Understanding Threads for Rope Making

By Pat Majewski (BANYAN)

There are quite a few articles available on the internet that recommend threads to use with scale rope making; however, most of these are for US or European sourced resources. The purpose of this article is twofold; first to demystify some of the terminology associated with thread and secondly, to identify where some of these threads can be sourced by Australian ship modellers. Most of the threads recommended in the linked articles are available here in Australia but must be ordered from commercial/industrial sources if you are looking for longer/bulk stock. Buying the smaller spools from Quilt or Embroidery shops, or even from Spotlight or haberdashery stores, can be expensive. Traditionally, linen thread has been used by modellers for rigging and making scale rope as it does not rot like cotton or stretch like nylon. Other thread types have problems for rigging; for example silk can depolymerise if it has been exposed to tin or iron during its manufacture or by later contact with those metals. This is why some museums are reluctant to accept models that have been rigged using silk. So what alternate thread can we use as linen threads are becoming harder to source? This is not to say that linen cannot be found. The following is an article on sourcing linen threads. http://modelshipwrights.wikispaces.com/Linen+line There is also an excellent article titled Rigging Materials for Ship Model Builders written by noted modeller, and MSW member, Gene Larson, on his web site at: http://mysite.verizon.net/ELLshipmodeler/thread.htm The dilemma however, is that you need to know what to ask for when buying a thread and here starts a bewildering array of technical terms and jargon. This is further complicated by the fact that there is no agreed standard between the various manufacturers for the size (thickness) of the threads. The following is an attempt to demystify some of the terms you will need to understand. Much of the following text has been sourced from an excellent brochure produced by YLI threads called A Thread of Truth (A factual look at sewing thread). This is available as a pdf download at: http://www.ylicorp.com/CPanel/Document/A_THREAD_OF_TRUTH.pdf The text I have used from the YLI brochure has been modified to suit a modellers perspective rather than that for sewing thread. I hope I have maintained the intent and accuracy of their writing in making this adjustment. Furthermore, as YLI point out:

Research materials published by American & Efird, Coats & Clark, Celenese, In Cahoots, and Threads Inc. were used in writing this brochure. Every effort has been made to produce a nonbiased, factual brochure. Any oversights or omissions are purely accidental.

THREADS
Cotton
Pure (100%) cotton is a natural thread with a soft, matte finish. Cotton thread is a fine continuous strand produced by plying two or more lengths of cotton strands with a tight twist and smooth finish. Cotton thread does not stretch much but will break if pulled too tightly, and will fade with the sun. It is usually bleached which can affect the durability of thread.

Long staple (a single natural fibre) cotton, such as Egyptian cotton, is finer and stronger than regular cotton. They have a softer, stronger, higher lustre finish than normal cotton and generally have fewer slubs (lumps of lint spun into the cotton thread).

Linen
Linen thread is produced from the straw of the flax plant. The fibres, which appear flat like those of cotton, are thicker than cotton fibres and have knots and joints; but, are very tough, can be bleached white and take dyes more readily than cotton. It is usually unbleached and is superior to cotton thread in both strength and durability.

Silk
Silk thread is the fibre produced as a cocoon covering by the silkworm. Silk thread has great elasticity and strength combined with a fine diameter and it can be permanently stretched. One of the disadvantages of silk thread is its tendency to unravel and catch-up. Apparently, this can be overcome by soaking the thread in polyvinyl acetate, diluted to about three times its original volume with water, followed by drying of the thread in air under normal conditions. However, this may make the thread unsuited to scale rope making.

Synthetic
Nylon thread maintains a smooth, knot-free surface and is stronger and cheaper than cotton or linen thread. It has the advantage of being relatively inexpensive and can be manufactured in finer grades. It has been reported that synthetic threads are prone to stretching and are a poor choice for scale rope / rigging.

Polyester Cotton
More correctly, this is known as Cotton-Wrapped Polyester thread. Each yarn is produced by spinning a sheath of cotton around a core of continuous filament polyester. The result is a thread with the characteristics of a top quality cotton but retaining the advantages of synthetic thread. The polyester core gives this type of thread strength and elasticity, the cotton wrapping gives it a tough, heat resistant surface. However, it may also be prone to stretching due to its polyester core.

Rayon
Unlike cotton thread which is made from a natural source and unlike polyester which is made from man-made polymers, rayon (commonly referred to as viscose rayon) is a mixture of nature and manufacturing. The textbook definition of rayon is "a manufactured fibre composed of regenerated cellulose."
From: https://www.superiorthreads.com/education/thread-education/all-about-rayon-thread-fiber-viscose

The major source of cellulose required in the creation of rayon is wood pulp, which is produced from timber. After the bark has been removed, the wood is chipped into very small pieces, boiled under pressure, chemically treated, washed, and then dried. The final product is a hybrid material called viscose rayon.

Rayon thread does deteriorate over time, so attention should be paid to how it is stored. In low humidity regions, rayon threads can be stored in the refrigerator to extend thread life for a long as possible.
From: http://www.redrockthreads.com/rayonthread/

THREAD CONSTRUCTION?
All threads begin as simple yarns. Twisting together short fibres or continuous filaments produces these yarns. This process known as singling twist is responsible for the threads strength and flexibility, which is essential in any good thread. When two or more yarns are combined to make the thread, a reverse twist is applied to add balance. Without a reverse twist, the thread cannot be controlled as the individual yarns or plies would separate as they were worked.

Twist
Twist is simply the number of turns per cm or inch put in the thread. A thread with too little twist may fray and break, one with too much twist can cause snarling, looping and knotting. Balance is the key and a good thread has it.

Twist Direction
S twist for single strand yarn, and Z twist for ply yarn.

Ply
The number of component yarns that are twisted together to produce a thread is the ply. Two-ply threads, therefore, are simply two yarns which have been twisted together.

FINISH
After construction, the thread is finished to enhance its suitability for various sewing uses. SOFT - No further processing to change its physical characteristics. It is only dyed and lubricated. MERCERIZED - In this process cotton thread is treated in a caustic solution under controlled tension. This causes the fibres to swell, resulting in a greater affinity for dyeing. Mercerization also increases the lustre and adds some strength. GASSED - Passing cotton thread through a flame at high speed to reduce the fuzz is known as gassing. This process also produces a higher sheen. GLAZED - This is a process in which cotton threads are treated with starches and special chemicals under controlled heat and then polished to a high lustre. The glazed process results in a thread with a hard finish that protects the thread from abrasion and enhances ply security. This is sometimes called glace finish.

THREAD TYPES
Spun Threads
Throughout most of the twentieth century, cotton thread was the standard sewing thread both industrially and in the home. When synthetics were developed, it was only natural to attempt to emulate the sewing characteristics of cotton. Spun polyester thread, made from polyester fibres cut to the same length as cotton staple, was introduced as a substitute for cotton. All spun threads are made up from staple fibres that are spun into single yarns and then plied to make a sewing thread. However the staple lengths of the fibres utilised can have an important effect on the quality, strength, and performance of the thread produced. As a general rule of thumb, the longer the staple length of the fibres, the better the quality of thread produced. Spun threads will have a more 'fuzzy' surface, which gives them a soft hand and good lubricity characteristics. They offer excellent rope-making performance, but lack the strength of continuous filament threads.

Core Spun Threads

This process seeks to achieve the strength of continuous filament threads with the sewing performance of spun thread. Core spun thread features a continuous filament polyester core covered with cotton or polyester fibres. Two or more of these composite yarns are then twisted to form the thread.

Continuous Filament Threads

This process begins by extruding individual filaments of synthetic material. A singling twist is applied to these unbroken, continuous fibres. They are then brought together and a finishing twist is applied. The result is a strong, consistent thread.

Monofilament Thread
This is a single synthetic filament extruded to a specific diameter. They are available in a number of sizes, .004 and .005 being the most popular.

THREAD SIZING
There is a great deal of confusion and misinformation regarding the size of sewing thread and how to communicate size to one another. Over the years no clear standard has evolved that is universal in the market.

Common Thread Sizing Standards

In the industrial sewing thread market, the Cotton Count System (NEc) has been the accepted standard utilised in sizing spun threads and the Denier System(Td) has been the accepted standard for filament threads. Over the last several years there has been a great deal of support to adopt an universal standard under which all threads can be sized and will be understood world wide regardless of the threads construction.

SIZING SYSTEMS
All threads can be produced in different thicknesses and the size of a particular thread is the relationship of its length to its weight. This relationship of length to weight is known as linear density, yarn count, or size. There are many sizing systems used, but they generally fall into two classifications:

Fixed Weight
These systems use the length of yarn that makes up a given weight. NEc (Cotton Count) - For Spun Threads This is the number of hanks (840 yds.) of yarn it takes to equal 1 pound. A cotton count of 1 means 840 yards of yarn weigh 1 pound. A cotton count of 2 means 1680 yards (840x2) weigh 1 pound. EXAMPLE: If you had a single strand of yarn 840 yards long weighing one pound, its count (or size) would be shown as 1/1. This simply means it had a count of one (the first number) and that it was a single strand of yard (the second number). If you then twisted two of those single strands together, the size would then be 1/2: One count yarn (the first number), in a two ply construction (the second number). Equivalent Size - The same size thread can be constructed using different count yarns by varying the number of plies. All the following threads are physically the same size. 30/2 45/3 60/4 To determine the equivalent size, simply divide the yarn count by the number of plies. All three of these threads have the equivalent size of 15.

IN FIXED WEIGHT SYSTEMS, THE HIGHER THE NUMBER - THE FINER THE YARN.

Fixed Length
These systems use the weight of a given length. Td (Denier count) - For Continuous Filament Threads - This is the weight in grams per 9,000 meters. Tex (TEX ) - This is the weight in grams of 1,000 meters. (1 Tex = 1 gram per 1,000 meters).

IN FIXED LENGTH SYSTEMS, THE HIGHER THE NUMBER - THE THICKER THE YARN.

THREAD WEIGHT
Another popular size measurement system, particularly in embroidery thread is Thread Weight. Since most embroidery thread is a two-ply construction it is generally believed that Thread Weight equals the count number (the first number) as in the Cotton Count System. 40/2 = 40 count, 2 ply = 40wt. 30/2 = 30 count, 2 ply = 30wt. Unfortunately, this only works for two-ply threads. For example, a 40/3 quilting thread is not a 40wt. thread. 40/3 Cotton 40 3= 13.33 equivalent The same size in a two-ply thread would be 26.67 or a 26.67 weight.

Filament embroidery threads (i.e.: rayon and polyester) are typically measured in denier, so to determine Thread Weight the denier size of the thread must be converted to cotton count. Cotton Count = 5315 denier 120 denier two-ply rayon embroidery thread = 44.29 cotton count = 40wt. 150 denier two-ply rayon embroidery thread = 35.43 cotton count = 35wt. 180 denier two-ply rayon embroidery thread = 29.53 cotton count = 30wt.

THE TEX SYSTEM

The Tex System is designed to overcome much of this confusion and inconsistency. It was chosen for two reasons: first, because metric designations are used worldwide, and Tex is a metric system. Second, since Tex is a direct numbering system, logical size numbers are assigned... the finer the thread, the smaller the size number assigned, and the coarser the thread, the larger the number. In order to reduce the sheer volume of sizing numbers that could be assigned, the Tex sizes are bracketed. All sizes falling into a particular bracket receive the same Tex number. The number assigned is always the smaller bracket number. For example a Tex 42 thread would be labelled a Tex 40 thread. The following list details the brackets that make up the Tex system.
Tex # [10.0 - 11.9] = Tex 10 Tex # [12.0 - 15.9] = Tex 12 Tex # [16.0 - 17.9] = Tex 16 Tex # [18.0 - 20.9] = Tex 18 Tex # [21.0 - 23.9] = Tex 21 Tex # [24.0 - 26.9] = Tex 24 Tex # [27.0 - 34.9] = Tex 27 Tex # [35.0 - 39.9] = Tex 35 Tex # [40.0 - 49.9] = Tex 40 Tex # [50.0 - 59.9] = Tex 50 Tex # [61.0 - 79.9] = Tex 60 Tex # [80.0 - 89.9] = Tex 80 Tex # [90.0 - 104.9] = Tex 90

THREAD SIZE COMPARISON

In order to make comparisons as understandable as possible, threads can be broken into three major classifications: Heavy weight threads: Tex 40 - Tex 90 Medium weight threads: Tex 27 - Tex 35 Light weight threads: Tex 10 - Tex 24 All you need to know is the cotton count or denier to convert any thread size to Tex. to convert cotton count to TEX Divide the cotton count (the equivalent size) into 590.5 (590.5/c.c.) to convert denier to TEX multiply denier by .1111 (d x 0.1111)

THREAD COLOUR
The thread colour is usually identified by a number except for natural colours such as Black, unbleached (natural) or Ecru. Most stores will have a colour sample chart available (but usually cannot be taken away). Choose the correct colour thread from the outset noting that the colour will probably deepen when several strands are laid up together. To minimise the number of different stocks held, choose a single colour in several sizes; the ropes can then be coloured for their intended use. It is recommended that you colour the ropes after making them up to ensure an even, consistent colouring. A base colour such as natural is most suited; however, ensure that the raw material and type of construction is able to take colour. Some of the colouring agents offered in the various forums includes: fabric stains or dyes (RIT etc) oak coloured wood stain indian ink acrylic or artist inks or oils

SIZING MAKE-UP
Threads are provided in various lengths which are determined on their purpose (industrial or home use) and the thread size (thickness) which determines how much thread can be physically wound onto the holder. The larger capacity cones are for industrial use and are normally not available from your local embroidery or sewing store. This limits the colour range and thread size range available, but several strands can be made up to make the required scale sized rope. The size of a spool is the same but the amount of thread on the spool is governed by the thread size; the thicker the thread the less wound onto the spool. Threads may come in a:

Skein:

From: http://www.victoriahouseneedlecraft.com.au/blog/products-page/threads/dmc-tapestry-wool-skeins/

Spool:

From: http://craftyquilting.wordpress.com/2011/04/07/wanted-thread-spools-any-kind-any-type/

Cop:

From: http://jamiltonupholstery.co.uk/shop_product.asp?dept=6

Cone:

From: http://www.thebestmartonline.com/servlet/the-32/Bag-Closer-Stitcher-Sealer/Detail

Please note: generally, the longer lengths (cones) of thread are intended for industrial use and may not be readily available unless bought in bulk. This is where your club may prove useful in a shared/bulk purchase.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD THREAD?

Several characteristics contribute to the attributes of a good thread and are regularly measured and monitored by most thread manufacturers. Elongation - This is the amount a thread stretches before it breaks. The elongation of a thread is determined by fibre type but can also be controlled by drawing and heat setting of synthetics such as polyester and nylon. Cotton thread has very little, if any, elongation. Uniformity - Imperfections or defects in thread are thick and thin places that can cause problems. The most common imperfections are; knots, slubs, neps, dropped ply, dropped filament and singles kinks; obviously the fewer the better. Ply Security - This is a thread's ability to stay together during the ropemaking process. The most common type of thread break is caused by a loss of ply security. If the plies open up during the process they are much more susceptible to breaking. Strength - The amount of force required to break a thread. This characteristic can be measured several ways: Breaking Strength force applied to each end of the thread until it breaks, measured in pounds. Loop Strength - when one strand of thread is looped with another strand and then broken, also measured in pounds. Tenacity - the breaking strength of a thread adjusted for thread size. Tenacity is measured in grams/denier. Thread made from continuous filaments is generally stronger and has a higher tenacity than threads made from staple fibres. Twist - A thread with too little twist may fray and break, one with too much can cause snarling, looping and knotting.

ALL THREAD IS NOT CREATED EQUAL

Hopefully, you now understand how thread is made, the things to look for in a good quality thread, and how to compare the various sizes to one universal standard. Now, in order to effectively compare one thread to another you need to ask the manufacturer for the appropriate information. Raw Material cotton, silk or synthetic Construction staple length, number of plies etc Type of Finish soft, glace etc Breaking Strength Thread size (thickness) Colours available or ability to take colour Sizing Make-Up how supplied/length available

WHAT THREADS TO USE FOR MODELLING ROPE

Now to the second purpose for this article; what threads to use and where can we source these threads in Australia?
I have no financial or other interest with the listed companies. Their selection is based only on the fact that they supply, or are agents for, some of the most recommended thread types discussed in the various international model ship forums.

The Australian Agents for these threads have been very helpful in assisting my research. There are many specialist stores that may, or may not, stock some or all of these thread types, and then there are the larger retail chains such as Spotlight, Lincraft etc. These latter stores normally do not carry as wide a range and, from my experience, are generally less willing to spend time with you in sourcing exactly what you need. The suppliers I have identified below are for threads that modellers throughout the world have as meeting their needs as stock for making up scale rope. This article does not explore, or make any recommendations for thread type, colour or size that would be required to make-up your scale rope. That subject matter is large enough to warrant another article; however, there are some good articles already available on-line. In-short; you may need to do some further research yourself.