AP Generalities PDF

DEFINITIONS
1. AERODYNAMIC FORCES ON A BLADE

Let's consider a blade moving in an airflow at a relative speed V. The movements of the airflow along each face of the blade create an aerodynamic force.
veine d'air surface suprieure profil surface infrieure
This force varies as a function of the square of the airflow relative speed, as a function of the aerodynamic angle of incidence "i. It can be broken down into two components : - a vertical force called Lift, - an horizontal force called Drag.
V i
portance force arodynamique
traine ligne de corde
The polar curve of the profile gives the values of these two forces according to the aerodynamic angle of incidence. On this curve the point "A" define the angle of incidence which gives the best ratio lift to drag ; point "B" define the angle of incidence which gives the maximum lift. Note : The combination of the lift created by the different blades is called resultant lift or Lift (F).
portance
B
i=5
i=0
traine
Ce document est la proprit d'EOROCOPTER ; il ne peut tre communiqu des tiers sans l'autorisation pralable crite d'EUROCOPTER et son contenu ne peut tre divulgu. This document is the property of EUROCOPTER ; no part shall be reproduced or transmitted without the express prior written authorization of EUROCOPTER and its contents shall not be disclosed. Eurocopter 1998
2. HELICOPTER ATTITUDES
To define the location of the helicopter in the space (attitudes), one measures the angles between the main axes of the helicopter and the plans of the terrestrial system (defined by mag. North, East, and local vertical).
vert.
Nord
Est
One defines : - the pitch angle between the longitudinal axis xOx' and the horizontal plan. - the roll angle between the transverse axis yOy' and the horizontal plan.
x'
G
plan horizontal
theta
y'
G
plan horizontal
phi j
G z'
the yaw angle between the mag. North and the projection on the horizontal plan of the longitudinal axis xOx'.
Nord
psi
Note: it is also possible to use the angular speed around the three axis of the helicopter to define its attitudes.
x'
3. HELICOPTER TRAJECTORY
The trajectory of the helicopter is defined by the successive locations of the helicopter in the space according to the time. Some trajectories are special such as Hovering where the different locations are always the same.
HOVERING FLIGHT
Hovering flight is characterized by the alignment of the vector weight of aircraft (m.g) and the vector lift (F). The helicopter is then fixed in the horizontal plan. One extends this hovering definition to each time the helicopter is not moving with respect a defined point.
4. ACTING FORCES
4.1 INTO THE PLAN (GX,GZ)
The helicopter is in equilibrium between its weight (m.g) and the lift (F) developed by the rotor.
portance F
m.g
4.2 INTO THE PLAN (GX,GY) AND (GY,GZ)

The engine makes the rotor rotate and so create a torque Cm. Then the airframe, under the reaction torque Cr tends to rotate in opposite direction. The tail rotor creates a force Ty whose moment with respect to the yaw axis counter that phenomenon. The power dissipated by the tail rotor comes from the engine driving the main rotor.
y
Ty
Cr
x' l
Cm
y'
The force Ty tends to sideslip the helicopter. To avoid that phenomenon, the main rotor has been slightly tilted so that the horizontal component of the lift Fy balances the force Ty. The forces Ty and Fy create a negative torque, which is negligible, if the lever arm of the two forces is as small as possible. This is obtained by raising the tail rotor.
Fz
Fz
Fy
Ty
G G
m.g
m.g
5. PILOT'S ACTION
5.1 ON THE COLLECTIVE LEVER
The pitch collective lever allows modify collectively the pitch angle of the blades of the main rotor and so the angle of incidence to vary the lift created. This allows vertical displacement along the zOz' axis. This modifies the torque Cm and Cr; thus it is necessary to readjust the force Ty (collectiveyaw coupling).
5.2 ON THE PEDALS
The pedals allow modifying collectively the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades. This allows to cancel the collective-yaw coupling or to change the yaw attitude of the helicopter (flat turn). The new value of Ty no longer balancing the force Fy, a sideslip is created which requires modification of Ty. In summary, any pilot's action creates induced changes in the helicopter attitudes (coupling between axis) that the pilot has to correct.
6. DISTURBANCE EFFECTS
Disturbances are parasite forces exerted on the helicopter. They are due to movement of the masses of air surrounding the helicopter such as gust of wind.
6.1 FORCES EXERTED ON THE ZGZ' AXIS

In that case the equilibrium between the weight and the lift is destroyed. The helicopter moves along its vertical axis. To counter the effect of the disturbance, the pilot acts on the collective lever and on the other controls to counter the induced phenomenon created by the coupling between the axes.
6.2 FORCES EXERTED ON THE XGX' OR YGY' AXIS

In that case the helicopter moves along the axis where the disturbance acts. The pilot then must creates an opposite translation to keep its location.
TRANSLATION FLIGHT
Translation flight is the normal flight of the helicopter. It is characterized by an airspeed greater than a threshold (> 40 Kts). When the airspeed is lower than that threshold, the flight is considered as a hovering flight.
1. ACTING FORCES
1.1 INTO THE PLAN (GX,GZ)
In translation flight, the lift is inclined towards the direction of displacement. It can be broken down into two forces the lift Fz and the traction Fx which performs the translation. The speed of translation creates an opposite force Fr applied to the center of gravity of the helicopter. The sum of the forces Fz, mg, Fx, Fr is nil so as the sum of the moments of the torque Fz.mg and Fx.Fr. Thus the helicopter is in equilibrium.
Fz
Fx
V Fr G
m.g
1.2
INTO THE PLANS (GX,GY) AND (GY,GZ)

y
There is no difference with the hovering flight. Notice that the negative torque Ty.Fy in the plane (Gy,Gz) is most often null, the raising of the tail rotor being calculated so that the lever arm is nil in such flight conditions.
Ty
Cr
x'
Cm
y'
2. PILOT'S ACTION
2.1 ON THE COLLECTIVE LEVER
Any action on the collective lever varies the thrust F and consequently its components Fx, Fy, Fz.
Z
Fz
Fx
V Fr G
m.g
10
Thus a vertical displacement results with induced movements : - yaw attitude change (coll-yaw coupling).
Fz
- an increase of Fx.
Fx
- an unbalancing of the rotating torque in the plan (Gx,GY) which modifies the pitch angle attitude. - an unbalancing of the forces Ty and Fy.
Fr
m.g
To cancel these induced movements, the pilot action on the collective lever must be followed by actions on the cyclic stick (coll-cyclic coupling) and the pedals (coll-yaw coupling).
Fz F
Fx
Fr
m.g
11
2.2 ON THE CYCLIC STICK

Any action on the cyclic stick varies the slope of the thrust F and so its components FX and Fz.
Fz F
Fx
Fr
m.g
Thus a change of the airspeed results with induced movements : - a vertical displacement. - an unbalancing of the rotating torque in the plan (Gx,GY) which modifies the pitch angle attitude.
Fz F
Fx
Fr
G V
m.g
12
To cancel these induced movements, actions on the collective lever (coll-cyclic coupling) and the pedals (coll-yaw coupling) must follow the pilot action on the cyclic stick. Fz F
Fx
Fr
m.g
13
3. DISTURBANCE EFFECTS
We are going to limit the discuss to the case of frontal disturbances due to sudden changes of wind velocity. The parasite force Fp is added to the force Fr. The helicopter in a first step slows down and the rotating torque being no longer equals, the pitch angle attitude changes. To cancel the effect of the disturbance, the pilot acts on the cyclic stick to stop the rotation of the helicopter around its axis and then to return the pitch attitude to its initial value.
Fr Fp Fz F
Fx
G
V
m.g
Actions on the collective lever (coll-cyclic coupling) and the pedals (coll-yaw coupling) must follow these actions. If necessary, the pilot will correct its trajectory in order to keep constant the various flight parameters (speed, altitude, ...).
3.1 FORCES EXERTED ON THE ZGZ' AXIS

In that case the equilibrium between the weight and the lift is destroyed. The helicopter moves along its vertical axis. To counter the effect of the disturbance, the pilot acts on the collective lever and on the other controls to counter the induced phenomenon created by the coupling between the axes.
3.2 FORCES EXERTED ON THE XGX' OR YGY' AXIS

In that case the helicopter moves along the axis where the disturbance acts. The pilot then must creates an opposite translation to keep its location.
14
SLANTED TURN
1. DEFINITION
Fz
During translation flight, when the pilot moves the cyclic stick laterally, the aerodynamic force F is slanted.
As a result the lift Fz decreases and the helicopter goes down. This effect has to be compensated by acting on the collective lever and so on the pedals.
Fy
The final result is that a horizontal component Fy of the aerodynamic force F is created which makes the helicopter moves laterally.
side-slip
m.g
15
Fz
This sideslip creates an air-reaction Fr. The resulting torque created slants the helicopter in roll until the equilibrium between the torque FR, Fy and Fz, m.g is achieved.
Fy reaction Fr side-slip
m.g
Y
In the plan (Gx,Gy) the two forces Fr and Fy are not aligned, so the helicopter rotates around the yaw axis. This rotation combined with the helicopter airspeed makes the helicopter turn.
T y
Fy
G
X
Fr
16
As soon as the turn is initiated, a centrifugal force Fc is created which progressively replaces the air-reaction Fr. When Fr is nil, the helicopter trajectory is a circle whose radius R and angular speed (rate of turn) x varies as a function of the airspeed and the roll angle. Note : when the turn is stabilized there is no longer rotation around the yaw axis.
= g.tg( / V)
Fy Fy V Fy Fr Fr Fc
Fy
Fc
Fr
2. EFFECT OF DISTURBANCE DURING THE TURN

If during the turn a disturbance creates a force Fp added to the centrifugal force Fc, the helicopter sideslips and its roll angle attitude varies. The resulting decrease of Fz has to be balanced by acting on the collective lever. The change of trajectory is counter by acting on the pedals. The sideslip is reported to the pilot by the motion of the sideslip detector (ball) of the Attitude Director Indicator. A displacement of one ball corresponds to a lateral acceleration of 0.1 g.
17
MANUAL PILOTING
In manual piloting without assistance, the pilot must permanently detect the attitude offsets using its flight instruments; then compute the corrections and apply them onto the flight controls taking in account the coupling between axes. This is called attitude stabilization. Correction are calculated taking in account : - the amplitude of the attitude offset, - the rate of change of the attitude. The correction is applied in two steps : - a fast and limited correction to stop the change of attitude, - a slow and progressive correction to return the attitude to its initial value (compensation).
18
MANUAL GUIDANCE
Manual guidance consists of acquiring and holding a predefined trajectory, such as : - flying at constant altitude or airspeed, - acquisition and holding of a heading, - acquisition and holding of a VOR radial, - hovering, ... Acquisition is always performed by slow and progressive actions on the flight controls. Holding consists of countering disturbances, which tend to create offset of trajectory. In that way it is close to the stabilization of attitude
19
AUTOMATIC PILOTING
The Automatic Flight Control System is a piloting aid intended to decrease the pilot load, and to allow him more time to perform his mission (Nav, Search, etc.). The A.F.C.S must perform automatically the same corrective actions manually done by the pilot. The A.F.C.S ensures several basic functions : - Hold of reference attitudes defined by the pilot (Stabilization) : . Pitch P ( up, down ) ; . Roll R ( left, right ) ; . Yaw Y ( left, right ) ; -Piloting aids : . Coordinated turn . Collective link . Turbulence
(Yd.) ; (COLL LINK) ; (TURB)
- Acquisition and hold of predefined trajectories (Guidance).
20
1. STABILIZATION
Reference attitudes are defined around 3 axes (Pitch, Roll, Yaw) with respect to the terrestrial coordinates (North, East, Local vertical). On each axes constant monitoring of the present attitudes allows correction of the offsets existing with respect to the reference attitude. Example : Let us consider a helicopter with a null pitch attitude, and a permanent external disturbance due to a gust giving the aircraft a nose down attitude. The helicopter goes down and the A.F.C.S will counter this change in order to retrieve the horizontal attitude. Note that during the correction the helicopter trajectory has been modified. In general, holding attitude creates some uncontrolled change in trajectories. This type of mode only allows automatic piloting for short period of time.
perturbation
G attitude de rfrence modification de l'attitude de rfrence
1< o
retour l'attitude de rfrence G

o
changement de trajectoire
2. GUIDANCE
perturbation
Terrestrial coordinates define typical trajectories. The A.F.C.S permanently corrects position offsets of the helicopter with respect to the defined trajectory. Example : Let us consider a helicopter flying at a constant altitude (trajectory definition) with a null pitch attitude, and a permanent external disturbance giving it a nose down attitude. The A.F.C.S will counter this tendency and bring the helicopter back to the reference altitude. Note as long as the disturbance is active, the helicopter has a nose up attitude to compensate it. In general, acquisition and hold of a trajectory creates changes of the helicopter attitude. This allows long term automatic piloting since it only depends on the trajectory definition.
< o
< o altitude de rfrence modification de l'altitude de rfrence retour l'altitude de rfrence
21
The following table summarizes the characteristics of these two modes of functioning. STABILIZATION attitude trajectory Short term GUIDANCE trajectory attitude Long term
Held Modified Type of pilotage
Note that these two modes STABILIZATION and GUIDANCE are antagonists. The default mode is the stabilization mode, however when GUIDANCE modes are in use, they become Priority. This is why GUIDANCE modes are also called upper modes or high order modes.
22
AUTOMATIC STABILIZATION
1. PILOTING LOOP DESCRIPTION
As any control system, the A.F.C.S works as a slave system. Helicopter attitude is permanently measured by a set of attitude sensors. Inside the A.P. computer this value is compared against the reference attitude (o). The error () is processed by the A.P. computer which elaborates a corrective order ( c) applied to the power actuators which converts it to a change of pitch angle of the rotor blades. These pitch changes after passing through the aerodynamic loop, modifies the attitude of the helicopter until the detected attitude matches the reference attitude. The helicopter is then in equilibrium.
ATTITUDE INCIDENCE PALES
BOUCLE AERODYNAMIQUE
ORGANES DE PUISSANCE
Attitude dtecte cart mem
ADI
Ordre de correction
ORDRE DE CORRECTION ATTITUDE DETECTEE

traitement
P
LA NE
Mem. Ao
AN L E2
A S. E .
P
A UTO
RU N
Y d
TRI M
NOR M
TE ST
S. A .S P I TCH
OFF
CO L LLI NK
CY C
R O LL
LTR IM
T U RB O FF RELE A SE D
23
2. FUNCTIONING PRINCIPLE
The purpose of the A.F.C.S is to stabilize the helicopter attitude around a reference attitude inserted on the computer. When an external disturbance modifies the balancing of the piloting loop, the sensors instantaneously detect it. The computer then receives a new detected attitude dependant on the disturbance characteristics (amplitude and rate of change). This signal is compared with the reference attitude o. The result is an error-detected e used to elaborate a corrective order c . This corrective order is transmitted to the power components, which act on the flight controls and so on the distributor of the main servo controls to modify the angle of incidence (pitch angle) of the blades so that the effect of the disturbance (P) is exactly compensated. When the attitude detected of the helicopter exactly matches the reference attitude o, the error e becomes null and so the corrective orders c . The power components anchor the flight controls on a new position so that the new blade pitch angles compensate the disturbance P as long as it is present. When the perturbation (P) disappears, an opposite offset (-P) is created, an opposite error - is created and consequently an opposite corrective order - c . Thanks to the power components, the flight controls, the blade pitch angles, and so the helicopter attitude return to their initial values. The A.F.C.S is designed so that the correction always matches the disturbance independently of its characteristics. This property is called the reliability of the system.
24
DETECTORS
1. GENERAL
Attitude detectors permanently report the AFCS on the attitude angles of the aircraft. Pitch and roll angles are measured between the axis (ZGZ) and the local vertical. The Yaw angle or Heading is measured between the axis (X'GX) and the magnetic North. To get the best compromise between good accuracy and good stability, one use gyroscope whose axis of rotation is slaved either to the local vertical or to the Magnetic North.
2. INTRODUCTION
A gyroscope can be defined as a system containing a metallic wheel (rotor), fitted so that it has 3 axis of freedom: 2 tilt axis and 1 axis of rotation. The rotor is fitted inside two concentric frames making a CARDAN system (gimbals). The system is mounted on a support so that in normal operation, the frames are perpendicular each other and cross themselves on the center of gravity of the wheel. When the rotor turns at high speed, the system becomes a gyroscope with two fundamental properties: inertia (rigidity) and precession.
z x
y'
G
y x'
z'
25
2.1 INERTIA
Because of inertia the gyro reacts against any force which tends to change the direction of the axis of rotation. The greater the speed or the weight of the rotor, the greater is the inertia. This property gives stability to the measurement.
2.2 PRECESSION
Precession is the angular change of direction of the rotor axis due to an external force. The change of direction appears 90 in clockwise direction, apart from the point of application of the external force. This allows slaving the rotor alignment with the local vertical or the magnetic North.
X' Y
Z'
26
3. VERTICAL GYRO
3.1 GENERAL
Vertical gyro is based on a gyroscope whose axis of rotation is vertical. Its support is mechanically linked to the helicopter. An erector system slaves the alignment of the axis of rotation to the local vertical. Inductive detectors allow measurement of the angles (pitch and roll) between the aircraft structure and the frames supporting the gyroscope wheel.
3.2 SLAVING PRINCIPLE

The system used to slave the gyroscope is basically made by two mercury detectors fitted on the gimbals. Each detector has electrical contact at the ends, which represents the gyroscopic reference whereas the mercury represents the vertical reference. When the axis of rotation and the local vertical are exactly aligned, a micro switch closes making a motor turn in one way so that the precession make the rotor return to correct alignment.
X' Y Z moteur
amplificateur
X Y' Z'
27
4. GYRO COMPASS
4.1 GENERAL
The gyrocompass senses the heading of the aircraft. It is based on a horizontal gyroscope whose main axis is slaved to the magnetic North. Its support is mechanically linked to the helicopter. Inductive detectors allow measurement of the angle between the aircraft structure and the frames supporting the gyroscope wheel (yaw angle or Heading).
4.2 SLAVING PRINCIPLE

The detector use to slave the gyrocompass is the flux valve, which is a magnetic detector of the Earth magnetic field.
28
The flux valve is made up of a star supporting three coils and coil of excitation. Without magnetic field, the induce currents in the coil of the stars are equal. If an external magnetic field (Hearth magnetic field or other) interferes with the system, the three currents are no longer equal. Combination of the three signals gives the direction of the Earth magnetic field that is to say the magnetic North. The flux valve is mounted on gimbals to compensate the change of attitude and the vibrations of the aircraft.
axe longitudinal
cap
champ magntique terrestre
A control unit allows operating the gyrocompass.
29
POWER COMPONENTS
The purpose of the power components is to convert electrical corrective orders b c into mechanical corrective orders applied to the distributor of the main servo controls to cyclically modify the blade pitch angle of the main rotor. They must reproduce the manual action of the pilot on the flight controls.
1. USE OF TWO ACTUATORS

The fast and limited movement of the flight controls is performed by a piloting actuator fast and with limited authority (about 10 % of the total deviation of the flight controls). This actuator must be available at any time, so it is recentered at the end of the correction. To do that, one always uses a slave actuator whose deviation is controlled by means of feedback loop. As it is shown in the electrical example, as long as the order c is different than the return r, the motor rotates at a constant speed and extends or retracts the jack. Thus when c becomes null, the jack moves until the return r is null (centering) and then stops. Because its alternating movement the piloting actuator is inserted in series with the flight control. To avoid any reaction towards the pilot stick, it is anchored.
potentiomtre
r
ordre c d'entre
recopie de position
contact
M vrin
A slow trim actuator with variable speed and full authority performs the slow and progressive movement of the flight controls. This actuator works as an open loop and it is fitted in parallel on the flight controls, thus it anchors the flight controls when it is stopped.
convertisseur tension/frquence ordre c d'entre M moteur pas pas
In order to maintain a maximum torque even at low speed, the trim actuator vrin motor works as a step by step motor. It can be actuated either manually (pilot's orders are directly applied to the motor) or automatically from the A.P. computer by an electronic circuit called "AutoTrim" amplifier which produces pulsed control signals whose frequency varies as a function of the amplitude of the corrective order. To be sure that the piloting actuator works first, the trim actuator has a threshold.
30
1.1 CASE OF UNIC ACTUATOR

It is possible to combine series and parallel actuators into a unique power actuator. In this case the latter is controlled either with a feedback loop (piloting actuator function), or an open loop (trim actuator function). This is the case of the hydraulic pack for the cyclic axis control. The trim actuator function can be also obtained by opening after a defined threshold the feedback loop of the piloting actuator function. This is performed by the system called open loop on the hydraulic pack for controlling the yaw axis.
1.2 ASSOCIATED COMPONENTS

In case of trim actuator failure, (actuator moving without control or locked) it is necessary to make free the anchorage point. By simultaneously opening the two beeper valves "HYDRAULIC TRIM INPUTS, the actuator becomes free. This is driven by one or many switches called TRIM RELEASE or CYCLIC TRIM RELEASE. It is necessary to add a system to allow the pilot to be able to recover active control of the helicopter without modification of the anchorage point at any time. It is the artificial feel load system function, essentially made up of a piston whose movements is limited inside the trim piston itself by springs. This allows a partial flight control movements around the anchorage point with an automatic centering of the flight controls due to the spring. The spring stress is calculated so that only real efforts from a voluntary action are possible. The A.F.C.S neutralizing any difference of attitude, its output must be inhibited during pilot action. An effort detector transmits to the A.F.C.S the necessary signal. This detector (force link) is usually fitted in series with the flight controls before the actuator systems. Note: When the trim motor is declutched, the artificial feel load system becomes free and so without effect. That is why the declutching command is sometimes called the ARTIFICIAL FEEL LOAD RELEASE.
31
2. PILOTING LAWS
2.1 GENERAL
The piloting law is the main characteristic of A.P. computer. It is equal to the ratio between the corrective order signal and the attitude error signal. The A.F.C.S being a slaved system should perform the three main characteristic of any slaved system: accuracy (speed), stability, and reliability.
2.2 PROPORTIONAL LAW

With a proportional law the attitude error signal is multiplied by the coefficient K1 to make the corrective order (bc). This coefficient depends on the characteristics of the actuators, and the aerodynamic loop of the helicopter (aircraft inertia). Depending on the disturbance characteristics, the helicopter will return more or less rapidly to its attitude reference. The proportional law is also called the direct law.
ADI
VERIN DE PILOTAGE
2.3 RATE LAW

As the pilot, the computer must take in account the rate of change of the attitude (which depends on the rate of change of the disturbance). Thus a rate circuit permanently delivers a signal proportional to the rate of change of the attitude detected. This rate term signal always counters the helicopter movement; thus it works as a damping term. The sum of the direct and rate terms make the final piloting law of the A.P. computer.
Gyro de verticale
VERIN DE COMPENSATION
CONTACT EFFORT
DEBRAYAGE
ATTITUDE DETECTEE
CALCULATEUR
32
3. BASIC STATES OF THE A.F.C.S.

3.1 DISENGAGED
This state of synchronization is fundamental. It allows the memory of the A.F.C.S computer to acquire the present attitude delivered by the helicopter sensors. As long as switch "A" is at rest position, the memory is constantly refreshed when the attitude of the helicopter changes. To avoid transmitting order from the rate lane, switch "B" is maintained at rest position. Thus actuators are isolated from the A.F.C.S. As long as the stabilization function is not engaged, the A.F.C.S computer remains in this state. This avoids any jerk at time of A.F.C.S engagement.
ADI
VERIN DE PILOTAGE VERIN DE COMPENSATION
3.2 STABILIZATION
As soon as the A.F.C.S is engaged, this function (Automatic Stabilization Equipment or A.S.E.) maintains the helicopter on its present attitude, which is acquired by the memory as the reference attitude. Any change of attitude with respect to this reference will immediately be corrected by orders sent to the power components. The engagement signal of the A.F.C.S computer passes the switch "A" to work position. This fixes the memory of the A.F.C.S computer. The engagement signal also passes switch "B" to work position, allowing transmission of the corrective orders to the actuators.
Gyro de verticale
CONTACT EFFORT
DEBRAYAGE
ATTITUDE DETECTEE +
K2.dA/dt +
K1 A
Mmoire
CALCULATEUR
33
4. AFCS FUNCTIONS ON CYCLIC AXIS

4.1 MEMORY STATUS
4.1.1 SYNCHRONIZATION
When in synchronization state, the memory is permanently synchronized to the present attitude.
This occurs each time the auto pilot system is on OFF position (not engaged), or SAS (Stabilization Augmentation System) or in Trim Release.
34
4.1.2 STABILIZATION
When in stabilization state, the memory is no longer updated. Its contains begins the attitude reference.
35
4.2 FLY THROUGH

The trim actuator being stopped creates the anchorage of the flight controls (position reference). The pilot action compresses or extends the springs of the artificial feel load without changing the position reference. The auto pilot system creates a corrective order, which tends to counter the change of attitude. But a micro switch fitted inside or outside (Force Link) the artificial feel load detects the pilot action and stops the transmission of the corrective order to the trim actuator. It makes the auto trim circuit pass to OFF position temporarily.
36
4.3 CHANGING THE REFERENCE

4.3.1 BEEP TRIM
Beep trim function is used to change slowly the reference with good accuracy.
4.3.1.1 AFCS not engaged

When the AFCS is not engaged, the beep signal is directly sent to the trim actuator through the beep logic and the trim driver. If the AFCS is on ground, one can see the stick moving linearly and stops when the beep action disappears.
37
4.3.1.2 AFCS not engaged

When the AFCS is engaged, the beep signal is sent to the memory in order to modify its contains. As a result an error between the memory and the present attitude angle is created. The AFCS processes this error and creates a corrective order sent to the trim actuator through the trim driver. If the AFCS is on ground, one can see the stick moving step by step and not stopping when the beep action disappears.
38
4.3.2 STICK + BEEP TRIM

Stick + Beep trim function is used to change rapidly the reference using fly through and progressively to acquire the new attitude as a reference with the beep function.
Because of the fly trough action, corrective order is no longer transmitted to the trim actuator and so the beep signal must be directly applied to the trim (Manual beep). To make acquisition of the new attitude it is necessary to synchronize the memory. This state remains operating until both actions (fly trough and beep) stop.
39
4.3.3 TRIM RELEASE

Using the temporarily Trim Release switch of the cyclic stick, the operator can declutch the trim actuator motor and so suppress the anchorage of the flight controls. The memory passes to synchronization state and acquires the change of attitude due to the pilots action on the stick. When the pilot releases the trim release button, the flight controls anchors on the new position and the memory returns to stabilization state.
40
4.4 SAFETY FUNCTIONS

4.4.1 AUTO TRIM OFF
If the corrective order computed by the Auto Trim circuit are not correct, the pilot can stop transmission of these orders to the trim actuator by opening the output of the Auto Trim circuit. Depending on the AFCS, the memory reverts to synchronization state or not.
Note: Engaging the SAS mode (if there is) does the same effect that Auto Trim OFF but on the two cyclic axes (pitch and roll) and forces the memories to synchronize.
4.4.2 TRIM RELEASE

If the trouble come from the trim itself, the pilot can completely neutralized the trim actuator functioning by permanently declutching the motor of the actuator. There is no longer anchorage and so the memory reverts to synchronization state.
41
4.4.3 SAS FUNCTION

Passing the ASE/SAS switch to SAS position reduces the capability of the AFCS to damping only. The memory reverts to synchronization, the auto-trim circuit is disconnected and so only piloting actuator works, it receives orders from the rate lane. There is no longer stabilization, only damping of the movements is ensured. This function is useful when flying close to the ground.
42
5. AFCS FUNCTIONS ON YAW AXIS

As soon as the yaw channel is engaged, the stabilization function maintains the aircraft on the heading of reference stored into the AFCS memory. Any change of direction with respect to this reference will be immediately corrected the corrective orders sent to the yaw actuators.
5.1 GENERAL
The yaw attitude sensor is a gyrocompass which delivers the present heading ( ) by means of a three-phase A.C voltage according to the ARINC 407 rule (X,Y,Z). It is not possible to extract the mathematical value of the helicopter heading from the sine component of this analog signal on 360 (as it is done on only 45 for the cyclic attitude). But fortunately when the sine of the yaw angle is not linear, the cosine becomes linear. A Scott transformer converts the three-phases into Sin and Cosine signals.
sin
cos
cos
sin
cos
sin
cos
43
Two piloting laws are computed. One from the Sine signal, the other from the Cosine signal. The more linear of these laws is used to compute the corrective order. Comparing the absolute value of Sine and Cosine signal levels performs that operation. Moreover a circuit detects the turn direction, using the sign of the signal not used for computation.
rate
direct
x
y z
sine channel
SCOTT transfo K1
sine mem. cos. mem.
direct
abs. + abs. sin/cos logic
turn logic
+ -
C.G.
rate
yaw eng.
logical 1
cosine channel
direct
rate
yaw sync. 1 PL7
yaw sync. 2 PL8
44
5.2 FLAT TURN RATE LIMITATION

Turning with the pedals allows the pilot to make a flat turn, during hover or slow speed flight by changing the helicopter attitude. When the pilot moves the rudder pedals, the yaw effort contact is activated, making the memory synchronize and the heading of the helicopter changes. During the flat turn the rate of change of the heading increases and become greater than 1.5/s.
LANE 1 Y LANE 2 A.S. AUTO AUTO NOR TURB COLL LINK
SCOTT transfo K1
R U N Yd TEST
sine mem. cos. mem.
In such a case, the turn rate comparator delivers a logic state 1, so if the pilot releases the pedals too suddenly and that the helicopter continuous to turn because of its inertia, the memory remains synchronized until the turn of rate falls below 1.5/s. That avoids too high stress in the intermediate structure of the helicopter when passing from synchronization to stabilization.
S.A.
PITCHOFF ROLL RELEASED YAW
OFF
yaw eng.
yaw sync. 1 PL7
yaw sync. 2 PL8
yaw adaptor PL10
rate
sync.HDG
Coordinated turn logic
sync/stab logic 1.5/
Vi+ cruise
phi>3.5 yaw rod
yaw piloting PL9 -
45
5.3 TURN COORDINATION

The purpose of this function is to counter the helicopter sliding during a turn using the roll axis. This function is automatically engaged when firstly the airspeed is above 40 Kts (70 km/h) and secondly the roll angle is greater than 3.5. A logic circuit detects the condition and makes the yaw channel synchronize to acquire the new heading. It also allows the rate of turn signal to be mixed with the roll attitude signal. The result is added to an accelerometer signal in order to elaborate the piloting law. The piloting law is then transmitted the yaw piloting actuator to maintain the helicopter on the right trajectory.
Coordinated turn logic sync/stab logic 1.5/s
SCOTT transfo
K1
R U N Yd LANE 1 NORM Y LANE 2 A.S.E AUTO TRIM T U R B AUTO TRIM COLL LINK TEST
sine mem.
cos. mem.
S.A.S
PITCH
OFF
ROLL
R E L E A S E D YAW
OFF
yaw eng.
yaw sync. 1 PL7
yaw sync. 2 PL8
yaw adaptor PL10
rate
sync.HDG
Vi+ cruise
phi>3.5 yaw rod
yaw piloting PL9
-1.5/s
46
AUTOMATIC GUIDANCE
1. THE DIFFERENT TYPE OF GUIDANCE
1.1 MANUAL GUIDANCE
By himself, the pilot elaborates the orders required to acquire the new trajectory of the helicopter (airspeed, altitude, heading, VOR, etc.).
ATTITUDE BOUCLE AERODYNAMIQUE
i
INCIDENCE PALES
Attitude dtecte
servo commande principale
cart
mem
Ordre de correction
experience
consignes
mission
visualisation
47
1.2 AUTOMATIC GUIDANCE

i
A guidance computer (which could or could not be included in the A.F.C.S assembly) elaborates the guidance orders. Under automatic guidance, these orders are introduced inside the A.F.C.S computer in order to modify the attitude of the helicopter and so, its trajectory. Guidance is performed on three axes (Pitch, Roll, and Yaw). The Yaw axis is only used for trajectory holding purposes. When guidance orders, coming from an engaged mode, are applied to an axis, it is said that the mode is coupled to this axis. Consequently no more than one mode can be coupled to an axis at a time. Engaging a mode, automatically disengages the previous one engaged. So with this guidance system along two main axis (pitch and roll), no more than two modes can be simultaneously engaged.
Attitude dtecte
cart
mem
V/S
Guidage
ALT ON A/S ON H D G ON
Stabilisation
VOR A R M CAP A R M CAP

NAV
B/C A R M CAP ON
V/S
V/L A R M CAP A R M CAP

G/S
CPL
CPL
F/D
F/D
GV
48
1.3 GUIDANCE USING THE FLIGHT

i
DIRECTORS
When the flight director (F/D) mode is engaged, guidance orders are no longer applied to the A.F.C.S computer. They are sent to the cues or bars of the Attitude Director Indicator or the Primary Flight Display. The guidance of the helicopter is ensured by the pilot who acts on the flight controls according to the information shown by the cues. In this case, the trim actuator is no longer supplied and the A.F.C.S is in synchronization mode. Flight director mode is only a piloting aid. Note: in guidance with flight director, the engaged mode is coupled to the flight director.
xcution des ordres de guidage
ADI
ordre de guidage
V/S
Guidage
Stabilisation
VOR A R M CAP
B/C A R M CAP
V/L A R M CAP
A R M CAP
N A V
ON
V/S
A R M CAP
G/S
CPL
CPL
F/D
F/D
GV
49
1.4 AUTOMATIC GUIDANCE WITH

i
MONITORING
When in automatic guidance, it is possible to show the cues in order to monitor the A.F.C.S functioning. In this case the guidance is fully automatic but the outputs of the stabilization computer are picked and sent to the cues of the ADI or PFD.
surveillance
ADI
ordre de guidage
V/S
Guidage
Stabilisation
VOR A R M CAP A R M CAP

N A V
B/C A R M CAP ON
V/S
V/L A R M CAP A R M CAP

G/S
CPL
CPL
F/D
F/D
GV
50
1.5 FLY-THROUGH HANDLING

On some guidance modes, fly-through is authorized, in these cases fly-through works as explained in the stabilization mode.
1.6 TRIM RELEASE

Most of the times, usage of the TRIM RELEASE function allows synchronizing the reference parameter of the trajectory with the present value.
51
2. GUIDANCE CLASSIFICATION
The guidance function can be broken-down into different groups of modes: - baro-anemometric modes: Airspeed Altitude Vertical speed - cruises navigation modes : Navigation Heading Cruise Height - radio-navigation modes : Visual Omni Range Visual Omni Range Approach Instrument Landing System : .localizer .glide-slope .back course .Go-around - safety mode Fly-Up. (V.O.R) ; (V.O.R/A) ; (LOC) ; (G/S) ; (B/C) ; (G/A) . (NAV) ; (HDG) ; CR.HT); (IAS or A/S) ; (Alt) ; (V/S) ;
52
3. AUTOMATIC GUIDANCE PRINCIPLES

3.1 VERTICAL GUIDANCE ON PITCH AXIS
Guidance on the vertical plan is achieved by controlling the pitch angle attitude of the helicopter. The present trajectory is permanently detected and compared with a reference trajectory (ex : a sensor permanently detects the present Vertical Speed that is compared with a preselected value). The resulting error is used to modify the helicopter pitch attitude until the trajectory error becomes null. When the trajectory is acquired, the contained of the attitude memory is modified in order to hold that trajectory. Thus three orders are created : - delta theta ( ) used to modify the helicopter pitch attitude, - integration theta ( ) used to modify the contain of the attitude memory, control integration (ctl) used to access to the attitude memory. Note : in Airspeed mode the guidance is differently performed, the airspeed error is used to modify the pitch attitude of the helicopter but the attitude updating is achieved by slowly synchronizing the memory.
53
3.2 VERTICAL GUIDANCE ALONG THE COLLECTIVE AXIS

Guidance on the vertical plane can be achieved by acting on the collective pitch angle of the rotor. The present trajectory is permanently detected and compared with a reference trajectory (ex : a sensor permanently detects the present Altitude, which is compared with a preselected value). The resulting error is used to modify the collective pitch angle until the trajectory error becomes nil.
engagement mode de guidage
dtection de trajectoire
M
refrence de trajectoire
Auto-trim
fonction guidage dans le plan vertical
54
3.3 HORIZONTAL GUIDANCE ON ROLL AXIS

Guidance on the horizontal plan is achieved by controlling the roll angle attitude of the helicopter. The present trajectory is permanently detected and compared with a reference trajectory (ex : a sensor permanently detects the present Heading, which is compared with a preselected value). The resulting error is used to modify the helicopter roll attitude in order to make the helicopter turn until the trajectory error becomes nil. When the trajectory is acquired, the roll attitude returns to its previous value. Obviously this is only possible if the initial roll attitude was nil. Thus two orders are created : - phi zero ( 0 ) used to zero the helicopter roll attitude, - delta psi ( ) or roll commanded order (f c) used to modify the helicopter roll attitude.
chane de roulis
drive
M
vrin srie
directe
Vertical gyro
mmoire M
Auto-trim
engagement chane de roulis
dtecteur de trajectoire
trajectoire de rference
engagement du mode guidage
Phi 0 fonction guidage dans le plan horizontal
55
4. SEMI-AUTOMATIC GUIDANCE PRINCIPLE

4.1 VERTICAL GUIDANCE ON PITCH AXIS
The delta theta () order used to modify the helicopter pitch attitude is created in the same way as in automatic guidance. But they are used to control the horizontal bar of the Flight director Indicator (ADI). As long as guidance mode on Flight Director is not engaged, a negative signal (longitudinal bar blanking) is applied to the adder, to fade out the horizontal bar of the Flight Director. As soon as a mode is engaged on Flight Director, the bar becomes visible and centered. The present pitch attitude signal delivered by the vertical gyro is first demodulated then washed out. The result is mixed with the trajectory corrective order to control the horizontal bar of the Flight Director. As long as the helicopter holds the trajectory both signals are nil and the bar is centered. If a trajectory error occurs, guidance order is created and the bar deflects giving the direction of the correction to be done. Pilot moves the cyclic stick accordingly to change the attitude. Thus the signal delivered by the Washout circuit is no longer nil. When the correction applied is correct both signals are matched and the bar centers.
4.2 HORIZONTAL GUIDANCE ON ROLL AXIS

The delta psi () order or roll commanded order ( c) used to modify the helicopter roll attitude is created as in automatic guidance. But they are used to control the vertical bar of the Flight director Indicator (ADI). As long as guidance mode on Flight Director is not engaged, a negative signal (vertical bar blanking) is applied to the adder to fade out the horizontal bar of the Flight Director. As soon as a mode is engaged on Flight Director, the bar becomes visible and indicates the present roll attitude so pilot can manually zero the roll attitude ( 0). The present roll attitude signal delivered by the vertical gyro is first demodulated then combined with its derivative. The result is mixed with the trajectory corrective order to control the vertical bar of the Flight Director. As long as the helicopter holds the trajectory both signals are nil and the bar is centered. If a trajectory error occurs, guidance order is created and the bar deflects giving the direction of the correction to be done. Pilot moves the cyclic stick accordingly to change the attitude. Thus the signals and d /dt are no longer nil. When the correction applied is correct both signals f and f c are matched and the bar centers (the signal d /dt is then nil).
56
AIRSPEED MODE
The Airspeed mode holds the airspeed at time of engagement. The function always works by controlling the pitch attitude. The trajectory detector is the Air Data module. Before engagement of the mode, the memory of the airspeed data delivered by the Air Data module is permanently synchronized. At time of engagement, the memory is frozen and its contain becomes the reference airspeed, and its value is compared with the present airspeed computed by the Air Data module. The error is sent to the input of the second stage of the direct lane of the pitch channel to modify the pitch attitude of the aircraft. The pitch memory is slowly synchronized to avoid jerk at time of mode disengagement. When a guidance computer is used, the reference airspeed can be modified by the airspeed beep, the preset airspeed is then displayed on the digital readout of the airspeed indicator. A vertical accelerometer limits the vertical movement of the aircraft to maintain a good level of comfort. In case of excessive deviation between the reference value and the present value, a visual message warns the pilot to retrieve active control of the aircraft.
P
LANE1
R
R
R U N
chane de tangage
TEST
P
LANE2 A.S.E
Yd
N O R M COLL LINK CYCL TRIM
AUTOTRIM
S.A.S
P I T C H
OFF
R O L L
TURB
OFF
RELEASED
Gyro vertical
M Auto-trim
Airspeed eng.
circuit de correction Vertical accel.
mem. vitesse
Air Z Data Z Module

Z Z
1
3 2
Logic
beep speed fonction tenue de vitesse
57
ALTITUDE MODE
The altitude mode holds the barometric altitude of the aircraft to the value at time of engagement. The correction are done by controlling the pitch attitude or the collective axis. L'lement dtecteur d'cart de trajectoire est constitu essentiellement du module baro-anmomtrique. Avant engagement de la fonction, l'altitude baromtrique dlivre par le module baro-anmomtrique est en permanence mmorise. Au moment de l'engagement cette mmoire est fige, ce qui permet de comparer tout instant la valeur actuelle de l'altitude avec celle de rfrence contenue dans la mmoire.
58

AP Generalities PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

AP Generalities PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DEFINITIONS

1. AERODYNAMIC FORCES ON A BLADE

portance force arodynamique

traine ligne de corde

4.2 INTO THE PLAN (GX,GY) AND (GY,GZ)

5.2 ON THE PEDALS

6.1 FORCES EXERTED ON THE ZGZ' AXIS

6.2 FORCES EXERTED ON THE XGX' OR YGY' AXIS

INTO THE PLANS (GX,GY) AND (GY,GZ)

2.2 ON THE CYCLIC STICK

3.1 FORCES EXERTED ON THE ZGZ' AXIS

3.2 FORCES EXERTED ON THE XGX' OR YGY' AXIS

2. EFFECT OF DISTURBANCE DURING THE TURN

(Yd.) ; (COLL LINK) ; (TURB)

- Acquisition and hold of predefined trajectories (Guidance).

G attitude de rfrence modification de l'attitude de rfrence

retour l'attitude de rfrence G

< o altitude de rfrence modification de l'altitude de rfrence retour l'altitude de rfrence

Held Modified Type of pilotage

Attitude dtecte cart mem

ORDRE DE CORRECTION ATTITUDE DETECTEE

3.2 SLAVING PRINCIPLE

4.2 SLAVING PRINCIPLE

champ magntique terrestre

A control unit allows operating the gyrocompass.

1. USE OF TWO ACTUATORS

convertisseur tension/frquence ordre c d'entre M moteur pas pas

1.1 CASE OF UNIC ACTUATOR

1.2 ASSOCIATED COMPONENTS

2.2 PROPORTIONAL LAW

2.3 RATE LAW

3. BASIC STATES OF THE A.F.C.S.

VERIN DE PILOTAGE VERIN DE COMPENSATION

4. AFCS FUNCTIONS ON CYCLIC AXIS

4.2 FLY THROUGH

4.3 CHANGING THE REFERENCE

4.3.1.1 AFCS not engaged

4.3.1.2 AFCS not engaged

4.3.2 STICK + BEEP TRIM

4.3.3 TRIM RELEASE

4.4 SAFETY FUNCTIONS

4.4.2 TRIM RELEASE

4.4.3 SAS FUNCTION

5. AFCS FUNCTIONS ON YAW AXIS

sine mem. cos. mem.

abs. + abs. sin/cos logic

yaw sync. 1 PL7

yaw sync. 2 PL8

5.2 FLAT TURN RATE LIMITATION

sine mem. cos. mem.

PITCHOFF ROLL RELEASED YAW

yaw sync. 1 PL7

yaw sync. 2 PL8

yaw adaptor PL10

Coordinated turn logic

sync/stab logic 1.5/

5.3 TURN COORDINATION

yaw sync. 1 PL7

yaw sync. 2 PL8

yaw adaptor PL10

servo commande principale

1.2 AUTOMATIC GUIDANCE