dy = -(Ay + Cy) = -240 g.

32

We find the magnitude and direction of D as D =

-1 o o

Dx D y
2

= 253 g. and

D = tan (Dy/Dx) = 252 . So D = 253g @ 252 is answer. The resultant of A + C is R = -D = 253 g @ 72o. R differs from D by 180o. Can you see a natural way to extend the vector addition to include three or more vectors? This extension is left as an exercise. The negative of a vector is defined to have the same magnitude as the vector, but point in the opposite direction. Therefore, -A = 250 g @ 217o.

PROCEDURE I. Determination of Equilibrant E for A + B + E = 0 1. Apply the following forces to the Force Table. A = 5 g(holder) + 125 g = 0.130 kg @ 37 B = 5 g (holder) + 100 g = 0.105 kg @ 143

2. Determine the magnitude and angle of a third force on the force table that will put the ring in equilibrium. Call this force E and record your results in Data Table 1. 3. Draw a diagram of the sum of vectors A and B and determine the equilibrant force from this diagram. The diagram must be drawn to scale (1.0 cm = 10 g or 1.0 cm = 20 g) using a metric scale and a protractor. Record the magnitude and the angle of the equilibrant in the Data Table 3. NOTE: All angles should be measured counter-clockwise from the zero-degree line.

II. Determination of Equilibrant F for A + (-B) + F = 0 1. Apply the following forces to the Force Table. A = 0.130 kg - B = 0.105 kg By Xiang-Ning Song @ 37 @ 180 + 143 , 33 where B = 0.105 kg @ 143

2. Determine the magnitude and angle of a third force on the Force Table that will put the ring in equilibrium. Call this force F and record your result in Data Table 1. III. Determination of Equilibrant G for A + B + C + G = 0 1. Apply the following forces to the Force Table. A = 5 g(holder) + 125 g = 0.130 kg B = 5 g (holder) + 100 g = 0.105 kg C = 5 g (holder) + 50 g = 0.055 kg @ 37 @ 143 @ 90

2. Determine the magnitude and angle of a fourth force on the Force Table that will put the ring in equilibrium. Call this force G and record your result in Data Table 1. IV. Determination of Equilibrant S for P + Q + R + S = 0 1. Apply the following forces to the Force Table. P = 5 g (holder) + 100 g = 0.105 kg Q = 5 g (holder) + 63 g = 0.068 kg R = 5 g (holder) + 125 g = 0.130 kg @ 0 @ 50 @ 240

2. Determine the magnitude and angle of a fourth force on the Force Table that will put the ring in equilibrium. Call this force S and record your result in Data Table 1. 3. Draw a diagram of the sum of vectors P, Q, and R and determine the equilibrant force from this diagram. The diagram must be drawn to scale (1.0 cm = 10 g or 1.0 cm = 20 g) using a metric scale and a protractor. Record the magnitude and the angle of the equilibrant in the Data Table 4.

Note: For convenience we use the mass to represent the weight in this lab. The magnitude of force vector should be massg (g=9.8m/s2) and unit in Newton, as shown in Data Table 2.

34

PRE-LAB FORM

EQUILIBRIUM AND VECTORS: THE FORCE TABLE

1. Four forces, A, B, C, and G, act on a particle leaving it in equilibrium. Given: A = 130 g B = 105 g C = 55 g @ 37 @ 143 @ 90

Determine G by the vector algebraic method for A + B + C + G = 0

2. Find G by the graphical method using a scale and a protractor. Use a scale factor of 1cm = 10 g. Draw arrow heads on vector ends. Result: Length in cm: , G= g@
0

By Xiang-Ning Song

35

Graphical Method to Find G

36

LAB REPORT FORM

EQUILIBRIUM AND VECTORS: THE FORCE TABLE

Data Table 1: Determination of Equilibrant Forces: E, F, G, and S M (kg) (Mass) M 9.8 (N) (Force) (Degree) (Direction)

Equilibrant E F G S

Data Table 2: Applied Forces M (kg) (Mass) 0.130 0.105 0.105 0.055 0.105 0.068 0.130 M 9.8 (N) (Force) 1.27 1.03 1.03 0.54 1.03 0.67 1.27 (Degree) (Direction) 37O 143O 323O 90O 0O 50O 240O

Applied Forces A B -B C P Q R

By Xiang-Ning Song

37

Data Table 3: Graphical Method to Determine the Equilibrant E for A + B + E = 0 Graphical Result: E = _______ kg = _____ deg

38

Data Table 4: Graphical Method to Determine the Equilibrant S for P + Q + R + S = 0 Graphical Result: S = _______ kg = _____ deg

By Xiang-Ning Song

39

QUESTIONS 1. (a) Calculate the Equilibrant E by the vector algebraic method for A + B + E = 0

(b) Compare the force table and calculated values of E, what is the % error between the magnitudes?

2. Why must the graphical solution of the force required to produce equilibrium form a closed polygon?

3. Consider the three vectors a, b, and c such that c = a + b. Let us choose the xdirection in the same direction as vector a. Lets designate the angle between b and the x-direction as so that bx = bcos and by = bsin. a. What are the algebraic expressions for cx and cY?

b. Use the Pythagorean theorem, c2 = cx2 + cy2 to show that c2 = a2 + b2 + 2abcos.

40

Experiment 4

PROJECTILE MOTION
EQUIPMENT Ballistic Pendulum Apparatus Wooden Launching Frame Paper, Tape , and lo!e Bo" #to catch pro$ectile% Meter &tic'

Figure 1: Projectile Fired

ori!ont"ll#

(B)E*TI+E& Upon completion o, this e"periment -ou .ill understand the /asic concepts that descri/e pro$ectile motion0 1ou .ill ha!e measured the range o, a pro$ectile ,or a speci,ied initial ele!ation and angle o, launch, and ,rom this predicted the range ,or a second initial con,iguration0 *(N*EPT& The e,,ects o, air resistance .ill /e negligi/le0 This appro"imation is !alid /ecause air resistance e,,ects depend strongl- on the relati!e !elocit- through the air, and the si2e and mass o, the pro$ectile0 Although the details !ar- ,rom one apparatus to the ne"t, the pro$ectile used .ill /e mo!ing in lo. speed and ha!e large mass to area ratios0 The gra!itational acceleration g is ta'en as constant o!er the range o, motion, 304 m5s6, do.n0 The pro$ectile7s motion .ill /e descri/ed /- " ,or the hori2ontal coordinate and ,or the !ertical coordinate, .ith positi!e - chosen as up0 The pro$ectile is launched at an angle 8 relati!e to the hori2ontal and ,rom an initial ele!ation -9 : ;, and initial "< component "9 : 90 The acceleration, !elocit-, and position components are=

$# %i"ng&Ning 'ong

>?

#?a% "<acceleration= a" : 9, #6a% !" : !9cos8, (3a) "#t% : #!9cos8% At,

#?/% -<acceleration= a- : <g #6/% #B/% !- : !9sin8 @ gAt, -#t% : ; C #!9sin8% At @ gAt6560

For Projectile Fired ori!ont"ll#, as sho.n in Figure ?, -ou ha!e conditions ,or the hori2ontal distance, D?, the height ;?, the initial angle 8:9, and the position on the ground - : 90 The relation -ou .ill use to determine the launch !elocit-, !9, is deduced /com/ining the a/o!e eEuations= !9 : D?AFg5#6 ;?%G?56 #>%

Figure (: Projectile )ired on "n Incline For Projectile )ired on "n Incline , as sho.n in Figure 6, -ou ha!e conditions ,or the launch !elocit-, !9, the height ;6, the initial angle 8, and - : 90 The relation -ou .ill use to determine the hori2ontal distance, D6, can /e determined /- sol!ing the Euadratic eEuation #B/% ,or the time, t, .hen the pro$ectile stri'es the ground, - : 90 This !alue o, time is su/stituted into #Ba% to e!aluate D6 : "#t%0

>6

pment:

tic Pendulum System c Scale Beam Balance Paper and Tape g. Launcher

Figure *: Pu+, t,e Projectile -it, .lo/e on PD(*EHUDE Part A= Hetermining the Launch +elocit-, !90 Pro$ectile Fired ;ori2ontall-0 ?0 Arrange the /allistic pendulum spring gun de!ice at the edge o, the la/ /ench #or on a la/ stool% such that the pro$ectile .ill ha!e a/out B meters o, ,loor space in ,ront o, it0 Position a card/oard /o" to catch the pro$ectile a,ter its re/ound ,rom the ,loor0 Note: Ple"+e -e"r t,e glo/e to pu+, t,e projectile0 "+ +,o-n in Figure *1 Measure and record the ele!ation ;? ,rom the ,loor to the /ottom o, the pro$ectile0 ;ori2ontall- ,ire the pro$ectile in a trial run to determine the appro"imate distance D?0 Tape paper on the ,loor0 Fire the pro$ectile and note the impact point on the paper0 Ma'e ad$ustments as necessar-0 Measure the distance D? along the ,loor ,rom directl- /elo. the launch point to the impact point0 Be care,ul not to mo!e the gun /et.een trials, and record > separate trials in the data ta/le ?0 *alculate the a!erage !alue o, D? and the uncertaint- D?0 D? is the a!erage a/solute di,,erence /et.een each D? !alue and the a!erage D? !alue0 C"lcul"te /2 u+ing e3u"tion 4450 Note= *alculate the initial speed o, the pro$ectile, !9, /e,ore proceeding0 Part B= Hetermining the ;ori2ontal Histance, D60 Pro$ectile Fired on an Incline0 ?0 Place the spring gun on a launch ,rame on ,loor placed such that the pro$ectile can tra!el ,reel- perhaps Im /e,ore impacting the ,loor0 Measure the incline angle o, the launch and the ele!ation, ;6, ,rom the ,loor to the pro$ectile at the launch point0 60 Place a card/oard /o" in a reasona/le place to catch the pro$ectile0 Ma'e a trial run to insure that -ou 'no. the appro"imate position the pro$ectile .ill impact the ,loor0

60 B0 >0

I0 J0

$# %i"ng&Ning 'ong

>B

B0 Tape paper to the ,loor to determine the pro$ectile7s impact as -ou did in Part A o, this e"periment0 Decord the distance D6 ,or > trial runs in the data ta/le 60 Be care,ul not to mo!e the gun /et.een trials0 The measuring !ariations in the D6 are important since e"amination o, measurement limitations is part o, the e"periment0 >0 *alculate the a!erage !alue o, D6 and the uncertaint- D60 D6 is the a!erage a/solute di,,erence /et.een each D6 !alue and the a!erage D6 !alue0

>>

PDE<LAB F(DM

PD()E*TILE M(TI(N
?0 What is pro$ectile motionK

60 A pro$ectile is ,ired hori2ontall- #8 : 9% ,rom an ele!ation ;? : ?099 m0 It hits the ,loor at a distance D? : 60I9 m0 &ho. the calculation ,or #a% the time o, ,light, t, and

#/% the initial !elocit- o, the pro$ectile, !90

$# %i"ng&Ning 'ong

>I

B0 A pro$ectile is launched .ith an initial speed !9 : I0IB m5s, /ut no. the ele!ation and angle are changed to ;6 : ?0?I m, and 8 : B9o0 &ho. the calculation ,or #a% the time o, ,light, t, and

#/% the hori2ontal landing distance, D6, ,or this con,iguration0

>0 At .hat angle do -ou launch a /all to achie!e longest time in the air ,or a ,i"ed launching speedK

I0 At .hat angle do -ou launch a /all to achie!e longest range #hori2ontal distance% ,or a ,i"ed launching speedK

>J

LAB DEP(DT F(DM

PD()E*TILE M(TI(N
Hata Ta/le ?= Pro$ectile Fired ;ori2ontall;? : m0 Trail i D?i #m% LMD?iL : LD?i @ D?a!L D? : D?a! MD? : m0 !9 : NNNNNNNNNNNm5s Incline Angle 8 :NNN B > : LM D6i L : L D6i < D6a! L D6 : D6a! M D6 : m0 MD6 :
o

> :

a!erage D?a! MD? :

Hata Ta/le 6= Pro$ectile Fired on an Incline ;6 : m0 Trail i D6i #m% ? 6

a!erage D6a!

QUE&TI(N& ?0 &ho. the calculation o, the e"pected hori2ontal distance D6 ,or the incline ,iring e"periment0 Use the !alue o, the launch !elocit-, !9, ,rom Hata Ta/le ?0

60 What is the O di,,erence /et.een the e"pected distance D6 and the measured !alue ,rom Hata Ta/le 6K

$# %i"ng&Ning 'ong

>P

B0 Heri!e eEuation #>%0

>0

&ho. the calculation o, the initial !elocit-, !9, o, the pro$ectile ,rom the a!erage o, the hori2ontal launch data0

I0 Based on in,ormation ,rom the data ta/le ?, sho. the calculation o, the relati!e uncertaint- in the pro$ectile !elocit-0 Hoes the uncertaint- in D? dominate the uncertaint- o, this calculationK

>4

Experiment 5

DYNAMICS OF A ROLLING CART

EQUIPMENT Smart Pulley PASCOL Computer Interface Weight hanger and 5 g masses PASCO cart and track Weighing scale

M1

M2
Figure 1: Dynamic Track Equipments OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this experiment, you will be able to: Properly set up and operate Smart Pulley and Dynamic Track Equipments. Understand the concept of Newtons 2nd law. Measure the free fall acceleration g and rolling friction f by measuring the dynamics of a rolling cart. CONCEPTS Newtons second law of motion states that when a net force Fnet acts on an object, the acceleration of the object equals the net force divided by the mass m of the object. That is a = Fnet /m

By Xiang-Ning Song

49

In this experiment the PASCO dynamic track will be used to demonstrate the Newtons second law of motion and to measure the acceleration of gravity. Referring to Figure 1, a cart having a mass M1 is pulled on a horizontal track by a string that passes over the Smart Pulley and is attached to a mass M2 . We will designate the rolling friction force of the cart as f, and the acceleration of each mass as a. Newtons laws are used to deduce the dynamics relation (M1 + M2) a = g M2 f where g is the acceleration of gravity. In this lab a computer controlled Smart Pulley will be used to determine the accelerations, a, of the total mass (M1 + M2) for a few values of M2. You will plot the product (M1 + M2) a (y-axis) against M2 (x-axis) to obtain a straight line. The standard straight line form is y = mx + b where m (measured g) and b (friction f) are the slope and the intercept of the line.

PROCEDURE
HARDWARE ARRANGEMENT: 1. Set up the PASCO track and cart with a 500 g cart weight. The feet on the track are to be adjusted until the track is as level as possible. You do this by giving the cart a little motion to the left, then comparing this with motion to the right. 2. Weigh the cart and the weight on the cart. Record this sum as M1 above the DATA table. 3. Prepare a pulley string that is about 1.2 m long. One end is to be tied to a weight hanger, and the other end is to be attached to a 10/32 bolt on the cart. 4. Determine the mass of the weight hanger, and record this in the DATA Table. Set aside about six of the 5g/or 10g masses that you will hang on the weight hanger. 5. Attach the smart pulley at the edge of the bench. Make sure that the mass M2 can freely fall off the lab bench. The pulley should turn very freely and be aligned with the motion of the string. 6. Put a pad where the weight hanger will land on the floor.

50

COMPUTER SETUP AND MEASUREMENTS: 1. Turn on the PASCO signal interface. Turn on computer. Plug the phone jack of the Smart Pulley into Digital Channel 1 of the signal interface. 2. Run DataStudio. Click on Create Experiment. 3. Click on Channel 1 of interface image on your computer screen. Choose Smart Pulley and click on OK. 4. Click on the Graph icon under the Display Window. Drag and drop the graph icon to the Velocity icon under the Data window. You should see a graph of velocity versus time. 5. Hold the cart and have the weight hanger with one extra 5g mass suspended just below the Smart Pulley. Click the Start Button on your computer. Release the cart so it moves along the track. Whenever the hanging mass hits the pad on the floor, click on the Stop Button. 6. Use the mouse to choose the linear region of data (Hold the mouse and high light the data.) Click the Fit button on the graphic menu bar ( the 8th button). Choose the Linear Fit. 7. Record the value of the slope (The slope represents the acceleration.) in the Data Table. 8. Repeat steps 5 to 7, increasing M2 in 5g increments. 9. Compute the force, (M1 + M2) a, in column 4 of the Data Table. 10. Plot (M1 + M2) a against M2. Calculate g as the slope and determine the rolling friction force from the intercept.

By Xiang-Ning Song

51

PRE-LAB FORM

DYNAMICS OF A ROLLING CART

A cart (mass M1) is pulled on a horizontal track by a string that passes over a Smart Pulley and is attached to a weight (mass M2) as shown in the sketch. The rolling friction force of the car t is f, and the resulting acceleration of each mass is a.

QUESTIONS 1. Apply Newtons laws to each mass and combine these to deduce the formula (M1 + M2) a = M2 g f

2. The experimental data will be the measurements of accelerations a of the total mass for few values of M2. You will plot the product (M1 + M2) a (y-axis) against M2 (x-axis) to obtain a straight line. Explain how the free fall acceleration g and friction force f can be obtained from this straight line graph.

52

LAB REPORT FORM

DYNAMICS OF A ROLLING CART

Data Table Mass of cart: kg. Mass of bar: M1 = Mass of cart + Mass of bar : kg. kg

Mass of weight hanger: kg. Note: M2 = mass of weight hanger+ added masses

Trial #

M2 (kg)

Acceleration a (m/s2)

(M1 + M2) a (N )

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

By Xiang-Ning Song

53

Graph: Plot (M1 + M2) a versus M2 . Label the graph appropriately.

54

QUESTIONS 1. Show the slope calculation of g (using proper units) and calculate the % error of your experimental value.

2. (a) Use your graph to find the carts rolling friction: f =-Intercept b=__________N

(b) Find coefficient of friction: = f/(M1g):____________

3. If the track is not set up properly assume it is an inclined plane with angle , then the equation (M1 + M2) a could be different. Derive the equation (M1 + M2) a = M2 g (M1 g sin + f) where is the angle of the track relative to the horizontal. This error would not affect the experimental g!

By Xiang-Ning Song

55

4. State in your own words what you have accomplished in this experiment.

56

Experiment 6

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION AND THE MEASUREMENT OF g

EQUIPMENT Welch centripetal force apparatus Scale (ruler) Stopwatch Weights and Weighing scale Safety lasses

Figure: Centripetal F r!e Apparatu" !"#E$TI%ES& Upon co'pletion of this la( you will (e a(le to use the concept of centripetal force in circular 'otion applications) The free fall acceleration g is to (e deter'ined using the Welch centripetal force apparatus) $!N$EPTS& The apparatus is illustrated a(o*e) The 'ass '+ is rotated in a hori,ontal circle at a fre-uency f with a radius r) .pplying Newton/s second law0 the centripetal force0 1c0 is gi*en (y 1c 2 '+3ac 2 '+ 3 *t4 5r (+) Since the tangential *elocity0 *t0 is related with f0 the centripetal force is also gi*en (y 1c 2 '+ 3 647f84 3 r (4)

#$ %iang&Ning S ng

9:

1or this dyna'ic configuration0 the spring force0 1s0 pro*ides the centripetal force) In the static configuration0 as shown in the figure0 the spring is stretched the sa'e a'ount0 r0 (y the weight M43 g) The spring force is 1s 2 M43 g (;)

The spring force will (e the sa'e in (oth the static and dyna'ic configurations) The relation you will use to deter'ine the free fall acceleration0 g0 is deduced (y co'(ining these e-uations& g 2 '+3 647f843r5M4) (<)

P=!$E>U=E +) Unhoo? and 'easure the swing 'ass '+) =ecord *alue in the data ta(le) 4) Set the *ertical pointer for the s'allest or(ital radius and record this r *alue in the data ta(le) ;) .ttach the swing 'ass '+ to the suspension thread without attaching to the spring) .d@ust the (ar on top so that the '+ hangs directly o*ert the pointer) The suspension thread 'ust (e *ertical so that its tension does not contri(ute a hori,ontal force) <) $onnect the spring (etween '+ and the spindle) .ttach a thread and weight hanger on the side opposite the spring) .dd 'ass as necessary until its weight @ust (alances the spring force) Mass '+ should hang o*er the pointer) =ecord the 'ass (including the weight hanger) as M4 in the data ta(le) 9) =otate the spindle at a rate such that the tip of 'ass '+ @ust lines up with the pointer) The spring force will (e the sa'e as in step <) The eAperi'enter spinning the 'ass should *iew the rotation in a plane perpendicular the apparatus to a*oid *iewing errors) N te: Plea"e 'ear t(e "a)et$ gla""e"* B) .d@ust the rotation rate fro' 'o'ent to 'o'ent to ?eep the tip of '+ lining up with the pointer) Measure the ti'e0 t9C0 for 9C re*olutions) =ecord this ti'e in the data ta(le) . large nu'(er of rotations is used in order to accurately deter'ine an a*erage rotation fre-uency) :) $alculate fre-uency using f 2 (nu'(er of re*olutions5ti'e )29C5 t9C and g *alue using e-uation (<)) =ecord *alues in the data ta(le) D) $o'pute the E error of g using F)D '5s4 as the standard *alue) The E error is negati*e if your *alue is less than the standard *alue) =ecord *alue in the data ta(le) F) Increase r a(out + c') =epeat the steps ; through D a(o*e for fi*e sets of data) Each ti'e ad@ust the (ea' so that the tip of '+ hangs o*er the new pointer position)

9D

P=EGH." 1!=M

$ENT=IPET.H .$$EHE=.TI!N .N> TIE ME.SU=EMENT !1 g

+) $onsider a point 'o*ing at a constant speed * on a circle of radius r) What is the relation (etween *0 r0 and the rotation fre-uency0 f J

4) Show that the centripetal acceleration relation0 ac 2 *45r0 can (e put into the for' ac 2 647f843r)

;) In this eAperi'ent you will deter'ine g fro' eAperi'ental *alues of '+0 M40 r0 and f) The fre-uency f is found (y di*iding the nu'(er of re*olutions (y the ti'e for those re*olutions) .ssu'e g 2 F)DC '5s40 ta?e '+ 2 9CC g0 M4 2 DCC g0 and r 2 +D c'0 and calculate the fre-uency f0 and then the ti'e for 9C cycles)

#$ %iang&Ning S ng

9F

<) =eferring to the e-uation (<)0 what do you eApect the fre-uency to *ary with the radius of the rotational 'otionJ

BC

H." =EP!=T 1!=M

$ENT=IPET.H .$$EHE=.TI!N .N> TIE ME.SU=EMENT !1 g

>ata Ta(le Swing 'ass '+ 2 Trail + 4 ; < 9 r (') ?g M4 (?g) t9C (s) f (I,) g ('5s4) E Error

QUESTI!NS +) Show one sa'ple calculation of g *alue)

4) What are the a*erage g *alue and its E errorJ

#$ %iang&Ning S ng

B+

;) Which (elow state'ent is correct description of the dyna'ics in this eAperi'entJ (a) The centripetal force is (alanced (y the spring) (() The spring force is the centripetal force)

<) Show that the free fall acceleration g for this la( is gi*en (y g 2 '+3 647f843r5M4)

B4

Experiment 7

KINETIC & POTENTIAL ENERGY

EQUIPMENT Dynamics Cart Track, 2.2 meter Dynamics Cart (ME-9430 !it" P#$n%er &'rce (ens'r P"'t'%ate &i)e-*attern Picket &ence +$#er, T!' ,rackets, an- +$..er ,an-

&i%$re/ E0*erimenta# 1**arat$s 2,3ECTI4E( U*'n c'm*#eti'n '5 t"is #a. y'$ !i## .e a.#e t' ca#c$#ate t"e *'tentia# ener%y '5 a r$..er .an-, an- $se t"e ener%y t"e'rem t' c'm*$te t"e )e#'city '5 an '.6ect. In t"is e0*eriment y'$ !i## c'm*are t"e )e#'cities '5 a -ynamic cart c'm*$te- 5r'm t"e !'rk-ener%y t"e'rem !it" t"'se meas$re- $sin% e#ementary kinematics. C2NCEPT( 7"en a s*rin% ('r r$..er .an- is *$##e- 0 -istance a!ay 5r'm its re#a0e- *'siti'n (080 , t"ere is a 5'rce 5r'm t"e s*rin%. T"is 5'rce, ca##e- s*rin% 5'rce, is %i)en .y & 8 k0 ,y :ian%-Nin% ('n%
;3

(9

!"ere k is t"e s*rin% c'nstant. T"e )a#$e '5 k re*resents t"e sti55ness '5 t"e s*rin% an- is meas$re- in 5'rce 5'r *er $nit #en%t" '5 c"an%e ($nit in N<m . 1 stretc"e- 'r c'm*resse- s*rin% st'res e#astic *'tentia# ener%y. T"is e#astic *'tentia# ener%y can .e e0*resse- as U 8 = k02 (2

7"ere 0 is stretc"e- 'r c'm*resse- #en%t" in terms '5 t"e re#a0e- *'siti'n an- U "as $nits in 6'$#es. I5 a cart ('r '.6ect !it" mass M is attac"e- t' t"e s*rin% an- is #a$nc"e- .y t"e s*rin%, as s"'!n in t"e &i%$re, t"e cart !i## %ain s*ee- ) an- kinetic ener%y >. I5 t"e s*ee- '5 t"e cart is ) at t"e re#a0e- *'siti'n, t"e kinetic ener%y is %i)en .y > 8 = M?2 (3

T"is is .eca$se t"e st're- e#astic *'tentia# ener%y !i## .e re#ease- in t"e 5'rm '5 kinetic ener%y res$#tin% a #a$nc" )e#'city, ). ,ase- 'n t"e t"e'ry '5 c'nser)ati'n '5 ener%y/ U8> T"$s, t"e s*ee- '5 t"e %#i-er can .e ca#c$#ate- .y ?8 2U M (@ (4

P+2CEDU+E Part 1/ Ca#i.ratin% t"e &'rce (ens'r T$rn 'n t"e Pasc' (i%na# Inter5ace firstA T"en t$rn 'n t"e c'm*$ter. C'nnect DIN *#$% '5 t"e &'rce (ens'r int' t"e ana#'% c"anne# 1 '5 t"e P1(C2 inter5ace. 3. +$n BData(t$-i'C. C#ick 'n Create E0*eriment. D'$ !i## see t"e inter5ace !in-'! 'n t"e c'm*$ter screen. 4. C#ick 'n t"e ana#'% c"anne# 1 '5 inter5ace ic'n. C"''se B&'rce (ens'rC 5r'm t"e sens'r men$ an- c#ick 2>. @. E'#- t"e 5'rce sens'r in y'$r "an-. C#ick 'n Ca#i.rati'n (ens'r ic'n 5r'm t"e .ar men$. 1 ca#i.rati'n !in-'! a**ears. Press t"e TARE .$tt'n 'n t"e si-e '5 t"e (ens'r. Ty*e in 0 in t"e Calibration Point .'0 as stan-ar- )a#$e an- c#ick 'n Rea! from "ensor.
9. 2.

;4

Ean% @00 % mass (4.9N in !ei%"t 'n t"e (ens'r. Ty*e in #$%&N in t"e Calibration Point ' .'0 as stan-ar- )a#$e an- c#ick 'n Rea! from "ensor. F. C#ick 'n 2> at t"e .'tt'm '5 t"e ca#i.rati'n !in-'!. D'$ are rea-y t' meas$re t"e 5'rce.
;.

Part ,/ Meas$rin% t"e &'rce C#ick 'n Ta.#e ic'n $n-er t"e Dis*#ay !in-'!. Dra% an- -r'* t"e ta.#e ic'n 'n &'rce ic'n $n-er Data !in-'!. 2. P#ace t"e P1(C2 track 'n t"e ta.#e. 3. M'$nt t!' .rackets 'n t"e track. T!ist a r$..er .an- t' 5'rm a sin%#e #ine an- "an% it "'riG'nta##y 'n t"e t!' .rackets (+e5erence t' t"e P"'t' *ict$re . 1-6$st t"e "ei%"t '5 t"e r$..er .an- t' .e a%ainst t"e t'* *art '5 t"e Dynamics Cart (6$st $n-er t"e n'tc" . 4. Use t"e &'rce (ens'r t' *$## t"e n'tc" '5 t"e cart. Het t"e cart m')e 5'r!ar- .y 0 8 9 cm. E'#- t"e &'rce (ens'r stea-y at t"is *'siti'n. @. C#ick 'n B(tartC .$tt'n 5'r 3 sec'n-s. T"en c#ick B(t'*C. ;. C#ick 'n t"e "tatisti( BC ic'n 5r'm t"e ta.#e men$ .ar. +ec'r- t"e a.s'#$te mean )a#$e '5 5'rce in y'$r Data Ta.#e 9. F. +e*eat ste*s 3 t' @ 5'r 0 8 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, an- @ cm. I. P#'t t"e 5'rce )ers$s 0 $sin% Data(t$-i'. +er$n Data(t$-i'. C#ick BEnter DataC. Ty*e in y'$r -ata/ :--is*#acement an- D-5'rce. 9. C#ick t"e B&itC .$tt'n 'n t"e .ar men$ an- c"''se BHinear &itC. T"e s#'*e is )a#$e k. +ec'r- k $n-er t"e Data Ta.#e 9. 90. Un*#$% t"e &'rce (ens'r an- c#'se t"e Data(t$-i'. D' n't m')e t"e r$..er .an-. D'$ !i## $se it t' #a$nc" t"e cart.
9.

Part C/ Ha$nc"in% t"e Cart an- Meas$rin% Its (*ee+ec'r- t"e mass '5 t"e Cart in Data Ta.#e 2. 1-6$st t"e Track t' make s$re t"at it is #e)e#e-. C'nnect t"e *"'t'%ate timerJs *"'ne *#$% int' t"e Di%ita# C"anne# 9 '5 t"e inter5ace. +$n t"e Data(t$-i'. C#ick 'n BCreate E0*erimentC . T"e e0*erimenta# set$* !in-'! !i## a**ear. @. C#ick 'n BC"anne# 9C '5 inter5ace ima%e. T"en c"''se BP"'t'%ateC as y'$r -i%ita# sens'r. C"''se BTime in Kate, C"9C .'0 5r'm E0*erimenta# (et$* !in-'!. ;. C#ick 'n t"e BTa.#eC ic'n $n-er t"e Dis*#ay !in-'!. Dra% an- -r'* it int' BTime in Kate, C" 9C $n-er t"e Data !in-'!. F. M'$nt t"e &i)e-*attern Picket &ence 'n t"e cart. 1#i%n t"e *"'t'%ate !it" t"e t'*
9. 2. 3. 4.

s'#i- .an- '5 t"e &ence. +ec'r- t"e transit #en%t" l 8 0.02@m 'n Data Ta.#e 2. I. Usin% y'$r "an-, *$s" t"e cart (a%ainst t"e r$..er .an- 5'r!ar- .y 0 8 3cm, as t"e same !ay as in Part , 5'r t"e Meas$rin% &'rce. C#ick "tart .$tt'n. Ha$nc" t"e cart. C#ick t"e "top .$tt'n an- rec'r- t"e Elapsed time 'n Data Ta.#e 2. 9. +e*eat a.')e ste* 5'r 0 8 4 an- @ cm. C'm*#ete a## ca#c$#ati'ns 5'r Ta.#e 2.

,y :ian%-Nin% ('n%

;@

P+E-H1, &2+M KINETIC & POTENTIAL ENERGY

9. 7rite a .rie5 statement '5 t"e 7'rk-Ener%y T"e'rem 'r >inetic Ener%y T"e'rem. (T"is is n't t"e -e5initi'n '5 !'rk.

2.

C'nsi-er t"e 5'rce--is*#acement %ra*" 5'r a s*rin% s"'!n. Determine (a t"e s*rin% c'nstant, (. t"e *'tentia# ener%y st're- !"en t"e s*rin% is stretc"e- 5r'm 0 8 0 t' 0 8 4.0 cm, (c t"e c"an%e in t"e *'tentia# ener%y st're- in stretc"in% t"e s*rin% 5r'm 0 8 9.0 cm t' 0 8 4.0 cm.

3. 1 cart "a)in% a mass M 8 9I0 % 'n a 5ricti'n 5ree "'riG'nta# s$r5ace is acce#erate5r'm rest .y t"e #a$nc"in% s*rin% '5 *r'.#em 2. 7"at is t"e cartJs 5ina# s*ee- i5 t"e s*rin%Js *'tentia# ener%y !it" a c'm*ressi'n '5 4.0 cm is c'm*#ete#y trans5erre- t' t"e cartL

;;

H1, +EP2+T &2+M

KINETIC AN) POTENTIAL ENERGY

)ata Table * )etermination of "prin+ Constant 0 (cm & (N (#'*e k/ N<m 9 2 3 4 @

)ata Table '

Mass '5 Cart M/

k%.

Transit #en%t"/ l 8 0.02@m

0 (cm 3 4 @

E#a*se- Time t (s

4J 8 l<t (m<s

U 8 = k02 (3

? 8 (2U<M (m<s

9<2

M Di55erence in )e#'city

,y :ian%-Nin% ('n%

;F

QUE(TI2N(
9.

("'! 'ne sam*#e ca#c$#ati'n '5 t"e ener%y U 8 = k02.

2. E0*#ain !"ic" -' y'$ t"ink is m'st si%ni5icant s'$rce '5 -i55erence in t"e t!' sets '5 )e#'city )a#$es.

3.

N't a## t"e ener%y st're- in t"e r$..er .an- can .e c'm*#ete#y trans5erre- t' t"e cart .eca$se '5 #'sses in t"e trans5er *r'cess. E0*#ain !"ic" )e#'city y'$ e0*ect t' .e #ar%er, t"at 5r'm t"e ener%y ca#c$#ati'n 'r t"at 5r'm t"e e#a*se- time ca#c$#ati'n.

4.

7e ass$me- a #inear 5'rce--istance re#ati'n 5'r t"e #a$nc" -e)ice. C'nsi-er t"e t!' &-0 %ra*"s s"'!n. Explain !"ic" !'$#- *r'-$ce a #ar%er #a$nc"in% )e#'city.

;I

Experiment 8

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

EQUIPMENT Dynamics Cart Track, 2.2 meter Dynamics Cart (ME- !"#$ %it& P'(n)er *## ) +ar Mass ,-rce Sens-r, *##) Mass

O+.ECTI/ES U0-n c-m0'eti-n -1 t&is 'a2 y-( %i'' &a3e 3eri1ie4 t&e re'ati-n 2et%een t&e c&an)es in m-ment(m -1 an -25ect %it& t&e im0('se -n t&e -25ect. 6-( %i'' 2e a2'e t- (se c-nser3ati-n -1 ener)y in 2asic a00'icati-ns. CONCEPTS T&e m-ment(m p -1 an -25ect is sim0'y t&e 0r-4(ct -1 its mass m an4 its 3e'-city v, p 7 mv. T&e im0('se I -1 net 1-rce Fnet actin) -n an -25ect -3er t&e time inter3a' t 7 t2 8 t9is 4e1ine4 2y

t2
I

Fnet4t

(9$

t9
69

By Xiang-Ning Song

T&e im0('se -1 an -25ect is a's- )i3en 2y t&e c&an)e -1 its m-ment(m I = p 2 - p9 T&e im0('se ca(ses t&e c&an)e in t&e m-ment(m -1 t&e 0artic'e. In t&is 'a2 y-( %i'' (se a 1-rce sens-r an4 a 0&-t-)ate t- meas(re t&e 1-rce as a 1(ncti-n -1 time an4 ca'c('ate t&e im0('se. At t&e same time y-( %i'' a's- meas(re t&e c&an)e -1 m-ment(m, p2 - p9. In an i4ea' sit(ati-n t&e res('ts s&-('4 2e t&e same. P:OCEDU:E Part A; Meas(rin) t&e An)'e -1 t&e Inc'ine4 P'ane 9. P'ace a 2--k, s(c& as y-(r 0&ysics 2--k, (n4er t&e 4ynamic track t- 1-rm an inc'ine4 0'ane. 2. Meas(re t&e &ei)&t at t&e 2-t& en4s -1 t&e track, rec-r4e4 as &9 an4 &2. T&e 'en)t& -1 (h h9 $ t&e track is L 7 22<cm. Ca'c('ate t&e an)'e %it& 7 sin-9( 2 $ an4 rec-r4 -n L t&e 4ata ta2'e. Part +; Ca'i2ratin) t&e ,-rce Sens-r 1. T(rn -n t&e Pasc- Si)na' Inter1ace first= T&en t(rn -n t&e c-m0(ter. 2. C-nnect DIN 0'() -1 t&e ,-rce Sens-r int- t&e ana'-) c&anne' A -1 t&e PASCO inter1ace. 3. :(n >DataSt(4i-?. C'ick -n Create E@0eriment. 6-( %i'' see t&e e@0erimenta' set(0 %in4-% %it& inter1ace ima)e. 4. C'ick -n t&e ana'-) c&anne' A -n t&e inter1ace ima)e. C&--se >,-rce Sens-r? 1r-m t&e sens-r men( an4 c'ick OA. T&e e@0erimenta' set(0 %in4-% 1-r t&e 1-rce sens-r -0ens. 5. B-'4 t&e 1-rce sens-r 3ertica''y in y-(r &an4. C'ick -n Ca'i2rati-n Sens-r ic-n 1r-m t&e 2ar men(. A Ca'i2rate Sens-r %in4-% a00ears. Press t&e TARE 2(tt-n -n t&e si4e -1 t&e ,-rce Sens-r. Ty0e in 0 in t&e a!i"ration #oint $ 2-@ as stan4ar4 3a'(e an4 c'ick -n Rea% from Sensor. 6. Ban) *## ) mass (!. N in %ei)&t$ -n t&e Sens-r. Ty0e in &'()N in t&e a!i"ration #oint * 2-@ as stan4ar4 3a'(e an4 c'ick -n Rea% from Sensor. <. C'ick -n OA at t&e 2-tt-m -1 t&e ca'i2rati-n %in4-%. 6-( are rea4y t- meas(re t&e 1-rce.

70

Part C; Meas(rin) ,-rce an4 Im0('se 1. C- t- Samp!e Rate 2-@ (n4er E@0erimenta' Set(0 %in4-%. C&--se t&e sam0'e rate t- 2e 9### BD. 2. C'ick -n +rap, ic-n (n4er t&e Dis0'ay %in4-%. Dra) an4 4r-0 +rap, ic-n intFor-e Sensor (n4er t&e Data %in4-%. Cra0& 9 %in4-% %i'' a00ear. 6-( are rea4y ttake c-''isi-n 4ata. 3. P'ace t&e 1-rce sens-r s- t&at its 2ack is 1irm'y a)ainst t&e 2'-cker at t&e en4 -1 t&e track. T&e s0rin) 0'(n)er -1 t&e Cart s&-('4 2e -(t. E&en y-( re'ease t&e cart, it %i'' strike t&e 1-rce sens-r. N-te; An a'ternati3e %ay t- 4- it is t- re0'ace t&e &--k 2y a r(22er 2(m0er -n t&e 1-rce sens-r. 4. P'ace t&e *##) 2ar mass -n t&e Cart an4 meas(re t&e t-ta' mass. :ec-r4 t&e t-ta' mass in t&e 4ata ta2'e 9. 5. On t&e inc'ine, %&en t&e s0rin) 0'(n)er -1 t&e cart makes c-ntact %it& t&e 1-rce sens-r, rec-r4 t&e 0-siti-n as @# (%&ic& is t&e 1r-nt e4)e -1 t&e cart$ in t&e 4ata ta2'e. 6. :aise t&e cart t- a &i)&er 0-siti-n 1-r a2-(t 9*#cm -n t&e inc'ine an4 rec-r4 t&is 0-siti-n as @9 ((se t&e 1r-nt e4)e -1 t&e cart as a re1erence 'ine.$ 7. C'ick -n Start 2(tt-n. :e'ease t&e cart an4 -2ser3e &-% 1ar (0 t&e track %&en it re2-(n4s. :ec-r4 t&e &i)&est 2-(ncin) 2ack 0-siti-n as @2. C'ick -n Stop 2(tt-n 5(st a1ter t&e c-''isi-n. 8. C'ick t&e A(t-sca'e 2(tt-n -n t&e Cra0& men( 2ar (It is t&e 1irst 2(tt-n.$ t- 1it t&e 4ata. Use y-(r m-(se t- &i)& 'i)&t t&e im0('se area, %&ic& is t&e area (n4er t&e 1-rce 3ers(s time 0'-t. 6-( nee4 t&is area 1-r im0('se ca'c('ati-n. 9. C'ick t&e Statisti- ($ 2(tt-n an4 c&--se Area. :ec-r4 t&e 3a'(e -1 area in t&e 4ata ta2'e 9. T&is re0resents t&e im0('se 3a'(e. 9#. Ca'c('ate t&e m-ment(m c&an)e 1r-m t&e c-''isi-n 4ata (sin) I 7 0 7 02 8 09 7 MF(2)@2sin$9G2 H (2)@9sin$9G2I E&ere M is t&e mass -1 t&e cart, @2 7 @2 8 @#, @9 7 @9 8 @# , an4 is t&e an)'e -1 t&e inc'ine4 0'ane. Ca'c('ate t&e J 4i11erence 2et%een t&e im0('se 3a'(es -1 ste0s ( $ an4 (9#$. :ec-r4 3a'(es in 4ata ta2'e 2. 11. :e0eat ste0s * t- 1-r t&ree m-re tria's (D-nKt &a3e t- 2e t&e same startin) 0-int.$.

By Xiang-Ning Song

71

P:E-LA+ ,O:M

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

9. S&-% t&at t&e re'ati-n 2e'-% is tr(e 1-r a 1i@e4 mass 2y s(2stit(tin) Fnet 7 m4vG4t.
t2

Fnet4t 7 p2 - p9

t9

2. C-nsi4er t%- masses in a c'-se4 system. S&-% t&at Ne%t-nLs t&ir4 'a% res('ts in c-nser3ati-n -1 m-ment(m

". A mass M 4r-0s 1r-m a &ei)&t &9 an4 re2-(n4s t- a &ei)&t &2. S&-% t&at t&e im0('se is )i3en 2y MF(2)&9$M H (2)&2$MI. N-te t&at t&e 3e'-city 5(st a1ter re2-(n4 is -00-site in 4irecti-n t- t&e 3e'-city 5(st 2e1-re re2-(n4.

72

LA+ :EPO:T ,O:M

IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM

DATA TA+LE 9 (h 2 h9$ 7 sin-9( $7 L C-''isi-n 0-siti-n O# (m) :e'ease 0-siti-n O9 (m) N Mass -1 (Cart H +ar$; M 7 :e2-(n4 0-siti-n O2 (m) Im0('se I (Area (n4er t&e im0('se )ra0&$ (NPs$ k)

Tria'

9 2 " !

Data Ta2'e 2 @9 7 @9 8 @# @2 7 @2 8 @# I70 7 MF(2)@2sin$9G2 H (2)@9sin$9G2I

Tria'

J Di11erence

9 2 " !

By Xiang-Ning Song

73

QUESTIONS; 9. #rove t&at t&e eQ(ati-n -1 m-ment(m c&an)e 1-r t&e cart is )i3en 2y 0 7 02 8 09 7 MF(2)@2sin$9G2 H (2)@9sin$9G2I %&ere M is t&e mass -1 t&e cart (%it& 2ar mass$, @2 7 @2 8 @#, @9 7 @9 8 @# , an4 is t&e an)'e -1 t&e inc'ine4 0'ane.

2. E&at e@0erimenta' err-rs are si)ni1icant 1-r t&is e@0erimentR

3. I1 t&e initia' &ei)&t -1 a 2a'' is 9.S# m, a 2a'' -1 mass #.22 k) is 4r-00e4 1r-m rest. It re2-(n4s 2ack 1r-m t&e 1'--r t- a &ei)&t -1 9.*# m. Determine t&e im0('se -n t&e 2a'' 4e'i3ere4 2y t&e 1'--r.

74

Experiment 9

DYNAMIC CARTS COLLISIONS: CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

EQUIPMENT Dynamic Cart Track, 2.2 meter Two Dynamic Carts (ME-9430) with Plunger One Collision Cart (ME-9454) Two Photogates with mounting brackets Two Five-pattern Picket Fences One 500g bar mass

Figure: Experimental Apparatus OBJECTIVES: Upon completion of this experiment you will understand the concepts of linear momentum and energy conservation. In this experiment you will examine the motions of the elastic and inelastic collisions between two carts.

By Xiang-Ning Song

75

CONCEPTS: If an object is in motion with mass m and velocity v, the linear momentum p of the object is defined as p = mv When two carts collide each other, the sum of two carts linear momentum before the collision equals the total linear momentum after the collision regardless of type of collisions. That is Total momentum before the collision = Total momentum after the collision Or Pi = Pf If there is no loss of kinetic energy after the collision, it is called an elastic collision. Otherwise it is an inelastic collision. If the two carts stick together after the collision, it is called a perfectly inelastic collision.

PROCEDURE Experimental Setup 1. Level the dynamics cart track. If a cart stays stationary on the track, it indicates a leveled track. 2. Select two Dynamics carts. Place the 500g bar mass on A cart. Call the lighter one B cart. Two carts with spring plungers will be used for nearly elastic collisions. Select two carts with the Velcro strip on one end for inelastic collision. Place the Picket Fences on the top of each cart where the 2.5 cm opaque is at the top. 3. Place two photogates on the track with a space about 2 carts length between them. Set up the photogates so that they can measure the interruption times only for the top band of the strips (The bandwidth of the strip is 2.5 cm.). 4. Measure masses of the two carts. Record values in the DATA TABLE FOR CARTS along with the width of strips (transit length) lA = lB = 2.5cm = 0.025 m for each cart. 5. Turn on the signal interface first, then the computer. Insert two photogate plugs into channel one and two of the interface unit. Run the DataStudio. Click on Create Experiment. 6. Click on Channel 1 of the interface image. Choose Photogate from the Choose Sensor window. Click OK. Experiment Setup window opens. 7. On the Experimental Setup window, fill one check mark into the box of Time in Gate, Ch1. Undo the check mark on Velocity in Gate, Ch1. 76

8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 on Channel 2 for the 2nd photogate sensor. Be sure that the check mark is only left on Time in Gate, Ch2. Click on 2nd measurement tab under the same window. Take the check mark out of the box of Velocity Between Any Gates, Ch2. 9. Click on Table icon under the Display window. Drag and drop the Table onto Time in Gate Ch. 1 under the Data window. 10. Click on Table 1 icon under the Display window. Drag and drop onto Time in Gate, Ch. 2. Now you are ready to measure the time. CASE 1: PERFECLY INELASTIC COLLISION 1. Prepare the two carts for a perfectly inelastic collision, velcro to velcro configuration. Place lighter cart B in between two photogates at rest. 2. Click on Start button on DataStudio. Gently push cart A (releasing it before photogate I). Determine the times for the A carts strip to pass through photogate I, tA, and the time, tB, for the B carts strip (with cart A stuck to it) to pass through photogate II. The prime sign tB indicates that it is a time after the collision. 3. Click on Stop button on DtaStudio. Record the Elapsed time on Data Table. You will calculate the velocities, linear momentum, and kinetic energy before and after collision using vA = lA/tA = 0.025/tA , vAB =lB/tB = 0.025/tB pA = mA vA, pAB = (mA + mB) vAB. 2 KA = mA vA /2, KAB = (mA + mB) vAB2/2 4. Calculate the change in total momentum and in total kinetic energy before and after collision. Calculate the percentage loss for total momentum and total kinetic energy. Record values in the case 1 data table. CASE 2: NEARLY ELASTIC COLLISION: Each of these collisions involves 3 velocities -- the velocity of the colliding cart before the collision, and the two velocities of the two carts after the collision. One of the photogates must be used twice! Part A: Heavy cart mA collides with the light cart mB. 1. 2. 3. 4. Prepare two carts for elastic collision, plunger to plunger configuration (or plunger to hard bumper). Place cart B at rest in between two photogates. Add the 500g bar mass on cart A and place the cart before photogate I. Click on Start button on DataStudio. Gently push cart A (releasing it before photogate I). It moves through photogate I and collides with cart B. Click on Stop button on DtaStudio. Record the Elapsed times tA and tB in DataTable of Part A, where tB is the time for cart B to pass through the photogate II after the collision. After B passes through the gate, photogate II will record a second time for cart A to pass through. Designate this third time as tA. 77

By Xiang-Ning Song

5.

Compute velocities vA = lA/tA, vB = lB/tB, and vA'= lA/ tA . Calculate the linear momentum and kinetic energy before and after collision. Calculate the change in total momentum and in total kinetic energy before and after collision. Calculate the percentage loss for total momentum and total kinetic energy. Record values in the case 2 part A data table.

Part B: Light cart mB collides with the heavy cart mA . 1. 2. 3. 4. Use the same two carts. Place cart A at rest in between two photogates. Place cart B before photogate II. Click on Start button on DataStudio. Gently push cart B (releasing it before photogate II). It moves through photogate II and collides with cart A. Click on Stop button on DtaStudio. Since the Light cart B will bounce back, photogate II will record two elapsed times tB and tB. The velocity vB' = - lB/ tB . (B's velocity after collision will be negative since it is opposite to its initial motion.) Record data and finish all required calculation in the case 2 part B data table.

5.

78

PRE-LAB FORM

DYNAMIC TRACK COLLISIONS: CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

1. What is an elastic collision?

2. What is an inelastic collision?

3. What is a perfectly inelastic collision?

By Xiang-Ning Song

79

4. If a mass ma = 2m has initial velocity 4 m/s and mass mb = m is initially at rest, they undergo perfectly inelastic collision. Calculate: (a) the final velocity and

(b) % loss of kinetic energy.

80

LAB REPORT FORM

CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

DATA TABLE FOR CARTS MA (Kg)

lA(M)

MB (kg)

lB(M)

Data Table for Case 1: Perfectly Inelastic Collisions (Velcro to Velcro Configuration) tA (S) tB (S) vA (m/s) v'AB (m/s)

Pi =pA (kgm/s)

Pf =p'AB (kgm/s)

P= Pf Pi

% Loss= P /Pi100

Ki = KA (J)

Kf =KAB (J)

K =Kf Ki

%Loss= K/Ki100

Case 2: Nearly Elastic Collision (Plunger to Plunger/or Hard Bumper Configuration) Part A: Heavy Cart mA Collides with the Light Cart mB. tA (S) tB (S) tA (S) vA (m/s) v'B (m/s) v'A (m/s)

Pi =pA (kgm/s)

p'A (kgm/s)

p'B (kgm/s)

Pf =p'A + p'B

% Loss= P /Pi100 % Loss= K/Ki100

Ki = KA(J)

KA

(J)

KB

(J)

Kf =KA + KB

Part B: Light Cart mB Collides with the Heavy Cart mA. tB (S) tA (S) tB (S) vB (m/s)

v'A (m/s)

v'B (m/s)

Pi =pB (kgm/s)

p'A (kgm/s)

p'B (kgm/s)

Pf =p'A - |p'B|

% Loss= P /Pi100 % Loss= K/Ki100

Ki = KB(J)

KA

(J)

KB

(J)

Kf =KA + KB

By Xiang-Ning Song

81

QUESTIONS: 1. Show that the kinetic energy of an object having a mass m and momentum p is given by K = p2/2m.

2. A mass m1 traveling down the x-axis with a speed v undergoes a perfectly inelastic collision with a second mass m2 that was initially at rest. Show that the total kinetic energy just after the collision, Kf, is [m1/(m1 + m2)]Ki, where Ki is the initial kinetic of the system.

3. If a mass ma = 2m has initial velocity 4 m/s and mass mb = m is initially at rest, they undergo elastic collision. Calculate their final velocities after the collision.

4. If a mass ma = 2m has initial velocity 4 m/s and mass mb = m has initially velocity -6 m/s, they undergo elastic collision. Calculate the final velocities.

82

Experiment 10

THE BALLISTIC PENDULUM

EQUIPMENT: Ballistic Pendulum Paper and Tape Cardboard Box Triple Beam Balance Glove

M2 h2 h1 M1

Figure 1: Balli ti! Pen"ulum OB ECTI!E": Upon completion o# t$is laborator% %ou &ill $ave used t$e concepts o# momentum and ener'% conservation to determine t$e speed o# a sprin' 'un(s pro)ectile and %ou &ill $ave compared t$is velocit% &it$ t$at determined #rom t$e ran'e o# t$e pro)ectile*

B# $iang%Ning S&ng

+,

CONCEPT": T$e ballistic pendulum experiment- as s$o&n in .i'ure /- is based on t$e classic met$od to measure t$e speed o# a 'un(s pro)ectile* T$e pro)ectile- mass m/ &it$ a $ori0ontal velocit% v- is #ired into a pendulum- mass M1- t$at catc$es it* T$e pendulum and pro)ectile s&in' as one unit &it$ velocit% v#* T$is collision process is per#ectl% inelastic collision* Conservation o# momentum %ields m/v 2 3m/ 4 M15v# 3/5

6#ter t$e collision t$e% s&in' to a $i'$est point $ and remain stopped at t$e $i'$est point due to a ratc$et mec$anism on t$e pendulum* I# elevations $/ and $1 are measured to t$e center o# mass o# pendulum &it$ t$e ball inside- $ is $1 7 $/* Based on conservation o# ener'%- v# is 'iven b% v# 2 1g h 315

Combinin' e8uations 3/5 and 315- t$e calculation #ormula #or t$e speed v in terms o# t$e masses m/ and M1- and t$e rise in t$e center o# mass- $- is v 2 93m/ 4 M15:m/; 1g h 3,5

Figure ': Pr&(e!tile M&ti&n 6n alternative met$od to determine t$e initial speed- t$e pro)ectile motion met$od- uses basic <inematics* T$e pro)ectile is #ired $ori0ontall% #rom an initial elevation = above t$e lab #loor and impacts t$e #loor a#ter travelin' a $ori0ontal distance >- as s$o&n in .i'ure 1* T$e initial velocit% o# t$e pro)ectile is 'iven b% v2 R g 1 H 3?5

@ou are as<ed to derive t$is #ormula in t$e PreABab #orm*

+?

P>OCECU>E Part 6: Ballistic Pendulum Met$od /* Measure and record t$e pro)ectile mass- m/* Ta<e t$e pendulum apart* Measure and record t$e pendulum mass- M1- in Cata Table /* 1* Place t$e pro)ectile inside t$e pendulum #or one unit* Cetermine t$e position o# t$e center o# mass o# t$e s%stem b% balancin' it- sa% on %our #in'er tip* Mar< t$is position on t$e pendulum* ,* 6ssemble t$e pendulum securel% so t$at it does not &obble out o# t$e plane &$en it s&in's* Measure $/- t$e center o# mass elevation above t$e table- &$en t$e pendulum $an's verticall%* >ecord value on Cata Table /* ?* .ire t$e pro)ectile into t$e pendulum* T$e pendulum s%stem reac$es to a $i'$er position* Measure t$e stoppin' position o# t$e pendulum- $1- t$e center o# mass elevation above t$e table* Note: Plea e )ear t*e gl&+e t& l&a" t*e pr&(e!tile, D* >epeat step ? #or #our times* >ecord $1 values on Cata Table /* E* Calculate t$e avera'e value o# $1 and t$e uncertaint% $1* $1 is t$e avera'e absolute di##erence bet&een eac$ $1 value and t$e avera'e $1 value* F* Calculate $ 2 $1av 7 $/* 6ssume $ 2 $1* Part B: P>O ECTIBE MOTION MET=OC /* Place t$e pro)ectileA'um s%stem on a lab stool* Ma<e sure t$at t$e s%stem is leveled* 1* Measure and record t$e elevation = #rom t$e #loor to t$e bottom o# t$e initial position o# t$e pro)ectile in t$e 'un* ,* Put a cardboard box on t$e #loor about , m #rom t$e 'un to catc$ t$e pro)ectile a#ter it rebounds #rom t$e #loor* ?* Ma<e a trial run to #ind t$e approximate ran'e* Tape paper on t$e #loor at t$e approximate impact point in order to mar< t$e pro)ectile(s impact* .ire t$e pro)ectile $ori0ontall%- and t$en measure t$e ran'e > as t$e $ori0ontal distance #rom t$e launc$ point to t$e impact point* D* >epeat and record a total o# #our measurements o# >* .inis$ all re8uired calculations and record values in t$e data table 1*

B# $iang%Ning S&ng

+D

P>EAB6B .O>M

B6BBI"TIC PENCUBUM
/* G$at is an elastic collisionH Is t$e ballistic pendulum collision elasticH

1* "$o& t$e derivation t$e ballistic pendulum calculation #ormula- E8uation 3,5*

,* >e#errin' to t$e #ollo&in' #i'ure- i# a pro)ectile- m/ 2 ED'- is $ori0ontall% #ired into t$e ballistic pendulum- M1 2 /IJ'- t$e pro)ectile is cau'$t b% t$e pendulum and t$e center o# mass t$e s%stem is raised b% $ 2 $1 7 $/ 2 /J*D cm* G$at is t$e initial speed o# t$e pro)ectileH

+E

?* Use basic <inematics principle to derive t$e ran'e met$od calculation #ormulaE8uation 3?5*

B# $iang%Ning S&ng

+F

B6B >EPO>T .O>M

T=E B6BBI"TIC PENCUBUM

Cata Table /: Ballistic Pendulum Met$od m/ 2 <'M1 2 Trail i $1i 3m5 KL$1iK 2 K$1i A $1avK $1 2 $1av L$1 2 mM $ 2 3$1 A $/5 2 / 1 <', $/ 2 ? 2 L$1 2 m* m* avera'e $1av

Cata Table 1: Pro)ectile Motion Met$od = 2 m* Trail i >i 3m5 KL>iK 2 K>i A >avK > 2 >av L> 2 m* / 1 , ? 2 L> 2 avera'e >av

C6BCUB6TION" /* Ballistic Pendulum 3a5 Calculate t$e pro)ectile velocit%- v- usin' e8uation 3,5 and t$e data #rom t$e data table /* 3b5 Cetermine t$e uncertaint% o# t$is velocit%*

1* Pro)ectile Motion Met$od 3a5 Calculate t$e pro)ectile velocit%- v- usin' e8uation 3?5 and t$e data #rom t$e data table 1*

3b5 Cetermine t$e uncertaint% o# t$is velocit%* It is assumed t$at t$e uncertaint% in t$e Pro)ectile Motion Met$od measurements is dominated b% t$e determination o# t$e ran'e- >*

++

QUE"TION" /* G$% are t$e positions o# t$e center o# mass o# t$e pendulum &it$ t$e pro)ectile measured- rat$er t$an t$e empt% pendulumH

1* Compute t$e N di##erence bet&een t$e ballistic pendulum met$od and pro)ectile motion met$od velocities* Is t$e velocit% di##erence reasonable in vie& o# t$e experimental limitationsH

,* I# t$e elevation c$an'e- $- in t$e Ballistic Pendulum Met$od &ere increased b% /N- t$en b% &$at &ould be N c$an'e in t$e resultin' velocit% vH 3Please use an approximation tec$ni8ue to ans&er t$is 8uestion*5

B# $iang%Ning S&ng

+I

?* I# t$e pro)ectile(s velocit% &ere doubled- t$en b% &$at #actor &ould its momentum be c$an'edH B% &$at #actor &ould its <inetic ener'% be c$an'edH

Momentum c$an'e #actor:OOO

Pinetic ener'% c$an'e #actor:OOOO

D* >e#errin' t$e #ollo&in' #i'ure- i# m/ 2 ED' and M1 2 /IJ'- &$at is t$e percent <inetic ener'% loss durin' t$e per#ectl% inelastic collisionH 3=int: P# 2Qm/:3m/ 4 M15RPi- &$ere Pi is t$e initial <inetic o# t$e s%stem*5

IJ

Experiment 11

ROTATIONAL INERTIA OF A WHEEL

EQUIPMENT: Centripetal Force Apparatus PASCO Smart Pulley Small Masses String and Scotch tape Caliper and Ruler Wheel Ring stand and Table Clamp

Figure 1: Axle-wheel Setup. Measuring IWA. OBJECTIVES: Upon completion of this lab you will understand the concepts of the moment of inertia (rotational inertia) and Newtons second law for rotational motion. In this experiment you will measure the rotational inertias of an axle and a wheel using Smart Pulley and computer. CONCEPTS: In this experiment there is a wheel mounted on an axle. One end of a string is rounded on the wheel (or axle) and the other end is attached to a mass (m), as shown in Figure 1. The string passes over a Smart Pulley. If the system is released, there is nonzero net torque on the wheel and net force on the falling mass, m.

By Xiang-Ning Song

91

The net forces on m are its weight and the tension Ft. Applying Newtons second law, mg Ft = ma (1)

Applying Newtons second law for rotational motion and using the relation between the angular acceleration of the wheel and translational acceleration a, = a/R, the net torque on the wheel is given by equation (2). RFt = IWA a/R (2)

The relation you will use to determine the rotational inertia is deduced by combining these two equations: IWA = m R2 (g-a)/a (3)

where IWA is the rotational inertia of the wheel and axle, R is the radius of the wheel, m is the hanging mass, and a is the translational acceleration of m.

2r

Figure 2: Measuring IA Using the similar way we can derive the equation for axle only without the wheel: IA = m r2 (g-a)/a (4)

where IA is the rotational inertia of axle, and r is the radius of the axle, and m is the hanging mass. The rotational inertia of the wheel, IW, can be calculated from the following equation: IW = IWA - IA (5)

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PROCEDURE Part A: Computer Setup 1. Turn on the PASCO scientific interface box, and the computer. Plug the Smart Pulley phone jack into the digital Channel one. 2. Open DataStudio and click in Create Experiment. Click on channel one of the interface image on Experimental Setup window. Choose Smart Pulley under Choose Sensor menu. Click OK. The experimental setup window for smart pulley will open. Be sure that the Velocity, Ch. 1 has check mark under measurement. 3. Click on the graph icon under Display window. Drag and drop the graph icon onto Velocity, Ch. 1 under Data window. The velocity-time graph appears. Part B: Measuring IA 1. Set up the apparatus as illustrated on the Figure 2. You will do this experiment first without the wheel. Measure the radius r of the Axle using caliper. Attach one 5 g or 10 g on the weight hanger (the mass of weight hanger, mh). Record r, mh, and hanging mass m = mh + 5g (or 10g) in Data Table 1. Note: Clamp the ring stand at the back edge of the lab table using the table clamp, as shown in Figure 2. 2. The Smart Pulley is held in place with a clamp on a ring stand, as shown in Fig. 2. 3. Take a string, about one meter long, and make a loop at one end to hold the weight hanger and the extra mass. 4. Fasten the other end of the string to the axle with scotch tape, wind it around the axle several turns, then pass the loop end over a Smart Pulley. Be sure that the string is parallel with the table and pulley is aligned so that the mass falls freely. 5. Click Start button. Release the hanging mass. Data recording begins on velocitytime graph. Click Stop button just after the string is completely stretched out. 6. High light the linear section of the graph with the mouse. Click on Fit button on Graph Tool Bar (8th button). Choose the linear fit. Record the slope (It is the tangential acceleration, a.) on Data Table 1. Note: If you can not find a good linear section on the graph, you should repeat steps 1 to 7 with larger mass. 7. Use equation (4) to calculate the rotational inertia of axle, IA and record it in Data Table 1.

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8. Take the string off the axle.

Part C: Measuring IWA 1. Measure the mass M and radius R of a wheel. Record these values in Data Table 2. 2. Mount the wheel on the axle. Fasten the string to the wheel with scotch tape. 3. Wind the string around the wheel several turns, then pass the loop end over a Smart Pulley. Be sure that the string is parallel with the table and the pulley is aligned so that the mass falls freely. 4. Repeat steps 5 and 6 in Part B for three different hanging masses (5g or 10 g as increment). Record the slope on Data Table 2. 5. Use equation (3) to calculate the rotational inertia of the wheel and axle, IWA. Use equation (5) to calculate the rotational inertia of the wheel, IW. Record these data in Data Table 2.

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PRE-LAB FORM

ROTATIONAL INERTIA OF A WHEEL

1. Write a brief statement to describe the physical meaning of the moment of inertia.

2. A washer is constructed from soft steel (density = 7.9103 kg/m3). Its inside and outside dimensions are 2.00 cm and 3.30 cm, and its thickness is 0.50 cm. Determine its mass.

3. Calculate the moment of inertia of the washer.

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4. Referring to the following figure, the hanging mass has a mass, m = 19g, the wheel has a radius, R = 0.10m, and the wheel and axle has a moment of inertia, IWA = 4.70x10-3 kgm2. If the pulleys moment of inertia and friction on the axle are negligible, determine (a) the tension in the string and (b) the acceleration of the hanging mass.

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LAB REPORT FORM

ROTATIONAL INERTIA
TABLE 1: DETERMINATION OF THE AXLES MOMENT OF INERTIA r (m) mh (kg) m* (kg) a (m/s2) IA (kgm2)

m* is the hanging mass, m* = mh + 5g (or 10g). TABLE 2: AXLE-WHEEL SYSTEM MOMENT OF INERTIA Wheel Mass M: Trial 1 2 3 m* is the hanging mass, m* = mh + 5g (or 10g). Calculations: 1. Show the calculations of the axles moment of inertia, IA. m* (kg) (kg), a (m/s2) Wheel Radius R: IWA (kgm2) (m) IW (kgm2)

2. Show one sample calculation for moment of inertia of the axle-wheel system, IWA.

3. Show one sample calculation, IW.

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QUESTIONS 1. Suppose there is a constant friction in the bearings of the axle. a. Would this tend to make your experimental value of the axle, IA; too small or too large?

b. If the friction drag is unchanged for the measurement of the axle-wheel combination, IWA, would it affect the result of the wheel alone? Explain.

2.

Derive: IA = m r2 (g-a)/a .

3. Referring to your data of Data Table 1, determine (a) the tension in the string and (b) the net torque on the axle.

4. Assuming that the wheel is a solid disk, calculate the IW using the lab data. Explain why there is difference between the calculated value and measured one.

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Experiment 12

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION: THE SPRING-MASS SYSTEM

EQUIPMENT: Motion Sensor, Metal Guard Ringstand, Clamp, Table Clamp Boxed weights Meter stick and Spring

Figure 1: Experimental Setup OBJECTIVES: Upon completion of this lab you will understand the time dependent descriptions of position, velocity, and acceleration for an object in Simple Harmonic Motion. You will understand the physical properties such as spring constant, amplitude, period, frequency, and phase angle. A Motion Sensor computer probe is used in the investigation. The constant, k, of a spring, and the free fall acceleration, g, are to be measured.

By Xiang-Ning Song

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CONCEPTS: For an object moving with simple harmonic motion, the acceleration, a, is oppositely directed to its displacement, x, measured from equilibrium: a(t) = -2x(t) The solution of equation (1) is given by x(t) = A cos(t - ) = A cos(2ft - ) (2) = 2f = 2/T (3) (1)

where A is the amplitude, and f are the angular and linear frequencies, is the phase angle, and T is the period. The velocity and acceleration of an object undergoing simple harmonic motion can be obtained using equation (2). V = dx/dt = - Vmaxsin(t - ) a = d V /dt = - amax cos(t - ) (4) (5)

where Vmax = A is the maximum speed and amax = A2 is the maximum acceleration. Consider the spring-mass system illustrated on Figure 1. There is a restoring force, Fr, acting on the oscillating object. It is oppositely directed to the displacement x. Applying Newtons second law, Fr = ma = - kx (6)

Dividing by m results in the form for simple harmonic motion, equation (6): a = - (k/m)x (7)

Comparing equations (7) and (1), we see that 2 = k/m. The relations for the linear frequency f (or just frequency) and period T of the motion are: f = /2 = (1/2) [k/m]1/2 T = 1/f = 2 [m/k]1/2 (8) (9)

Then the maximum speed Vmax and acceleration amax of the motion are given by Vmax = A = A [k/m]1/2 amax = A2 = A [k/m] (10) (11)

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PROCEDURES: Part A: Measuring A, T, f, , Vmax, and amax. 1. Clamp the ring stand on the back corner edge of the lab table, as shown in Figure 1. Make sure it is secure. 2. Place motion sensor on stool. Note: Your instructor might ask you to cover the sensor with a metal guard. 3. Hang a spring on a ring stand and a 50 g mass at the other end of the spring. Dont drop the mass from the spring. Hold the mass slowly going down till it hangs at rest when released. Use scotch tape to stick a small card at the bottom of the mass, as shown in Figure 1. 4. Adjust the distance between the mass and the motion sensor in the range of 20 cm to 50cm. Be sure that the mass is vertically above the motion sensor. 5. Turn on PASCO Signal Interface first. Then turn on the computer. 6. Insert the yellow phone jack of the motion sensor into the Digital Ch. 1 of the interface and another one goes to Ch. 2. 7. Run DataStudio. Click on Create Experiment. Experimental Setup window opens. 8. Click the channel one on interface image. Choose Motion Sensor from the list. Click OK. Experiment Setup window for Motion Sensor opens. Be sure that there are check marks in front of Position, Velocity, and Acceleration, Ch1 & 2. 9. Click the Graph icon under Display window. Drag and drop it onto Position ch1&2 under Data window. 10. Click the Graph 1 icon under Display window. Drag and drop it onto Velocity ch1&2 under Data window. Repeat the same operation for Acceleration. When the graph 1 window for Position, Velocity, and Acceleration appears, you are ready for the observation of simple harmonic motion. 11. Gently pull down the hanging mass about 2cm and release it to set it in oscillatory motion. 12. When a good oscillation pattern is formed, click Start button. Wait for few seconds and click Stop button. If the graphs do not look right, adjust the height of hanging mass to achieve the best graphs. (Note: After each practice trial you should delete the Run Data. Keep only the best graph to analyze your data.) 13. Click anywhere on Position graph. Click the Scale to Fit button, the first button, on the tool bar menu. Repeat the scale to fit process for Velocity and Acceleration. 14. Click anywhere on Position graph. Click the Smart Tool button, 6th button, on the Tool Bar menu. The Smart Tool crosshair appears on the position graph. This crosshair acts as a xy line that allows you to read the coordinates of any point on the graph. 15. Measuring the amplitude A: Drag the crosshair to measure the maximum and minimum positions (displacements) of the motion. Record them as ymax and ymin on Data Table 1. Calculate the amplitude using A = (ymax - ymin )/2. 16. Measuring the period T, frequency f, and phase angle p of the oscillation of position: Drag the crosshair to measure times t1 and tN for the first peak and last peak (as Nth peak) on the position graph. Calculate the average period using T =

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(tN - t1 )/(N-1), frequency f using f = 1/T, and phase angle using p = 2t1/T. Record these values on Data Table 1. 17. Measuring the phase angles of velocity v and acceleration a, the maximum speed Vmax and acceleration amax: Click anywhere on Velocity graph. Click the Smart Tool button, 5th button, on the Tool Bar menu. Drag the crosshair to measure the time t1v and maximum speed Vmax of the first peak. Calculate phase angle of velocity v using v = 2t1v/T (T is the same period as position graph.). Repeat the same steps for Acceleration Graph to measure the time t1a and maximum acceleration amax of the first peak. Calculate phase angle of acceleration a using a = 2t1a/T. 18. Remove the 50 g mass from the spring. Delete the Data of Run #1 on the computer. Complete the required calculations on Data Table 3.

Part B: Measuring Spring Constant k and Free Fall Acceleration g 1. Measure the bottom position of the unstressed spring with respect to floor using a meterstick. Record this position as ho on Data Table 4. 2. Hang 40 g mass on the spring. Dont drop the mass from the spring. Hold the mass slowly going down till equilibrium position. Measure the bottom position of the stressed spring as h. Calculate the displacement of the spring yo = (ho - h ). Record values on Data Table 4. 3. Use scotch tape to stick a small card at the bottom of the mass. 4. Gently push the hanging mass up about 2cm and release it to set it in oscillatory motion. 5. Click Start button. Wait for about 10 s and click Stop button. If the graphs do not look right, adjust the height of hanging mass to achieve the best graphs. (Note: After each practice trial you should delete the Run Data. Keep only the best graph on computer.) 6. Click anywhere on Position graph. Click the Scale to Fit button, the first button, on the tool bar menu. Dont need the graphs for Velocity and Acceleration. 7. Click anywhere on Position graph. Click the Smart Tool button, 5th button, on the Tool Bar menu. The Smart Tool crosshair appears on the position graph. 8. Measure the period T of the oscillation of position: Drag the crosshair to measure times t1 and tN for the first peak and last peak (as Nth peak) on the position graph. Calculate the average period using T = (tN - t1 )/(N-1) . Calculate the experimental free fall acceleration using gexp = yo(2/T)2 and the reciprocal of mass 1/M. Record these values on Data Table 4. 9. Repeat steps 2 to 8 for 50g, 70g, 80g, and 90g masses. 10. Plot the weight Mg (on the y-axis) against the displacement yo of spring (on xaxis). Draw one best fitting straight line on the graph. The spring constant k is the slope of this line. Calculate the slope and record it under your graph. 11. Plot the gexp (on the y-axis) against 1/M (on the x-axis). Draw one best fitting straight line on the graph. The best experimental value gexp is the y-intercept value. Determine the y-intercept value of gexp and record it under your graph.

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PRE-LAB FORM

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION: SPRING-MASS SYSTEM

1. In this experiment the Motion Sensor is employed to measure the simple harmonic motion of a mass-spring system. Graphs of position, velocity, and acceleration are shown above. Perform basic measurement on above graphs. Obtain physical properties such as amplitude A, period T, frequency f, and maximum speed Vmax and acceleration amax and record them on Table 1 and 2. Table 1: Position Graph Measurement of Amplitude A, Period T, and Frequency f ymax(m) ymin(m) A(m) t1(s) tN(s) N T(s) f(Hz)

Where ymax and ymin are the maximum and minimum positions (displacements) of the motion, amplitude is decided by A = (ymax - ymin )/2, t1 and tN are times for the first peak and last peak (as Nth peak) on the position graph, the average period T is calculated with T = (tN - t1 )/(N-1), and frequency f is 1/T.

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Table 2: Velocity and Acceleration Graphs Measurement of Maximum Speed Vmax and Acceleration amax Vmax(m/s) measured V*max = A2/T % Difference amax(m/s2) measured a*max = A(2/T)2 % Difference

Where Vmax and amax are measured from Velocity and Acceleration Graphs, V*max and a*max are calculated using the values of Table 1.

2. If a mass M = 700 g is suspended from the end of a spring, its length is stretched by yo = 40.0 cm at the equilibrium. (a) What is the spring constant k?

(b) What is the frequency f of this mass-spring system?

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LAB REPORT FORM

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION: SPRING-MASS SYSTEM

Part A: Measuring A, T, f, , Vmax, and amax. Data Table 1: Position Graph Measurement of Amplitude A, Period T, Frequency f, and Position Phase Angle p ymax(m) ymin(m) A(m) t1(s) tN(s) N T(s) f(Hz) p(rad)

Data Table 2: Velocity and Acceleration Graphs Measurement of Phase Angles of Velocity v and Acceleration a, Maximum Speed Vmax and Acceleration amax t1v(s) v(rad) t1a(s) a(rad) Vmax(m/s) amax(m/s2)

Data Table 3: Calculation of Maximum Speed Vmax and Acceleration amax V*max = A2/T % Difference** a*max = A(2/T)2 % Difference**

*A and T are from Data Table 1. ** % Difference is between Data Table 2 and 3. Part B: Measuring Spring Constant k and Free Fall Acceleration g Data Table 4: Position Graphs with Varying Masses Bottom position of unstressed spring with respect to the floor: ho = M(kg) 0.040 0.050 0.070 0.080 0.090 h(m) yo (m) t1(s) tN(s) N T(s) gexp (m/s2)

m 1/M(1/kg)

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Mg(N)

yo(m)

Spring constant k from the slope:

N/m

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gexp (m/s2)

1/M(1/kg)

y-intercept value of gexp: g =

m/s2

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QUESTIONS 1. Calculate the phase angle differences between position (displacement) and velocity(pv), position and acceleration(pa), and velocity and acceleration(va) using the data from Data Table 1 and 2. pv = p v pa = p a va = v a

2. If the displacement x(t) of a mass-spring system is given by x(t) = A cos(t - ) = A cos(2ft - ), show that Vmax = A = A [k/m]1/2 and amax = A2 = A [k/m].

3. Show that the free fall acceleration g is given by g = yo(2/T)2 where yo is the stretched length of the spring caused by a suspended mass m, T is the period, and 2 = (2/T)2 = (2f)2 = k/m.

4. Explain (a) if we ignore the springs mass, why equation k = mg/yo = m2 results that the experimental value k is less than actual value of k and (b) why equation g = yo(2/T)2 is a better approximation for large mass m.

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Experiment 13

LANTENT HEAT AND SPECIFIC HEAT

EQUIPMENT Thermometer Styrofoam cup Metal blocks (aluminum and iron) Triple beam balance Glass beaker Hot plate Crucible tongs Ice chips (Pick it up when needed!) OBJECTIVES When you have completed this experiment, you will be able to properly operate the thermometer, calorimeter, and hot plate. You will be able to determine the latent heat of fusion for water and determine the specific heat for two metals.

Figure 1: Experimental Apparatus CONCEPTS Heat is thermal energy in the process of transfer between a system and its surroundings or between two systems with a different temperature. When two substances with different temperature are placed in thermal contact, there is heat exchange until they are in thermal equilibrium at the same temperature. The heat-exchange processes can cause either changing the temperatures of the substance or changing the phase of the substance.

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110

As heat is added to a substance, the temperature usually rises in direct proportion, when a substance does not undergo a change of phase. Heat gained (or loss ), Q, is proportional to the mass m of the substance and the temperature change T. Q = mcT (1)

The proportionality constant c is called specific heat. For a same change of temperature, different substances require different amount of heat. The specific heat c is the quantity to measure this property of the matter. The specific heat c is the amount of heat per unit mass needed to change the temperature by one degree. The units of specific heat used in this experiment are cal/g-C0 ( calories/gram- C0). As heat is added to a substance, its temperature does not change during the phase change of a substance until the phase change is completed. The three states of matters, e.g., solid, liquid, and gas, are also called phases. If enough heat is added to a solid, it melts into liquid. If enough heat is added to liquid, it vaporizes into a gas. These are called phase changes. If the latent heat, L, is the heat required to affect the phase change per unit of mass, the heat for a substance to change phase with total mass m, Qp, is given by Qp = mL (2)

For a given substance, there are different latent-heat values characterizing different phase changes. The latent heat associated with melting a solid is called the latent heat of fusion, denoted by Lf. The latent heat associated with vaporizing a liquid is called the latent heat of vaporization, denoted by Lv. In this experiment we use the calorimeter to measure the latent heat of fusion for water and the specific heats of metals. A calorimeter is a device used to produce a thermally isolated environment to insure all heat exchanges are inside the system. In this lab, we will use a Styrofoam cup as a calorimeter. We will ignore the heat capacities of the cup and the thermometer. If the data is accumulated fast enough, the heat exchange with the surroundings could be neglected as well. The law of conservation of energy at the thermal equilibrium requires that the amount of thermal energy gain of one substance equals the amount of energy loss of other sample: Qgain = Qloss (3)

The SI unit of heat is Joule, but unit of heat based on this experiment is the calorie. The definition of the calorie unit is based on the properties of water. A calorie is the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one Celsius degree.

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PROCEDURES Part A: Latent Heat of Fusion for Water You will add some ice to a pre-measured amount of warm water and measure the drop in the temperature of water. Heat from the water melts the ice and warms the melt up to the final common temperature. The latent heat of fusion is calculated by equating the heat exchanges between the ice and the water (see Eq. 3). 1. Weigh the empty Styrofoam cup with the triple-beam balance and record the result as Mc in Data Table 1. 2. Fill the glass beaker with water until it is about half full, and place it on the hot plate. Turn the hot plate to Medium. Constantly monitor the temperature of water using the thermometer, and when the temperature of water is within the range 35-45oC, then fill the Styrofoam cup about 2/3 full with the warm water. 3. Weigh the Styrofoam cup filled with the warm water, and record the measured mass as Mcw. The mass of water alone Mw can be calculated by subtracting the mass of the empty cup Mc from the mass of cup with water Mcw ( M w M cw M c ). Then record the mass of the water Mw in Data Table 1. 4. Measure the temperature of the water in the Styrofoam cup just before adding ice, and record this as T1 in Data Table 1. Note: Carefully handle the thermometer to avoid punching hole on the Styrofoam cup. 5. Water adhering to the ice is a major source of error. Dump about five teaspoons of ice chips into the cup as quickly as possible. Swirl (instead of stir) the cup with the thermometer until all the ice has been melted. 6. Measure the final temperature of the mixture, and record this as T2. 7. Weight and record the mass of the cup with water and melted ice as Mcwi. Record the mass of the ice as Mi , (Mi = Mcwi - Mcw ). 8. Calculate the latent heat of fusion for water using the following expression (which can be deduced by combining the Eq. 1, 2, and 3)
Lf M w cw T1 T2 M i cw T2 Mi

(4)

where the specific heat of water, cw, is 1 cal/goC. You might compare the measured value, Lf , with the accepted value 79.5 cal/g.

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Part B: Specific Heats of Metals Metal block (iron or aluminum) will be heated in water to nearly 60oC. The hot metal block will be then added to colder water in the Styrofoam calorimeter cup, and the common final temperature of the water and the metal block in the calorimeter is recorded. The specific heat of the metal will be calculated from the heat exchange between the metal bock and the water. 1. Weigh the empty Styrofoam cup with the triple-beam balance and record the result as Mc in Data Table 2. 2. Fill the Styrofoam cup about half full with tap water at about 20oC. Then weigh the water filled Styrofoam cup, and record the measured mass as Mcw. Find the mass of water alone Mw by subtracting the mass of the empty cup Mc from the mass of water filled cup Mcw ( M w M cw M c ). Then record the mass of the water Mw in Data Table 2. 3. Measure the temperature of the water in the Styrofoam cup, and record this as Tw in Data Table 2. Note: Carefully handle the thermometer to avoid punching hole on the Styrofoam cup. 4. Weigh the iron metal block and record its mass as Mb in Data Table 2. 5. Fill water in the glass beaker, about half full, and place it on the hot plate. Turn the hot plate to Medium. 6. Constantly monitor the rising temperature of the water in the glass beaker. When the temperature reaches values in the range of 50-60oC, turn off the hot plate and leave the beaker on the hot plate. 7. Using the crucible tongs, carefully place the metal block into the hot water in the beaker. Leave the block in the hot water for about 5 min. Note: Occasionally stir with the thermometer. 8. Read the temperature of the hot water in the beaker and record this as Tb in Data Table2. Take the metal block out of the beaker using the crucible tongs, and put it in the colder water in the Styrofoam cup, as quickly as practically possible. 9. Leave the metal block in the Styrofoam calorimeter cup for a few minutes, and constantly monitor the temperature of the water in the cup. Occasionally, swirl (instead of stir) with the thermometer until the temperature has settled to a maximum value. Record this as Tf in Data Table 2. Note: Do not puncture the Styrofoam cup when you handle the mixture.

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10. The energy conservation law requires that the heat lost by the hot metal block is equal to the heat gained by the colder water in the calorimeter
Qblock Qwater M b cb Tb T f M w cw T f Tw .

This leads to the following expression for the specific heat of the metal block
cb c w M w T f Tw . M b Tb T f

(5)

Use the expression above to calculate the specific heat of the metal, and record the calculated value in Data Table 3. 11. Repeat the steps 2 to 10 for the second metal block (aluminum).

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PRE-LAB FORM

LATENT HEAT AND SPECIFIC HEAT

1. What is your explanation of heat?

2. What is a calorimeter?

3. Define the specific heat.

4. Define the latent heat of fusion and the latent heat of vaporization.

5. In an experiment 70 gram of ice at 0 0C is dropped into 300 gram of water at 50 0C. Assuming that the calorimeter prevents heat flow to the surroundings, what is the final temperature of thermal equilibrium? (Ignore the calorimeter.)

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LAB REPORT FORM

LATENT HEAT AND SPECIFIC HEAT

Data Table 1: Latent Heat of Fusion for Water

Initial Temperature of Water Before Adding Ice, T1 [oC]

Final Temperature, T2 [oC]

Mass of Empty Cup Mc [g]

Mass of Cup with Water Mcw [g]

Mass of Water Mw=McwMc [g]

Mass of Cup with Water and Ice Mcwi [g]

Mass of Ice Mi=McwiMcw [g]

Calculate the latent heat of fusion for water using the expression

Lf

M w c w T1 T2 M i cw T2 ___________cal/g , Mi

where the specific heat of water, cw, is 1 cal/goC.

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Data Table 2: Specific Heats of Metals Initial Temperature of Metal Block Tb [oC] Iron Mass of Block Mb [g] Mass of Empty Cup Mc [g] Mass of Cup with Water Mcw [g] Mass of Water Mw=McwMc [g] Initial Temperature of Water Tw [oC] Final Temperature Tf [oC]

Initial Temperature of Metal Block Tb [oC] Aluminum Mass of Block Mb [g]

Initial Temperature of Water Tw [oC]

Final Temperature Tf [oC]

Mass of Empty Mass of Cup Mass of Water Cup with Water Mc [g] Mcw [g] Mw=McwMc [g]

Compute the specific heat of metal using the expression

cb cw M w T f Tw , M b Tb T f

where the specific heat of water, cw, is 1 cal/goC. Record the calculated value in Table 3. Data Table 3 Metal Iron Aluminum

Standard Specific Heat [cal/goC] Experimental Specific Heat [cal/goC]

0.11

0.22

% Error

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QUESTIONS 1. Deduce equation (4) using equations (1) to (3).

2. The standard value of Lf for water is 79.6 cal/g. What is the percent error of your measurement? A major error in the determination of Lf arises because the ice is not dry ice, i.e. water adheres to the ice making Mi more than the true ice mass. Explain how this makes the calculated Lf value too large or too small.

3. Referring to Data Table 3, analysis the major sources of error. How could you improve the result? Give your suggestions.

4. Specific heat of Al is twice of that Fe. (a) If Al and Fe have same mass and the same amount of heat is added to Al and Fe individually, discuss what will happen.

(b) If the same amount of heat is individually added to Al and Fe results in the same temperatures increase, discuss how this can be done.

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5. A 60 gram iron at 60 0C is dropped into 200 gram of water at 20 0C. What is the final equilibrium temperature of the system? (Ignore the heat loss to the surroundings.)

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Experiment 14

ELECTRICAL METHOD: MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT

EQUIPMENT Electrical Calorimeter Heater and Stirrer Calorimeter Cup Ammeter and Voltmeter DC Power Supply Stopwatch, Thermometer Lead Wires (5)

A V
Heater

Figure: Photo: Experimental Setup. Insert: Circuit Diagram OBJECTIVE Upon completion of this lab, you will be able to determine the conversion factor, mechanical equivalent of heat KJ, between the mechanical energy (in units of joules) and energy in the form of heat (in units of calories). Upon completion of this experiment you will be familiar with a basic electric circuit and some of the units used in those circuits. CONCEPTS Whenever an electric current flows through a resistive material, a part of the electrical energy will convert to heat. The electrical energy is measured with a unit of joule (J) in By Xiang-Ning Song 119

the SI system. The heat is often measured with a unit called the calorie. The conversion factor between calories and joules, for purely historical reason, is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat: 1 cal (calorie) = 4.186 J (joules) Or it can be written as KJ = 4.186 J/cal In this electrical experiment you will reexamine the value of KJ. There are few other basic electrical SI units involved in this experiment: Coulomb (C): unit for electric charge Ampere (A) : unit for electric current, flow rate of charge, A = C/s Volt (V) : unit for electric potential, energy/coulomb, V = J/C Watt (W) : unit for power, energy/time, W = J/s In this experiment charge flows through a resistive heater driven by a power supply, as shown in the figure, and heat energy is deposited in a heater submerged in water. You will measure the voltage V across and the current I through the heater for a time t. The electrical power, P, is P = IV (1) The electrical energy expended (or the work done) in the circuit in time t is WJ = Pt = IVt where WJ is measured in joules and time t is in seconds. This energy, WJ , will become heat energy, WH, in the water. The heat generated by an electric device is commonly called joule heat. The heat energy, WH, will also be measured in heat units from the heat capacity of the cup and water, C, and its temperature change, T: WH = CT (3) where WH is measured in calories, C is in calories per Celsius degree, and T is in Celsius degree. The heat capacity of the cup and water is the sum of that for the cup (mass MC) and that for the water (mass MW): C = MCcc + MW cw (4) (2)

where cc is the specific heat of cup and cw = 1 cal/g C0 is the specific of water. Since a Styrofoam cup is used, we can neglect its heat capacity and take C MW1 cal/g C0 (5)

The heat capacity of the water is numerically equal to the mass of the water in the cup. The conversion factor, mechanical equivalent of heat KH, can be decided using equations (2) and (3): KH = WJ/WH (6)

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PROCEDURE 1. Record the room temperature. Record the thermometers least count (the smallest scale division). Calculate the uncertainty = 0.5 (least count). 2. Weigh the calorimeter cup and record as MC. 3. Fill this cup about 2/3 full of water cooled to about 10oC by adding about two teaspoon of ice. Weigh the cup and water, and record this mass as MCW. 4. Record the mass of water, MW = MCW - MC. 5. Calculate the heat capacity of the cup and water using equation (5), and record this in Data Table 1. 6. Insert the heater into the cold water. 7. Wire the electrical circuit, as shown in the Figure. Begin with the power supply turned off and the black power control knob is turned to zero. Connect the red terminal of the power supply to the top red terminal of the ammeter and the ammeters black terminal to one connector of the heater. Connect the other side connector of the heater to the black terminal of the power supply. Connect the voltmeter across the power supply: red to red and black to black. THE HEATER MUST BE SUBMERGED BEFORE APPLYING POWER 8. Set the voltmeters scale to the 25 V scale and the ammeter to the 10 A scale. To determine the current in amps, multiply the ammeters needle indication by 10. Note: Please let your instructor check your circuit before turn on the power supply. 9. Turn on the power supply, and slowly crank up the power knob until the product of the voltage and current readings is about 30 W (The voltmeter will indicate about 10 V.). 10. Start your Stopwatch when the voltage is about 10V. 11. Immediately measure the temperature inside the calorimeter cup. Record the starting temperature in Data Table 2. Note: If it has risen above 15 oC, then you must prepare it again with cold water and reweigh it. 12. When power is applied, remember to stir the water continuously to distribute the heat in the water. Record the voltage and current. The voltage and current should remain constant from the starting temperature to the ending temperature. 13. Continue stirring till the temperature has reached about 10 oC above room temperature (the End Temperature). Stop your Stopwatch and record the time as it reaches this temperature. 14. Turn off the power supply. Put the lab equipments back into their proper places. 15. Complete all of the calculations.

By Xiang-Ning Song

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PRE-LAB FORM

ELECTRICAL METHOD: MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT

1. When the electrical energy in joules is completely converted to heat in calories, (a) what is the ratio between these two?

(b) what is the designed name for this ratio?

2. An ammeter is a device to measure the electrical current in a circuit. A voltmeter is a device to measure the electrical potential difference between two points in a circuit. What are units for electrical current and electrical potential?

3. Explain the difference between heat capacity and specific heat.

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4. If the electric current passing a heater is 3.0 A, the voltage cross the heater is 10.0V, and the heater is turned on for 15 minutes, calculate (a) the dissipating power and

(b) the energy consumed by the heater.

By Xiang-Ning Song

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LAB REPORT FORM

ELECTRICAL METHOD: MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT

Data Table 1: Cup and Water Data
MC (g) MCW (g) MW = MCW - MC (g) cW (cal/gC0) C= MW cW (cal/C0)

1 Data Table 2: Temperature Data

Room Temp (C0) Least Count of Thermo. (C0) Uncertainty T (C0) Starting Temp. Ti (C0) Ending Temp. Tf (C0)

Data Table 3: Voltage, Current, and Time Data

Voltage V (V) Current I (A) Power P=IV (W) Time t (s)

CALCULATIONS 1. Show the calculation of the energy WJ =Pt in joules.

2. Show the calculation of the energy WH = MwcwT =CT in calories.

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3. Show the calculations of (a) the conversion constant of calories to joules, KH = WJ/WH and

(b) the % error from the standard value, 4.186 J/cal.

QUESTIONS 1. The experiment was performed using a temperature range that started and ended about 10 oC below and 10 oC above room temperature. Explain how this technique minimizes the net transfer of heat energy to or from the room.

2. What are the major sources of error in the experiment?

By Xiang-Ning Song

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3. If the cost of electricity is $0.106/(kWh), determine the cost of electricity for this experiment.

4. Assuming that you use the same lab equipment, but electric current is 2.8A, voltage is 11V, starting temperature is 10 oC, ending temperature is 40 oC, and mass of water is 320g. How much time does it take to complete this experiment?

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